Education; Group ActivitiesInformation - ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 236 125 SP 023 010

AUTHOR Biles, Brenda L.; And OthersTITLE Educational Research and Dissemination Program.

Training and Resource Manual.INSTITUTION American Federation of Teachers, Washington, D.C.SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.PUB DATE [82]GRANT NIE-G-81-0021'NOTE 239p.; For related documents, see ED 231 759 and ED

234 050.PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Classroom Research; Classroom Techniques;

Educational Resources; Elementary SecondaryEducation; Group ActivitiesInformationDissemination; Inservice Teacher Education; *LinkingAgents; *Research Utilization; Teacher Associations;Teacher Effectiveness; *Teacher Participation;*Training Methods;. Unions

IDENTIFIERS American Federation of Teachers

ABSTRACTThe goal of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT)

Educational Research and Dissemination Program was to establish amodel for disseminating, to classroom teachers, research findings onclassroom management and teacher effectiveness. This manual wasdesigned for training local AFT union members: (1) to use the manualin their own teaching situations; and (2) to become trainers of otherteachers or Teacher ResearchLinkers (TRLs). The first sectiondescribes program processes and methods of initiating the program ina local union. A general overview is provided of the roles of localleadership, local coordinators, and TRLs. The second section outlinesthe training process for TRLs and provides activities to developtheir roles as disseminator's. The section contains planning guidesfor holding both formal and informal group meetings with teachers andsuggestions for working with school administration and localcolleges, universities, and research facilities. The third sectioncontains research training activities and interpretations of themeaning and potential application for classroom teachers ofstatistical data and significant relationships noted in researchfindings. Activities for both large and small groups are included.The remainder of the manual contains supplemental materials.andadditional resources. (JD)

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EDUCATIONALRESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATIONPROGRAM

Trainingand

ResourceManual

Brenda L. BilesLovely IL BillupsSusan C. VeitchEducational Issues DepartmentAmerican Federation of Teachers, AFL-CIO

cr)COPYRIGHT PENDING

DO NOT REPRODUCE

WITHOUT PERMISSION

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (EPIC)

le' This document has been reproduced asreceived from the prison or organizationoriginating it.

. Minor changes have, been made to improvereproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment de not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Educational Research and Dissemination Program and this manual were developed byme American Federation of Teachers, AFL-CIO, Albert Shanker, President.

PILOT PROJECT ASSISTANCE

Myrna Cooper, DirectorNew York City Teacher Centers ConsortiumLocal Site Coordinator

Jimmie Jackson, DirectorDistrict of Columbia Teacher CenterLocal Site Coordinator

Kathy King, ChairpersonSFFT Educational Issues CommitteeLocal Site Coordinator

United Federation of TeachersLocal 2, New YorkAlbert Shanker, President

Washington Teachers UnionLocal 6, District of ColumbiaWilliam Simons, President

San Francisco Federation of TeachersLocal 61, San FranciscoJames Ballard, President

Special thanks to those teachers who helped develop and maintain the role of TeacherResearch Linkor in each of the three pilot sites. Their willingness to give of their tirrye and ef-fort outside their regular teaching duties demonStrates the commitment AFT members have toproviding quality public education.

Ann LiebermannTeachers Cp liegeColumbia University

BOARD

Lee ShulmanCollege of EducationStanford University

SPECIAL ASSISTANCE

Far West Laboratory for EducationalResearch and Development

San Francisco

Institute for Research on TeachingMichigan State University

East Lansing

Beatrice WardFar West Laboratory forEducational Researchand Development

Research and Development Center forTeacher EducationUniversity of Text

Austin

Research for Better SchoolsPhiladelphia

We would also like to thank all of those members of the educational research communitywho contributed assistance end support.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM TRAINING AND RESOUFCE MANUAL / I

PROJECT STAFF

AFTMarilyn Rauth, DirectorLovely H. Billt1ps, Assistant DirectorSusan. C. Veitch, Assistant DirectorBrenda L. Biles, Technical Assistant

NIE Program Of icers

Evelyn Belton-Kocher

Claiborne Richardson

This project was supported by the National Institute of Education, Grant Number N1E-G-81-0021. The opinions ex-

pressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the National Institute of Education, U.S. Depart-

ment of Education, and no official endorsement by that agency should be inferred.

2 / TRAINING AND RESOURCE MANUAL

4

20UCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

PREFACEEDUCATIONAL. RESEARCH ASRESOURCE: ITS USES AND 9Buir5

Over the past decade, educationalresearch has greatly increased itspotential as a resource for teachersand others in the front lines ofAmerican education. As never before,educational research is a useful andused contribution to the improvementof American education. A key ele-ment in this improved situation forresearchers and their work is theclear recognition that teachers mustbe involved in and understand deci-sions made with regard to the adapta-tion or adoption of research findings.Researchers have also significantly in-creased the sophistication of theirStudies. Researchers have learnedmore about the limitations of researchfindings and the ne?d to clarify_theirpotential uses or abuses.

To be effective, most educationalresearch needs to develop over timeand provide knowledge through aprogram or area of research ratherthan a single study. The human-intensive nature of educationdemands that research studies betried out in various settings in orderto increase the validity and reliabilityof the research findings. Over time,common elements emerge and pro-vide the knowledge base from whicheducators can devise educational andinstructional programs.

Researchers today are workingmore closely with teachers and othereducators to improve both the qualityof their inquiries and the resourcepotential of their findings. Becauseclassroom observation studies haveforced researchers to come to gripswith the day-to-day issues and con-cerns of teachers, the quality of

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

research questions has greatly in-creased. Also, teachers have providedresearchers with important insightsinto the interpretation of researchdata. Teachers are also playing an ac-tive role in some educational researchstudies (collecting data,' reviewing in-itial findings, and providing a critiqueof research interpretations). Col-laborative research partnerships, in-volving teachers and researchershave been established in several partsof the country. The "brokering" ofresearch findings (gathering useful in-formation from a variety of studies tobe applied to classroom situations)has been successfully implemented inprojects like the one developed bythe American Federation of Teachers.

The past two decades have taughtresearchers much about the uses,limitations, and potential abuses ofeducational research findings. Insome cases the potential value ofresearch studies has been exag-gerated, leaving disappointed expec--.tations. In other cases, research find-ings have been applied prematurelyto inappropriate settings. Someresearchers have fallen into the trapof the "universal expert." All re-searchers must go beyond their im-mediate data to provide useful inter-pretations of their findings; however,when such interpretations reach toofar, analysis leaves the realm ofresearch and enters the field ofopinion. More and direct collabora-tion between researchers and teacherswill provide guidance for researchersto understand the balance betweenthe us and limitations of theirresources.

TRAINING AND RESOURCE MANUAL / 3

Through the collaborative activities learners, we vTill realize the potentialof researchers, teachers, and others which reseal ch holds for the ad-responsible for educating the nation's vancement of American education.

David H. RolloAmerican Educational ResearchAssociation

4 / TRAINING AND RF.SOURCE MANUAL

6


1982 AFT CONVENTION RESOLUTIONEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDTHE TEACHING PROFESSION

There are many effective stylevariations, among teachers,characterized as the intangible art ofteaching. Yet, art alone does notmake a '..eaclzr. Complementing thismust be a very specialized set ofskills and professional knowledgebase which comprise the science ofteaching. Art and science combinedmake a professional teacher.

Prior to the last decade or two, theprimitive level of educationalresearch forced teachers to acquirethe greater part of the science ofteaching through experiential learningon the job. Today, however, due tosignificant methodological advancesand greater focus on theteaching/learning process in researchon education, a reliable body of infor-mation exists on effective teachingpractice. This is exemplified in workrelated to cognitive learning styles,classroom management, direct in-struction, time-on-task, grouping andsociolinguistic processes. Teachers re-quire a wide array of information andskills to respond appropriately to in-finitely variable classroom situations.Research unequivocally portrays thecomplexity of the teaching process,negating all contentions that"anyone" can teach.

Unfortunately, much of theresearch on education is confined toshelves in research institutions andlibraries. For this reason, newteachers must flounder through thearchaic trial and error method ofdeveloping effective practice; and ex-perienced teachers know certaintechniques work, but cannot alwaysarticulate why, thereby feeling un-

necessarily insecure in theirprofessionalism.

Another factor isolating researchfrom practice is the lack of opportuni-ty for teachers and researchers to in-teract on a collegial basis. Existingbarriers between school systems andcolleges or universities furtherbroaden the distance betweenteachers and researchers. Teachers,therefore, have minimal input intowhat will be researched, little accessto studies which have been done,limited understanding of the languagethrough which most studies arereported, and few opportunities tocomment on their reactions to ap-plication of research findings.

Teaching is a profession but canonly be considered so when itsscience is taken as seriously al?, its art.Research on or related to education,which provides the scientific founda-tion of the profession, can no longerbe viewed as peripheral to theteaching/learning process. Teachersmust have access to the informationwhich enables them to know whichtechniques produce certain cognitiveor affective results and why.

RESOLVED, that the AmericanFederation of Teachers will active-ly promote dissemination of educa-tional research to all prospectiveand current teachers, includingtranslations of research in a formmeaningful to teachers and train-ing resources which enableteachers to relate this informationto practical application, and

RESOLVED, that collaborative ran-



tionships be fostered amongeducational researchers, teachereducators and teachers to promotethe professional exchange ofknowledge on teaching, and

RESOLVED, that preservice programsin teaching include coursework inbasic research techniques anddevelopment of inquiry orproblem-solving skills, and

RESOLVED, that teachers through theAmerican Federation of Teachersshould have much greater input intothe setting of research agendas, and

RESOLVED, that publicly-supportededucational research projects andthe National Institute of Educationbe held accountable for dissemi-nating findings to teachers, making"CP of established dissemination

/ TRAINING AND RESOURCE MANUAL

channels within the AFT, andRESOLVED, that the American

Federation of Teachers should stayabreast of research findings ineducation and influence their usein policy decisions related toteaching, in such areas as preser-vice education, staff developmentand teacher evaluation, and

RESOLVED, that teachers should begiven opportunities to participatein inquiry on practice, update theirknowledge of research on teachingand learning, and reflect on theapplication of various teachingmethods and their outcomes, and

RESOLVED, the National Instituteof Education be given additionalfederal 'funding to continue andexpand research on effectiveteaching and effective schools.


INTRODUCTION

In January, 1981, the AmericanFederation of Teachers EducationalIssues Department was awarded atwo-year grant from the National In-stitute of Education to develop a pilotproject for the dissemination of educa-tional research findings on classroommanagement and effective teaching toclassroom teachers.

For the most part, teachers performtheir professional service in isolation.The basic philosophy of the unionmovement is to move workers outfrom under the isolated conditions inwhich they operate and collectivelystrive to accomplish goals whichbenefit all. The teachers' union is theonly established institution withinAmerican education which sees thisas its chief purpose. Therefore, the ra-tionale underlying this project is thatthe union, with its history of collectiveactivity, teacher advocacy andteacher-trust, can provide a structurethrough which teachers receiveresearch information in a non-threatening atmosphere and workwith their peers, using an inquiry ap-proach, to develop strategies based on'the information which helps toenhance the day-to-day process ofteaching and learning.

During the two-year grant period,three AFT staff members worked toidentify and "translate" research onclassroom management and effectiveteaching; select three locals as pilotsites for the project; train local unionmembers to use the research informa-tion in their own teaching situations;train these same teachers to becometrainers of other teachers; analyze theprocesses used in each of the threevery different pilot sites; and developan overall Program which could be


replicated by otheNca1 unions. Inaddition, staff and t 6 local coor-dinator initi laboration withacademic and research institutions inan effort to promote ongoing dialoguebetween teacher and researcher. Itshould be pointed out that this wasthe first dissemination effort of thismagnitude ever funded by NIE and isconsidered unique by that agency andthe research community as a whole.

Union Responsibility andProfessional Growth

Local union responsibility to itsmembers does not end with negotia-tions and contract enforcement. If webroaden the concept of "working con-ditions," we must take into accountthe professional as well as theeconomic well-being of our members.This means helping to provide all theresources necessary for quality educa-tion within our schools. Many localunions sponsor continuing profes-sional development through teachercenters, educational issues activities,QuEST conferences, etc. Locals active-ly work with administration todevelop curriculum and educationalpolicy. Often, research conducted inclassrooms can be successfully carriedout only if there is prior approval byboth the school administration andthe local union.

While the reputation of educationalresearch has been tainted by limitedsamplings and conflicting results, theLast decade has produced a significantbody of knowledge on the "science ofteaching." It is incumbent upon theunion to provide this knowledge itsimplications and its (imitations to itsmembers and to "watch-dog" its im-plementation by the administration.


Specifically in reference to theresearch on classroom managementand effective teaching, AFT seesevidence that the day is quickly ap-proaching when teacher performancemay be measured against thebehaviors which this research deemsmore effective. Although these studieshave been validated rather conclusively, there is still the possibility ofmisinterpretation by even the mostwell-intentioned administrator orsupervisor.

Educational Research andDissemination: A NewService to. Members

AFT believes that the EducationalResearch and Dissemination Programcan be a useful offering to unionmembers. Not all of your membersare on the negotiating t m and notall of your members wil be involvedin the grievance process But,every one of your mem ers is in-volved in the daily strtale to do thebest they can in the claSsroom to pro-vide children with an educationwhich will develop each to his/herfullest potential as a literate, function-ing adult in a democratic society. Weagree with Gary Fenstermacher, whohas written, "If teaching is an activityabout which we can have knowledge,is it not reasonable to contend thatthose who teach ought to have whatknowledge is available about what itis they do?"' We further contend thatthe union as a viable structure inwhich to present that knowledge, isobligated to

(

do so.

I. Fenstermacher, Gary D., "On Learning toTeach Effectively from Research onTeacher Effectiveness." In C. Denham andA. Lieberman, eds., Time to Learn. ME,May, 1980.

What is dissemination?According to the American College

Dictionary, it means to scatter, asseed; spread abroad or promulgate(declare publicly). This has been themost pronounced form of dissemina-tion in the past: giving out INFORMA-TION. However, like the seed, infor-mation which is to become fruitfulalso needs to be tended and nurtured,not just thrown to the wind in hopesthat it might take root.

The AFT Educational Research andDissemination Program is more thanthe public sharing of research infor-mation. Our model allows teachers towork with the research, transformingit into a useful tool for everydayclassroom teaching and learning.Teachers are brought together with thehelp and support of their union to in-vestigate the scientific knowledgeavailable on classroom managementand effective teaching, to use what ishelpful from that body of knowledge,and to give feedback and additionalinput to those who document thatknowledgethe educational resear-chers. These extra steps the union hastaken help not only to bridge the gapthat has traditionally existed betweenresearch and practice, but also to nar-row it so that researchers and teacherscan more easily work together towarda true sharing of professionalknowledge about teaching.

The model used by the AFT Educa-tional Research and DisseminationProgram in its pilbt project was a two-level training prOcess. In each site, agroup of teachers known as TeacherResearch Linkers (TRI.$) was chosen tcparticipate in the project on a continu-ing basis. After receiving the researchinformation in regularly scheduledtraining sessions, they were asked todeveldp strategies for implementation

8 / TRAINING AND RESOURCE MANUALEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND

DISSEMINATION PROGRAM

in their own classrooms and givefeedback on the usefulness of theresearch. At a higher level, they wereasked to become teacher conkultantsby sharing the information with otherteachers, primarily in their ownschools.

The following pages are based onwhat we have learned about the func-tioning of this model and tips on whatto pursue and what to avoid in suc-cessfully offering this Program to yourown local union members. The infor-mation is generic in nature, but isbased on our experiences in threevery different pilot sites. In providingthis set-vice to your own members,you will have to carefully analyzeyour own local operation and modifywhere nedessary. We do believe thatany local Unionlarge or small;urban, suburban or ruralcan imple-ment the Program and be successfulin furthering the professional growthof its members.

How to use this manualThe bulk of this training and

resource manual'is,divided into threeparts. The first section describes Pro-gram proc9s, the nuts and bolts of in-itiating and maintaining the Programin your local. Here you will find ageneral overview of the roles ofvarious people involved in the Pro-gram: local leadership, the local coor-dinator, and TRLs. The second sectionoutlines the training process for TRLsand provides activities to help developtheir roles as disseminators. There areplanning guides for holding both for-mal and informal group meetings withteachers and suggestions for workingwith school administration and localcolleges, universities and research

facilities. Since these sections capturethe scope of the Program, THE LOCALPRESIDENT AND/OR THE LOCALCOORDINATOR NEED TO BE COM-PLETELY FAMILIAR WITH THEM.

The third section of the manualcontains research translations andresearch training activities. Thetranslations are the result of countlesshours of review and synthesis ofresearch studies in each specific area.We must point out that these transla-tions are far from the original researchreports. Based on our own knowledgeof teaching and classrooms and inputfrom those TRLs in the pilot project,we often took "leaps of faith" inreporting what the findings imply.

In addition to each research transla-tion, there are activities for both largeand small groups. Instructions fortheir use include objectives, time allot-ment, format and preparation. Theseactivities are designed to promotethought and reflection about whatteachers do in their classrooms. Anylocal coordinator or TRL using theseactivities will quickly see that thereare no "right or wrong" answers.While the research concepts havebeen proven, how a teacher decidesto use the information is a matter ofprofessional style and choice.

While each translation is a separateentity, the order in which they appearin the manual follows a natural pro-gression and we strongly suggest thatthey be presented in that order, par-ticularly in the training of TRLs andany other on -going study groups.

The remainder of the manual con-taingrpplemental materials and addi-tional resources. Unless otherwise in-dicated, you are free to duplicatematerials for distribution and use.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM \ TRAINING AND RESOURCE MANUAL / 9

THE KEY PLAYERSRESOURCE FOR UNION-LEADERSHIP AND LOCAL COORDINATOR

The Local Union LeadershipUnion leadership's support for the

Program is the most crucial element ofsuccess. In each of the three pilotsites union leaders saw the value inproviding this kind of service to theirmembers. In some cases it was thefirst time this type of continuing pro-fessional growth was offered; inothers, the Program became part ofexisting opportunities for unionmembers to take advantage of reward-ing union-sponsored staff develop-ment. The leadership was committedto more than negotiating contracts andhandling grievances. They saw this asa way to provide teachers withsomething really meaningful in termsof their own classrooms and to bringall levels of educationteachers, ad-ministrators, universities and resear-cherstogether to assure qualityeducation for the children in thoseclassrooms.

Local union support for the Programdoes not end with project start-up.Continued support is needed for thosewho take a more active role in theProgram. Space for training sessionsneeds to be provided along with ac-cess to duplicating equipment ifnecessary. Publicity for the Programshould be on-going and participantsshould be recognized for their efforts.Union leadership may be called on tohelp establish collaborative ties withcentral school administration and local

universities or federal research labs.

This does not mean that the localpresident has to assume all theresponsibility for implementing theProgram. Rather, a local coordinatorshould be appointed to oversee Pro-

gram operation, training and follow-through.

The Local CoordinatorIn each of the three pilot sites the

local coordinator acted as a liaisonbetween the local union leadership,AFT staff and the local TRLs. In work-ing with the sites, we found the coor-dinators possessed certain qualitiesand skills which should be consideredin identifying someone to perform thisjob in your own local.

Time and Commitment The localcoordinator must be able to makegood use of time, particularly atthe outset of the Program. Chancesare, everyone in your local isalready overburdened, whether ina leadership, union staff orclassroom teacher capacity. In ourpilot sites, two of the coordinatorswere teacher center directors andthe third was "teacher-in-charge"of a pilot elementary school. Whilenone had classroom responsibili-ties, their workdays were oftenlong and hectic. There was a littlemore flexibility in their schedule'sthan in most teachers', but moreimportantly they held a belief inthe merit of the project and werecommitted to its success.Recognized Leader by theUnionThe coordinators hadalready demonstrated their leader-ship capabilities to the union. Itwas known that these people hadthe ability to work with others toget a job done. Since the unionleadership was committed to pro-ject success, they recommendedcandidates for this role.


THE KEY PLAYERS / I

Knowledge of the "System"The local coordinator needs tohave information (or know whereto get it) about the system: theunion, structure and the districtstructure. Coordinators who are intune with this information canmore readily identify potentialTRLs and, building sites becausethey know which teachers aregood union members and whichadministrators will be cooperative.They know who to contact in theadministration and tow to workwith them. They are con'cious ofthe sensitivities of all "players" andare able to offer concrete sugges-tions as to how the Program canbest function in the local. They useinformation to solve problems.When something doesn't go as ex-pected, they are more likely toanalyze why rather than abandona good idea completely. .

SI Relationship with Local Univer-sities, Federal Labs, etc.In allthree sites we were fortunate tohave coordinators who alreadyhad established relationships withuniversities and/or other researchfacilities. The local coordinatorshould either have these contacts.or be willing to nurture them inorder to promote collaboration. Ifthese relationships do not already

. exist, the union leadership, alongwith the coordinator, may be in-volved in initial meetings.Experience in Training Adults andPlanningIt would be most wiseto select a coordinator who hashad prior experience in, trairiiiigor,acting as a resource-for teachers.In addition, he/she shoUld be ableto organize sessions, set agendas,facilitate planning meetings, andmotivate others working in the

Program. It is also helpful if thecoordinator can document andevaluate the process as it movesalong. If you feel the need for out-side funding for the Program, itmay be beneficial for the coor-dinator to have some contacts withlocal foundations. Although theProgram should not need financ-ing, often stipends prove an addi-tional incentive for both teachersand college faculty wino becomeinvolved. (See: The Research andAcademic Community)

The responsibilities which-followwill be useful in guiding selettion ofthe local coordinator.

RESPONSIBILITIES OFTHE COORDINATOR

1. Organize and coordinate all pro-gram activities.

2: Develop expertise in educationalresearch.

3. Select and train TRLs; selectbuildings with approval of localleadership.

4. Act as liaison with central officeand building administrators.

5. Act as liaison with universitiesand federal labs and centers topromote collaboration.

6. Act as resource for TRLs.7. Organize wider-scale dissemina-

tion (QuESTs, workshops, etc.).8. Conduct periodic evaluation of

program.9. Report to the local president and

AFT Educational Issues Depart-ment.

10. Take responsibility for PR on Pro-gram through local publications.

Once the coordinator has been'chosen, the process for selecting TRLsand building sites is the first task to becompleted.

2 / THE KEY PLAYERS LEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND-DISSEMINATION PROGRAM

__The Teacher Research Linker TRL'In linking research with teachers,

the TRL (Teacher Research Linker) isthe 'core oo program. Past researchindicates .hat the human element ininnovation and change is crucial. Youmay be thinking to yourself, "Whydon't we just distribute this informa-tion?" While that is a form ofdissemination, it does not guaranteethat teachers will use the informationto enhance classroom practice. As amatter of fact, just passing out infor-mation is the very practice AFT ishoping to discourage by establishingthis Program.

There are two ways to approach theinitial selection of TRL candidates forthe Program. One is to be TRLspecific. That is, identify only peopleyou feel are capable of serving asTRLs. Tell them specifically what it isyou expect of them and begin train-ing. Another way to approach selec-tion is to conduct an awarenesssession on the Program, open toanyone, covering some research con-tent and outlining the TRL program.Then see who expresses an interest.This process may be more time con-suming since it involves first doingsessions to hook people, then makinga final assessment as to who willfunction best out of the group as aTRL. Both approaches can be valid.Remember, the.more information youhave about a person, the better ableyou will be to judge their functioningeffectively as a TRL. If you use a TRLspecific idehtification, it should bebecause you aleady have the infor-mation you need to make a'validjudgement. In the three pilot sites, weused a combination of the two.

Before making a final decision onpeople, take into consideration thebuildings in which. prospective TRLs

teach. For example, in one site wehad a TRL who was excellent atgrasping the research concepts andwho had had prior experience\ inpresenting in-service workshops toteachers. However, her building wasmade up of a staff of teaMers whohardly talked to one atio_er, let aloneworked together. If your goal is tohave a group of ."free lance" resourcepeople,r_then you may not h/ave totake into consideration building com-plexions, but if you want /to have theProgram really take hold'using thebuilding-level dissemination model,you will have to examine the schilooLenvironment. -

Whatever path you choose inselecting TRLs, ideally, all of. the peo-ple responsible for sharing the infor-mation should possess or be able todevelop the following skills andcharacteristics:

CHARACTERISTICS OFEFFECTIVE TRLs

1. Is a Union Member in goodstanding and displays loyalty tothe local.

2. Is viewed as a trusted leader andresource by peers.

3. Has good rapport with thebuilding principal.

4. Operates on a professional level;concerned with his/her own pro-fessional growth.

5. Is a risk-taker; innovator; takesinitiative.

6. Possesses good interpersonalcommunication skills; candevelop and maintain rapport.

7. Is able to develop alternativesolutions to problems andevaluate them.

8. Is viewed as an effective teacher.9. Has the time available to give to

the Program.


THE KEY PLAYERS / 3

10. Can facilitate the functioning ofadult groups.

11. Is organized; task-oriented.12. Exhibits empathy for others and

respeCts individual differences.13. Can be .depended on to follow

through.While your TRLs should have

displayed loyalty to and support forthe local-, usually through active in-volvement, you must not overloadthem. This is something only you andthe TRL can analyze. In the pilot sites,some TRLs were also buildingrepresentatives, local officers, teachercenter staff, or active on various com-mitteesgrievance, educationalissues, negotiations-, etc. The effectiveTRL is one who, like the coordinator,can juggle both personal and profes-sional responsibilities, letting youknow when time is a problem, butstill maintaining commitment. Youmay consider selecting two TRLs perbuilding to help shoulder respon-sibilities and provide support for eachother in dissemination activities.

The Individual BuildingBefore discussing the criteria for

identifying individual buildings weneed to provide you with the rationalefor 'disseminating at the building level.

The overriding reason is that thereis a group already assembled on aday-to-day basis. Scheduling ofmeetings can be coordinated to fit theschedule of only one staff. Meetingscan be held within the schooldayduring lunchtime, commonpreparation time, or department orgrade level meetingsor before andafter school if the building isavailable. Sessions' can also be held inconjunction with building unionmeetings and/or staff meetings,although we caution against the use of

meetings in which other business hasto be tended to, particularly in thecase of mandatory faculty meetings,since the agenda may not be in theTRL's control and these meetings areoften viewed by many teachers asnegative, time-wasting experiences.Also, since faculty meeting timehistorically is viewed as belonging tothe administration, the principal mustagree not to issue mandates onteacher behavior once the research in-formation has been shared. We mustcaution, however, that the informationis good. As a result, although TRLshad received prior agreement from theprincipal not to mandate, in somecases, a "gentle" reminder wasnecessary for over-zealous ad-ministrators.

When the staff is cohesive andcooperative, there are already groupsof teachers working on mutualproblem-solving and "recipe-sharing,"i.e., exchanging successful strategies.In other words, there are information-sharing networks already established.Tapping into these networks is a goodway to promote meaningful dissemin-ation. The interaction that takes placein a session does not have to stopwhen teachers walk out the door; con-tinued analysis and discussion can oc-cur between sessionsacross thelunch table, in the hall during theweekly bowling leaguethe oppor-tunities are endless.

Another reason for buildingdissemination is directly related to theTRL as an "on-site" resource.Knowledge utilization research pointsout that the proximity of the resourceaffects its use. Stated another way, thecloser the resource; the more apt it isto become' used. Think about otherways information is given to teachers.Formally, it is shared through journalsand other publications, "expert" con-

4 / THE KEY PLAYERSEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


sultants from outside, or collegecourse work. When the teacher goesto apply that information in theclassroom and reaches a stumblingblock, neither the author, consultantnor professor are there to help out.The TRi. will be thereeveryday!

-Not only is the proximity of the TRLan important factor, but also the com-mon knowledge he or she sharesabout-the system makes the TRL acredible resource. After all, the TRLhas to fulfill the same administrativemandates and deals with the samestudent population as every other .

teacher in the building. There is abuilt-in sensitivity to what working inthis building is all about.

A final reason for buildingdissemination is linked to collabora-tion with and feedback to the researchcommunity (See Research andAcademic Community). Ours is a two-way process: not just information-giving, but informats ithering, too.In order to provide the i esearch com-munity with feedback on the'useful-ness of their research and direction fornew areas of study, a network ofTRLs linked to a specific group ofteachers is necessary. In this way,feedback is solicited from a constantpopulation of teachers who are receiv-ing a continuous flow of research in-formation.

Now, let's focus on choosingbuilding sites. In addition to the TRLthere are two other factors to consider:the principal and the staff as a whole.M Since the training and dissemina-

tion program is union-sponsored, itcan take place without the prin-cipal's "blessing." But, it is muchmore advantageous to have ad-ministrative support. The principalwho is opposed to this process,whatever the reason, can kill it. He

or she must not be afraid to seethe staff grow. The administratorwho is in fear that teachers mayknow more than he or she will-bea detriment. Therefore, the prin-cipal should at least be kept in-formed of what is happening. Heor she can become a partner inthe process with the understandingthat the sessions are voluntary andmandates on practice are not im-posed. If the opposite happens, theProgram becomes a threatening,administrative project instead of ateacher-to-teacher problem-solvingprocess.The local coordinator may want to

meet with building principals to ex-plain the purpose and "ground rules"of the Program and how, by workingtogether, the principal, teachers, and,ultimately, students can benefit.

Clearly outline the TRL's role andwhat will be needed from the prin-cipal. Initially, few administrators willbalk at the opportunity for staff togrow. However, if the principal feelsthere is potential for loss of control orplanned insurrection, this may not bethe kind of administrative leaderwhose school is conducive to theER&D process.

We would like to point out that inthe' pilot sites, all building principals,except one, were receptive and sup-portive. In fact, several of them wel-comed the. assistance of the TRL. Theyfelt with all the other demands ontheir time; they had not had theopportunity to function fully as an in- ,1strUctional leader for staff.

Some\considerations for investiga-tion and negotiation with the principalmight be the following:

1. Meting space and time.,2. Use of duplicating equipment.3. Access to building by "outsiders, 'I


THE KEY PLAYERS / 5

1

other TRLs, researchers, etc.4. Possible release time for TRL.5. Possible release time or class

coverage for participatingteachers.

6. Commitment to collaborate withstaff on recommended changeswhich need administrative sup-port.

`7 Commitment to keep projectvoluntary and non-judgemental.The\only evaluation is theteacher's self-evaluation.

N The other factor in building selec-tion is/the interaction of theteaching staff. Since the long-range

is to involve as many teachersas possible in the process, themore cohesive and cooperative thestaff is; the better. A staff which isdivided or competitive will not'make the best use of the researchand prodess, if they make use of itat all. This may be the kind of staffyou'll want to tatkle later, but in-itially it will be rough going.Examine the' communication net-

works with the prospective TRL..Do4th grade teachers communicate onlyamong themselves? At the secondarylevel, is the school so departmental-ized that there's little or no cross-content communication? Is thereopportunity during the day for bothprofessional and social exchangesamong staff? Are "special" teachers(special ed, bilingual, travelling) in7tegrated into the social structure of thestaff?

The number of "innovators" or"risk- takers" among the faculty andthe overall level of professionalismwill directly relate to the success ofthe Program. You are asking teachersto become inquirers, investigating theresearch in terms of their ownclassrooms. They may be skeptical at

/ THE KEY PLAYERS

first, particularly older teachers whofeel their experience has made themseasoned problem-solvers. Skepticismcan be more readily overcome if thereis an initial group of risk-takers whoare willing to experience the Program.Their finding merit in it will helpbring other interested teacherstogether.

Finally, there should be a perceivedneed for the Program. In the Pilot siteswe did not do a formal "needs assess-ment." Many AFT members.requestinformation on classroom manage-ment and effective teaching strategies.Since this research is the beginningcore of the "science" of teaching andthere is already,evidence that teacherswill be erxpe-cted to exhibit certainresearch-based behaviors for evalua-tion putirposes, we felt the need wasalready well-established. Additionally,the teacher centers in the sites had :

conducted previous_ assessmentswhich supported our original assump-tions about the usefulness of theseresearch areas. In selecting buildings,you may want to obtain past needsassessments done by a teacher centerunion, or staff development office.

Please note, however, that eventhose teachers who were already prac-ticing behaviors deemed "effective" byresearch, benefitted by being exposedto the technical knowledge. It told ,

them, "You're doing .a good job," andthey found new ways of working inthe classroom so that the effectivebehaviors were even more profitableto the instructional process.

CRITERIA FORBUILDING SITE SELECTION

1. Good relationship betweenprincipal.

2. Overall support for professionalgrowth by staff and administra-tion.

3. Cohesive and cooperative faculty.4. Scheduling allows for sessions.5. Open lines of communication;

overlapping of networks.6. Presence of innovators/risk-takers.7. Program viewed as non-

evaluative by principal.8. Participation in program will be

voluntary.9: TRL is viewed with trust and

respect.10. Perceived need or benefit on the

part of participants.

The Research. andAcademic Cemmunity

One of the most significant aspectsof the Program is the attempt to col-laborate with research and teachertraining institutions. Once you havepulled together the union leadership,the coordinator, the TRLs, and in-dividual buildings, the next step indeveloping a truly on-going process isto network with facilities which canprovide future research topics for pro-gram continuation. The teachers youreach will also generate a lot oi feed-back on the studies which theresearch community should receive.Collaboration can provide a significantcontribution to the entire process.

Clearly, this is a relationship thatwill, take a lot of nurturing to becomeproductive. Historically, practicingteachers, educational researchers andteacher training institutions have beenfar apart. They have completely dif-ferent mind-sets about what their roles

'are. If a college or university isprimarily a tv..acher training institution,chances are their faculty will know lit-tle about the research. If the institutionis pritharily a research-producer, theymay know little about daily life in theclassrooms. And if the institution doesboth . . . this comment by a college

dean reacting to a presentation, on theproject by AFT staff says it best: "Ifyou can get these institutions talkingand working with teachers, you'vedone something tremendous. I can'tevgn get my teaching faculty andresea. ;h faculty to collaborate!"

Involving the research and thehigher education communities is notabsolutely necessary, but it willbenefit the process in the long run,puticularly if there are research topicsyour members want to investigatebeyond classroom management andeffective teaching. Unless there issomeone in the local who can identifyand translate research for you, youwill have to go to these sources.

In approachihg these institutionsyou will have to sell them on the Pro-gram, providing benefits for their par-ticipation. Set up a meeting with thedean of the local schoolof education,or the director of the research lab orcenter. Explain the Program and whatthe union hopes to accomplish. Incen-tives for collaboration are varied.You'll probably get inquiries from in-stitutions about money or stipends forfaculty time to do translations for you.Point out that everyone else isdonating time and effort. That's im-pressive! If money becomes an issue,suggest that you can work together toseek outside funding.

In "selling" the Program stress theintrinsic rewards. Collaboration canlead to entree into real classrooms. Itcan also provide a lot of substance forpublication. Point out that yourteachers can critique research transla-tions or summaries, giving feedbackthat will help in making them suitablefor t her publications in addition toacademic j mals. Realize that not allresearchers necessarily want to Seetheir research applied. Some are con-


1 3

THE KEY PLAYERS / 7

tent just to do i.. Underscore the factthat your members can generate agood deal of knowledge aboutteaching which can be useful to theseinstitutions'. TRLs and other teacherscan provide suggestions for enhancingpre-service and in-service training,and can give-direction to aid futureresearch. -

Once yOu have generated interest,propose' the following roles the institu-tion can play in the collaborativeeffort:

1. Identify useful research for TRLs.2. Translate or summarize research

studies in, a language teacherswill appreciate. This can be cloneby faculty or graduate students.

3. Conduct free research seminars or_ up-dates for TRLs.

Work. inter - actively with teachersin doing research.

5. Offer graduate or continuingeducation courses for teachers in-terested in research.

6. Help seek outside funding shouldit be necessary.

We can safely predict that the in-stitutions will want some evidehdethat something is happening.Therefore, it is advisable that youhave the process 1x/ell-underwaybefore approaching them.

For those institutions that wish it,copies of the final report to the Na-tional Institute of Education on thepilot project are availablehrough AFTor NIE.

8 / THE KEY PLAYERSEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATIONRESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR

While implementation in theclassroom is the first level, dissemina-tion is the second-level function yourTRLs will perforni. For some it will beanxiety-producing. After all, learninginformation for use in the classroom isone thing. Learning it for the purposeof sharing with colleagues is another.From the beginning of the Programand throughotit you will have to besensitive to the needs of the TRLs.You will have "stars" in your group;those who can see the benefit of shar-ing the information almost irranethate-ly. They will be 'chomping at. the bitto do So and will feel comfortable inthat role. On the other hand, somewill feel that they don't Want to beviewed by other teachers as "the ex-pert," a prophet in their own land. Ifthey tell teachers, "This is the way toarrange your room," or "Here is howyou manage groups," they will beviewed this way. Gently remind themthat the information is based onresearch; let the research be the buf-fer. TRLs who are more comfortableas disseminators can provide a lot ofhelp and support to the ones whoaren't.

Let's take a minute to discuss groupprocess as it relates to the develop-ment of these trainers. Ultimately, ,youwant them to work as a group, gettingnourishment from each other's suc-cesses and offering support in over-coming roadblocks. However, it willtake time for TRLs to become social-ized into this process. They will getassurance, feedback and good ideasfrom one 'another. And the ore op-portunity you provide the group forplanning, sharing of dissemination ac-tivities and watching and listening to

eac h other present, the more they willdevelop their talents individually andcollectively.. Becoming a disseminatoris as much of a growth experience asusing the research in the classroom is.

Training infOrmation can be in-terspersed with research informationin the same sessions or can bepresented in separate sessions. We dosuggest that TRLs have at least oneresearch study "under their belts" (thismeans understanding the concepts,applying it in their own classes and:discussing the results.of that applica-tion) before they begin training otherteachers in it. This is because in plan-ning dissemination for, say, EffectiveClassroom Management for Beginningthe School Year research, the discus-sion can center on that knowledge.We'll give you strategies for thisdiscussion later on.

TRLs should be aware of theresearch on adult learning and how itapplies to dissemination. In terms oftraining information, this may be thefirst segment you discuss with them.

Planning Dissemination. Once there is a clear understandingof the research information and howadult groups- can function, TRLs canbegin to plan dissemination activities.This can be done individually or as agroup. For example, have TRLs lookat a particular studyEffectiveGroup Management Practicesandthen have them highlight what theyfeel is the most important informationto foyer. As a follow-up "assignment,"you might ask several TRLs todevelop 15 to 20 minute presenta-tiOns on specific concepts for the nextmeeting. At that meeting have them


TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION / 1

"roleplay" the presentations asking forcritiques by other members of thegroup. If video tape equipment isavailable, tape them and then go backover each presentation. We found thisto be a highly successful way both tojudge knowledge of the research andto allow TRLs to practice presenting ina supportive environment. If the TRLis planning on working only with asmall (3-5) group, a formal presenta-tion may not be necessary. However,somewhere along the line, the unionshould make use of the TRLs withlarger groups where this style may bemore appropriate.

In planning these activities it maybe useful to take TRLs through the"Suppose That . " activity.lt is par-ticularly appropriate in helping TRLsplan for dissemination in their ownbuildings. However, try to encourageTRLs to plan together even thoughthey work in different schools. In onesite, TRLg planned and presented athree-part series of workshops in theunion's regional offices. They plannedas a group, to insure continuity of in-formation in five different settings. Inanother site, TRLs planned individualbuilding sessions which were allscheduled within a two-week period.This made planning easier. The TRLsreported on their sessions at the nextgroup meeting. The discussion was in-

strumental in establishing and main-taining their roles as disseminators.

Once TRLs have practiced presen-ting and planned their disseminationstrategies, you should provide themwith the situational case studies foundat the end of this section. These casestudies are based on actual situationsAFT staff encountered in doing train-ing. We would like to say that all au-diences will be receptive to the infor-mation and each other and that goodplanning will insure success. Butthat's' like your college education pro-fessors telling you to have good lessonplans and interesting instruction to besuccessful with children. We know .there's more to it than that!

How do you manage a potentialconflict in the group? How do youdeal with administrative "intruders?"

Of course, these case studies areonly representative of situationswhich may arise, but they do getTRLs thinking about effectively han-dling'adversariarconditions.

When actual dissemination is tobegin, we suggest having TRLs pairup, when possible. It helps to:strengthen confidence. There are "twobrains" available to handle questionsor situations which may arise. This isa particularly effective presentationstrategy for more 'formal groupsessions.

2 / TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION

2,,EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


PLANNING, ORGANIZING AND CONDUCTINGRESEARCH TRAINING SESSIONSRESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR AND TRLS

This section will focus on trainingfor both your group of TRLs and theteachers they eventually train. Sincethe TRLs are your first priority, wewill discuss and outline this processfirst.

Scheduling and length of sessionsfor TRLs

Training sessions for TRLs shouldbe scheduled on a consistent basis,e.g., every other Wednesday. The fre-quency of meetings is flexible, butthey should be held at, least everythree weeks. Survey the prospectiveTRLs to determine the best day formeetings. In the pilot sites one grouppreferred Mondays, anotherThursdays and initially the thirdgroup met on Saturday mornings.Later on, the third group was able totake professional leave days formeetings. Those were held onFridays.

The length of a session should beadequate to cover the informationscheduled, discussion, and planningfor implementation. In the pilot pro-ject AFT staff initially presented theinformation primarily in a lecture/ac-tivity format. As the group began to"gel," we asked the TRLs to read thesummary ahead of time and come tothe session prepared to participatemore actively. We found that this in-creased the time available for discus-sion, problem-solving,and strategydevelopment.

Sessions should be no shorter thantwo hours. The length of a sessionwill influence the frequency withwhich you meet. If you're meeting foronly two hours, you should try

meeting every two weeks. In the pilotsite that used professional leave days,we met once per month. Those ses-sions were from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00p.m. with an hour for lunch. Ingeneral, the frequency of the meetingsshould not overburden anyone, butTRLs should have a sense that theyare involved in an on-going and im-portant program which meets regular-ly. They should also have a sense ofprogress, that they are movingthrough a body of research at areasonable pace.

Once the calendar for sessions hasbeen determined, allow it to bemodified only in emergency situa-tions. There may be times when notall TRLs can be present.. If it's a matterof one or two out of a group of fif-teen, run the session with those whoare available. Setting. a schedule, then

-Changing it, communicates a lack ofimportance for the Program and istime consuming for the coordinatorand creates more work. The localcoordinator, after fully explaining theProgram and planning a schedulewith TRLs, should see that the ,

;schedule is followed. ,

If a session) is scheduled to begin at3:30, TRLs should,be advised to getthere by 3:15. Start on time. A ses-sion scheduled to run two hours,should run two hours. Otherwise,your TRLs will get/the impression thatthe time scheduled is too long. Makeproductive use of the full time toavoid setting a precedent.

If you have done a TRL specificidentification, your first meeting maycover the introduction of the Pro-gramwhy the union is doing this

IDISSEMINATION PROGRAMEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION / 3

and how it is to be accomplished; andthe dual role of the TRL. You canfocus on the first level of their par-ticipationresearch application intheir own classroomsbut be sure totell them about the secondleveldissemination. AFT Programstaff found that many TRLs readilyand easily locked into their roles asusers or evaluators of research butneeded considerable time to fullyunderstand and feel comfortable withtheir second rolediSseminators ofresearch to other teachers. Take timeto carefully discuss this aspect and in-

sure the TRLs' acceptance. Otherwise,when the time comes for dissemina-tion, you may get reactions like, "Ididn't know I was going to have to dothis!" It will damage the group.

If the length of the first sessionallows, plan a presentation on aresearch study, either in its entirety orin part. It will give them a sense ofwhat the Program is about, andsomething to do with the informationdevelop strategies for use in theirown classrooms. If this is the contentfor the first meeting, plan no less thanthree hours.

An agenda for that first meeting might look like this:

45 minutes to11/2 hours(The length oftime this takeswill depend onhow much priorinformation youhave supplied.)

For suggested time,see research section

I. Overview of the Program (the why andhow) emphasizing the union's support.

II. Outline of the role of the TRLat both levels. Allow time fordiscussion here. Sensitivity andtrust building occurs when you answerquestions about their roles andlisten to concerns sincerely.,

III. Presentation, discussion andactivities related to the firstresearch segment.

The amount of time will varybased on the number of conceptsto be covered, whether or not thegroup has read over the summary,how socialized the group is.Encourage discussion of the conceptsand how they might be applied. If thediscussion is extremely good, you maynot need"to do an activity. Howevet,activities are available to help stimu-late thinking and discussion. Use yourown sense of audience to determinewhen to wind down presentation anddiscussion and begin an activity.

4 / TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATIONEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


About 45 minutes

IV. Selection of concepts and planningstrategies using the RESEARCHACTION PLAN. * Describe how the formis to be used and "walk" participantsthrough completing it. AlloW timefor sharing intended strategies.

V. Reminder of next session date.

`Directions for using these forms follow this section.

Subsequent research sessions should follow this standard format.

I. Gathering feedback using theREACTION TO RESEARCH form.*Give participants time to fillout the form using their RESEARCH

10 to 15 ACTION PLAN as a reference. Thisminutes not only helps to identify change,

but also provides a storehouse ofinformation to feed back to researchers.

20 minutes Open discussion and sharing.

See research II. Presentation, discussion andsection. activities related to new research

concepts. (Same as above)

30 minutes III. Planning for applicationof new concepts and strategies.(Same as above)

'Directions for using these forms follow this section.

TO THE LOCAL COORDINATORWhen TRLs are -eady to begin

disseminating to other teachers, timewill also need to/be devoted toTRAINING FOR/DISSEMINATION andplanning whicp is disrlissed in thenext section of this manual.

TO THE TRLsThe process you follow in training

other teachers in the research will besimilar to the process you've gonethrough, but without the training com-ponent. Your first meeting withteachersbeyond a general awarenesssessionshould include some stage-setting.


TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION ;5

10 to 15minutes -

I. An overview. of the Program.

Explain why the union has chosen tooffer this service to teachers.

Clearly outline the investigativenature of the Program. The informationis there for teachers to use as they see fit.

Set forth the ground rules for thesessions/meetings. Value judgementsabout teachers'- practices aretaboo. Teachers are there to worktogether, and learn from each otheras well as the research.

II. Conduct the first research presentationand discussion, then follow the sameformat outlined previously.

Other ConsiderationsOnce you have determined the con-

tent of the session, materials you willbe using need to be organized. If youare using manual materials, feel freeto duplicate any or all of them. Ac-tivities, supplemental materials, AC-TION PLANS should be set to go andat hand. Any equipment should beready and the room arranged for thesession.

We need'to comment onrefreshments and/or meals. It is acourtesy to provide at' least coffee, tea,and/or soft drinks at ,a session. Sincethe Program is designed not to impacton the local's budget, here are severalsuggestions for taking care ofrefreshments.

1. Check the budget for "meeting ex-pense" monies which can betapped.

2. Have TRIS take turns providing asnackfruit, cheese and crackers,donuts. (Note: the first sessionshould provide something, thenyou can have the turn-taking.)

3. In doing an all day session,potluck lunches are a real treat.

You are asking people to donatetheir time and effort. Providingrefreshments offers a reward for thatand fosters congeniality in the group.Locals who have always paidmembers for contributing time, willhave to plan accordingly.


2


USING THE RESEARCH ACTION PLANREACTION TO RESEARCH FORMS

Using these forms is not mandatory,but we found in the pilot project thatteachers going back through a year'ssupply of these were more aware ofhow useful the information had beenand the subtle changes they had ex-perienced. In addition, we were ableto use the information to help clarifywhat could be addressed by researchand what couldn't. The informationyou gather will be of great help inworking with the research and collegecommunities when the time comes.These forms can be duplicated as onesheet; ACTION PLAN on one sideREACTION TO RESEARCH on theother.

RESEARCH ACTION PLANThe RESEARCH ACTION PLAN

should be used only after the presen-tation and discussion of research con-cepts. The block in the upper righthand corner may be used to fill in thespecific concepts covered in that ses-sion (With-it-ness and Overlapping;Smoothness and Momentum). Youmay either do this ahead of timebefore duplicating the forms, or haveparticipants fill them in. Participantsdo not need to identify themselvesunless you are going to be consultingwith them individually and will needa copy for yourself. THESE ARE CON-FIDENTIAL and are for self or mutual-analysis only.

Chances are there will,be teacherswho are already applying the con -cepts. The first section allows them toidentify the strategies they are present-ly using.

The second and third sections askteachers to identify a concept or con-cepts they would like to apply and thestrategies they will use. Try to getspecific strategies down. "To make mypraise more meaningful" is hardlyspecific and will be difficult toevaluate. If teachers are having atough time clarifying problems orsolutions take them through thedecision-making steps found under"Self-Direction" in the TRAINING FORDISSEMINATION section of themanual.

Once each participant seemssatisfied with his or her PLAN, chargethem with carrying it out until thenext meeting.

REACTION TO RESEARCHAt the beginning of the next session

set aside time, for teachers to report onthe usefulness of the information.Here is where you'll get some reallygood feedback! Let the participants fillout the form at the session. Our daysare already filled with untold paper-work and seldom is time available toreflect on what's going on in ourclassrooms. If you ask teachers tocomplete the form ahead of time,there's a slim chance you'll get anyresponse. They will want to talk abouttheir successes (and their concerns).Allot time for follow-up discussionsbefore introducing anything new.Above all, let the group interact witheach other. It makes your job as atrainer so much easier if the groupcan help with the problem-solving.


2


RESEARCH ACTION

NAME/ID

PLAN

RESEARCH CONCEPTS PRESENTED

DATE

LOCAL

1. Of the research concepts presented today, which of them are you already usingand how?

CONCEPT CLASSROOM STRATEGY

2. Identify one or two research 3. Tell what you will do or change inconcepts you'd like to try in your classroom strategies to make thisyour classroom and what you happen. Tell when and with whathope will happen. group or class you will try your

strategy.

CONCEPT AND EXPECTATIONS CLASSROOM STRATEGY

WHEN/GROUP:

WHEN/GROUP:,

Mg EDUC.ATIONAL RESEARCH ANDt DISSEMINATION PROGRAM

TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION / II

REACTION TO ,S CH

Now that you have had the chance to use the research in your classroom, comment onhow well it worked for you. If you feel the research/strategies worked, what changedid you notice? Did what you want to happen, happen? If the research didn't seem towork, what do you think was the problem?

CONCEPT/STRATEGY TRIED REACTION TO RESEARCH

.

Which of the research concepts do you plan to continue working on? What would youdo differently to apply the research, if anything?

CONCEPTS TO CONTINUE- NEW CLASSROOM STRATEGY

10 / TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATIONEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND,


ON TEACHING ADULTSRESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR AND TRLs

Adults do not learn in the .sameway children learn. Therefore, wecannot "teach" them in the same man-ner. As a "teacher of teachers" thereare several key factors one must con-sider:I. In adult education the curriculum

is built around the student's needsand interests.

2. Adult orientation to learning isbased on life situations, rather thansubjects.

3. Analysis of experience should bethe core methodology of adulteducation since experience, is therichest frame of reference foradult learning.

4. Self-direction is a crucial need ofadults; therefore the "teacher"should engage in a mutual processof inquiry and problem solVingrather than a transmission ofknowledge or evaluation of confor-mity to that knowledge.

5. The older the population, thewider the range of experiences andconsequently the greater the,yarie-

ty of individual differences. Adulteducation must provide for thesedifferences in style, values, time,place and pace of learning.'

The teaching of adults differs from theteaching of children in that it is a pro-cess model. The content model nor-mally used with children is onewhere someone (teacher, curriculumcommittee, administration, text-bookpublisher) decides beforehand whatknowledge or skill needs to be"learned," puts this body ofknowledge into some logical sequenceof units, and selects the means ofpresentation (lecture, readings, labs,etc.). .

The process model is one wheresomeone (consultant, facilitator) pre-pares a set of procedures designed toprovide learners with procedures andresources to help them acquire infor-mation and skills as opposed totransmitting information and skills.

Figure 1 indicates the basic con-trasts in assumptions concerning theteaching of children and adults.

FIGURE I

ASSUMPTIONS

LEARNER'S SELF-CONCEPT

LEARNER'S EXPERIENCE

LEARNER'S READINESS

TIME

"CURRICULUM"

CHILDREN

Dependent

Inconsequential

Based on physical, mentalsocial development

Later application

Subject-centered

ADULTS

Independent, Self-directed

Rich resource for learning

Based on need

Immediate application

Problem-centered

'Lindeman, Eduard C., The Meaning ofAdult Education, (New York: New Republic) 1926.



MODEL DESIGN

ENVIRONMENT

PLANNING

DETERMINATIONOF NEEDS

DESIGN OF OBJECTIVES

"LESSON"DESIGN

ACTIVITIES

EVALUATION

Authority-orientedFormalCompetitive

By teacher

By teacher

By teacher

Sequenced in terms ofsubject matterContent focus

"Transmittal techniques"

By teacher

MutualCollaborativeRespectiveInformal

System for mutualplanning

Mutual and self-diagnosis

Mutual decision

Sequenced in termsof needProblem focus

Experiential techniques(mutual inquiry)

Mutual

Adapted from The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species by Malcolm Knowles

Experience and SelfChildren will often define

themselves in terms of external fac-torsmother, father, siblings. As wedevelop and go through our own lifeexperiences, we define ourselves interms of our own personal experience.Experience becomes self. When theexperiences of adults are "devalued"or "criticized," it is viewed by thoseadults as an attack on the self.Therefore, any work with adults .

should allow time for sharing of ex-perience and respect for drawing on itas a resource.

You will get a lot of sharing ofteachers' experiences and strategies ifyou are successful. Some of these ex-periences will contradict the researchand/or the practices of other teachersin the group. You must, therefore,create an environment that respectseach teacher as a person and valuestheir input. One strategy the -AFT stafffound particularly useful when thissituation arose was to focus the group

on the intent of the strategy. Allowthe teacher who offers a statement toverbally analyze why he or she doesthis. What is he/she hoping to ac-compliSh? Ask the rest of the groupfor their suggestions on how toachieve thesame outcome.

Without putting that teacher on thespot, you may get I)im or-her to re-evaluate the practice with input fromthe discussion. (This re-focus on intent

- is also helpful in dealing with a ;

'research study which seems to con-flict with prior studies or beliefs. Whatis the research question"?) Never allowthe group to "gang up" on anothermember of the group and openlycriticize other's practices. Remindthem that we all have different Stylesand determining absolutes is not whatthis project is about.

SelfDirectionAdults want to be recognized by

others as self-directed- and non;dependent. Therefore, any planning,


33


goal-setting, etc., should, come at thevery least out of mutual ,decision-making rather than decision- makingexclusively by the "expert. ` \\

When the time comes to have-teachers develop strategies for im-plementation in the classroom, theTRL's role is that of facilitator, unlessspecifically asked to do otherwise bythe teacher. The Research Action Planwill aid teachers in making their owndecisions about what to implementand how to go about it. The TRL canuse the following format as a"clarifier" in the problem-solving/decision-making process. Askthe teacher:

1. "What do you want?" Identifyneeds, concerns and/or problemsclearly. Note that they may re-spond with what they don'twant. Try to get them to expressgoals in positive terms; which aremuch easier to achieve andevaluate.

2. "How can you get it?" Identifypossible alternatives. You mayneed to probe by asking "Arethese the only alternatives? Isthere another way you canachieve the same outcome?"

3. "Is it teacher-controllable?" Doesthe alternative need external sup-port to be implemented, e.g., ad-ministratilie or parental approval?"Does it fit your belief system?" Isthe alternative counter to teacherstyle and beliefs about' teachingand learning?"Does the action clearly matchyour intention(s)?" Does this alter-native maintain the integrity ofthe overall classroom process?These are possible criteria forjudging the potential effectivenessof an alternative. If the answer is"yes" to all three, then take thenext step.

4. Try out the alternative as a possi-ble solution.

5. "Did you get what you wanted?"Refer to Number 1 to evaluate theeffectiveness of the strategy.

6. Start again.

In terms of evaluating the potentialusefulness or effectiveness of astrategy, another possible question is"How will you know when you getwhat you want?" While rathersimplistic, the step of recognizing adesired outcome is often overldokedin the decision-making process. Deter-mining how you will know when astrategy is successful ahead of time,makes the evaluation of it mucheasier.

ReadinessWhile it is assumed that the

"readiness for learning" on the part ofadults i5 based on need, there areways to nurture this readinessthrough examples of more effectiveperformance, introspection and self-diagnosis, higher levels of achieve-ment or advancement. (Ah excellentexample is additional college coursework for certification or financial ad-vancement.)

You will have "master" teacherswho will intially see no need to gothrough the process. Most of those weworked with Were experiencedteachers with years of service. One ofthe ways the research was helpful tothese teachers was that it validatedthe gOod things they were doing inthe classroom. In black and white,they were given a "pat on the back"for a job well-done. Those "pats" arefew and far between in our profes-sion. They found that they couldbenefit from working with the infor-mation, and in fact, many of them didmake useful changes in their practice.


.31

Need can be created. One of theopening remarks we would make toteachers receiving the information forthe first time is "How many of youcan say, honestly, that yourclassrooms are running as smoothlyas you'd like?" Most of the time, fewhands are raised. Of course, you mayhave to do some contingency plan-ning in the event that you get anoverwhelming positive response to thequestion. One of our project TRLs of-fered this response as a suggestion:"Terrific! You're probably doing a lotof the same things research says effec-tive teachers do. Let's see," and gofrom there.

The initial steps in getting people in-volved in looking at research are yourbiggest hurdle. Presented sincerelyand with enthusiasm, these researchconcepts will continue to generate in-terest and feedback from mostteachers.

The TRL should refer to "Tips toPresenters" for additional motivation-builders.

Application of New KnowledgeOpportunities for application of new

knowledge or skills by most childrenare normally postponed until somefuture timeelementary for juniorhigh school, junior high school forsenior high school; senior high schoolfor college, and/or the work force.

For adults, the application of newknowledge or skills is immediate. Theconcept in teacher in-servicing thatteachers want to be given somethingto use "Monday morning" is not,therefore, limited to teachers. It is abasic assumption in theories of adultlearning. As a result, any trainingshould generate concrete how-to'swhich can be immediately applied.

The purpose of the RESEARCH AC-TION PLAN is twofold. One, it does

take teachers through a step-by-stepdecision-making process. Two,teachers will leave with somethinguseful. By reinforcing the use of thistype of plan to guide discussion infuture meetings, you are alsounderscoring the importance of theteacher's involvement in the Programwhich takes us full-circle back to Ex-perience and Self.

EnvironmentIn selecting a specific location for

formal training sessions there'areseveral things to keep in mind. One,obviously, is providing a pleasant,relaxing atmosphere which stimulatesthe group's creative problem-solvingskills.

Room arrangement should be sup-portive of adult learning models. Con-ference style arrangements facilitatetwo goals. First, having participantsseated around a large table promotescooperation and collaboration and en-courages discussion. Second, the TRLis a part of the group, rather than anauthority figure. This enhances theconcept of mutual planning anddecision-making.

At the end of this section you willfind a variety of room arrangementsfor working with groups. There maybe times when you want a morestructured group with you as the iden-tified leader. For example, a facultymeeting at which you are doing anawareness session might be held us-ing a classroom format. However, ifyou wish a session to be more interac-tive, the room arrangement shouldreflect that format.

SummaryIn working with adults, adult learn-

ing theories suggest these elements foryour consideration:

1. Motivation is based on need.


3 4,


2. Needs determine "curriculum."3. Learners' experiences must be

tapped as a resource.4. Programs must foster self-

REFERENCES

diagnosis and self-direction.5. Focus is on mutual inquiry and

problem-solving and self-evaluation.

Adult Education Association. Adult Learning. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Associa,tion, 1965.

. Process of Adult Education. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Association,

1965.Psychology of Adults. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Association, 1963.

Bloom, B.S., et al. Taxonomy of Educational. Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain.New York: McKay, 1956.

Brunner, E. deS. An Overview of Adult Education Research. Washington, D.C.: AdultEducation Association, 1959.

Carkhuff, Robert R. Helping and Human Relations: A Primer for Lay and ProfessionalHelpers. 2 vols. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.

Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York: Macmillan, 1938.Erikson, E.H. Identity and the Life Cycle. New, York: International Universities Press, 1959.Flavell, J.H. "Cognitive Changes in Adulthood." Goulet, L.R. and Bakes, P.B. Life-Span

Development Psychology. New York: Academie Press, 1970, pp. 247-253.Gagne, R.M. The Conditions of Learning. Nevir7ork: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965.Hilgard, E.R., and Bower, G.H. Theories of Learning. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,

1966.Joyce, Bruce,- and Weil, Marsha. Models of Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Princeton-Hall,

1972.Kidd, J.R. How Adults Learn. New York: Association Press, 1959, 1973.Knowles, Malcolm S. Self-Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York:

Association Press, 1975:Knowles, Malcolm S. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy versus

Pedagogy. New York: Association Press, 1972.. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species: Second Edition. Houston, Texas: Gulf.

Publishing Company, 1973, 1978.Lindeman, Eduard C. The Meaning of Adult Education. New York: New Republic, 1926.McClelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark, R.A. and Lowell, E.I. The Achievement Motive.

New York: Appleton-Centhry-Crofts, 1953. 1Miles, M.W., and Charters, W.W., Jr. Learning in Social Settings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,

1970:Rogers, C.R. Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1969.Sheehy, Gail. Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1974.Thompson, J.R. "Formal Properties of Instructional Theory for Adults." Adult Learning and

Instruction. Edited by S.M. Grabowski. Syracuse: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education,

1970, pp. 28-45.Thomdike, Edward L. Adult Interests. New York: Macmillan, 1935.

. Adult Learning. New York: Macmillan, 1928.

EDIYCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

33

c TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION 15

SITUATIONAL. CASE STUDYRESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR AND TRLS

During your first awareness sessionwith teachers in your building, youdeScribe the project as a uniqueteacher -toteacher staff developmentprocess where you will be bringingthem research findings on classroommanagement, and teaching effec-tiveness. They can examine the fin-dings for. their usefulness in,theirclassrooms. After you finish yourshort introduction, a hand goes up.(Fantastic! Someone's interested.) Youcall on the teacher. (Crash!) She ser-monizes, "In° the first place, I don'tthink I need any research information

. on how to teach better. I'm already agood teacher. And secondly, what's so

good about research? We get an awfullot of so-called research stuff thrownat us, telling us how to teach andmost of it isn't any good. And nowonder, what do researchers kpowabout my classroom . . . they'reresearchers not teachers. What's sogood about your,research?"

How can you respond to thisteacher to neutralize the negative feel-ings toward research that she'sexpressed? What might you say to in,dicate that this research and the shar-ing process have relevance not just forthis teacher but all the teachers in theroom?

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND'DISSEMINATION PROGRAM

34


SITUATIONAL CASE STUDYRESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR AND TRLS

Today, you are leading a discussionon establishing, teaching and main-taining classroom instructional Pro-cedures and behavioral rules with agroup of teachers in your building. Inthe course of your discussion on theimportance of providing feedback tostudents about how well they are per-forining, a fifth grade teacher in yourgroup volunteers the following prac-tice. To reinforce her rule aboutstudents being quiet andontinuingtheir work whenever she leaves theroom for a period of time, she alwayssingles out the couple of students whoare quietly working when she 'doesreturn to the room and praises themfor their good behavior even though asignificant number of students areengaged in noisy chatter'. She mightsay, "I really like the way John,Susan, Michael and Linda are quietlyworking. That's how we're supposed

to behave whenever I lea heroom." She feels this kind positivefeedback given publicly to the behav-ing students will influence the rest ofthe students to behave properly.

It's apparent to you that this teacheris still using this type of vicariouspraise long after her students shouldhave reorned her rule governing theirbehavior when she leaves the room.Knowing Brophy's research on teacherpraise and how this specific use ofpraise is generally ineffective fordesisting student misbehavior andoften-only embarasses the behavingstudents, how might you handle thissituation? What can you say or do tohelp this teacher see her practice isone that the research says is ineffec-tive and that there are more effectiveways to handle this situation for boththe behaving and misbehavingstudents?




Today's group session with theteachers in your building fOcuses onthe first half of the Kounin researchon group management. You make thepoint that good transitions betweenactivities are essential to maintainingsmoothness and momenturp within alesson and throughout the day. Youalso link this concept to the Evertsonresearch, highlighting the necessity forhaving good procedures for transitionsbetween activities. You then ask thegroup to share their transition-strategies. After hearing several goodstrategies, the next teacher commentsthat she tells her students to put awaytheir materials and get out theworkbooks for the next lesson. Herstudents know that she gives them ex-actly two minutes and no more to getready for the next lesson, and thenshe starts regardless of who may ormay not be ready. She adds that two

a

minutes is plenty of time and that it'stheir responsibility to be ready whenshe is. A few murmurs rumblethrough the group. One teacherresponds, "Well, how do you makesure the kids who aren't ready getyour instructions for the first lesson?Don't they miss out?"

You personally don't agree with thispractice and it's clear from the generalbuzz and show of hands that the ma-jority of teachers don't agree with thispractice either. As the group leader,what feedback can you provide to thisteacher? How can you channel theother teachers' comments so that thisteacher doesn't reel her strategy is be-ing openly criticized by her peers?What might help teachers understandthat the outcomes of their teachingpractices may be inconsistent or inconflict with their intended instruc-tional and behaviorAl goals?


33



Your group sessions on educationalresearch are going well! Your prin-cipal sat in on the first session andcomplimented you on your prestion on classroom management andyour leadership. The teachers werereally interested in the ideas youshared and actively participated in thediscussion. Your third session starts ineight minutes and ten teachers havecome to the meeting. Suddenly, inwalks the principal and the districtstaff-development officer. They both

Of'

take a seat in the back of the room.(Moan . . . Oh n ,-who vited her?What's she doi g here ?tWhy didn'tmy principal y anything about thisto me?) The s ow must go ori.

How might you handle this situa-tion? What might you do if you wereconducting the session on the prin-cipal's staff meeting time or on yourpersonal time after school? How doeshaving the principal attend the firstsession or any other session affect youand your presentation or your discus-sions with participating teachers?

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINA11011 PROGRAM



After a terrific in-service daypresentation on rules procedures andconsequences, the principal con-gratulates you on your efforts andstates that more of these meetingswould be helpful. You've met withher to discuss the Program, emphasiz-ing the non-evaluative, voluntarynature of it. But, before the end of theday, she gets on the PA and gives thefollowing announcement: "The presen-tation by Mr. Jones this morning was

excellent. I'm sure we all learnedsomething. On Monday, I expect all ofyou to turn in to my office your

ierarchy of consequences f alingith inappropriate student s ehav r.

Have a good weekend!"The principal has violated th

voluntary, self-evaluative nature othe program. The teachers are grum-bling and their hostility is aimed atyou. How can you "re-group" and rec-tify the situation?



SUPPOSETHAT . . .

RESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR AND TRLS


ti


3

. . . you have been asked to spread the good word about the educationalresearch information given you through the APT BR&D Program.

I. What kind of arrangements would you have to make within yourbuilding to get a session "off the ground?"A. Get administrative support

B. Determine meeting spaceWhat are your options?

C. Determine specific timeWhat are your options?

Before schoolOver lunchAfter schoolRelease timeOther

II. What kind of administrative support would you need?A. Permission for meetingB. Arranging release timeC. Will need meeting to discuss a workshop

III. Describe how you see the initial meeting with your building principal.

IV. You would need to spark interest in your workshop. Whaf would you doto motivate your building's teachers to attend and get involved?

V. Who would you invite to this exceptional workshop?A. All teachers

B. A specific grade level or department

C. Another select group

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION / 29

VI: If you were going to invite a specific or select group, write down thenames of those you would invite.

VII. Of the research presented to you so far, which do you feel you would becomfortable with in presenting to other teachers?

VIII. Which concepts would you want to cover in your workshop?

IX. What additional help would you need?A. Union building rep

_

B: Another TRL

C. Local CoordinatorD. Other

X. On the back of this paper, design a flyer (to be dittoed) advertising thesession.

r.


11

1


TIPS TO PRESENTERS OF AFT ER&D MATERIALSRESOURCE FOR LOCAL COORDINATOR AND TRLS

Individual style, diversity, ecclec- teachers with a body of knowledgeticism, locus of control, area of in educational research, was con-strength, professional judgement are ceived by the Educational Issuesterms often given "lip-service" in con- Department of the Americanversations about teachers, but seldom J Federation of Teachers, and re-backed-up by credible actions! ceived its initial funding from theTeachers are constantly confronted Natonal Institute of Education.with mandates from administrators II It b hooves us as members of the

- who expect them to joyfully and pro- teaching profession to investigate I

ficiently implement programs in and tilize appropriate informationwhich teachers have had little or no from our educational researchinput, received little or no training base. This can serve as an impor-and, consequently, to which they give -tant tool in helping to restore 'very marginal commitment. public trust in education and in re--

Since it is generally acknowledged establishing teaching as a profes-that much still needs to be done to sion.enhance the pre-service training IN This project fully respects theaspect of the teaching profession, it is rights of teachers and supports theessential that in-service or retraining concept of teachef participation onefforts be beneficial to practicing a voluntary basis.teachers. This may be easier said than MI The teacher union as a peer-done. interest group is most effective as a

Recent findings in adult learning research dissemination agenttheory have been great clarifiers. We because it operates in a non-now understand that adults learn best threatening, non-judgemental at-when the information presented to mosphere. While it is important tothem is couched within their situa- seek the support of school ad-tional or experiential base. In our ef- ministrators for those who areforts to share research-based strategies working with the program, wewith teachers through the AFT Educa- must insure that the voluntary,tional Research and Dissemination non-evaluative aspects of the pro-Program, presenters should be mind- gram are maintained.ful of,the following information as I The dissemination model is arelated to the ER&D project and teacher-to-teacher problem-solvingshould incorporate the following con- process. This approach has also

cepts in their training sessions: been successful with TeacherCenter programs. Research has

SOME THINGS TO SAY ABOUT THE shown that often teachers go toPROJECT AND THE RESEARCH IN their colleagues when they needINTRODUCTION SESSIONS help.*These items may have to be la Since the conduit for disseminationrepeated at subsequent sessions is the teacher union, project per-

sonnel have received honest feed-IS This project, designed to connect back as to teachers' needs, con-



4

cerns and agreements. This is veryvaluable information in validatingpresent research and in helping todirect areas of new research.

III The two general areas of research,Classroom Management andTeaching Effectiveness, whichhave been investigated and sum-marized by the AFT ER&D team,were areas of concern highlightedby teachers in national and localsurveys.The research has been gathered asa result of thousands of hours ofobservations in classrooms fromkindergarten through high school.Most of the research on manage-ment and effectiveness strategieshas been done at the elementarylevel, but most of the strategieshave proven applicable at thesecondary levels. An increasingnumber of studies are being con-ducted at secondary levels,especially junior high school.

II A good portion of this researchwas conducted in inner-cityschools. Teachers have discovered,however, that the findings aregenerally applicable to classroomsettings in most communities andthat the strategies can be effective-ly implemented on a wide-scalebasis.

SOME THINGS TO REMEMBERABOUT HOW TEACHERS LEARNAND FUNCTION IN INSERVICESETTINGS

When sharing the researchmaterials in group formats, theleaders or trainers should ade-quately plan for group involve-ment on a participatory level.Discussion is very important toteachers who are anxious to talkabout events and problems in their

U

classrooms or to share their exper-tise with someone. (Who otherthan students, ever have to listento teachers?) Try to incorporate"hands-on" experiences in yoursessions:

a) Develop role play in appro-priate situations or use theones that are included in themanual

b) Use case studies as motivatorsfor discussion

c) Think of some divergentquestioning techniques thatwill inspire teachers torespond

d) Simulate classroom situationsin which the research conceptis represented

e) Develop interesting writtenassignments which requirethat teachers reflect on theirpractice to respond

f) Try to maintain a positivegroup dynamic by movingdiscussion without ignoringanyone and bringing out asmany suggestions as possiblefor solutions to problems.

Avoid criticism of teacher practicesas teachers view their experiencesas defining who they are. Con-versely, students view experiencesas things that happen to them anddo not tend to personalize to theextent that adults do.The findings from research studiesare not presented as "catch -ails"for all teachers and their students.Encourage teachers to:

a) investigate the researchconcept

b) implement it in theirclassroom

c) combine new info with oldpractice


43


d) share their adaptation withthe group

Much of the research simply af-

ground rules which help toavoid angry challenges andwhich guarantee that each

firms that certain teacher practicesparticipant will have the op-portunity to express himself.

are quite, effective in given situa- / b) Plan aheadTry to bring upsituation first, (ContingencyPlanningyou open can ofworms ,first). If you have asense that a certain subject iscapable of stirring up con-troversy, take control of thesituation by stating that youknow some people will haveprobleins with this, but it willbe beneficial to all to discussit.

c) Do not take sides.d) Role play the situation, plac-

ing the offenders in theopposite role as a means ofgetting them to think throughboth sides of the argument.

e) Avoid sarcasm or defen-siveness as the group leader.Discourage it in others. .

f) Allow participants to describetheir solutions to the problem.Present your own solutionsonly after others have beensuggested, or if none is forth-coming.Remind teachers that thesefindings are a result ofclassroom observations oftheir peers.Agree to seek further informa-tion in the future to clarify'aquestion or help to settle adispute.

tions. Often, the information ap-pears to be "old-hat," but upon,/further investigation the most ex-perienced teachers may find ituseful aS a reinforcer, a prodder, are-organizer or an additive. Letteachers know that research oftensupports practice.Tie research information ispresented to teachers as a supple-

Anent to their knowledge-base. It isdesigned to help teachers makeprofessional decisions related totheir practice and to encouragethem to change practice if theyfeel it will be beneficial to theirlives as-teachers. The non-threatening, non-evaluative aspectsof this project tend to encouragemore teachers to initiate change.

TIPS ON HOW TO HANDLEADVERSARIAL SITUATIONSTHAT MAY ARISEDURING PRESENTATIONS

IN In training sessions where adver-sarial situations may arise, iadisagreements with the resea h,the presenter or other participants,these approaches may be helpful:

a) Lead an "open" discussionwhich allows people to airtheir thoughts. in a non-threatening atmosphere. Set

g)

h)

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION / 33

44

RESEARCH REPORT ON

DISSEMINATION, UTILIZATION AND CHANGE

After an initial review of theresearch on dissemination, the follow-ing is a synthesis of references whichcan be helpful to the AFT EducationalResearch and Dissemination Program.As part of the internal process of thisproject, review of dissemination andeducational change literature is con-tinuous, in addition to the review andtranslation of literature on classroommanagement and effective teaching. Itis our hope that this literature will

provide stimulation, motivation andguidance as we begin to develop-specific training programs anddissemination models to be im-plemented in our three target sites andeventually replicated in other AFTlocals.

Highlighted here are specificdocuments which bear importance onthe delivery of our research literature.In addition, the attached bibliographyidentifies other reference sources.\

Re: Staff development (in-service, profesional growth, etc.)

". it resembles the world's search for eternal peace. The citizens of theworld seek the end of war and violence, yet somehow it always eludes theirgrasp. Similarly with staff developmenteveryone extolls its merits and seesthe need for it. Many)ven agree on what characterizes an effective staffdevelopment pftqam. Yet the lament from the east majority of those who aresubjected to staff development activities is that they are ineffective andgenerally a failure."

Williams (1979)


4 r.

TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION 135

A SYNTHESIS OF FINDINGSACROSS FIVE RECENT STUDIES

IN EDUCATIONAL DISSEMINATION AND CHANGE(Emrick, 19.78)

Ab> ract M NDN:TThe purpose of this synthesis was

to review the findings of recentlycompleted large-scale investigations ofeducational dissemination and changein order to consolidate findings andimplitations around an issue of com-mon interest to policymakers, pro-gram administrators, and researchers:What can be learned from thesestudies about processes and pro-cedures that facilitate knowledge diffu-sion and utilization in schools? Fivestudies were included in the syn-thesis:

PSDP: Sieber, S.D., Louis, K.S.,and Metzger, L. The Useof EducationalKnowledge: Evaluation ofthe Pilot State Dissemina-tion Program (twovolumes). New York, NY:Columbia University,Bureau of,Applied SocialResearch, 1972 (ED 065739; ED 065 740).

M FPSEC: Berman, P., McLaughlin,M.W., et al. Federal Pro-grams Supporting Educa-tional Change (eightvolumes). Santa Monica,CA: Rand Corporation,1975 (Volumes 1-5);1977 (Volumes 6-8).

M PIP: Stearns, M.S., et al.Evaluation of the FieldTest of Project Informa-tion Packages (fivevolumes). Menlo Park,CA: Stanford Research In-stitute and RMC ResearchCorporation, 1975 and1977.

M TAG:

Emrick, J.A., with Peter-son, S.M., and Agarwala-Rogers, R. Evaluation ofthe National ,Diffusion =Network (two irolumes).Menlo Park, CA: StanfordResearch Institute, 1977(ED 147 327 and ED 147340).Moore, D.R., et al.Assistance Stragegies ofSix Groups that FacilitateEdigational Change at theSchool/Community Level(three volumes). Chicago,IL: Center for NewSchools, 1977.

Each study was national in scope,investigated one or more relativelydistinct dissemination strategies, in-volved in-depth case study com-ponents, and made use of on-siteobservation and data gathering pro-cedures. A brief synopsis of eachstudy was prepared in a common for-mat and level of discourse to provideessential study facts relevant to thesynthesis: The dominant goal or mis-sion and strategies of the program be-ing studied, the prevailing dissemina-tion and change assumptions under-lying the program, the essentialfeatures of the methodology used toinvestigate the program, the primaryfindings and interpretations developedby the study.

Five major generalizations werederived from the cross-studysynthesis:E Meaningful change occurs as a

process, not as an event.M Directed personal, intervention is

by far the most potent technical

:16 / TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION

4 0


support resource and may be anecessary condition for manyforms of utilization.

III Continuous personal participationof the implementing staff is heededto firmly root and sustain theutilization.

II Administrators occupy a crucialrole in supporting the utilizationprocess.

III Descriptive, instructional, and sup-, port materials are needed, par-

ticularly for utilizations includingorganizational or instructionalchanges.

General further consideration's forwhich evidence is inconclusive orcontradictory are discussed briefly. Inaddition, a number of guidelines foreffective dissemination/utilization aresuggested. The report concludes witha glossary of technical terms used inthe synopsis and synthesis sections.

CommentsIn examining these five studies,

Emrick and his associates assert thatindeed all of these interven-tion/dissemination programs havecommon characteristics promoting ef-fective dissemination and change.Three overall models are representedin the synthesis: direct intervention(PSDP, PIP and TAB); directly inter-vene in target schools with specific in-novation; capacity building (FPSEC),seed money for staff to develop theirown programs; and networling(NDN), assistance is offered to schoolsby a regional facilitator.

The PSDP study showed some in-stances,.of "ripple effects"; increases inoccurrences of information seeking bystaff at sites using agents. But the fin-dings of TAG and NDN note little rip-ple effect. e studies do indicatemore "rip ing" at initial stages ratherthan im ementation stages. This is

also borne out in the Lionberger papersummarized later.

Because of the structure of schools,it is often difficult to reach teachersunless the offer of improvement fitstheir beliefs as to needs and priorities..Therefore, any intervention (changeagent, linker, etc.) must first helpthem to identify concerns andpriorities and then offer resourceswhich are need-related. These fivestudies indicate n cessarycharacteristics f effective changeagents.

Two skill reas are defined: humanrelations d technical knowledge.Evidence in the studies indicates thatthe development of these skills is at-tained by staff selection, experience,and socilization processes rather thanformal training. The eventual refiningof these skills mandates a good deal oftime"often many years. ".

The synthesis offers 13 suggestionsfor guiding fruitful disseminationstrategies:

1. Identify and gain access to clients(teachers) using networks withintheir own social structure.

2. Use face-to-face communication.3. Recogniz,e, the different levels

within the system structure.4. Target primary level of entry to

the locus of impactteachers.5. Provide for and get prior accep-

tance from all administrativelevels above primary entry level.

6. Make use of change agents whoalready exist in the target group(teacher-to-teacher).

7. Be sure that all activities betweenthe intermediary and client meetthe goals of the prograin.

8. Provide choice in content andstyle of target group.

9. Focus on a limited number ofclients.



4

Emphasis on philosophy/ideologyof information dissemination.

11. Involve clients in initial activity.Doing something is essential!

12. Provide repeated face-to-face en-counters.

13. Anticipate that implementationwill be gradual and cumulative.Studies show that two or moreyears are necessary before institu-tionalization occurs.

In Emrick's summary he concludesby saying that all five studies validatethe fact that change can and does oc-


cur. Generalizations are made concer-ning varying dissemination programs.

1. Knowledge utilization is a process,not an overnight otCurence.

2. Some form of personal interven-tion is necessary.

3. Using staff throughout the processis essential. One group should notinitiate and another groupimplement.

4. Administrative support is crucial.5. Resources at the "how-to" level'

are necessary.

4

EDUCATIONAL. RESEARCH ANDDISSLIMINA110111 PROGRAM

ON LEARNING TO TEACH EFFECTIVELYFROM RESEARCH ON, TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

(Fenstermacher, 1980)

Fenstermacher raises the issue ofhow "bridging" of research and prac-tice can be advantageous to theclassrocm teacher. The term"bridging" is synonymous withdissemination, utilization, change, etc.BTES is used as a referencethroughout the article.

Bridging with Rules or using dic-tates on teaching does little to enhancethe teacher. The administrator (or ex,temal agent) who claims "the researchshows this . . ." may only intend toinform, but if he/she is viewed as anauthority figure, this can be inter-preted as a mandate. Rule bridgingdoes not provide the teacher a chanceto consider the research, but demandsbehavior changes which may not beconsistent with beliefs.

Bridging with Evidence is donewhen research findings are used tovalidate/invalidate teacher beliefs andperceptions. To cite Fenstermacher'sexample: the teacher who believesone learns from his mistakes, mayfind the -BTES Phase III finding: "taskswhich produce low error rates providesituations where students can rapidlyimprove performance and copAinue tolearn as tasks with small increases indifficulty are encounter" in conflict

with that belief. In this case theresearch can question the rationale forthe belief. In other situations, bridging .

;ith evidence may support teacherfiefs.This type of bridging does not re-

quire a change in beliefs upon eachencounter with research, only that the

-teacher think about the research out-comes.

Bridging with Schemata providesteachers with a way to look at dif-ferent facts of teaching as reflected inthe research. Once again the BTESfeature (schema) of time. The timedimension is broken down intoallocated time, engaged time, ALT,transition tirrie, etc., enabling theteacher to view what he/she does andwhat students do in'a defined context.

Quote Fenstermacher, If teaching isan activity about which we can haveknowledge, is it not reasonable to con-tend that those who teach ought tohave what knowledge is availableabout what it is they do? If theanswer is affirmative, it is. in supportof bridging with evidence andschemata, for that is precisely thepoint of these kinds of bridging: toproVide to teachers and other educa-tional practitioners the knowledge thatothers have about teaching."


elJ


TWO FOR THE PRICE O ONE:STAFF DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE UTILIZATION

OF FINDINGS FROM RESEARCH ON TEACHING\ Smyth, 1981)

This paper, presented at AERA,focuses on two points: current staffdevelopment practices and theirrelative negative impact, and a studyof clinical supervision done inAustralia.

Centering on the first topic, Smythcites several reasons why staffdevelopment practices for the mostpart have been relatively non-productive. With the exception ofteacher centers, many activities aredeveloped (or bought already pack-aged) without input from teachers; ac-tivities have little relevance; andmany fail to recognize real teachingwith all its limits. But Smyth puts theonus for unacceptance on the fact thatmuch of the past inservice, staffdevelopment, etc., targets "deficit"teaching (Sergiovanni & Starratt,1979).

Where the staff developer andresearcher may share the same goal ofeducational improvement, little dialoghas gone on between the two. Thesad fact that, in most cases, researchinvolves the teacher only as subject iscompounded'by the belief that littleresearch relates to issues with whichteachers readily'identify. Blocking fur-ther use of research by practitioners isthe "Research, Development andDissemination" model of changein-novation develops outside the schooland is disseminated within. Thisreference is also made in Emrick's"Synthesis"the idea of using clientsall the way through the process.Teachers themselves often viewresearch as descriptive (Lieberman,1980) rather than outcomes that canaffect practice.

Smyth supports Fenstermachertheory of "bridging" using evidenceand schemata rather than generalizedrules. This is also the concept putorth by Good and Power (1979):

"We suspect that the generalizationsde 'wing from classroom research andthen have a different role fromthose of the natural sciences. Theyfuncti not as predictors of futureevents ut as guidelines forunderstanding particular situationsand contexts. Thus, at best, generali-zations about teaching derived fromresearch act as guides to assessinglikely consequences of alternativestrategies in complex educationalsituations. Such generalizations mustnecessarily be indeterminate sincethey cannot predict precisely whatwill happen in a particular case. Butthis does not decrease their value fothe teacher: he is not interested inestablishing general laws. Theoriescan be of value in specifying thosedimensions which are relevant to theunderstanding of classroomphenomena, can extend the range ofhypothesis (alternative strategies) con-sidered, and sensitize the teacher tothe possible consequences of his ac-tions. Indeed, ultimately, the validityand usefulness of theory may rest inthe hands of teachers . . . that is,whether it sensitizes them to theclassroom context, helps them makemore informed decisions, and tomonitor their own behavior."

Using research on teaching as afocus for staff development leadsSmyth to support a clinical model.This is, rather than providing one-shotworkshops which take teachers out of

40 / TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

their daily milieu, the "clinical super-visor" provides on-going assistance ina non-evaluative fashion. This conceptas Smyth defines it is somewhatsimilar to the two major skills neededby Emrick's change agent, i.e., inter-personal skills and technicalknowledge.

Moore and Mattaliano (1973) defineclinical supervision as encompassingthree components:1. helping the teacher expand

his/her own perceptions in orderto identify strengths andweaknesses readily.

2.' helping the teacher scientificallyview his own teaching so his out-ward behavior matches his inwardintent.

3. helping the teacher solve whateverclassroom problems he wants tosolve.

In the true sense of the model, thesupervisor works in concert with theteacher clarifying and collaborating inproblem-solving.

Atistralian Case StudyIn two elementary schools, both a

principal and teacher were trained on-site in clinical supervision. Universityresearchers acted as staff developersand observers. A "familiarization"phase dealt only with the model ofclinical supervision and its processesand procedures. All training was doneduring the school day. Once it wasdetermined that participants were

g\

comfort ble with the model, the im-

plementation phasepresentation of,researchwas introduced. (Borich,1977; Brophy, 1979; Good, 1979;Good & Grouws, 1979; Peterson &Walberg, 1979; Rosenshine, 1976;Smyth, 1980).

Teacher and supervisouegotiatedwhich research was to be the focus ofobservation in the planned lesson.Observation and discussion were usedto clarify outcomes related to the useof research to test teacher beliefs:a. confirmation of teacher beliefs'

about actionb. a commitment to change actions so

that they aligned with beliefsc. a rejection of research findings as

being incompatible-with beliefs orelse impossible to implement.Participants found this method

more favorable than other staffdevelopment strategies because itallowed both parties a stronger sen-sitivity to each other and a betterunderstanding of self. Using gal

model provided information rt...to teacher decision-making andproblem-solving, leading to behaviorchanges with which 'the teacher feltcomfortable.

Referencing Flanders (1976), thesupervisors must approgch the modelfrom a non-prescriptive perspective.This is supported by Good's (1979)caution: "I don't think it's possible totell teachers how to teach, although itis possible to provide concepts thatmay allow them to reconsider theirbehavior and perhaps improveinstruction."



DIFFUSIONS OF INNOVATIONSIN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND IN SCHOOLS

(Lionberger)

While Lionberger's main arena isresearch related to farm practice, hispaper draws some valid conclusionsrelated to the design and use of in-novation by teachers. Since a basicdissemination strategy is adoption ofan "agricultural extension model,"looking at diffusion of farm practiceinnovation as a model for schoolsseems useful. Lionberger's diffusion ofinnovation encompasses severalaspects: "1) acceptance, 2) over time,3) of some specific item, idea or prac-tice, 4) by individuals, groups, orother adopting units, linked, 5) tospecific channels of communication,6) to a social structure, and 7) to agiven system of values or culture."

"Stage-process concept." Realizingthat change is a result of a series ofevents or invluences operatingthrough time, the 5-stage process of a)awareness, b) interest, c) evaluation,d) trial, e) adoption is common inagricultural diffusion researchsomuch so that farmers can readilyidentify the stage they are presentlyin.

Lionberger points out the differencein adoption rates and the influences

on those adopters. That is, earlyadopters (innovators) are convincedby different sources of informationthan late adopters. Early adopters maybe willing to try new practices. Onlyafter these risk-takers have adaptedpractices, are others (late adopters)willing to "buy in". The innovatorsare often sought after by others asvalidators of new practice, rather thanoutside "change agents"

The "community adoptionprocess"which can be related toschool adoptionis characterized by aslow initial acceptance followed by arapid acceptance rate, and a decreasedrate when adoption is almost com-plete. This suggests "doing the rightthing using the right people at theright time." This relates to the rippleeffect cited in Emrick's work above. Agood promotional strategy at thebeginning nurtures dissemination of.innovations. Once clients become in-volved, it is their own interactionwhich accelerates adoption, ratherthan the efforts of change agents.Therefore, greater effort should be ex-pended by change agents early on inthe process. Beyond that, there maybe a point of diminishing return.

42 / TRAINING FOR DISSEMINATIONEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


FINDING AND, USING RECIPES FOR BUSY KITCHENS:A SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS OF ROUTINE KNOWLEDGE USE IN SCHOOLS

(Huberman, 1980)

". being 'rational' in such anapplied field as education does not in-volve the application of basicdisciplines to problems, as in scien-tific reasoning, but rather in the ap-plication of values Renstermacher's"beliefs "] to actions. Small wonderthen that the research utilizationprocess in education has proved sotortuous and intractable; . . . thetranslation of basic research Intoprescriptive plans of action, is prob-ably unfruitful and costly."

So begins Michael Huberman in anattempt to determine how teachers inparticular select and use knowledge.He lists validation criteria from least"scientific" to most "scientific", asfollows:1. personal feeling or intuition2. personal experience3. feelings, intuition and experience

of others in the setting or similarsettings

4. traditions, norms related to thesettings, precedent, lore

5. judgements of persons in author-ity, EXCLUDING legislative andexecutive action

6. judgements of experts, personswith special and extendedknowledge of the subject

7. quantitative measurement orevaluation of some kind usingsome scientific criteria

8. repeated scientific.measures, or ex-periments, or reevaluated evidence

9. hybrid: validation by more thanone of the above means.

The research Huberman cites in-dicates that educators tend to selectknowledge using the less scientificvalidations, but will turn to more

scientific when they are attempting todefend their position and see usingscientific validation as "ammunition."

Sources of KnowledgeSources of knowledge may be util-

ized or not utilized base on threedimensions: locus (proxim e or distalto the user); format (personal/impel-,sonal); and derivation (craftwisdom/scientific). The tendencyls touse sources which are easily accessi.\ble, convenient and relevant to solv-ing the immediate problem.

Huberman refers to this exchange of"craft wisdom" as "recipe sharing,"and states that the focus is usually ona practical action structurewhat todoas opposed to examining the"why" of 'a situation in a conceptionalframework. Because the teacher mustmeet classroom demands in a rathersolitary, complex environment, thereis often a little time or opportunity torequest much more than the answerto "What do I do?" Therefore, simplesolutions are often applied to complexproblems.

Regarding knowledge transfer andutilization, Huberman offers thefollowing pointers:1. Innovations are likely to be tried

out if they have been developedby fellow teachers or formerteachers.

2. Trial and continued use are likelyif results are immediate and tangi-ble and if the innovation can beused piecemeal or easily adapted.

3. Knowledge inputs are bestdelivered by fellow teacherspossessing:a. verbal-inspirational talents

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND I

DISSEMINATION PROGRAMTRAINING FOR DISSEMINATION / 43

b. craft sophistication

c. technical expertise demonstrated,in the classroom,

"Bringing off a miraculous changein classroom performance is the mostrapid way to widespreadattention . . ."


54


. ...

LINKING PROCESSES IN EDUCATIONAL CHANGE(Lieberman, 1977)

The School as a Social SystemTeachers: Teachers perform in a

paradoxical environmenty9ere theytake all children, yet*Oxpiecte1 todeal with each indivicti4y. Becausethey hold on to what ihrY "'mow andresist new methods (for variousreasons), openness to innovationneeds to be nurtured continuously.Collaboratiorl and cooperation canradically alter the isolated environ-ment in which teachers practice, buttime must be provided for interaction.

Most schools have no real program,yet teachers are expected to operatewithin several sets of norms. In eachcase, the outside change agent mustidentify what those norms are beforeintroducing innovation.

According to Lieberman, engagingteachers in innovation will break twopowerful global norms: one, teachersbelieve that all teachers do the samething; two, that working with col-leagues on innovation infringes uponone's own beliefs-about teaching.

Principal: As a member of thissocial setting, the principal may be thekey component to change. At the veryleast he should be aware of what ishappening to his staff.

Environment: Linking agents needto access how the school (system)functions.

Dynamics of C ge ProcetlsIn Schools

Concerns B edildoption Model(Hall & Rutherford, 1975) Change, 5.takes place as the teacher goesthrough developmental stages of per-sonal concern about the innovationmatched with stages of actual use(Hall, Loucks, 1975). Personal con-

cern may be time involved, throughspecific task concerns to the impactof the innovation on colleagues. Use isdefined as the altering of behaviorbeginning with a request for informa-tion, exriining the various conse-quences,'and discussing it withothers. The final stage is asking andsearching for "more universalbenefits."

Crucial factors in linkage:1. Nature of participationinitial

volunteers become resistant if notadequately supported. Volunteersdo not necessarily lead to morevolunteers. Sharing experiences isnot enough, new recruits needtheir own experiences in order tolearn.

2. Substance of changeinitiallyshould revolve around personalconcerns and local problems.

3. Mechanisms(for delivery)development cycle

4.

EDU4" NAL RESEARCH ANDDISS IN ON PROGRAM

new information

sharing,collaborating,integrating

trying outthe idea

New Rewardsgreatest intrinsicrewards: meeting new people;creating new relationships; largernetwork of ideas.Problem-solving process(increaseindividual capacity)a. to identify problemsb. to identify alternativesc. to develop criteria to judge alter-

natives


d. to try out solutione. to evaluate usefulnessf. to start again

6. Diagnosis of social systema. how to enter systemb. with whom to workc. virhq_ti the state of the field isd. how fast or slow to movee. what activities are relevant


f. where to start building relation-ships

7. Strategy-buildinga. knowledge of social system as

well as new informationb. movement from concrete to

more global concernsc. movement on several fronts at

once: personal, organizational,etc.

rEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

CONCLUSIONSThe preceding studies offer concrete

suggestions for the dissemination anduse of educational research knowledgewhich can impact on the practice of-teaching.

These studies identify componentswhich can effect successful dissemina-Lion and change. For purposes of clari-ty, the information is broken downinto two major areas: 1) conditionswhich should exist for implementa-tion; and 2) actual presentation ofresearch information.

I. ConditionsA. Clientelethe local union

It appears the more wide-scaledissemination attempts are, theless efforts can be controlled.Therefore, at the local site level,target populations should re-main relatively small. Since ourdissemination model has beendesignated as a two-way pro-cess, the numbers or teacherswho implement research fin-dings and evaluate their resultsshould be a number easilymanaged by both AFT technicalassistance staff and local sitestaff. We are planning to targetfive buildings in each site in ad-dition to more generalized in-service. For purposes ofdocumentation and monitoring,this appears to be a workablenumber at this time.

The use of local teachertrainers (change agents) can beeffective, if these linkers eitherpossess or have the ,capabilityof possessing two basic skills:good interpersonal communica-tion skills, and the technicalknowledge of the research 'base.In addition,, they (and we) need II.

to have links to the social struc-

ture of each group involved inthis process. Lieberman's articlein particular stresses thesignificance of view teachers intheir own social setting.Trainers who have alreadyestablished networks can be atremendous asset to theprogram.

All teachers who go throughthe various stages of trainingshould have their own ex-periences. Development andimplementation should gohand-in-hand. Too often in-novation is developed by onegroup and implemented byanother.

B. Time frameChange can take place, but

innovation and knowledgeutilization is an entire processrather than a single event. Itdoes not occur because of two-day workshops, or mandatedrules governing teachingbehavior. For the institu-tionalization of real change totake effect, a period of severalyears may be necessary. Thisdoes not mean that changescannot be measured, but assess-ing total impact may be im-possible by the end of thisgrant.

This also means that theideology of process must beemphasized with all localparticipants. Ratherthan piece-meal seminars, a gradual step-by-step approach must be takenincluding presentation ofmaterial, implementation andfollow-up.

Presentation of researchinformation



Research should not bepresented as a prescriptivepanacea for righting all the ills ofthe classroom, but rather a body ofknowledge which teachers can useto make informed decisions aboutwhat it is they do. However, inorder to motivate the use of thisknowledge, it must be seen as in-formation which addresses realand immediate concerns. By deal-ing with research on classroommanagement and effectiveteaching, we are offering a body ofknowledge which generally hasappeal for many teachers.

The piece by Fenstermachershould be taken to heart. Trainingshould allow time for teachers toverbalize beliefs. Researchknowledge can "bridge" that belief-system with intended outcomes.The problem-solving process ofLieberman and clinical supervisionmodel of Smyth should also be in-corporated into the disseminationprocess for two simple reasons:one, it nutures logical, scientific in-formation processing and decision-

making; two, if we intend to reportto researchers the effects of im-plementation of strategies based ontheir findings, and suggest futureareas of research, a scientific,research-oriented approach willlend credence to our positions.

Two crucial elements need to bea part of the model: dialog amongtrainers and teachers, teachers 'andteachers; and options for im-plementation. Having "how-to's"ready to go is essential, but prac-tioners should be given the time todevelop their own strategies and arationale for their use. By doing soahead of time, strategies which aredeveloped in a calm creative at-mosphere as opposed to the urgentenvironment Lsreated by normalclassroom press, can be im-plemented because they have beenthought out and predetermined ef-fective. In other words, we canenhance Huberman's "recipes" orbag of tricks using a more scien-tific approach, providing amarriage of craft wisdom andeducational knowledge.


53EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


REFERENCES

Emrkk, John A., and Peterson, Susan M. "A Synthesis of Findings Across Five RecentStudies." Educational Dissemination and Change. rev. San Francisco: Far WestLaboratory, 1978.

Fenstermacher, Gary D. "On Learning to Teach Effectively from Research on Teacher Effec-tiveness." Time to Learn, Washington, D.C: National Institute of Education, 1980.

Flanders, N. A. "Interaction Analysis and Clinical Supervision." Journal of Research andDevelopment in Education. vol. 9. no. 2. 1976.

Good, T. L. "Teacher Effectiveness in the Elementary School." Journal of Teacher Education.vol. 30. no. 2. 1979.

, and Power, C. N. "Designing Successful Classroom Environments for DifferentTypes of Students." Journal of 'Curriculum Studies. vol. 8 no. 1. 1976.

Hall, G. E., and Loucks, S. F. "Levels of Use of the Innovation: A Framework for AnalyzingInnovation Adoption." Journal of Teacher Education. vol. 16. no. 1. 1975.

, and Rutherford, W. Concerns of Teichers About Implementing the Innovation ofTeam Teaching. Austin: RDCTE, University of Texas, 1975.

Huberman, Michael. "Finding and Using Recipes for Busy Kitchens: A Situa- tional Analysisof Routine Knowledge Use in Schools." Prepared for the Program on Research and Educa-tional Practice, NIE. December, 1980.

Lieberman, A. "Dissemination: The Jargon and Reality." Time to Learn. Washington, D.C.:National Institute of Education, 1980.

. "Linking Processes in Education Change." Linking Processes in EducationalImprovement. Columbus: University Council for Educational Administration, 1977.

Lionberger, Herbert. "Diffusions of Innovations in Agricultural Research and in Schools."Source unknown.

Moore, J. J., and Mattaliano, A. P. Clinical Supervision: A Short Description. West Hartford,Conn.: West Hartford Public Schools, 1970, ERIC Document No, ED 064235,

Sergiovanni, T., and Starrett, J. Supervision: Human Perspectives. 2d ed. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1979.

Smyth, W. J. Two for the price of one: staff development through the utilization of findingsfrom research on teaching. Paper presented at annual meeting AERA, Los Angeles, 1981.

Williams, R. C. "A Political Perspective on Staff Development." Staff Development: NewDemands, New Realities, New Perspectives. New York: Teachers College Press, 1979. pp.95-106.



RESEARCH TRAINING MATERIALS ON

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ANDTEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

The research training materials inthis section focus on two areas ofresearchclassroom management andteaching effectiveness. For the purposeof identifying and selecting research ofpractical value for teachers, projectstaff defined these two terms. Whilethere is considerable overlap, takentogether, classroom management andteaching effectiveness probably makeup the core of all good teaching prac-tices. Classroom management is whata teacher does to organize andmanage students, space, time, andmaterials at the beginning of the yearand throughout the year to create anorderly flow of activities and seeming-ly automatically functioning class-room. It represents-a-combination oforganizational and management skills,techniques and practices whichteachers use to establish a classroomenvironment in which good instruc-tion and learning can take place. Bydefinition, classroom management isproactive in nature, seeking to createconditions which prevent or minimizeopportunities for student misbehaviorto occur rather than being simplyreactive, only responding tomisbehavior once it occurs. Withoutan effective classroom managementsystem in place, students tend to bedisruptive and off-task, and\theteacher spends more\time trying tocontrol students than tea-thing them.

Teaching effectiveness is what ateacher does instructionally to max-imize student learning. It represents acombination of diagnostic andprescriptive skills, instructionalmanagement skills, leadership style

and instructional practices which arecommonly thought of as "teaching."

The research material presented inthis section has been translated forteacher use. Translation refers to aprocess by which statistical data andsignificant relationships noted inresearch findings are interpreted fortheir meaning and potential applica-tion for classroom teachers. The find-ings are summarized in a languagewhich teachers can readily under-stand and supplemented with specificexamples of teaching behaviors whichreflect the research findings.

The research findings presentedhere are based primarily on actualclassroom observations of elementaryand secondary teachers. Generally, theresearchers have sought to obseriiethose teaching behaviors or practiceswhich seem to distinguish more effec-tive teachers from less effectiveteachers as determined by their abilityto consistently establish and maintainwell-managed classrooms and pro-duce good student achievement gains.More of the findings are based onobservations of elementary teachersthan secondary teachers since therehas been, until recently, a strongerresearch emphasis at the elementarylevel due to the federal, government'ssupport of research efforts designed tostudy the impact of early interventionprograms which are also largelyfederally fundO. However, findingsfrom studies conducted at the sec-ondary level support the basicmanagement and teaching principlesidentified in the elementary studies.Furthermore, this project has used the


RESEARCH TRAINING MATERIALS / 1

/7

RESEARCH ON

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTFOR THE

BEGINNING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR


BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 1

61

training materials in this section withboth elementary and secondaryteachers and found them applicable,with some consideration for contex-tual differences, for both groups ofteachers. -activities has a set of Directions forTrainers to guide presenters in selec-ting and using the activities in trainingsessions. Each chapter or unit alsobegins with an introduction whichoutlines the materials and otherresources in the unit and suggestsways for presenting the research con-cepts and using the activities. General-ly, the recommendations are based ontwo-hour training sessions. The unitsare arranged in this section in therecommended order of presentationwith some exceptions noted in theunit introduction.

Teacher Research Linkers are en-couraged to reproduce any and all ofthe materials in this section for use in

their research training sessions withteachers. We strongly recommend thatall who are being trained to useresearch findings be given copies ofthe research narratives and most ofthe activities. To save reproductioncosts, the Reviews of Concepts areprovided as good handouts forwidescale workshop presentations.

The research training materials inthis section are divided into chaptersor units with each unit focusing on aspecific research study or series ofstudies addressing one theme. Eachunit includes a summary narrative ofresearch findings translated for prac-tical application in classrooms, areview of research concepts whichserves as a good "quickie" handout,research references, and activitiesdesigned to stimulate teachers' think-ing about the findings and their poten-tial use in classrooms. Each of the

2 / RESEARCH TRAINING MATERIALSEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


IN RQDUCTIONhe first chapter or unit in

the esea ch training program forTRL It ocusesfron effectiveclassro armarfagement practices forbeginni g the school year. Based onour expe ,tences training, teachers touse researth, we strongly suggest thatthis research unit be presented first inthe training series. We have foundthat teachers largely are skeptical ofeducational research and any applica-tion it might have for them and their,classrooms. As the "bearers" ofresearch, the trainers or TRLs in thisprogram need to establish their per-sonal credibility with the teachersthey train. Linked to this credibility isthe quality and usefulness of the in-formation trainers present to teachers.

The findings from the research onEffective Classroom Management forthe Beginning of the School Year 4ebasic and straightforward. There'snothing really startling, yet it hasbeen the most well-received body ofresearch we've presented. While ,

many teachers exhibit the practicesidentified by the research, the processof using this research stimulates themto reflect on how well they arefollowing the practices. Manyteachers pat themselves on the back.Some don't fully appreciate thesignificance of the findings untilmuch later when they realize justhow essential the findings are to good

teaching. To summarize quickly,teachers readily "buy into" theseresearch findings and many of theirnegative feelings toward theusefulness of research are disspelled.

The basic concepts presented inthis research summary are:MI planning effective room

arrangethentsNI establishing rules governing stu-

dent behavior and procedures forperforming instructional routinesand housekeeping tasksteaching and reviewing rules andprocedures as with any newcontentconsistently enforcing rules andproceduresSince these concepts are inter-

related, we recommend that they bepresented together in one 2 to21/2-hour training session. There are anumber of activities to supplementthe presentation and discussion ofconcepts. The activities are designedto stimulate teachers' thinking anddiscussion of the concepts, particular-ly since this is the first activity andteachers may be less participatory. Ifthe total presentation must be dividedinto two sessions, we recommendthat the room arrangement with ac-tivity be presented as one 1-hour ses-sion, and the rules and proceduresconcepts with activities be presentedas a second 13A-hour session.



63

RESEARCH ON

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTFOR THE BEGINNING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR

Carolyn Evertson, Edmund Emmerand Linda Anderson of the Researchand Development Center for TeacherEducation at the University of Texas(Austin) conducted a series of studiesof classroom management at both theelementary and junior high schoollevels. The purpose of the studieswas to find out how effectiveteachers organize and manage theirclasses from the first days of schooland maintain their management ef-fectiveness throughout the year. Theelementary study was conducted in27 self-contained classes in 8 Title Ior near Title I schools, in a large, ur-ban district. The experience level ofthe teachers who participated in thestudy ranged from 1 to 30 years. Thejunior high study involved 51teachers in 11 urban schools. All ofthe teachers and their classes wereobserved intensely at the beginningof the year and then periodicallythroughout the year. Based on theseobservations, the researchers iden-tified a group of more effectiveteachers who had succeeded inestablishing and maintaining well-managed classrooms and a group ofless effective teachers who had poor-ly managed classrooms. Theclassrooms of the more effectiveteachers were characterized by highlevels of student cooperation, successand task-involvement. Students inthese classes also made good achieve-ment gains during the year. Theobservation records of the two sets ofclassrooms were then compared todetermine what distinguished themore effective teachers from the lesseffective teachers in what they did at


6

the beginning of the year to organizeand plan for classes and to establishtheir management systems, and howthey maintained their managementsystems throughout the year.

Evertson, Emmer and Andersonfound there were striking differencesin beginning of the year managementstyles between the more effective andless effective teachers. The greatestdifferences were in the areas ofclassroom rules and procedures,monitoring of students and deliveryof consequences. The more effectiveteachers were distinguished by howclearly they articulated and integratedtheir rules and procedures into aworkable system and how effectivelythey taught them to their students.

The better managers establishedclear, specific rules and proceduresgoverning student behaviors and in-structional activities prior to the firstday of school. They had thought outhow they wanted students to behavein the classroom and what pro-cedures students needed to know inorder to meet students' personalneeds and to perform routine instruc-tional activities and "housekeeping"activities. Effective managers createdrules and procedures to guidestudents' behavior with respect to:the appropriateness of student talk; .

movement within and outside theclassroom; getting the teacher's atten-tion; storing personal belongings in"cubbies," coatrooms or lockers; us-ing the pencil sharpener, bathroom orwater fountain (elementary); liningup; using learning centers; takingdown and turning in assignments;heading papers; etc. They also iden-

BEGINNING'SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 5

tified a set of strategies or logical con-sequences to be used either topositively reinforce good studentbehavior or sanction misbehavior. Inshort, on the first day of school, theseteachers were prepared to teach theirrules and procedures to their studentsand to respond to the demandsstudents' behaviors might impose.

In contrast, the poorer managersdid not have well worked-out rulesgoverning students' behavior or pro-cedures for instructional activities.One new elementary teacherreportedly had no procedures forstudents' use of the bathroom, pencilsharpener or water fountain. Conse-quently, students seemed to comeand go as they pleased, enormouslycomplicating the teachers' organiza-tional tasks. Even if it was thisteacher's intent to allow students toexercise personal responsibility forusing the pencil sharpener, bathroomor water fountain as needed, someguidelines regarding the ap-propriateness of when to go, in-cluding emergency situations, wouldhave helped to minimize the disrup-tions to the class.

The more effective classroommanagers taught their rules and pro-cedures to students just as theytaught any other content area. First,they presented the rules; then theyreviewed the rules, reteaching asnecessary; and finally, they rein-forced the rules through the applica-tion of pi3itive and negative conse-quences. Review and reinforcementwere especially critical because fewstudents could be expected to followall the rules and procedures correctlyafter only one presentation. In fact,Evertson and Anderson found that ef-fective elementary school managersdevoted the first three weeks of

6 / BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

school to presenting, reviewing andreinforcing rules. After that point, allstudents were able to functionsmoothly in the classroom and theteacher could begin to concentratemore on instruction. However, evenat the end of the year, more effectiveelementary classroom managers wereobserved reviewing and reinforcingtheir rules and procedures althoughnot nearly as intensely as at thebeginning of the year. Such feedbackwas an essential ingredient to main-taining an established, effectiveclassroom environment. At the juniorhigh level, students were alreadysocialized into the role of being a stu-dent so considerably less time wasneeded to teach rules and proceduresto the point where students couldfollow them automatically, In fact, atthis level, the teacher's major respon-sibility was to teach his or her in-structional procedures.

Better managers presented theirrules and procedures in an orderlyfashion over a period of days orweeks. Not all the rules werepresented at once but rather as need-ed. Rules and procedures concerningstudents' personal needs such aswhere to sit, where to store one's per-sonal belongings, the use of learningcenters in the classroom, and howand when to sharpen pencils, use thebathroorri or water fountain weregenerally presented first. This re-lieved students' anxieties over how tosatisfy some of their most urgentneeds and helped to foster positiveteacher-student relationships bydemonstrating the teacher's concernfor student needs. It also aided theteacher greatly by eliminating a bigsource of potential disruptions lateron in the day or period.

Rules governing appropriate and


inappropriate student behavior weregenerally taught next along with thelogical consequences for students'behaviors. In presenting these rules,more effective teachers emphasizedstudent responsibility for self, i.e.,students freely choose to behave ap-propriately or inappropriately. If astudent chooses to behave inap-propriately the student can expect tosuffer certain negative consequenceswhich he or she has already beentaught. More effective teachers alsolimited the number of rules govern-ing student behavior to between threeand six. Too many rules can com-plicate the teachers' task of enforce-ment and the student's of following.Furthermore, too many rules canerode the student's feeling of respon-siblity for self. More effective teacherscreate mostly general rules which re-quire thinking and interpreting on thepart of the students to guide theirbehavior instead of very specificrules. However, some rules need tobe specific such as "You may notleave the room without a pass," or"Only one person speaks at a timeduring discussion." Evertson, Emmerand Anderson found that rules canbe stated either positively or negative-ly. Generally, the recommendation isthat most rules be stated positivelybut that some may need to be statednegatively for effect.

Daniel Duke (1981), a researcher atStanford University, supports theEvertson, et al., findings forestablishing a limited number of rulesand stating them in such a way as toguide rather than prescribe studentbehavior. He, too, advocates creatingstudent responsibility for self. He alsoadds another dimension to ruleestablishment. He encourages ar-ticulating rules of behavior in terms

of students' rights such as their rightto an education in an environmentfree of verbal or physical abuse fromother students. Duke argues that toooften students' "ownership of rules"is destroyed by the creation ofclassroom and school rules for theprotection of teachers, administrators,and school propertyeveryone andeverything but students,,

Evertson, Emmer and Andersonalso found that, better managers at-tempted to promote student owner-ship of rules by encouragingclassroom discussions of the reasonsfor establishing rules, the rationale forthe rules, and examples of specificstudent behaviors which fall underthe rules. In some instances, teachersmay want to present an area inwhich rules are needed and have thestudents make up the rules. Thisdemocratic approach to rule-makingcan be successful if used discreetly.In general, more effective teachersidentify at least all the areas in whichrules are needed and often definemost of the rules. This.places theteacher in control as the leader of theclassroom and provides an immediatebase for establishing expectations forstudent behavior.

Successful managers also integratedtheir classroom rules and proceduresinto their instruction so that impor-tant ones become part of the cur-riculum. Procedures governing in-structional activities in particularwere taught as needed and as part ofthe instructional activity. For exam-ple, teachers taught students how tohead their papers (name, date, title orsubject, etc.) at the first opportunityfor students to do a paper or anassignment. Similarly, teachers taughttheir students how to take downassignments when the first time arose



for students to take clown an assign-ment. The teacher explained the pro-cedure slowly and carefully notingwhere and when assignments areposted and if there are any excep-tions to the general procedure, Thesecond time the teacher gave anassignment, she announced, "There isan assignment for today, pleaselook..." and reiterated the procedurefor the students. For the next fewdays the teacher continued to reviewthe specific procedure. As sheperceived that students understoodthe procedure, the teacher simplyreminded the students that there wasan assignment. The reminder alonewas a sufficient cue to direct thestudents to take down the assignmentappropriately. After the first threeweeks, the students came to automat-ically look to the board for assign-ments without the teacher's cue.

As another example of teaching aninstructional routine, consider the ac-tivity of lining up. Students need toknow how the teacher wants them toline up for such activities as going torecess, the library, the cafeteria,auditorium, etc., at the first oppor-tunity in which there is a need to lineup. Teaching how to line up is notnecessary before the procedure isneeded because it only complicatesthe student's task of learningroutines. To teach lining up, more ef-fective teachers explained their pro-cedure and the rationale for it inspecific, concrete language. Addi-tionally, teachers demonstrated theprocedure and had (elementary)students practice it at least oncebefore lining up for an activity. Dur-ing the practice, effective teachersprovided specific feedback to studentson how well they performed the ac-tivity. For the next few times in

which lining up was necessary, theteacher reviewed the procedure byexplaining it again and even practic-ing it, as necessary.

In contrast to better managers, thepoorer managers exhibited a great dif-ference in the way the rules werepresented and followed up. Like thebetter managers, they had rules butwere often vague"Be in the rightplace at the right time"and then notclarified. Sometimes rules were in-troduced at an inappropriate time, aswhen a new teacher rehearsed liningup and exiting for fire drills on thefirst day. In other instances, poorermanagers introduced their rulescasually without discussion orwithout posting them, as though asingle presentation to a class of third-graders or even eighth-graders wouldbe perfectly comprehended and re-tained. One teacher was observed try-ing to institute a system in which onebell ring meant "stop talking" andtwo rings meant "pay attention." Un-fortunately, the teacher only ex-plained the system and did notrehearse it. Furthermore, she addedthe two-ring signal before thestudents understood the one-ringsignal. The result was confusion.Another experienced but less effec-tive teacher also used a bell as asignal system but frequently allowedthe children to ignore it. This ineffec-tive monitoring and inconsistent en-forcement of the rule gave thestudents an unclear message aboutwhether the rule was really to befollowed. In summary, these teachersdid not use rules as cues for ap-propriate behavior and they did notteach them to their students.

Actively monitoring the classroomand providing specific feedback tostudents on how well they have per-


6r


formed a routine or behavior areessential steps in the process ofteaching students to behave ap-propriately. Effective managers spenda good part of the first three weeks ofschool reviewing and reinforcing therules and procedures they havetaught. Reinforcement is consistentlyapplied because it sets clear expecta-tions for student behavior, indicatesto the students that the teacher isaware of their behavior, and conveysthe message that the teacher is incontrol of the classroom.

At the beginning of the year, whena student or students behave ap-propriately or demonstrate that theyhave followed a rule or procedurecorrectly, effective teachers rewardthem through praise, a specialprivilege, classroom treat or otherform of reward which the teacherperceives will please the students.When praise is used it is sincere andspecific so students know what theydid well, "Johnny, thank you forpushing your chair in so quietlybefore coming to the reading circle,"or "Class, I'm glad that you all re-mained so quiet and finished up yourassignments while I left the room."Teacher praise of individuals orgroups of students who model thekinds of behaviors teachers are tryingto establish in the classroom is an ef-fective reinforcement strategy.However, effective teachers avoidpraising students for good behavioras a means of delivering a "stop ordesist" message to students who aremisbehaving, since this strategy em-barrasses the good student who issingled out and is largely ineffectivewith the misbehaver.

When students behave inappropri-ately or do not follow classroom pro-cedures correctly, effective managers

consistently apply negative conse-quences or sanctions. The negativeconsequences should be fair and ap-propriate to the degree of the inap-propriate behavior. For most teachers,in the beginning of the year especial-ly, establishing eye contact with astudent, frowning, or pointing afinger or some other gesture is all thatis necessary to stop an inappropriatebehavior. Having the student statethe rule that was broken and/or ex-plain what he or she should havedone is also effective reinforcement.Sometimes having the, student changeseats removes him or her from adistracting environment. Higherlevels of consequences might includehaving the student stay after school,withholding a privilege from a stu-dent, having the student agree to abehavior contract, "visiting" the prin-cipal, sending a letter home to theparentS or having an informal confer-ence with parents over the phone,having a formal conference withparents, isolating the student in aspecial area or room (time-out) to cooloff or think about his behavior, etc.

Poorer managers were also ineffec-tive at monitoring the classroom andproviding reinforcement to students.In some cases, their ineffectiveness at \.monitoring was attributable to not \,,

having adequate procedures to guidestudents' activities. When childrenare wandering around the room, it isdifficult for a teacher to keep track ofall of them or to conduct a lesson.Many teachers busied themselveswith clerical or adminiStrative tasks attheir desks early in the year ratherthan actively monitor the classroomand their students' perfOrmance of in-structional activities. Other teachersalso removed themselves from active-ly surveying the whole class by

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 9

6,

dev g considerable time to work-in wi just one child. Someto the s had not adequately prepared

it first few (days and had tole e the room to get materials or goto e office:-One-Jteacher was ob-

---(----sirved leaving her pupils three times'during the first hour of the first day.The result of this poor monitoringand inadequacy of rules and pro-cedures was that the teachers effec-tively forfeited their leadership rolesand thus their control of the class. Bynot actively guiding students'behaviors, the teachers permitted thestudents to interact amongthemselves and set their ownbehavior standards. Furthermore, asa result of the teachers' inconsistentapplication of positive and negativeconsequences with respect to studentbehavior, some children tended topush the limits, causing even greaterdisruptions to classroom environment.

Evertson, Emmer and Andersonalso reported differences betweenmore effective and less effectiveteachers in their instructionalmanagement styles. Many of the in-structionally related problems facedby less effective managers were at-tributable to their poor behaviormanagement and lack of organiza-tion. The better instructionalmanagers were also good overallclassroom managers. These teachershad worked out procedures for theirinstructional activities whichminimized problems just as they hadworked out systems for their overallmanagement. Directions and instruc-tions were given clearly and writtenon the board, and routines wereestablished early. Students knewwhat they were expected to work onand what they could do once theirregular work was completed.

Students were o ten assigned the roleof helper to facil tate passing out orcollecting materi Is or to generallyassist when the teacher' was workingwith another group. Teachers taughttheir instructional !routines like theirbehavior management routines, stepby step, monitoring to see that allstudents understood the routines andproviding rinforcement.

More effective managers describedtheir objectives more clearly, used agreater variety of effective materials,always had their materials ready andgave clear directions. Their activitiesand lessons were presented moreclearly with smoother, shorter transi-tions. To relieve occasional tediumand compensate for students' atten-tion spans at the elementary level, ef-fective teachers used a variety of in-structional activities including singingand dancing. They carefully plannedthe sequence of their activities, con-sidering scheduled physical educa-tion, art, and music classes. Effectiveteachers also structured their ac-tivities to provide reasonable workstandards and a high degree o suc-cess for their students.

Both more and less etfectivi in-structional managers used a varietyof approaches in reading andmathematics insl:r.;,:tion. Some highlyindividualized sv.., ems for reading in-struction were used by both groups,although grouping into three or fourgroups and basal instruction (elemen-tary) was used most frequently. Inarithmetic, the mode of presentationvaried between totally individualizedsystems, groups and whole class in-struction. The worst instances of in-structional management occurredwhen new teachers tried to use in-dividualized instruction. The com-bination of inadequate procedures,


6


vague directions and poor monitoringresulted in frequent off-task behaviorand occasional chaos.

Another important element ofclassroom management, identified byEvertson, Emmer and Anderson, washow well teachers coped withvarious constraints including thephysical organization of theclagsroom..Effective managers had agood room arrangement whichhelped to eliminate potential distrac-tions for students and opportunitiesfor inappropriate behavior, and per-mitted easy monitoring of students atall times. All furniture was arrangedto facilitate easy flowing traffic pat-terns, avoiding congestion in suchhigh traffic areas as the pencilsharpener, trash can, water fountain,lavatory or work area. Desks andlearning centers were grouped basedupon students' instructional andbehavioral needs. Storage areas werealso arranged for easy access by bothteachers and students. EffectiVemanagers were able to take stock oftheir rooms and the characteristics oftheir students and develop a room/plan which met their instructional',behavioral and organizational needs.

Other constraints frequently placedon teachers included: interruptionscaused by late arriving students,parents, administrators or otherschool personnel on the first day-ofschool; insufficient supplies in-adequate facilities; and the arr`1Va ofnew'students one or two weeks afterthe beginning of the year. Effectivemanagers had better procedures forcoping with these constraints. Theyhad identified potential problemsbefore the school year started anddeveloped procedures and alter-natives for meeting the problems. Ifthere were interruptions, teachers did


not attend to them until they hadtheir students engaged in a specificactivity. Especially during the firstfew days, teachers would not leavethe room unless absolutely necessary.Where possible, the teacher would in-vite a visitor, e.g., a parent or ad-ministratqr, into the clagsroom to pur-sue a coWversation, rather than go in-to the hall. In this way, effectiveteachers maintained the surveillanceOf the classroom (See Kounin's '!with-it!Iness") and their leadership role. Ifnew students were expected, studenthelpers were appointed to acquaintthe new student with Classroom. rulesand procedures and the teacherMonitored them to insure theyunderstood the system.

FIRST DAY OF SCHOOLBetter classroom managers planned

their first day for maximum contactwith their students and for establish-ing themselves as the leader of theclass. These teachers recognized theimportance of their students' first ex-,periences with the classroom andwith them.

Effective managers greeted theirstudents at the door, handing themname tags (elementary) and directingthem to their assigned seats. Thissimple teacher behavior insured thattheir students would enter theclassroom in an orderly fashion andbe ready for their first activity inminimal time. This also helped toestablish the teacher as leader of theclass an.,1 i'astrated an important pro-cedure ow students enter theclassroom.

Effective teachers stayed with theirclass even when parents interruptedor the office called. They invitedvisitors into the classroom if theywanted to talk. In this way, the


teacher never relinquished herresponsibility for monitoring theclassroom. 'If the teacher had to leavethe classroom, she tried to arrange itfor later in the day or period, aftershe had established some.clear expec-tations for students working on anassignment. (Note: this may requireadministrative cooperation.)

As soon as most students had ar-rived and were seated, effectiveelementary teachers began introduc-ing students to the room, explainingwhat each area was and how itwould be used. All teachers carefullyexplained their rules and proceduresgiving examples and rationale. Not allthe rules or procedures werepresented, but only those which ad-dressed students' immediate concernsor were needed for initial activities.In short, students were taught whatthey first needed to know (and couldapply), but were not overloaded withinformation. Many of the rules andprocedures were either posted in theroom for the students' review orgiven to them as a hand-out.

in contrast, in classrooms of lesssuccessful managers, students' firstexperiences with the room andteacher were less orderly. Teacherswere observed sitting at their deskstaking care of some administrativetask or talking with parents or othersoutside the room. Their initial contactwith students was minimal. Conse-quently, they forfeited an opportunityto take control and guide students'behaviors. Students entered the roomnoisily, talking to each other, and ex-ploring the room on their ownwithout precise instructions on whereto sit or what they should do. Theseteachers frequently left the classroom,having given little or no informationto guide student behavior. Some ofthese teachers also failed to introduce

students to their environment or toset expectations for student behavior.Consequently, students eitherwandered around on their own, orinterrupted the teacher frequently forinformation on how to use a learningarea or equipment, how to use thebathroom or water fountain, how tohead a page, or what materials tobring to class. These interruptionsseriously complicated the teacher'smanagerial and instructional role.

Introducing students to one anotherwas also an important activity for ef-fective .managers. They saw this asthe first opportunity for students toestablish their identity and to make acontribution to the group. Thus, theseteachers tried to make this an easyand enjoyable task for students. Lesssuccessful managers either over-looked this important activity or con-ducted it in such a way as to make ituncomfortable for students.

At the elementary level, when thefirst academic activity was intro-duced, effective teachers made sure itwas a simple, enjoyable one such asdrawing or coloring. The teacher didnot attempt to group children orbegin with workbooks or readers orother heavy academic activities. Theteacher stayed with the total class,monitoring closely and giving clear,specific directions. This behaviorhelped to foster positive teacher-student relationships and student-learning attitudes. It maximized theamount of time for teacher-student in-teraction and gave the teacher agreater opportunity to observe andassess her students' needs. By usingthis mode of whole class instructionfor the first few days, teachers couldeasily and actively monitor the entireclass, establishing themselves asclassroom leaders and stopping inap-propriate behavior immediately. This

12 / BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTr.1EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


reinforced the teacher's expectationsfor student behavior and helped toestablish a productive environmentfor learning early.

To summarize the Evertson, Em-mer, Anderson research, more effec-tive managers assumed leadership intheir classrooms from the beginning,introducing students to their new en-vironment and the appropriate waysof functioning in it. These teacherssystematically taught their rules andprocedures for operating in the ,/classroom and school to theirstudents in discreet steps. They ac-/

tively monitored the class to be surethat 41/students understood theirsysteM and functioned accordingly.During the first three weeks of schoolespecially, they emphasized rule pre-sentation, review, and reinforcement.

/Thereafter, most students wereuniformly ready to behave ap-propriately and shift in emphasis toinstruction could vosily be made. Ef-fective managers continued through-out the. year to actively monitor theclassroom and provide positive andnegative reinforcements to maintaintheir leadership of the class.

REFERENCESAnderson, L.M., Evertson, C.M., and Emmer, E.T., Dimensions in Classroom Management

Derived from Recent Research. Research and Development Center for Teacher Education,University of Texas at Austin, 1979, Report No. 6006.

Emmer, E.T., Evertson, C.M., and Anderson, L.M., "Effective Classroom Management at theBeginning of the School Year," The Elementary School Journal, 1980, Vol. 80, No. 5, pp.219-231.

Emmer, E.T. and Evertson, C.M., Effective Management at the Beginning of the Year inJunior High School Classrooms, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education,University of Texas, Austin, 1980, Report No. 6107.

Evertson, C.M. and Anderson, L.M., "Beginning School." Educational Horizons, 1979, Vol.57, pp 164-168.

Sanford, J.P. and Evertson, C.M., Classroom Management in a Low SES JuniorHigh: ThreeCase Studies," Journal of Teacher Education, 1980.



RESEARCH ON

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT FORTHE BEGINNING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR

A REVIEW OF CONCEPTS1. More effective classroom managers are distinguished from less effective

managers by the following teacher practices. More effective managers:MI have good room arrangements;MI establish Clear, specific rules governing student behavior and procedures

for conducting routine instructional and housekeeping activities;N teach their rules and procedures to students as they would any other

new content area;N consistently enforce their expectations (re: rules and procedures) by

monitoring student behavior and applying reasonable and appropriateconsequences

2. A good room arrangement is essential to effective classroom managementbecause it eliminates ,potential distractions for students and minimizesopportunities for students to disrupt others.

3. A good room arrangement is one which:N permits an easy flow of traffic throughout the room avoiding congestion

in high traffic areas such as the pencil shaiy.!ener, storage areas, readinggroup, exits, etc.

MI arranges students' seats so students can easily see instructional displaysand presentations.

N insures high visibility so the teacher can quickly and easily monitorstudents in all areas of the room.

N facilitates ready access to storage space and necessary materials.4. Before school starts, effective classroom managers plan how they want their

classrooms to operate and develop a set of rules and procedures to meettheir expectations.N Rules govern student behavior such as student talk, respect for others

and their property, etc. Effective managers limit their rules to 3 to 6,stating them in generic language which encourages students to takeresponsibility for their behavior. Some rules may be specific.

M Procedures apply to specific instructional routines or housekeeping taskssuch as: storing personal belongings, using the bathroom or water foun-tain!, distributing and collecting materials or assignments, getting theteacher's attention, lining up, movement within the classroom or toother school areas, heading papers, taking down assignments, etc.

5. Effective managers re-evaluate their rules and procedures throughout theyear. In particular at the beginning of the year, they develop alternativeprocedures in the event their tried and true methods don't work with thisyear's class.

6. Effective managers teach their rules and procedures to students just as theywould any other content area. This involves:N presenting rules and procedures as they are needed by students



® carefully explaining the rule or procedUre, demonstrating it as necessaryII leading a discussion of the rationale and application of rules and

procedureshaving students practice procedures as necessary

II providing feedback to studentsIN reviewing and re-teaching as necessary rules and procedures to the

point where they become automatic for students (usually 3 weeks).7. Effective managers also develop a reasonable system for consistently

reinforcing their rules and procedures which includes positive feedback andrewards for good behavior and fair and appropriate consequences forinappropriate behavior.

8. Effective managers establish a hierarchy of consequences or sanctionswhich they feel comfortable administering. A hierarchy of consequencesmight range from: a) establishing eye contact, pointing a finger, movingcloser to the student to b) having the student re-state the broken rule, con-ferencing with the student, withholding a privilege, assigning detention, toc) contacting the parents, behavior contracting or visiting the principal.

16 / BEGINNING SCHOOL. YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


RESEARCH SUMMARYON

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTFOR

THE BEGINNING OF THE SCHOOL YEARAT A LOW SES JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Julie Sanford and Carolyn EvertsonResearch & Development Center for Teacher Education

University of Texas at Austin

THREE CASE STUDIES

la THREE TEACHERS:One very effectivescored high

on all process and productmeasures (e.g.students ontask, occurrence of disruptivebehavior, achievement gains)

One less effectiveOne who appeared effective at

beginning of the year, but inwhose class behavior problemsarose

M THE SCHOOL:Located in low socio-economic,urban' minority neighborhood.Fairly young staff, principal in hisfirst year. Community structureusedteachers in different con-tent areas shared same group ofstudents with a common prepara-tion/conference time. Schoolclimate was rather permissive,rules against tardiness were notenforced and many teachers werelax in procedures for studentsleaving the room for water, using

PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ON TASK

the restroom, going to lockers, etc.All three teachers (A, B, C) hadhad previous experience in thisschool with Teacher B having theleast. All three taught either 7th or8th grade math or English.Teacher A-19 students, achieve-

ment levels 2.6 to 9.8 CATmean-10 raw score pointsbelow grade level, 75% ofclass achieved at or abovegrade level

Teacher B-22 students, achieve-Ment levels 2.1 to 6.8 CATmean-13 raw score pointsbelow grade level, 69%achieved at or above gradelevel

Teacher C-23 students, achieve-ment levels '3.4 to 7.0 CATmean-11 raw score pointsbelow grade level, 76%achieved at or above gradelevel

Beginning ofYear Mid-Year End of Year

Teacher A 89% 94% student teacher

Teacher B 73% 85% 81%

Teacher C 98% 91% 81%


FIRST DAY ACJUNIOR HIGH SCHOO

Teacher A.1~

Teacher B

IN THREEHERS' CLASSES

Teacher C

Introduction ofteacher and rollcall

Presentation ofrules andprocedures

Election ofclass officers

Preview ofweek's activities

Seatwork

Closing

5 minutes

21 minutes

2 minutes

7 minutes

18 minutes

1 minute

Filling outinformation cardsand roll call

Presentation ofrules and supplyrequirements

9 minuies

8 minutes

Introduction ofteacher and rollcall

Presentation ofrules andprocedures

Diagnostic test 21 minutes Filling outinformation cards

Oral review of 2 minutes Seatworkrules and supplyrequirements

Free time:students talkingor waiting

16 minutes

2 minutes

12 minutes

7 minutes

33 minutes

Taken directly from the R&DCTE Report NO. 6104

DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR


Teacher A Very Little Very Little(1.5) (1.0)

Teacher B Higher than (2.33) Higher thanA or C (3.67) A or C (3.00)

Teacher C Very Little Escalates Decline (2.00)(1.17) (3.33)

1 = no disruption; 5 = high frequency of disruption

INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR


Teacher A 1.5 1.25

"Teacher B 3.50 3.67 4.75

Teacher C 2.00 4.00 4.50

18 / BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENIEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


FIRST DAY ACTIVITIES

Teacher A spent more time goingover rules and procedures. BothTeacher A and Teacher C gave seat-work assignments which wererelatively easy, leading to student suc-cess. Teacher C used the 33 minuteseatwork time to gather informationfor a future activity from each studentthereby providing all students withteacher contact the first day.

Students in A's and C's classes werecooperative and quiet the first day. B'sclass, however, suffered a good dealof disruption and inappropriatebehavior (primarily from one group)which she frequently ignored. Rulespresented were vaguely stated andother important facets of routine werenot mentioned. Little leadership ordirection came from this teacher andher credibility was quickly under-mined.

THE FIRST THREE WEEKSRules an)( Procedures

Teachers B and C did little beyondthe first day to teach and/or reinforcerules and procedures. Teacher A, onthe other hand, devoted some timealmost every day to the presentation,review or discussion of rules and pro-cedures amounting to almost 1/3 of theclass tithe. Most areas of classroombehavior were covered and bothpositive and negative consequenceswere discussed.

Teacher B ignored several areas ofbehavior (ie. call-outs, leaving seats orroom, make-up work) and presentedno consequences.

Teacher-c omitted any policy onleaving jbeiroom during class andspent more time than the others onschool-wide procedures (probably a7th grade class).


Consistent Enforcementand Feedback

Teacher A was fairly consistent in"desisting" or stopping off -taskbehavior, sometimes ignoring inap-propriate behavior only when it wasshort and not distracting to the class.She did assign demerits for studentsnot having supplies and reviewed thereasons for certain rules and pro-cedures.

Teacher B ignored a lot ofmisbehavior (e.g., call-outs, paperthrowing, cheating, off -task). Whenreprimands and threats were given,she seldom followed through.Responses to call outs weresometimes negative, sometimespositive.

Teacher C was weak in enforcingrules (tardiness, call-outs). Inap-propriat behavior was ignored oftenallowin it to escalate. Sometimeswhen mi ehavior was desisted it wasnot punish . She did not ignore non-workers or students out of seats.

Clarity of Directions and InstructionBoth Teachers A and C were clear

and specific in presenting directionsand instruction in a step-by-stepsequence. Teacher C often used anoverhead to demonstrate assignedtasks to students. In B's class, a gooddeal of confusion on the part ofstudents was noted by observers.Visual aids were seldom used.

Knowledge and Understandingof Students

Once again Teachers A and Cseemed to have a more significantawareness of student abilities, in-terests, etc. Observers reported A'sspecific awareness. of attention spansand her use of a variety of activitieswithin a period. Teachers A and C


provided high success rate activitiesduring the first several weeks,avoiding more complex assignments.

B seemed unaware of her studentslow academic ability, hence a lot ofstudent frustration over too difficulttasks. Students were expected to takelecture notes the second day with noassistance.

Student AccountabilityTeacher AStudent folders for in-

class work. Assignmentscollected.

Teacher BEncouraged but did notrequire students to finishclasswork at home. Classworkusually. not collected ormonitored.

Teacher CCollected all papersand gave academic feedback fre-quently during first three weeks.Assigned and collectedhomework during the secondweek announcing five-pointpenalty for late work. Monitoredseatwork and called on allstudents during recitation.

Time Use and Class RoutinesTeacher ANo "dead time."

Employed a beginning-of-the-classroutine which effectively gotstudents on task.

Teacher BContinued to have "freetime," between 5-10 minutes, atthe end of the class. Used abeginning-of-the-class routine(copy assignments, pick upmaterials for work that day) butdid not ask all students to comp-ly. No dismissal routine.

Teacher CNo beginning-of-the-class routine, but a consistentdismissal routine.

Standards for Students BehaviorTeacher A maintained a low level

of student talking during seatwork.Students were expected to remain inassigned seats and to leave the roomonly for "emergencies." During seat-work students raised hands for help,but during discussions call-outs wereaccepted. Observers noted no inap-propriate call outs.

In Teacher B's class there were noassigned seats and students wereoften "wandering" around theclassroom. Students were fully permit-ted to leave the room and did sooften, even the first day. Called outcomments and questions were permit-ted, but B was inconsistent in dealingwith thempositive, negative or ig-nored responses. Students openlyengaged in conversation during seat-work.

Inappropriate behavior was rare onthe first two days of Teacher C's class,but increased during the second andthird weeks. Some talk was allowedduring seatwork, especially peer-tutor-ing. As talking increased, however,Teacher C employed an ineffective"shush." Call-outs were acceptedwhen she was not calling on aspecific student, but the problem soonbecame chronic and C often had to re-mind students of the procedure."Violations" were ignored, corrected,but never punished. Assigned seatswere often empty due to "socializing"on the way to the restroom, pencilsharpener, or teacher's desk. More tar-dies were observed here, one or moreper day, which were often ignored.

Teacher Leadership RoleTeacher A maintained a constant

leadership role. When working withindividual students (testing), she madesure the rest of the class had beengiven seatwork tasks and monitoredthem, small group work was handled

20 / BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ,EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


the same way. Teacher A used the en-tire period, then dismissed students.

Teacher B often left the class withno structure, particularly during "freetime." She interacted with fewstudents during these times. B oftengave up her leadership role by spend-ing extended periods of time with onestudent, or a small group and not at-tending to the rest of the class.

Teacher C, during the first threeweeks, maintained whole class in-struction and interaction, even whenaddressing student concerns.

REMAINDER OF THE YEARClassroom narratives by observers

showed that Teacher A was able tomaintain a high level of studentcooperation, behavior and task orien-tation throughout the year. Studentsachieved a great deal and li ed theclass.

Teacher B's class also mai tainedthe same levelinappropriat , disrup-tive, and off -task behavior, studentconfusion and frustration. Studentachievement and attitudes, while notparticularly low, measured lower thanthe other two classes.

Teacher C began well, but ap-propriate student behayior and orien-tation to task decreased significantlyafter the first three weeks. Studentachievement was at expected levelsand attitudes were positive, but in-creasing discipline problems put a \_strong demand on teacher time.

Observers noted two probablecauses for C's breakdown:1. Consistency and Conse-

quencesRules were not con-sistently enforced and whendisruption occurred the teacherseldom "punished" students. Bythe time discipline problemsescalated she was too late.

2. Changes in ClassThe first threeweeks were primarily devoted towhole class interaction with theteacher. Afterward, however, therewas a shift from whole classpresentation and recitation to moretime spent in seatwork. As seat-work increased, so did the needfor individual help, thereby "tyingup" the teacher while otherstudents waited. While the shiftmay have been necessary (afterthe first few weeks of review,students began new work at dif-ferent levels) the teacher did notprovide a smooth enough transi-tion from one format to the other.

While this was a limited case study,findings were consistent with those ofthe larger junior high school study. Inaddition, after having been presentedwith the findings of the Beginning ofthe Year Classroom Managementstudy at the elementary level, one cansee that there are variouscharacteristics of more effectiveman gers which surface regardless ofgrade level and school organization.


BEGINNING SCHOOL-YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 21

REFERENCES

1. Enuner, Edmund T. & Evertson, Carolyn M. Effective Classroom Management at theBeginning of the School Year (R & D Rep. No. 6005) Austin: R & DCTE, The Universi-ty of Texas at Austin, 1980.

2. Emmer, Edmund T. & Evertson, C. Effective Management at the Beginning of the SchoolYear in Junior High Classes (R & D Rep. No. 6107) Austin: R & DCTE, The Universityof Texas at Austin, 1980.

3. Sanford, J. & Evertson, C. Classroom Management in a Low SES Junior High (R & D Rep.No. 6104) Austin: R & DCTE, The University of Texas at Austin, 1980.


S ti


DIRECTIONS FOR TRAINERS

Training Activityfor

BEGINNING OF THE YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

TITLE: "Starting the Year Right: Room Arrangement"

OBJECTIVES: To develop optimum room arrangements based upon theguidelines for room arrangements identified inthe Beginning of the Year Classroom ManagementResearch

PROCESS: Group DisCussion

FORMAT: Large oar Small Group

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

15 to 35 minutes

Provide each participant with the following activitymaterials:1. directions2. Guideline for Room Arrangements3. classroom furniture cutouts reproduced on colored

paper (preferably)4. large piece of plain paper to serve as the classroom

floor5. paste, glue or tape6. scissorsIdeally, the furniture cutouts should be reproduced ondifferent colored paper and cut out in advance so par- .

ticipants can quickly and easily arrange and paste themon their floor plan. If you don't have the time, you cansimply provide the participants with sheets of the fur-niture pieces which they can cut out themselves.Another, less effective but time-saving approach is to pro-vide the participants with colored pens and plain paperfor drawing room arrangements.



DIRECTIONS: As noted in the preparation comments, this activity isbest performed by having participants manipulate the fur-niture pieces, arranging them on the paper according tothe dimensions of their room and other physical limita-tions. This activity has been an especially popular onebecause it forces teachers, who haven't previously foundthe time, to reflect on their room arrangements anddesign one that is most effective for their, room, theirstudents' needs and their instructional style. Someteachers are aware of existing problems in their room ar-rangements but haven't identified solutions.

Direct teachers to draw a basic floor plan on the plainpaper provided indicating doors, windows, closets orstorage rooms, lavatories, wash basins, learning centersor other permanent fixtures, etc. Then have them eitherdesign an optimum room arrangement, using the_fur-niture pieces provided adding other pieces as _ne-cessary(create what's needed) or layout their current arrange-ment, analyzing it for trouble-spots. If they're alreadyaware of a problem, encourage them to work out a solu-tion. Encourage the teachers to work in groups so thatthey can share their ideas or problems with others asthey work.

After all the participants have designed a room, havethem share their designs with the whole group. Thosewho still feel they have problems with their ooms canask for suggestions from the group.

24 / BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


Guidelines for Room Arrangement'

KEYS TO GOOD RC013/1 ARRANGEMENT

High traffic areas are free of congestion.

Students are always visible to the teacher.

Storage space arid necessary materialsare readily accessible.

Students can easily see instructionaldisplays and presentations.

AVOID UNNECESSARY CONGESTION IN THE FOLLOWING ARLAS:Group work areas, centers and stations

SI Pencil sharpener and trash canM Bathrooms, sink and water fountainIS Bookshelves and storage areas

Students' desksU Teacher's desk

TIPS FOR ARRANGING FURNITUREMake sure all students can easily see:You, when you are presenting informationChalkboardsOverhead projector screenInstructional displays

OM Keep in mind potential distractions such as:Windows and doorsAnimals or other interesting displaysSmall group work areasLeave plenty of room around student desks so that you can get to eachstudent when monitoring.Locate your desk, work areas and instructional areas where you can seeall of the students all of the time. Avoid placing centers and work areas in"blind corners" where you will not be able to monitor adequately.Plan to seat students who need extra help or attention close to where youwill be most of the time.

M If you must use tables or desks with inadequate storage space, you willwant to have "tote trays" or boxes for student belongings and materials.These should be easy for students to get to, but out of the way.Even if other arrangements are to be used later in the year, consider plac-ing students desks in rows facing the major instructional areas at thebeginning of the year. This minimizes distractions for the students andallows the teacher to monitor behavior more readily and to becomefamiliar with individual students' work habits.


8BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 25

STORAGE SPACEPlace instructional materials that you will need where they are easily ac-cessible to instructional areas.

El Include adequate, convenient space for students' coats, lunch boxes,show-and-tell items, and r ells.

El Find easily accessible sh a bookcase for those everyday booksmaterials that will not Ix student desks.

121 Place long-term, ,seldom-u i special occasion items at the back of cup-boards, on top of cabibets, or out of the room, if possible.

OTHER THINGS TO CONSIDERPlan a particular location, easily seen by all students, where you will postassignments for the day (or week, if possible). This can be done on thechalkboard, a bulletin board, poster on a wall, large tablet, or individualassignment sheets.Check all electrical equipment (e.g., overhead projector, record player,movie projector) to be sure it is working and that you know how to use it,before using it in class. Be sure a plug is within easy reach, or have asturdy extension cord available. Plan a space to post instructions for theuse of complicated equipment.

Di Wall space and bulletin boards provide extra areas to display rules, pro-cedures, assigned duties, calendar, schecule, student work and extra creditactivities. In addition, ceiling space can be used to hang mobiles, decora-tions, and student work, and windows cay be used for displays, decora-tions, and student work.

Developed by the Classroom Organization and Effective Teaching (COET)Project, Researchand Development Center for Teacher Education, The University of Texas at Austin 78712.This project was supported in part by the National Institute of Education, Contract OB-NIE-'G-0116, P2. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy ofthe National Institute of Education and no official endorsement by that office should benferred.

2b / BEGINNING Sr f ioOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


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8 BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 31

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SBEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 35

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BEGINNINGTITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDED)TIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:



THE YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH"Keeping on the Right Track!"

To develop an awareness of the many instructional andhousekeeping procedures which are necessary for thesmooth functioning of a classroom and to identify effec-tive procedures for meeting the many needs

Group Discussion

Large or Small Group

4"

15 to 30 minutes

Reproduce activity for approprLite number of participants

Have teachers scan the Classroom Procedures Checklist toget a feel for the kinds of procedures that are necessaryfor the smooth operation of a classroom. Select severaltopics for procedures and ask teachers to share theirstrategies. Encourage teachers to identify specific topicsfor procedures they might like the group to discuss. Besure to address several management type procedures aswell as accountability type procedures.


"KEEPING ON THE RIGHT TRACK!"


Beginning the Year Classroom Management Research

The research on Effective Classroom Management at the Beginning of theSchool Year emphasizes planning before school begins how you want yourclassroom to function and what procedures will be necessary for its smoothoperation. More effective teachers also carefully teach students these instruc-tional or housekeeping routines, reviewing and re-teaching them asnecessary. Use the attached Classroom Procedures Checklist to make sure youhave a procedure for each of the topics noted. Carefully consider how welleach procedure is working with this year's class. Sometimes those old triedand true procedures that always worked before just don't click with a groupof students. Develop an alternative pi ocedure where one seems needed. Shareyour strategies with others.

EDJCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CI.ASSROCM MANAGED/IN, i / 41

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This exercise is adapted from thetraining manuals, Organizing andManaging the Elementary SchoolClassr, um and Organizing andManaging the Junior High Classroomdeveloped by the Classroom Organiza-tion and Effective Teaching Project,Research and Development Center forTeacher Education, The University ofTexas at Austin.


9 4


TOPIC RULE/PROCEDURE FOR STUDENTS

I. Use of Room AreasA. Students desks/tables and

storage areas

B. Learning Centers, stations

C. Shared materials, bookshelves,drawers

D Teacher's desk and storage area

E. Drinking fountains, sink,bathroom, pencil sharpener

II. Use of School AreasA. Bathrooms, drinking fountain, of-

fice. library, etc.

B. Lining up procedures

C. Cafeteria or lunchroom

D. Playground or other schoolground

III. 'Beginning School Day or StartingClassA. Attendance, early dismissal

students

B. Tardies

C. Behavior during PT.announcements

D. "Warm-up Routines"Do nows"

E. Distribution of material orsupplies

*(Elementary level primarily)

9-kJ


TOPIC RULE/PROCEDURE MR STUDENTS

EV. Instruction/Whole-class activities/SeatworkA. Teacher-student interaction

B. Movement within room

C. Cues for student attention

D. Paper

E. St i

assignment

G. 114"17,i. to do when seatwork is

H. Safety precautions

V. Small Group ActivitiesA. Student movement to and from

group (lab stations)

B. Bringing materials to group

C. Expected behavior of students ingroup

D. Lxpected behavior of studentsnot in group


TOPIC RULE/PROCEDURE FOR STUDENTS

VI. Ending School Day or ClassA. Clean up and putting materials

away

B. Organizing for different classes

C. "Wind- down" routine or activity

D. Dismissal

VII. MiscellaneousA. Movement Outside classroom

B. Fire/disaster drills

C. * Housekeeping and studenthelpers

9BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 49

TOPICSTUDENT ACCOUNTABILITYRULE/PROCEDURE POLICY

44W

I. Student WorkA. Paper heading

B. Pen or pencil?

C. Neatness

D. Incomplete assignment

E. Late Assignment

F. Missing Assignment-

L. Due dates/*timeS of day

H. Make-up assignments

II. AssignmentsA. Where posted?

B. Explain assignments to variousgroups

C. * Keeping students working fromone assignment to next

D. Let absent students know what isto be made up

E. EXplain grading 1


TOPICSTUDENT ACCOUNTABILITYRULE/PROCEDURE POLICY

III. MonitoringA. How do you check on all

students?

B. Check work-in-progress for errors

C. Achieve total participation indiscussion

IV. Checking WorkA. Students exchange papers

B. How do they mark papers?

C. Students turning in papers

V.

D. Keeping track of work that is/isnot turned in

Feedback and GradingA. Giving specific feedbackgrades,

written comments, conferences

B. Determine reportcard grade1. What's included?2. How is it weighted?

C. Grading daily assignments

D. Recording grades

E. Have students keep record ofgrades

F. Returning graded work tostudents

G. Having students correct mistakes

H.-Checking and returningcorrections


DER CT FOR TRAINERS


BEGINNING THE YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:

"Rules of the Road"

To develop a greater awareness of the diversity of rulesgoverning student behavior in classrooms and alternative

tegies for applying consequences or sanctions whentudents break rules

Group ,scussion


15 to 30 minutes

Reproduce activity for appropriate number of participants

Have teachers read the activity and write down 2 or 3rules they've established governing student behavior.Also ask teachers to list potential consequences-theymight impose for failure to Tallow their rules. Stresslisting a hiearchy of consequences which are appropriateto both the severity of the misbehavior and the numberof times the rule has been broken by the student. Alsodiscuss the importance of establishing consequenceswhich the teacher can "live with," i.e., be willing to im-pose. Encourage teachers to share their strategies with thegroup.Hint: The discussion on consequences can be particular-,beneficial because it serves to identify alternativeS forcoping with typical problems in classrooms. Sometr.ach,?rs may want to discuss how to handle fightingabusive language while others may want to discussstrategies for dealing with students who come unpreparedfor class. This discussion can become very sensitive asteachers may not always agree with the consequencesused by others. An example might be imposing academicsanctions for behavioral infractions.


"RULES OF THE ROAD"


Beginning the Year Classroom Management Research

The research on Effective Classroom Management at the BeginWng of theSchool Year stresses the importance of clearly establishing 3-6 general rulesgoverning the behavior or conduct of students in the class, the "rules of theroad." The research also advocates that teachers plan ahead how thr.y willrespond to students who don't follow their rules and that th,.:4 teach theseconsequences to students just as they teach their rules. In the space providedbelow, identify two or more behavioral rules you insist upon in yourclassroom. Next to the rule, develop 2 or 3 well thought out consequences orsanctions you would apply the first time students "broke" your rule, the thirdtime, and later when the problem is becoming more chronic.

Behavioral Rules Consequences or Sanctions

A. 1.

2.

3.

B.

C.

2.

3.

2.

3.


1 0,


BEGINNING

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

_ PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:

DIFE2C17ONS FOR TRAINERS

4TraininforActivity

OF THE YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

"Teaching Rules and Procedures"

To identify effective approaches for presenting rules andprocedures based on the Evertson, Emmer and Andersonresearch.

Roleplay


20 to 45 minutes

Reproduce activity for appropriate number of participants.Make sign posts depicting each of the rules and proceduresin the scenario to serve as props for the actors in theroleplay (optional).

Have the participants read the entire activity. Select one ortwo (or more) participants to roleplay the part of the teacherpresenting rules to his or her class on the first day ofschool. Let the "teacher" select the two rules he or shewishes to teach the "class."

Encourage group discussion of the roleplay(s). Focus uponthe "teacher's" specific behaviors which reinforce theresearch concepts concerning teaching rules. Use the -discus-sion questions as a guide.


1

BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / SO

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:1. Are the rules or procedures clearly stated?2. Does the teacher offer the rationale for the rule or does

he or she encourage the students to identify therationale?

3. Does the teacher demonstrate the rule or have studentsdemonstrate it?

4. Are students given the opportunity to practice or discussthe rules?

5. Are there other things which can be done to enhancethis teaching process? (Use or refer to props, post rules,etc.)

80 BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

103


"TEACHING RULES AND PROCEDURES"


BEGINNING OF THE YEAR CLASSRCOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

Read the following classroom scenario concerning the first day of school andthe establishment of rules and procedures. Keeping in mind the Evertson,Emmer and Anderson research on teaching classroom rules and procedures,select two of the rules and decide how you would best present them to theclass.

CLASSROOM NARRATIVEIt is the first day of school and students have already arrived in class.

Among the rules and procedures which the teacher plans to teach students thisperiod are:

III all personal belongings are to be stored in the student's "cubby" or lockerN students must raise their hands to get the teacher's attentionO before leaving the clathroom, students are to line up in the following

manner . . .

N students are to show respect for one another and their belongingsO students must be silent whenever the teacher or others are speaking to

the class; at other times students may be quiet which means a softwhisper

The teacher has written each of her rules on individual sign posts, completewith illustrations, to serve as reinforcement for the class. After greeting theclass and orienting them to the room, the teacher begins teaching some of herrules and procedures to the stidents. She starts by saying . . .

r



1 0 -2


5Training Activity

forBEGINNING OF THE YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREP TION:

DIRECTIONS:

"Holding It Together"

To identify effective approaches for reinforcing rules andprocedures to insure student cooperation

Group Discussion


15 to 25 minutes

Reproduce activity foe appropriate number of participants

Have 1 e participants read the entire activity. Encouragethen to discuss how they might handle this class, drawingupon their own experiences and the research findings onteaching, reinforcing and enforcing rules. Some of thepoints which should dome out in this discussion are:III the need to reteach or review the rules to insure

students understand them and1/4know what is expectedof them; perhaps encouraging discussion of the rulesand rationale

III the need to reinforce the rules through positive feedbackand consequencesthe need to apply consequences in a hierarchy, not justreminders and removal. Name some consequences inbetween.

ill the need to exert leadership and apply the consequencesoutlined (students obviously thought they could "getaway" withMisbehavior)perhaps the need to have students set the rules andconsequences

EDUCATIONAL REV-ARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM BEGINNING SCHOOL YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT / 63

D;

"HOLDING. IT TOGETHER"


BEGINNING OF THE YEAR CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

Read the following classroom narrative concerning a less effective teacher'sapproach to handling students who fail to follow rules and procedure's. Draw-ing upon your experiences and the research on teaching, reinforcing, and en-forcing rules, decide how you would respond to the students in this class. Usethe disCussion questions to guide your thoughts.

d. CLASSROOM NARRATIVEOn the first day of school, the teacher established his classroom rules and

procedures and posted them on the bulletin board for students to review. Hecarefully read each rule to the class, explained what it meant and what someof the consequences would be if students didn't follow'the rule. The ultimateconsequence for disobeying rules was to remove students from the 'room.

On the second day of school, the teacher began instructing the class. Hefound that many of the students were not following his rules or proceduresdespite reminders. By mid-afternoon, he became exasperated feeling as if he'dlost control and began asking students to leave the room when they mis-behaved. At this point, three tudents have already left the room.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:1. What could the teacher h ve done to gain better control of his class?2. Do you think using the " Itimate consequence" on the second day of school

will influence the students' perceptions of the teacher?3. How might he have avoided removing students from the room so early in

the year?



10

RESEARCH ON

ITECTIVEGROUP .MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES


nri

EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT. PRACTICES / 1.

INTRODUCTIONThis is the second research training

unit on effective classroom Manage-ment practices.!The findings in thisstudy support those reported in theunit on Effective Classroom Manage-ment for the Beginning of the Year.We recommend that this unit bepresented after the Beginning of theYear unit as these findings addressthe issue of maintaining goodclassroom management once asystem is already in place. Together,these two research units offer good

Istrategies and practices forestablishing and maintaining a goodmanagement system.

The basic concepts presented inthis research summary are

with-it-nesi and overlappingsmoothness and momentumgroup focus and accountability

Depending on the time availablefor research training sessions, we

C

recommend that these concepts bepresented and discussed with ac-tivities together as one 21/2-hour ses-sion, two 13/4-hour sessions, or three1-hour sessions. The best groupingarrangement for two sessions is topresent and discuss with-it-ness andoverlapping and smoothness andmomentum together with activities inone session and group focus and ac-countability along with activities 3and 4 in a second session. Generally,you should plan to spend 20 to 30minutes presenting and discussingeach concept (e.g., with-it-ness andoverlapping) and 15 to 30 minutesworking through an activity. Ac-tivities 3 and 4 in particular will tendto take the greater recommended timeallocation for them. Also plan tospend the last 15 minutes of eachsession working through the Plan ofAction exercise for selecting conceptsfor classroom implementation.


10

EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 3

RESEARCH ON

GROUP NAGEMENT'EFFECTZifPRACTICES

Jacob Kotitiin, a noted edUcationalresearcher and professor of educa-tional psychology at Wayne. State.University (Michigan), identified agroup of proaciiye teacher behaviorswhich distingUished more effectiveclassroom managers from less effec;tive managers. His /findings are theresult of many- years of research ongroup management techniques. `-

Initially, Kounin's research'focusedspecifically on teacher desist tech-niques, or how teachers stopped mis-behavior. In an incident involving hisown college classroom,' Kounin ob-served that the action he took to stopa misbehaving student (a desist) hada visible effect upon the other stu-dents in his class, those who werethe actual audience to the event, not'the misbehavers. He termed this phe-nomenon a ripple effect. To under-stand it more fully, Kounin studiedteacher desist techniques in variousschool settingskindergarten,camp,elementary school, high school andcollegeto determine what kinds ofripple effects were produced by vari-ous teacher deSists and if certaindesist techniques were more effectivethan others in producing more con-forming-student behavior.

Kounin sought answers to suchqueStions as, do desists influencestudents' attitudes toward the teacherwith respect to strictness orNfairness,etc.? Do desists affect students' atti-tudes toward the deviant studitorthe deviancy? Does a desist "serve'as.an example" and restrain behavior inother students? Does a desist cause-other students to behave better or to

pay more attention to their work ordoes it actually increase the tendencyof other students to misbehave?Which students are affected the mostby the teacher's desistthose stu-dents who are also engaged in off -task activities or those students whoare working on-task? Do certain qual-ities of teacher desistsclarity, puni-tiveness, anger, firmness; disappro-val, intensity, humorproduce anyconsistent ripple effects?

The results of his research showedthat with one exception the manner;in Which teachers handled misbehav7ior made no difference in how audience students reacted. In-Otherwords, it was not poisible to consis-tently predict any ripple effect fromany: quality off a disciplinary event(Kotinin, 1970). However, there wassome evidence suggesting that puni-tive desists\ generate emotional dis-comfort among audience students.

These findings do not rule out thefact that some teacher desists are ef-fective and others are not. Kounin ob-serv0 one teacher walk to the lightswitch, and flick the lights on and offtwo times as a signal for the childrento be quiet and listen'to her. ItWorked. The children immediatelystopped talking.and faced the teacherattentively. The'following day; -.-

Kounin observed another teacher inthe same school and same grade usethe/same technique to quiet her stu-dentS and it didn't Work. The chil-dren Who were talking continuedtalking and'thoSe who were playingaround continued playing around.Kounin concluded frdm this and


109_


other findings that while-some teach-ers were more effective than others indesisting student misbehavior, theireffectiveness was not tied so much tothe manner in which they handledthe misbehavior as it was to someother prevailing dimensions of class-room management.

This led Kounin to a second majorstudy of classroom management inwhich he videotaped 80 elementaryclassrooms, grades 1-2 and grades3-5. He reasoned that the videotapes,which could be played over and overagain, would allow' him to analyze allthe many simultaneous variables in aclassroom which may be influencingstudent behavior. His analysis of thevideotapes showed that maintaininghigh levels of student work involve-ment was more important to main-taining good classroom managementthan how a teacher actually handles

misbehavior (Kounin, '1970). In ef-fect, the essence of good classroommanagement lies in establishing con-ditions which prevent or discouragebehavior problems before they occur.

From the videotape studies, Kouninidentified the following dimensions ofclassroom management which wereeffective in maintaining high levels ofstudent work involvement and mini-mizing student misbehavior: demon-strating knowledgeability of children'sbehavior in the classroom; attendingto more than one issue simultaneous-ly; managing activity movement;maintaining group focus; and pro-gramming learning with variety andintellectual challenge. He termedthese group management strategies:with-it-ness and overlapping,smoothness and momentum, groupfocus and accountability, and pro-gress, variety and challenge arousal.

WITH-IT-NESS AND OVERL PPINGWith-it-ness is defined as a,

teacher's ability to communicate toher students that she knoys whatthey are doing in the clafsroom at alltimes. In effect, with- it -ness is what ateacher does to give her students theimpression that she must have eyesin the back of her head because shesees all and knows all. Teachers whoexhibit this ability are more success-ful in preventing student behaviordisruptions in their classes and inkeeping students,working on theiracademic tasks than teachers who donot exhibit this .ability. If students

erceive that the teacher.reallyk ows what's going on in the,classi-oorriat all times they are lessinclined toward misbehavior becausethere's a fear of getting caught.

The significance of this concept isnot sirnply that the teacher is aware

of what's going on in the classroom,but that the teacher indicates to herstudents through some action thatshe is aware:of their behavior. Theeasiest and most visible way forteachers to send this message to theiristudents is by stopping misbehaviorin a timely and appropriate manner.This means nipping problems in thebud before they escalate, catching theright culprit, and handling the moreserious of two misbehaviors occur-ring at the same time.

The timing of the teacher's re-spOnse to student misbehavior is im-pOrtant because if the teacher fails tostop the misbehavior before itspreads or increases in seriousness, itraises a question in the minds of thestudents concerning how well theteacher knew what was going on. Forexample, two children, Lucy and

6 / EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICESEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


John, start talking across the tableabout a class 'romance. Robert andJane join in. Jane. starts giggling andturns to Mary to whisper somethingto her. If at this point the teacher says"Jane and Mary; stop talking!", theteacher's desist was too Late. Or con-sider another, more serious examplein which timing also influenced theamount of effort the teacher had touse to stop the misbehavior. Davidwalks toward the learning center touse the computer. Mike pushes hisway in front of David and beats himto the computer.. David pushes Mikeout of the way, claiming he wasthere first. Mike hits back. David hitsback. Both boys start fighting. If theteacher had been aware of what washappening, she could have spoken toMike when he first butted in andprevented 4; potential major disrup-tion. At this point, the teacher not on-ly would have demonstrated herawareness of student behavior but itwould have been relatively easy todesist Mike. Now, the total class, has.been disrupted and the teacher'muststop a fight.

The appropriateness of theteacher's response to misbehavior isequally important because it, too,

demonstrates that the teacher is fullyaware of the nature of the misbehav-ior and the target student or culpritresponsible for the misbehavior.Target mistakes occur when a teachercatches the wrong student or desists aless serious misbehavior when amore serious one is occurring at thesame time. For example, supposeBob and Bill are teasing Mary whilethe teacher is busy working with agroup of students. Mary-finally statesin a loud voice, "Stop that, you two!"The teacher tells Mary to go sit aloneand ignores the instigators of the inci-dent. Or the teacher observes Johnny

and Jimmy talking at a table insteadof working 'on their math assignment.He tells the two to stop talking andget back to work but sayS nothing tothe two boys on the other side of theroom who are throwing paper :wadsat students. If mistakes like these oc-cur often, students begin to get theidea that the teacher is not trulyaware of the classroom and thatthere's a reasonable likelihood theycan misbehave unnoticed.

Teachers also exhibit,with-it-nesswhen they call a child's attention tothe fact that he or she is using an in-correct prop in class or when they ,

redirect a child who is working prob----lems on the wrong page. These twoexamples, however do not occur asfrequently as do the opportunities forteachers to desist misbehavior andtherefore do not provide the same --continuous message that the teacherknows What is going on at all times.These examples of teacher with-it-ness are also not as readily perceivedby other students in the class.

A teacher's ability to exhibit with;it-ness depends upon how effectivelyhe or she monitors the classroom forcues to student behavior. Whetherthe teacher is directing small group orwhole group instruction or havingseatwork, monitoring means periodi-cally scanning the room to assess ifstudents are actively paying attentionto the teacher's instruction or engagedin other academic work or simplymisbehaving. Such scanning alsoalerts the teacher to those in-betweenstages of student behavior when theyare neither working or misbehavingbut simp off-task. Establishing eyecontact wi those studeflis, askingthem a estion during group discus-sion or giving them some other cue

redirect them to their work canhead off student misbehavior before

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM ,

EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT' PRACTICES / 7

it'occurs,Evertson, Emmer and Anderson's

research on classroom managementsupports Kounin's findings on teacherwith-it-ness. To set clear expectationsfor student behavior, teachers need tomonitor behavior and consistently en-force rules. Establishing good roomarrangements facilitates both high,visibility for easy monitoring of stu-dents and good traffic patterns whichreduce student bottlenecks and per-mit the teacher to freely circulatearound the room. Positioning prob-lem students' desks close to theteacher and in areas which can bereadily monitored also aid the teacherin maintaining his or her with-it-ness.Overlapping is the teacher's ability toeffectively handle two classroomevents at the same time as opposedto becoming so totally immersed inhandling one event that the other oneis neglected. Teachers spend most oftheir day w. g either in small orwhole class g, ws, and it is not un-common for a teacher to be interrupt-ed by a student outside the groupwho needs assistance to complete anassignment or who has just returnedfrom a pull-out program or who ismisbehaiing. Teachers skilled inoverlapping are able to maintain the,flow of instruction by holding thegroup accountable for continuingtheir work, while at the same timedealing with the intrusion ormisbehavior.

Consider the following example ofoverlapping. A teacher who is lead-ing a small reading group notices thatJohn and Richard are talking loudlyin the room instead of doing theirseatwork. While listening to Maryread and correcting her mispronunci-ations, the teacher tries to establisheye contact with the boys to motionthem to get back to work. Unable to

establish eye contact, the teacher callson Mike, a good reader, to read thenext page. She tells the group shewill have a question for them on thepage Mike is reading when-she getsback. The teacher then quickly andquietly walks to John and Richard.She tells the boys to stop talking andget back to their work. The teacher,returns to the reading group and,after Mike is finished reading, asksthe group a question. In both at-tempts to stop the misbehavior in theback of the room, the teacher careful-ly maintained the instruction withinthe group by remaining an active partof the group and by holding the stu-dents accountable. In a similar situa-tion, a secondary teacher who isLeading: a whole class discussion no-tices John and Richard in the back ofthe room talking instead of listening.The teacher,'while_directing a ques-tion to the class, walks over to theboys and taps their desk lightly tosignal to them to stop talking. She im-mediately calls on David to respondto the question and shifts rnost of her '

attention to him in order to providefeedback to his response.

In contrast to the above two exam-ples of overlapping, consider a dif-ferent.classroom event. The teacher iswith a reading group and Betty is '

reading aloud. Gary and -Bob are.,sit-ting at their desks poking each other.The teacher sees Gary and Bob, gets.up, walks away from the readinggroup and over to the boys, andangrily says, "I want this nonsense/stopped! Right now! Both of yOu getbusy on your assignments." In thi$situation the teacher became so total-ly involved in desisting Gary andiBobthat she neglected the reading grpupand left them dangling without nyinstructions to guide their behaviorduring the desist. A similar .situation



arises when teachers become so im-mersed in helping one child with alearning problem that-4*y fail tomonitor' the rest of the class or gener-ally make themselves available forassistance to the rest of the class. Orconsider what frequently happenswhen the principal comes to thedoor. S meteaChers become so intento eaining .iAchat the principal wantshat they immediately stop what

they're doing to-Xneet with hf'm. Theyare no longer- monitoring the classand the students are left without atask or directionAo hold them ac-

untable during their teacher's

SMOOTHNESS AND MOMENTUM /,

absence. A teacher skilled in overlap-ping.might give thestudents a shortassignment or a direction to continueworking before, meeting with theprincipal and when possible keep aneye or ear tuned into the class tomonitor their behavior.

Overlapping is an important groupmanagement technique. Coupled withwith-it-ness, it helps to maintain highlevels of student work involvementand to discOutage deviant behavior. Ifstudents perceive that the teacher isaware of their ations and capable ofdealing with them, they-are morelikely to cooperate and stay on task.

A teacher's'ability to manage tines for.moving between activitiessmooth transitions between learning and use signals and cues to focus stu-activities and to maintain momentum dents' attention throughoutthroughout the lesson and. the day is transitions.one of the most important behaVior Less' effective teachers are not ablemanagement techniques for sustain- to maintain this same smooth, seem-ing student work involvement and ingly automatic flow of activities. In-the teacher's 'control of the classroom. stead, their transitions are jerky, fre-Whether teaching whole groups or quently losing students' attention.small groups, effective managers are Kounin identified five types of teach-well prepared and thus able to con- er behaviors which cause transitionsduct smooth, well paced lessons that to be jerky: thrusts, dangles, trunca-move briskly. In general, all materials tions, flip-flops and stimulus-boundedand props needed for lessons are events. (WhileAdnerminology is not

":ready and easily accessible so that essential to the classroom teacher, thebehavior patterns associated withjerkiness are important.)

A thrust occurs when the teachersuddenly bursts in on the students'activities with a new statement ordirection and the students are notready to receive the teacher's mes-sage. For example, the teacher isworking with the Red Group at thereading circle. John has just finishedreading.aloud. The teacher closes herbook dnd says, "That' good John.Now all of you go back .to yOur desksand 'finish your seatwork." She im-

there are few unnecessary interrup-tions associated with tracking downmaterials. Effective teachers knowwhat to do next,ayhatthiere is noneed to stop and consult /he teacher'smanual, no false starts aM no back- -tracking to preknt informartion thatshould have been presented earlier.

SMOOTHNESSEffective classroom managers con-

duct good transitions, moving qpicklyand smoothly from one -activity-to thenext. These teachers have good rou-



mediately stands and says, "BlueGroup, it's your turn to come to thereading circle now." Half of the BlueGroup hear the teacher's call and startto put away their materials. The otherhalf are Still working at their seats. Inthis example, the teacher interruptedthe Blue Group's seatwork withoutfirst checking to see if they wereready to receive her direction. Amore effective process might havebeen for the teacher to first wait afew seconds to allow the Red Groupto return'to their desks to signal theBlue C`Troup that they soon -,,cztild becafled.

A dangle is when the teacherleaves one activity "dangling" in mid-air to Start another activity !lad thenreturns \t,o the first activity. For exam-ple,"a chemistry teacher begins theclass by going, over the homework as-tignment. The teacher asks three stb,--)dents to go to the board and write thechemical equations for the first threeproblems from the homework. Ontheir way to the board, the teacherasks, "How many o' you are ready towrite your conclusions from yester-day's experiment?" The teachercounts the number of raised handsand jots it down. The class is distract-ed from the homework and many.students, are talking about their lab re-sults. One student at the board is notsure if the teacher counted her. It'snow difficult for the teacher to re-focus; the class's attention on thehomework.

A truncation is a variation of adangle except that the teacher neverreturns to the first activity or returnsconsiderably later. A civics teacherasks the g.rass to get out their home-work assignment. As they begin heasks,. "Have we gone ver the rulesand procedures for mg on our fieldtrip tomorrow? N 'Oh dear, we

should do that right now." Home-work is.forgotten, left dangling inmid-air.

A flip-flop, another variation of adangle, happens when the teacherterminates one activity, startsanother, and doeS something to re-turn to the first activity. For example,a teacher tells the class to put awaytheir spelling papers, take out theirarithmetic books, and (urn to page23. After most of the class haveturned to the right page, the teachersays, "Let's see the hands of those ofyou who got all their spelling wordsright. Terrific! You're all doing sowell. Okay class, today we're going toreview subtraction..."

A stimulus-bounded vent isituation in which the t cher er-rupts the flow of an instructional ac-tivity to respond to an irrelevantevent or one which could have bhandled just as effectively Iafter the learning activity is over. Forexample, a French teacher is review-ing a vocabularly assignment withthe class. She slowly walks down arow, looking at students' work as sheexplains masculine and feminine arti-cles. She happens to look on the floorand notices a' paper bag. She picksthe bag up and turns to Mary saying,"What is your lunch bag doing here?You know you're supposed to keepyour lunch bag` in your locker. Now irgo put it away." After looking aroundthe entire floor and writing Mary ahall pass, she resumes her review ofthe assignment which Mary missessince she's out of the room. Or, theteacher is explaining an arithmeticproblem at the board while workingthe answer. The teacher suddenlywalks over to Jimmy and says, "Jim-my sit up straight. How can you payattention and write well when you'reslouching like that? Now sit up

1O\/ EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTP":c

11


straight." He then walks back to theblackboard and begins working thenext problem with the class. In bothof these examples, the teacher inter-rupts the flow of activities in the classto call attention to One child for aproblem that does not need to be at-tended to immediately. More effectiveteachers selectively ignore certain mi-nor misbehaviors which they knowcan just as effeCtively be handledafter a learning activity is completedin order to avoid interrupting theirinstruction. H

MOMENTUMEffective classroom managers

maintain momentum or a steadysense of movement throughout theirlessons and throughout the day. Theyconduct their lessons at a brisk pace,providing a continuous academic sig-,nal for students to focus upon. Incontrast, less effective managers aretroubled by slowdownsdelays andwasted time between activities whichcause students to/lose interest.Kounin identified two types of teach-er behaviors which impede the prog-ress of a lesson/or cause slowdowns:overdwelling and fragmentation.

Overdwelling is spending more .

time on an issue such as student be-havior or task performance than isnecessary for the student's under-standing. It ay be sp nding toomuch time gi ing el orate directionsand long, dra t explanations orit may be lecturing about student be-havior. A listener's response toteacher overdwelling might be, "All'right, all right, enough already. Iunderstand." Some specific examplesof overdwelling follow. .

In response to Richard's talking inclass, the teacher not only tellsRichard to stop talking, but interruptsthe flow of the lesson to lecture the

class about talking saying, "Now youall know this is not a playground.This is a classroom and we're sup-posed to be learning. We have rulesgoverning student talk and the rulessay you are not to talk when I talkand when we are all busy-working,you are supposed to be quiet. Quietmeans whisper so you don't disturbothers who are working. Now let's allbe good classroom citizens by follow-ing the rules and not disturbing --%others ( Kounin, 1977)." Such lecturs'

usually turns students off andt ey begin thinking about something

se while the teacher talks. Consider-ble learningtime is wasted.,,During a recitation setting, 't)-ie stu-

dents are at the reading circle takingturns reading. It's Mary's turn andshe begins reading. The teacher inter-rupts her to tell her she could readbetter if she stood or sat up straight,held her head up, faced the otherchildren, and held her book properly.The teacher then demonstrates whatshe means to Mary and to the-rest ofthe reading group. Before allowingMary to resume reading, the teacherdirects the group. to sit up'straight sothey can be good listeners. Finally,the teacher says, "All right, I guesswe're all ready. So, Mary please con-tinue." The teacher has drawn thestudents' attention away from thereading and the story and focused iton procedural details. This hasslowed the activity and caused thestudents to lose sight of the tpain ,

fo us of the lesson.n another situation, the teacher is

explaining to the class how to add bytwds to prepare them for a seat as-signment. The teacher has the classcall out in unison all the lodd num-bers as she points to thein on a num-ber chart, beginning with. 1 and'con-tinuipg.through 99. By the time the\


11

EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 11°

teacher finishes the activity, many ofthe students have lost interestbecause they feel they already under-stand the process and the activity .1stoo repetitive. Overdwelling, ingeneral, causes students to lose inter-est in the main idea of the activity.To avoid overdwelling, more effectivemanagers consider tl*-appropriate-ness of their actions or activities withrespect to the main academic focusand practice giving the minimumamount of instructions necesary fortheir lessons.

The other major type of slowdown,fragmentation, occurs when a teacherbreaks down an activity 3nto severalunnecessary steps when the activitycould have best been performed as asingle activity. A common examplemight be when the teacher has thestudents turn in their assignments in-dividually rather than collect them bytables or rows. Thi7i procedure wastestime and generates considerable con-fusion as students gather around theteacher's desk. Fragmentation also oc-curs when a teacher, directing herclass to put away their spelling booksand materials and take out their arith-metic workbooks, actually coachesthe students through the entire pro-cess step by step"close your books,put them in your desks, take out

\ your math workbooks, now turn topage...." Or consider the scienceteacher who has the class collect thematerials for their experiments sys-tematically by rows. "Row one mayget up and get their beakers. Rowtw1 o may get theirs. Now row three.Now row one may line up to putsome salt in their beakers. Now twomay follow," and so forth until eachrow \has.salt and water (Charles,1981). This process leaves most ofthe class sitting at their desks doing,nothing. A better process might be to

have each row move in rotation fromone supply table to another so thatmore than one row is getting theirsupplies at one time or have a mem-ber of each row go to the supplytable at the bzirie time to get all ofone supply for their row. Involvingas ma y students as possible in anactivity helps to focus their attentionand keep them invovled. It also re-duces the possibility of misbehaviorstemming from boredom.

Keep in mind that these types ofslowdowns represent common be-havior patterns of less effective teach-ers. That is to say, effective teachersmay exhibit these patterns occasion-ally, but ineffective teachers exhibitthem frequently. Furthermore, thesepatterns occur well after the schoolclimate has been established. For in-stance, overdwelling and fragmenta-tion to some degree might be presentat the beginning of the year in orderfor teachers to teach rules and pro-cedures to students and reinforcethem.

In general, students tend to be at-tentive when they have a clear, con-tinuous academic signal to attend to.Managing smooth transitions betweenactivities and maintaining momentumare key to establishing this continu-ous'signal. In fact, Kounin found thatmaintaining momentum throughout alesson and the day was the singlemost successful behavior manage-ment technique forpromotingworkinvolvement and minimizing behav-ior disruptionk Movement manage-ment was even more significant incontrolling behavior .than techniquesof deviancy management per se. Inshort, without a continuous academicsignal or task to focus upon/ studentstend toward misbehavior and suchproblems escalate in frequency andintensity the more often students. areleft without a signal.



GROUP FOCUSClassroom teachers are charged

with the rer,ponsibility of teachinglarge numbers

roomstudents at one time

and in one room or space. They are,not simply tutors respOnsible for onlyone child at one time. Typically,teachers teach students either as awhole class or as several smallgroups working concurrently. KOuninfound that a teacher's ability to main-tain group focus, i.e. keep studentson their toes and actively involved inlearning, and to hold students ac-countable for their work is essentialto good classroom management. Thisfinding is supported by another studyconducted by Wilford Weber (1981).Weber identified a variable similar togroup focus, group cohesiveness, asone of ten techniques selected byteachers successful in maintaining aneffective classroom environment.Kounin studied three aspects of groupfocus: format, group alerting andaccountability.

GROUP FORMATTypically; within any recitation set-

ting, there are performing studentsthose students who are readingaloud, responding to a teacher's ques-tion or demonstrating a skill-7andnon-performing students. Group for-mat refers to the degree to which theorganization or formal set-up of alearning activity has been pro-grammed to actively involve the non-performers as well as the performers.Kounin identified a range of formatsfrom high to moderate to low partici-pation. An optimal or high participa-tion format is one in which all thestudents in the class are required toperform individually at the sametime. For example, an elementaryteacher asks her students to locate thenumber card at their desks which an-

swers the question, "How much iseight plus four?" After everyone hasselected a card, the teacher has thestudents raise their cards simultane-ously on a cue; she then providesfeedback. Another example would behaving students work a geometryproblem at their desks while otherswork it at the board. The teacher thencompares the answers of the studentsat their desks to those at the boardthrough a show of hands. A moder-ate participation format is one inwhich children in a reading group areasked to read along silently whileanother student reads aloud, knowingthat they will be asked to locate someword, picture or event after the read-ing. Programming lessons for a mod-erate to high degree of student partici-pation is an effective behavior man-agement technique because it helpsto elithinate dead time for non-per-formers and keeps them actively in-volved in the learning. However,Kounin found that the activity formatper sethe organization, the propsstudents usedin and of itself didnot affect student work involvement.Rather, it was how the teacher con-ducted the lesson to hold the group'sfocus, and to hold them accountablefor their work which was instrumen-tal to maintaining student workinvolvement.

GROUP ALERTINGGroup alerting is what a teacher

does to grab the attention of all thestudents in a group and keep it con-tinuously focused on the learning ac-tivity. This teacher skill is key tomaintaining high levels of studentwork involvement (or time on taskSee Time on Task research) especiallyduring recitation settings and to pre-vent student off-task behavior.Kounin identified the following group


11


alerting or high interest techniquesused by more effective teachers to.hold students' attention and other-wise keep them on their toes:

1. Attracting Vudents' attention byasking a questi3O before calling on astudent to respond.

2. Holding attention by pausing tolook around the group to bring thestudents in before calling on someoneto respond or recite, by asking for ashow of hands before selecting some-one, or by using other high interestcues such as 'saying "Let's put on ourthinking caps, this one might foolyou," before selecting a student(elementary).

3. Keeping students in suspense asto who will be called upon next byavoiding a predictable pattern forselecting students. *

4. Calling on different studentswitlksufficient frequency so that stu-.'dents don't tune out because thesame group is always called upon.

5. Interspersing individual re-sponses with mass unison responses.

6. Alerting non-performing studentsin a group that they may be calledupon in connection with the perform-

, er's response or to recall somethingthe performer recited.

Kounin also identified some.com-mon teacher practices which reducestudent attention levels, particularlyamong non-performing students. Lesseffective teachers do the following.too often:

1. Focus on one student at a time,

NOTE: Kounin actually argues for a random selectionof students (turn-takers) to respond to keep studentsalert. However, Jere Brophy has produced research ad-vocating ordered turn-taking. Briefly, Brophy has foundthat with totally random selection, teachers frequentlymiss certain students in their classthose they subcon-sciously don't want to have to deal with (chronicmisbehavers or the generally unsuccessful) or those in aparticular part of the room as in the teacher who consis-tently missed students in the first row because she urf--\kknowingly looked directly beyond them. Brophy con-

shifting their attention away from thegroup and to the performing studentonly.

2. Choose a student to respond be-fore asking the question, causing theother students to lose interest becausethey know they don't have torespond.

3. Select students in a predictablepattern or sequence, such as clock-wise around a circle, or by rows, so,that students are free to focus their at-tention elsewhere until it is their turnto respond.

ACCOUNTABILITYAccountability is simply holding

students accountable for doing theirwork. If students know that theirteacher expects them to do theirwork, will always check to see thatthey did it, and will provide feedbackregarding their performance, they aremore inclined to remain academicallyinvolved and on-task and to completetheir work. In a recitation activity, ac-countability is a specific group man-agement practice which ensures theacademic involvement of non-per-forming students as well as perform-ing students. Some specific tech7.,niques for holding non-perf9rmingstudents accountable during recitationactivities follow (Note that many ofthese are the same for group alerting);:

1. Teacher checks students' an-swers or other performances by ask-ing them to hold up their cards orother props.

dudes that the benefit of creating suspense through ran-dom selection is far less than the liability created whenall students are not given a fair and equal chance to in-teract directly with the teacher. A strategy which drawsupon the merits of both random selection and orderedturntaking is to call upon students in some §ystematicpattern which allows the teacher to interadwith all stu-dents and yet is not recognizable to the students, suchas, calling on students randomly while recording it on aeating chart so the teacher can readily determine which

s dents haven't had an opportunity to respond.

14 / EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

.11

RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

----)1.12.

Teacher requires group to reciteunison while actively listening for

individual responses. ,

.1 3. Teacher checks for understand-ing of a larger number of students ,byasking some students to comment onwhether another student's perform7ance was right or wrong. ("Mike,watch Linda do, the problem at theboard and tell me if it's right.")

4. Teacher circulates around thegroup and checks the answers or per-formance of students at their seatswhile another student is asked to per-form aloud or at the board.

5. Teacher asks for the raisedhands of students who are preparedto demonstrate a skill or problem andthen requires some of them to dem-onstrate it.

AVOIDING SATIATIONSatiation means becoming bored,

or coming to dislike an activity be-cause one's had enough of it. Thisterm describes a classroom phenome-non in which there is a noticeablechange in the dynamics of an activitydue to repetition. Specifically, Kouninfound that repetition of an activityoften causes less work involvementin and liking for an activity (Charles,1981). As students perceive that anactivity is becoming increasingly rep-etitious they become less involved init and exhibit more off-task behaviorssuch as looking out the window oraround the room, daydreaming, tyingshoes, talking to a neighbor, readinga newspaper or "good" book, etc. Ineffect, students begin looking forsomething. more stimulating to do.

As satiation increases, the qualityof student work decreases becausestudents become even less involvedand more careless. Students beginperforming their Work mechanicallywhich often leads to a "breakdown"

in the activity. Either because theywant to invest as little energy as pos-sible in the activity or in an effort toadd some variety to the task, studentsbreakdown an activity into a series ofmeaningless steps. For example, stu-dents made to write multiplicationfacts (say the 7s tables) for the "urn-teenth time" may start by writing aseries of 7s down their paper, fol-lowed by a series of Xs next to the7s, followed by a listing of the fac-tors, followed by a series of signsand so forth rather than write eachmultiplication equation separately.Often in this process it becomes ap-parent that students have lost themeaning of the activity or the conceptbeing learned since they are nolonger writing a series of multiplica-tion equations but rather a listing ofnumbers and mathematical signs.

PROGRESSKounin identified three instruction-

ally related qualitiespi-ogress, va-lence and challenge arousal, andvariety-.--which when present help toreduce the level of satiation in class-rooms, The most important elementinfluencing the rate of satiation is asense ofprogress. Students who feelthey are making definite progresseither don't become satiated or takeconsiderably longer to become sati-ated. In contrast, students who areforced to do the same thing over andover have a sense of not getting' any-where and are quickly satiated. Inlooking for specific positive cueswhich teachers might use to help cre-ate a feeling of progress or accom-plishment such as building on a pre-vious day's work, "Yesterday welearned...now we're going to see ifwe can...," or pointing out some realimprovement, "You got two moreproblems right today than you did

EDUCATIONAL ItDISSEMINATION

AND EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 15

yesterday," Kounin found that therewere very few instances in whichteachers did anything special to cre-'ate a sense of progress; yet, feeling asense of progress is crucial to slowingthe rate of satiation especially forolder students. This concept of prog-ress can also be linked to the conceptof success rate in the teaching effec-tiveness research. The findings onsuccess rate suggest that studentslearn more when they are given, newinstruction at a brisk pace and at adifficulty level which they can masterreadily. This mode of instructionwould not only insure a high successrate (which the research says is mosteffective) but also a sense of progresswhich leads to greater workinvolvement.

Kounin also looked at the length ofactivities in a school day as a dimen-sion of progress. He found that pro-gramming the length of an activity totake into consideration student atten-tion spans was not a significant factorin maintaining high levels of studentwork involvement. That is to say thelength of an activity per se did not af-fect student attention.

VALENCE AND CHALLENGEAROUSAL

Valence and challenge arousal referto the specific techniques teachersuse to "psych up" students for thenext academic activityget themmore involved in, curious or enthusi-astic about it. Such techniques in-clude the teacher showing genuinezest or enthusiasm for the activity;making motivational comments like,"This one is going to be fun, I knowyou'll enjoy it;".or delivering a spe-cial challenge as in, "You're going toneed your ,thinking caps for the nextone, it's tricky." As a technique for

reducing satiation and 'maintainingstudent work involvement, Kouninfound valence and challenge arousalto be somewhat successful.

VARIETYProgramming variety into learning

activities and the school day plays asignificant role in reducing satiation.Kounin found that early elementarystudents, in particular, need varietyto hold their attention and keep themfrom losing interest. By variety,Kounin means designing a day orweek with sufficiently different learn-ing activities so as to limit theamount of time students spend work-ing on the same type of activity.

To add spice to the day, teacherscan vary the academic content orsubject between activities perhapsstarting with a quiet reading period,followed by an active physical educa-tion session, followed by a math ses-sion and then a spelling game., Teach-ers can also vary the group configura-tion of an activity by using a smallgroup format, a whole class format orby having students shift from onesubgroup to another across activities.The type and level of intellectualfunction required by a task can alsovary. Some activities might requirestudents to simply listen or copysomething down. Others might re-quire students to practice a skill as inoral /reading, or demonstrate theircomprehension as in recalling part ofa story, or answering questions orallyor in writing. Still other activitiesmight require abstract thinking or cre-

/alive expression. Teachers can alsovary the props used' in a lesson aswell as the way they present. Theycan demonstrate, direct an activity,lead a discussion, participate alongwith students, circulate among stu-



dents and observe students. All thesetechniques Can combine to createvariety among activities to reducesatiation.

While older students benefit fromvariety, Kounin found that they didnot need as much of it. as youngerstudents. These students seemed tobenefit more by working on the sameactivity for a longer period of time orat least for a sufficient length of timewhich would allow them to experi-

ing satiation among older studentsthan was experiencing variety.

Kounin also found that variety wasmore critical during seatwork ac-tivities than during recitationtivities. In fact, programme valietyduring seatwork activiqes-was thesingle most imporpnrmanagementtechnique for ,maintaining high levelsof student,Work involvement. In con-trast,thi other group -managementtechniques presented earlier were far

ence, mastery of the activity. Having/ more important to maintaining stu-a sense of progress and accomplish- dent during recitationmeni was more important f r'reduc- activities.



, REFERENCES\Anderson, L., Evertson, C., and Brophy, J., "An Experimental Study of Effective Teaching in

First Grade Reading Groups," Elementary School Journal, 1979, Vol. 79, pp. 193-223.

Barringer, D., and Gholson, B., "Effects of Type and Combination of Feedback upon Concep-tual Learning by Children; Implications for Research in Academic Learning," Review ofEducational Research, 1979, Vol. 49, pp. 459-478.

Brophy, Jere, "Teacher Praise: A Functional Analysis," Review of,Educational Research,Spring 1981a, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 5-32.

Brophy, Jere, "On Praising Effectively," The Elementary School Journal, May 1981b,Vol. 81, No. 5, pp. 269-278.

Brophy, J.E. and Good, T.L., "Brophy-Good System" (Teacher-child Dyadic Interaction. InA. Simon and E.G. Boyer (eds.). Mirrors for Behavior: An Anthology of Observation In-struments continued, 1970 supplement Volume 'A. (Philadelphia: Research for BetterSchools), 1970 (a).

Brophy, J.E. and Good, T.L., Teacher-Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences.(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston), 1974.

Dunkin, M. and Biddle, B., The Study of Teaching. (New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston), 1974.

Evertson, C., Anderson, C., Anderson, L., and Brophy, J., "Relationships Between ClassroomBehaviors and Student Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes,"American Educational Research Journal, 1980, Vol. 7,pp. 43-60.

O'Leary, K. and O'Leary, S., (eds.), Classroom Management: The Successful Use of BehaviorModification (2nd ed.). (New York: Peigamon), 1977.

Stokes, T., Fowler, S., and Baer, D., "Training Preschool Children to Recruit Natural Com-munities Reinforcement," Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 1978, Vol. II.pp. 285-504.

Yarrow, M., Waxier, C., and Scott, P., "Child Effects on Adult Behavior," DevelopmentalPsychology, 1971, Vol. 5, pp. 300-311.

Walker, H., The Acting-Out Child: Coping with Classroom Disruption. (Boston: Allyn andBacon), 1979.

Ware, B., "What Rewards Do Students Want," Phi Delta Kappan, 1978, Vol. 59,pp. 355-356.

18 / EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ,

.124,


RESEARCH ON

EFFECTIVEGROUP MANAGEMENTPRACTICES

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

Jacob Kounin in Discipline andGroup Management in Classrooms(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 'NY,1970) identified the following teacherbehavior patterns associated withmore effective classroom manage-ment as evidenced by greater studenttime spent on learning activities andless student misbehavior.

With -it -mess is a teacher's ability tocommunicate to her students that sheknows what they are doing in theclassroom at all times. In effect, it'swhat a. teacher does to give her stu-dents the impression that she haseyes in the back of her head. Theeasiest and most visible way forteachers to let their students knowthey are "with-it" is by nippingbehavior problems in the bud beforethey escalate, catching the rightculprit, and stopping the more seri-ous of two simultaneous misbehav-iorS first.

Overlapping is the teacher's abilityto effectively handle two classroomevents at the same time as opposedto becoming so totally glued to oneevent that the other is neglected.Teachers frequently, encounter' suchproblems as having to deal with astudent who needs assistance com-pleting an assignment or who hasjust returned from a pull-out pro-gram, while trying to work with asmall group of students or having todeal with a misbehavior such asstudent-talking or a student reading a

newspaper while trying to lead awhole class discussion. Teachersskilled in overlapping are able tomaintain the flow of their instructionor otherwise hold students account-able for their work while at the sametime effectively dealing with theinterruption.

Smoothness is a teacher's ability tomanage smooth transitions betweenlearning activities. It involves having'good transition routines; using signalsas cues to prepare students for transi-tions and clearly ending one activitybefore moving on to another. '

Smoothness also involves selectivelyignoring certain minor misbehaviorswhich can be handled just as effec-tively after a learning activity in order .to avoid interrupting the instruction.

Momentumgs the ability to main-tain a steady sense of movement orprogress throughout a lesson or theday. Teachers skilled, in momentumconduct their lessons at a brisk pace,providing a continuous academic sig-nal or tasks for students to focusupon. They avoid any behaviorwhich may slow down a lesson orlose students' interest such as givinglong drawn out directions or explana-tions, lecturing on student behavioror breaking activities down into stepswhich are too small.

Group Focus and Accountabilityrefers to a teacher's ability to keep thewhole class or group of students "ontheir toes" and involved in learning

. ,

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 19

by struct ring activities so that allstudents, tt1 non-performing andperforming wading aloud, answeringa question) are actively participating;

r-

by students accountable fordoi : their ork; and by creatingsuspe-_-,o other high interest tech-niques for holding students' attention

ds,


124

-EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

A(

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:


1Training Activity (

forGROUP MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

"Ego-Tripping on With-it-ness"

To understand what it means to be "with-it" and to iden-tify specific teacher techniques which lead to greaterwith-it-ness

Group Discussion

Large Group

15 to 30 minutes

Reproduce- activity for appropriate number of particip4its

Have teachers read the entire activity and jot down (iftime permits) their thoughts to the questions on the lastpage of the activity. Ask the teachers to share theirresponses with the group. Encourage teachers to look forcues as to how they can become more "with-it" by under-standing their moments of good and poor "with-it-ness."Bring out the importance of monitoring student behaviorat all times and ask for specific techniques or strategieswhich can make this process easier for teachers. Someexamples might be: checking more frequently those partsof the room in which you anticipate more off-taskbehavior or misbehavior occurring; positioning "problem"students nearest to you so they can quickly and readilybe monitored; establishing a good room arrangementwhich eliminates "blind spots" and permits easy monitor-ing by the teacher; keeping your detk relatively clear sothat if you have work to do you can readily glance upand check on students; .circulating around the roomespecially during seatwork; etc.

.1)EDUCATIONAL RES CR ANDDISSEMINATION PRO

12,)


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EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 23'

A good captain utilizes the crew to its fullest potential. Each person has ajob to do; has been given instructions on how to do the job; knows whereand when to perform his duties; and fully expects that the captain willcheck to see that it's well done.

YOUR CHORE

Reviewing Kounin's Definitions:1. With-it-nessletting your students know that you are aware of everything

that is going on in.. the classroom.2. Overlappingdealing with two simultaneously occurring classroom

events.

Consider these questions in light of your present situation.A) During which classroom activities do you feel "with-it"; in other words,

your students perceive you as knowing what's going on in theclassroom?

2) During which classroom activities are you most likely in need of yourwith-it-ness and overlapping skills?,

3) Are there any class periods or certain times of the day when your,"with-it-ness" wilts?

4) Can you identify a student, a group, or an area of the room, that needsmore specific attention than others during independent activities?

Having considered the pr.vious questions, now respond to the following:I. I am really "with-it" when...

II. I don't think I'm with-it when... .

III. I. can get "with-it" by..;

Please share some of your discoveries with the group.

I


12


TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:



GROUP MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

"Keeping It Smooth"

To recognize those teacher behaviors which can 1eacito abreakdown in instructional activities

Group Discussion

15-30 minutes


Have teachers read the'entire activity. Then ask teachersto share their assessments of each Roman numeratedsituation with the group. Where discussants indicate abreakdown in the activity teacher's instructional process,have them identify how the teacher could have bettermanaged the situation. Also encourage the discussants totalk about how and at what point the teacher might haveregained the focus and momentum of the activity.Note: An annotated activity, the Trainer's Copy, is provided to assistthe trainer in Ieadipg a group discussion.

I



Trainer's Copy

"KEEPING IT SMOOTH"

Training Activityon

Group Management Research

Read the follqwing classroom scenario. Identify those situations in whichthe teacher seems to be running the class smoothly. Also identify those situa-tions in which the teacher's smoothness and momentum seem to breakdown. Make spedfic suggestions as to how the teacher could have bettermanaged those situations using good group management techniques.

CLASSROOM NARRATIVEI It is the first period of the day. The

students are intheir assigned seats and have just com-pleted their ,opening exercises which in-clude: taking attendance, collecting lunchmoney, etc.

II Next, the teacher instructs the. class to goquietly and directly tothe "DiscussionCorner" so that they can share the experi-ences they had on the trip they took onthe previous day. As the students aremoving to the Discussion Corner, theteacher remembers that they had home-

, work, which was a writing assignmentabout their trip. She announces "Beforeyou go to the discussion corner, turn inyour homework"

III Most of the students in the class manageto get back to their desks, rummagethrough and/find their homework assign-ments. Since they had received no in-struction as to where to put the assign-ments, the students begin to crowdaround the teacher in an effort to placethe papers in her hands. Those studentswho didn't do the homework siMply pro-ceed to the Discussion. Corner.

TRAINER'S NOTES

Class is running smoothly.

Lesson on smoothness andmomentum are interrupt-ed by a dangle. Teacher.Creates a false start by ask-ing for the students' home-work after they alreadybegin to follow her firstdirection to move to theDiscussion Corner.

Teacher's dangle createsconfusion and disorderlybehavior. Problem is com-pounded by a lack of spe-cific directions regardinghow or where to turn inthe homework assign-

I ments. Teacher couldhave regained the lessonsmoothness and momen-tum by_grabbing the stu-dents' attention, refocusingit and giving clear, specificdirections.Confusion and misbehav-ior intensify.

?ZONAL RESEARCH ANDINATION PROGRAM

EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES /.29

IV Other students who manage to give theirpapers to the teacher join the no home-work" group at the Discussion Corner.Some of them seize upon the moment ofconfusion and begin to roll,around on thecarpet.

V The teacher notices the misbehavior inthe Discussioh Corner and promptlymarches over to reprimand, those studentswho are acting out, leaving, the other stwdents in the vicinity of her desk and otherparts of the room.

VI Those students who had not been suc-cessful in giving their papers to theteacher are not sure about what theyshould do next, so some of them placethe papers in different areas on her desk;some hold on to their, papers; and someof the papers fall to the floor.

VII After the entire class has assembled in theDiscussion Corner, the teacher states "Be-fore we talk about our trip experiences, Ithink we should discuss the way we be-haved during the last five minutes. Jim-

t.you were the silliest, you talkfirst....and if ever you behave like thatagain, I'll send for your parents..."

The teacher exhibits with-it-ness by iminediately at-tending to the misbehav-ior, However, she fails tooverlap by giving the stu-dents who are trying toturn in their papers anydirection to hold them ac-countable before dealingwith the misbehavior.Students who: are leftwithout any teacher direc-tion exhibit confusedbehavior.

While the teacher needs toregain the group's focusand give feedback aboutthe students' poor behav-ior, her reprimand of Jim-my, is -not very effectiveand borders on overdwell-ing. Teacher could discussthe past five minutes in amore constructive man-ner, especially since herlack of smoothness precip-itated the eventr

30 /EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICESEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


133

"KEEPING IT SMOOTH"Training Activity

onGroup Management Research

Read the following classroom scenario. Identify those situations in whichthe teacher seems to be running the class smoothly. Also identify those situa-tions in which the teacher's smoothness and momentum seem to breakdown. Make specific suggestions as to how the teacher could have bettermanaged those situations using good group management techniques.

CLASSROOM NARRATIVE: ,I It is the first period of the day. The students are in their assigned seats

and have just completed their opening exercises which include takingattendance, collecting lunch money, etc.

II The teacher instructs the class to go quietly and directly to the "Discus-sion Corner" so that they can share the experiences they had on thetrip they took the previous day. As the students are moving to theDiscussion Corner, the teacher remembers that they had homework,which was a writing assignment about their trip. She announces"Before you come to the discussion corner, turn in your homework."

III Most of the students in the class manage to get back to their desks,rummage through and find their homework assignments. Since theteacher gave no instructions as to where to put the assignments, thestudents begin to crowd around the teacher in an effort to place thepapers in her hands. Those students who didn't do the homeworksimply proceed to the Discussion Corner.

IV Other students who manage to give their papers to the teacher join the"no homework" group at the, Discussion Corner. Some of them seizeupon the moment of confusion and begin to roll around on the carpet.

V The teacher notices the misbehavior in the Discussion Corner andpromptly marches over to reprimand those students who are actingout, leaving the other students in the vicinity of her desk and otherparts of the room.

VI Those students who had not been succe8sful in giving their papers tothe teacher are not sure about what they should do next, so some of 2

them place the papers in different areas on her desk, some hold on totheir papers, and some of the papers fall to the floor.

VII After the entire class has assembled in the Discussion Corner, the vteacher states "Before we talk about our'trip experiences, I think weshould discuss the way we behaved during the last 5 minutes. Jimmyyou were the silliest, you talk first... and if ever you behave like thatagain, I'll send for your parents...."


13:

EFFECTIVEs GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 31

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME.

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

.DIRECTIONS:


3Training Activity


"With-it-ness in Action"

To identify effective desist techniques and specific teacherbehaviors which demonstrate with-it-ness andoverlapping

Roleplay or Group Discussion

Small or Large Groups

Roleplay 45 minutes/Group Discussion 30 minutes

Reproduce activity for/appropriate number of partici-pants. If the activity is to be roleplayed, determinewhether the participants need a description of the scenar-ios (see Roleplay direction). If the activity is to be used tostimulate group disCussion, reproduce the necessarynumber of worksheets to focus participants' ideas.

There are several options available to, you for leading thisactivity. Participants can either roleplay the scenarios ordiscuss them as a group. A decisio/Iregarding the appro-priate format should either be mad ahedd of time' or youshould use your best "sense of-audience" to determinewhich format is most suited to. the group's mood.Roleplay can be particularly stimulating because it pro-.vides for physical movement and teachers enjoy actingout, especially after a long day; however, sometimes thenumbers and the momentum of the 'group suggest groupdiscussion may be best.Roleplaying: As the activity leader, you can control theamount of information the actors have regarding theirparts. For example, you can decide that the participantwho plays the role of the teacher should have a full


I


13z,

understanding of the scenario he or she is to resfinnd to,including the problem student's part, thus eliminatingany anxiety. In this situation, supply the actors with acopy of the classroom narrative and the scenario, Or yocan deciFle to have t e par cipant playing the role ofteacher respond to th sroom disturbance spontane-ously. in this situation, supply all actors with a copy ofthe classroom narrative only. Privately explain to theselected actors their roles of "teacher" and "problem stu-dent," being careful to give the "teacher" minimal infor-mation. For example, in scenarios I and H, simply explainto the "teacher", that there are two other groups function-ing. Let the "teacher" discover the disruption for him orherself. Or in scenario III, simply explain that an LD stu-dent is out of the classroom. (Note: The participants neednot be divided into three groups. Two groupsthe teach-er directed group and the, problem group are sufficient.)

Encourage group discussion of the roleplay. Focusupon the "teacher's" desist techniques and his or her spe-cific behaviors which reinforce the concepts of with-it-ness and overlapping. Use discussion questions as aguide.Group Discussion: Have the participants read through theentire activity, including the scenarios. Select one or morescenarios for the participants to respond to. Have the par-ticipants complete the worksheet before disFussing theirstrategies or have them use it as a reference throughoutthe discussion. Encourage the participants to share theirdesist techniques and multiple strategies for managing thescenarios. Reinforce their with-it-ness and overlappingbehaviors. Use the discussion questions as a guide.

DISCUSSION'QUESTIONS: I. What action did the teacher take to control the

interruption?Was it effective and why? Was he or she "with-it"?

2. Are there circumstances in which the approach mightnot be as effective?

3. What provisions did the teacher make to insure thatthe other groups continue functioning while he or sheattended to the disruption?

4. What other strategies for managing the situation can beused?

r


133

EDUCATIONAL TOMR&RCM ARO,DISSIMUNA11011 PROGRAM

"WITH-IT-NESS IN ACTION"



Read the following classroom scenarios involving a typical learning period \in which the teacher is managing several instructional groups simultaneously.Choose one or more of the scenarios and decide how you would respond tothe behavior disruption using your with-it-ness and overlapping skills andOur most effective desist techniques. Keep in mind the concept of accounta-bility, also identified by the Kounin research.

CLASSROOM NARRATIVEThere are three groups functioning simultaneously in the4lassrooma

reading group directed by the teacher, an independent vocabulary group andan independent research group. (Other academic activity groups could besubstituted.) One child is out the classroom for L.D. instruction. The teach-er has already given cleir, s ecific directiTs to both the vocabulary groupand the research group regar ing their assignments. She has also remindedthe groups abOut working "quietly" which means soft whispers are allowed.

The vocabulary group is wbrking individually on crossword puzzles. Thave dictionaries and other reference books at their table to help them with.their assignment.

The research group is answering questions about an independent readingassignment. The questions are written on the chalkboard nd the students aregrouped around the board, writing the answers td the qudtions in theirnotebooks.

The teacher is leading a group discussion on the main ideas developed inthe chapter the reading group has just finished reading aloud.

r

Scenario IOne student in the vocabulary group decides that she needs a thesaurus to

find a special word for her crossword puzzle. She doesn't see one among thereference books. She also doesn't wish to disturb the teacher so she gets upand begins wandering around the room in search of the thesaurus.

Thelteacher looks up from the reading group and....

Scenario II,One student in the research group has become bored with the assignment

and decides to liven up the group. She moves to the chalkboard and 'draws afunny face on the board, labeling it "teacher." The research group begins to,giggle. The student, inspired by the attention, adds more to the picture. The..group starts to laugh louder.

The,teacher hearing the laughter looks up, scans the room, notifies the classclown at the board and....

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCILIANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

4

(EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 35

13

OR (The teacher doesn't yet notice the disturbance,) Other students in thegroup join in the fun and begin scribbling on the board, adding their own in-terpretations to the teacher's picture, The group now has the attention of thewhole class which is watching the entertainment.

The teacher notices the "turned" heads and keys in on the noise comingfrom the research group, The teacher goes into action....

(Respond to one or both situations. Distinguish between those steps youmight take in the first situation where you have caught the problem early andonly one student is misbehaving and a few are off -task versus the secondsituation in which the disruption has been noticed much laterseveralstudents are misbehaving and the whole class is off-task.)

Scenario IIIThe L.D. student, who attends a rigularly scheduled pull-out program, has

been made to wait alone in the tutoring room for some time only to find outhis special education teacher will be unable to meet with him today.Frustrated and angry he returns to his regular class. He arrives unexpectedly"and visibly upset. He slams the door, bumps into other students and theirdesks, and mumbles loudly to himself.

The teacher looks up surprised and....

38 / EFFEC GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

13.3

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCM ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

"WITH-IT-NESS IN ACTION"

Worksheetfor

Group Discussion/Written Activity Format

1 , Check the classroom scenario on which you focused.

0 Scenario the student from the vocabulary group looking for thethesaurusScenario II: the class clown(s) in the research groupscenario III: the unexpected LI). student who returns to class

2. Explain the group management strategies you recommend for dealing withthat scenario.

Describe how these strategies are supported by the Kounin research. Pleaseidentify specific research concepts.

Share your strategies with the group. Discuss alternative strategies.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AlbDISSEMINATIONfROGRAM


136


4Training Activity


"Putting Together"

OBJECTIVES: To link the findings from the Beginning of the YearClassroom Management research regarding room arrange-ment, setting clear expectations, having good procedures,and reinforcing expectations with the findings from theGroup Management research

PROCESS:

FORMAT).

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:

Brainstorm/Group Discussion

Large Group

30-45 minutes


Have teachers read the entire activity. Ask them to brain-storm all the things they would have to consider withineach of the three aspects of grouping in order to makesure their groups operate smoothly. Use the followingflow-chart' as a guideline to the points that should becovered in the brainstorm. Encourage teachers to high-light differences in grouping preparations which may bebased on the reason for the grouping pattern. An examplemight be procedures for seeking the teacher's help ifstudents are ability grouped or if the teacher is activelyleading one group.Hirit: To reinforce the ideas shared, you may want toreproduce the brainstorm schefnata on a board filling inthe ideas generated around the appropriate groupingaspect, or in some other way, record the ideas generatedon a board or tabloid.



13

Trainer's Copy

"PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER"

Flow Chart for Trainers

Brainstorm

I. Forming Groupsroom arrangementtypes of grouping possibleprocedures for moving into groups - permanentgrou s

- ad hoc groupsgeneral rules governing behavior in groups, i.e., talking, get-ting teacher's attentionprocedures for creating group - task oriented/teacher defined

- student choice- count, off

appropriateness of task for groupsdifficulty and in-dependence level

II. Giving Directionsclear concise explanation of academic taskhow and where to get materials or supplieswhat to do when students complete tasksupplemental orenrichment activitieshow to get teacher's attentionwhen there is/is not ateacher directed group functioning simultaneouslywhen to give directionswithin groups or for all groups atoncereinforcementwritten directions on board or ditto to sup-plement teacher directionschecking for understanding

III. Accountability and Monitoringexpectations for work completionfeedbackif teacher is/is not also actively leading a group

/EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM


13S \

"PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER"



Teachers frequently use small, simultaneously functioning groups forvarious instructional periods or activities. These groups may be formulatedbased on student ability, student choice, the design of the activity, teamlearning strategies, etc. The findings from the Beginning of the YearClassroom Management research and the Group Management research areboth related and mutually supportive. Think back to the basic beginning ofthe year concepts such awoom arrangement; setting clear expectations forbehavior and work, and reinforcing expectations through monitoring, with -it..ness and accountability. What groundwork do you have to lay or prepara-tions do .you haveaa make to insure your groups function smoothly and withminimal opportunities for disruptions? Brainstorm around the followingaspects of grouping.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM EFFECTIVE GROUP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES / 43


las

TEACHERPRALSE / 1

1.46

INTRODUCTIONThis research unit is on providing

Teacher Praise as a form of positive'feedback. Given its -relationship tofeedback, it can be presented eitheras a separate unit on Teacher Praise,as shown here, or as a sub-unit of thesection on "Providing Feedback"-under the research unit on Direct In-struction or Interactive Teaching. Wefound it useful to present thisresearch study after the ClassroomManagement research for severalreason's. First, it provided a link to thefeedback sections of the classroommanagement research and served asa transition between the managementand teaching effectiveness research.Secondly, this research is counter-intuitive in nature; it's an "eyeopener" because some of the findingsare counter to teachers' feelings aboutpraising students. We found thatteachers readily accept the classroommanagement research findingsbecause they offer immediate prac-tical applications for teachers and,they make sense; they it.teachers'value systems. As noted; in an earlierunit, it's important initially \todissuade teachers' negative feelingstoward research and to gain credibili-ty for yourself. We introduced theTeacher Praise research after theclassroom management research as a

way of challenging teachers and en-couraging them toquestion researchfindings, now that they were willingto view research as a useful tool forteachers.

The basic concepts presented inthis research summary are:E teacher praise is not essential to

student learning; it seldom servesas a reinforcer for studentbehavior.

III Teacher praise can serve a varietyof other meaningful functions, par-ticularly since most teachers enjoypraising students and moststudent.sappreciate some teacherpraise, especially private praise.

111 effective teacher praise exhibits thefollowing qualities: contingency,specificity and sincerity.

E more effective teachers are con-scious of4keir distribution ofpraise.

This unit can be presented as a 1to 11/2 -hour training session with ap-proximately 30 minutes for presenta-tion and discussion of the concepts,15 to 30 minutes for discussion ofthe activity, and 30 minutes for theReaction to Research exercise fromthe preceding research session andPlan of Action exercise for implemen-ting new research concepts.


141

TEACHER PRAISE / 3

I

RESEARCH ON

ThACHER PRAISEEducational and psychological re-

search have clearly established thatproviding students with simple, time-ly feedback or knowledge about howwell they're performing is essential tostudent learning.* Such feedback canbe poSitive, as in-an affirmation thata response is correct, "right," "yds,"or "okay;" negative, as in a simple re-sponse, "no, that is not correct;" orcorrective, as in a statement whichgives the student the correct responseor a cue to the correct response.When providing feedback to students,most educational psychologists stressthe value of reinforcing or rewardinggood student conduct or academicperformance. Moreover, they advo-cate teacher praise, which goes be-yond simple positive feedback, as adesirable form of such reinforcement.Praise not only tells a student he orshe is correct, it also expresses appro-val, admiration, delight or enthusi-asm as in "very good!" or "You'vegot them all right, good work!" SuchrecommendStions by education psychologists presume that studentsperceive teacher praise as a rewardworth working towards.

However, Jere Brophy, a professorof teacher education and educationalpsyChology at the-Institute forResearch on Teaching (Michigan StateUniversity), found in his studies andafter reviewing other studies thatteacher praise' did not have any signi-ficant impact on student conduct,academic perforinance or other class-room processes in ways it shouldhave if it were truly serving as an im-

. 'Thus, providing feedback, either covert or otherwise,becomes an important on-going responsibility of teach-ers. Research has also shown that feedback need not

portant reinforcer for students, i.e. areward students were willing to work

'harder for (Brophy, 1981). He alsofound that most teacher praise doesnot function as a reinforcer either.be-cause it-lacks certain critical qualitiesor because it's not being conscio-uslyused as a reinforcer. He concludedthat while feedback and positive re-inforcement are essential to student'learning, teacher praise is not. Thisdoes not suggest that teacher ppiseshouldn't be used or that it can't be .used effectively. Since most studentsenjoy receiving some i?raise and mostteachers enjoy giving rbraise, this con-clusion simply points out that whilepraise can serve a variety of func-tions if used effectively, its power hasshort term lithitations. This summarywill highlight some of Brophy's find-ings on teachers' uses of praise andoffer recommendations, based on hisresearch, for using praise effectively.

THE EVIDENCE OF TEACHERPRAISE, AS A REINFORCER

Studies of how typical teachers(those not directly involved inDISTAR pr behavior 'modification pro-grams that feature regular use ofpraise) use praise indicate that theydo not use it as a reinforcement tech-nique. If teachers intended praise tobe 'reinforcing they would use it tohelp shape or modify student behav-ior by praising when students do welland by not praising when studentsdon't do well. However, typicalteacher praise is given infrequently;is largely dependent,on students' per-

always be covert since most learners assume they areorrect unless explicitly told otherwise (Barringer &holson, 1979).

,EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

1 el 3

TEACHER PRAISE / 5

sonaliti9,or the teacher's perceptionsof studeqs; need for praise ratherthan geiYine accomplishment; and isglobal and uninformative in nature.Dunk /n and Biddle (1974) found 'thatteachers use praise "no more than sixpercent of the total time on the aver-age." Classroom observations byBrophy and Good (1970a) reveal thatpraise of good answers or good workoccurred fewer than five times perhour and praise of good conduct ap-peared only once every 2-10 hours inthe early grades and was virtuallynonexistent thereafter. The averagestudent is praised only about onceper day, and most of these praisestatements are responses to good an-swers offered during recitations ordiscussions (Brophy, 1981b). Brophyand Good (1970a) also found a ten-dency for teachers to praise goodwork and to criticize poor conductrather than praise good conduct. Not-withstanding that teacher style andpertonality influence overall frequen-cy-of praise, these low rates generallyindicate that teachers do not system-atically use praise to reward or rein-force student performance.

Examination of the distribution ofteacher praise among students leadsto the same conclusion. If teacherswere using praise as a reinforcer, onewould expect to see teachers concen-trating their praise on those studentswhose behavior needs to be modifiedthe most. However, research indi-cates that most teacher praise is notgiven because student accomplish-ments warrant it, but because stu-dents are successful in "pulling" itfrom the teacher or because studentpersonalities make them more attrac-tive to the teacher. For example,Brophy and Good (1974) found thatcertain students (generally boys) re-

6 / TEACHER PRAISE

ceive both more praise and more crit-icism simply because they makemore contacts with the teacher andare generally more active within theclassmiom. Thesersame students alsotend to have more of every kind ofinteraction with their teacher. Brophyet al. also found that some studentssystematically receive more praise be-cause they initiate contacts with theteacher to show off; their work andbecause they convey an expectation .

for teacher praise. Still others receivemore praise because they exhibitsuch personality traits as confidence,sociability, and extroversion whichmake them more socially attractive asindividuals and effective in elicitingteacher praise. Some students actual-ly condition teachers to praise themby rewarding teachers directly fortheir praise with smiles or beamingproudly (Yarrow, Wexler and Scott,1971). In fact, a recent study (Stokes,Fowler, and Baer, 1978) indicatedthat preschool children trained torecruit praise from teachers byprompting their teachers to commentabout their work, actually receivedmore praise from their teachers fol-lowing the training than did the chil-dren without the training. Thus,,while some teachers may consciouslyuse praise to, encourage students orreinforce student effort, especiallyamong those experiencing difficultymastering curriculum, most teachersare not using praise to systematicallyshape student behavior orperformance.

The evidence presented demon-strates that most teacher praise is notused as a deliberate, systematic rein-forcement of student behavior or aca-demic accomplishment. Even if

--teachers .intended praise to ,lie rein-forcing there is some question as to

143

its potential effectiveness for modify-ing or shaping student performance..Only a few students are so stronglyinterested in pleasing their teacherthat they are motivated"to Work betterin exchange for teacher praise. gener-ally students in the early elemenlarygrades who are still adult-orientedfind teacher praise reinforcing(Walker, 1979). Also, at any gradelevel, but perhaps especially in theearlier grades, students who are .lowin ability or low achievers may bemore responsive .to teacher praise andencouragement (Brophy, 1981a).Such praise may be more meaningfuland motivating for these students be-cause they frequently experience fail-ure and are likely to be easily dis-couraged with learning. In contrast,high ability students and high-achievers who are accustomed to suc-cess find teacher praise less motivat-ing. Also,, older students who aremore interested in peer approval aregenerally less re.sponsive to teacherpraise, especially public praise, evento the.point of being less likely to per-form the praised behavior again.High school students ranked teacherpraise and encouragenient 10th outof a list of-fifteen potential rewards,including the opportunity to reach a,goal first (ranked.first), being ac-cepted, receiving compliments, tro-phies, certificates or special privi-leges, or having one's name in thepress. Interestingly, teachers rankedtheir praise even lower, almost at thebottom of the same list (Ware, 1978).Some social and educational psychol-ogists question the merit of usingpraise, arguing that teacher praiseshould not be relied on too heavily asit,represents a form of extrinsic re-4rard. Too much teacher praise mayfocus students' attention on pleasing

the teacher rather than working fortheir personal gratification, an intrin-sic reward (Brophy, 1981a).

HOW TEACHERS USE: PRAISESince it seems that most teachers

do not deliberately and systematicallyuse praise as a reward, Brophy drewupon. .some observational studies anddiscussions with teachers to makesome inferences about how teachersdo use praise, some of which is desir-able and some is not. Some Pctise.occurs as a spontaneous expressfkri ofsurprise or admiration in reaction to astudent's ihsightful comment or. ac-complishment. This unplanned praise.prob.ably is more effective than anydeliberate attempt to praise particular-ly since it's based on genuine studentaccomplishment and because thepraise is accompanied by facial ex-pressions and other body languagewhich make it sincere. Suci-nuinepraise not only makes students feelgood, it helps them to better under-stand and appretiate their accom-plishments. As always, care must betaken however, not to express toomuch surprise over a student's ac-complishment; otherwise, it Mightbackfire, embarrassing the studentand .lindermining his or her confi-dence in his or her ability.

Sometimes, teachers use praise tospecifically draw students' attentionto their accomplishments, particularlywith underachievers or students whohave a negatiVe self- image. ("Youdidn't think you could do that, didyou? It just goes to show what I'vebeen trying to tell youif you'll stick'with it and not give up so easily, youwill find you can do the work") Thiskind of praise can be encouragingand inspire students to try harder.However, some teachers may use this


144

TEACHER PRAISE / 7

kind of 1j-raise to justify an earlier crit-icism of a tti.iciient for sloppy or poorwork when ey could have donebetter. To the extent that the teacher'spraise has a strong, "See, I told youso" message, its effectiveness as a re-i.-.Forcer probably is questionable.

Some teacher Praise is misused asa kind-of vicarious reinforcement.The intent of this praise is not somuch to praise the desired behaviorof the targeted student but rather toindirectly send a message to otherstudents to change or control their be-havior. For example, before leavingthe classroom for recess, students aresupposed to clear their desks. As theteacher looks around the room afterthe warning bell, she sees that only a .few students have cleared theirdesks. Instead of directing a state-ment to those students who haven'tcleared,their desks, the teacher sin-gles out Mary and says to the classand to Mary, "Mary, I like the wayyou cleared your desk. It looks soneat!" Or consider the teacher, whoupon. returning to her room after be-ing called away for a few minutes,notices several students in the backof the roomiwho are obviouslyclowning around instead of workingon their assignment. Rather than de-sisting those students, the teacherpraises Nancy and Steve for workingso quietly while she was gone. Ineach instance, the effectiveness of theteacher's praise as a signal to thenon-conforming students, to behaveproperly is highly questionatile. Inthe second example, recallingKounin's research, students mayquestion how well the teacher knewwhat was really going on or howstrongly the teacher intends to exerther leadership and insist that studentsfollow her behavioral rules. Further-

more, unless the children are veryyoung and adult-oriented (wanting toplease the teacher), such praise state-ments would have little impact onthe behavior of misbehaving stu-dents. Lastly, this kind of praise mayhave some ,unfortunate effects onMary, Nancy and Steve who recog-nize its true intent as manipulativerather than, sincere. They may beconcerned about being perceived bytheir peers as teacher's pets and mayeven begin responding slowly to theto her's directions to avoid beingsi gled out.

ometimes vicarious praise can bean ffective alternative to criticizingor agging" over inappropriate be-havi For erele, at.the beginningof the s year when teachers aretrying to teach students behavioralrules and instructional procedures,rather than negatively commentingon inappropriate behavior, the teach-er might praise students who havelearned the new rules as a way of of-fering. guidance about student behav-ior in a positive way. Such selectivelyused praise not only serves to rein-force good behavior and re-state classrules, it also helps to create a friend-ly, supportive atmosphere at the be-ginning. To avoid the teacher's petsyndrome, such praise may be betterdirected at groups of students ratherthan individuals.

Teachers sometimes use praise asan icebreaker to establish communi-cation with-an alienated student or apeace offering to reestablish normalrelationships with students they'vehad to criticize or punish. Often thispraise takes the form of a complimentregarding the student's grooming orclothing or some other personalaspect. With some students suchpraise can be helpful, recognizing

8 / TEACHER PRAISEEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


that it is not a substitute for solutk nsto students' communication probleor misconduct.

Most teacher praise kives to pro-vide encouragement to students, es-.pecially those of lower ability whohave difficulty with their school workor those who have feelings of self-doubt, ration or failure. Often,this pr 'se is given for effort ratherthan ac mplishment, and when it isgiven for accomplishment, it's l'asedon some scale of progress appropriateto the individual's ability level. Thistype of praise is certainly appropriateand potentially very effective. How-ever, care must be taken to insurethat public praise of student effort iscredible and rewarding. Sometimespraise can inadvertently be counter-productive as in the following exam-ple. During a fnultiplication drill exer-cise, a teacher was heard giving thefollowing feedback. "Tom, how muchis eight times seven? ...Right. Jane,nine times six? ...Okay. Bill, do youknow how much two times two is?...Good, Bill! That's exactly right!Nancy, how much is nine timeseight? ...fight." The teacher's con-spicuous praise o(Bill for knowingtwo times two could actually embar-rass Bill, 'particularly in light of howthe'teacher responded to the otherstudents' correct answers to more dif-ficult problems. Bill and his class- .

mates probably noticed the differencebetween the praise Bill, received forhis answer and the simple positivefeedback the other students received.If Bill is praised in this manner toooften, the students will eventually seethat the teacher doesn't think Bill istoo bright (Brophy, 1981b),

PRAISING EFFECTIVELYEven though praise may not be a

significant reinforcer for student

r-

learning, it's apparent that teachersdo give praise and that it can serve avariety of appropriate functions. Fur-thermore, at least under some cir-cumstances, students appreciate re-eiving praise. It's important then, for

chers to know how and when topr se students to maximize itsben its.

To e most effective, teacher praiseshoul .

Ube de vered contingently upon astudent perkrmance of a desiredor note rthy behavior;

specify th praiseworthy particularsof the perfumed behavior;

II be sincerely expressed usinglanguage which is appropriate tothe specific situation andpreferences of the praised student(O'Leary and O'Leary, 1977).

ContingencyFor praise to have the most mean-

ingful, positive effect on students, itshould be given contingently or onlyafter a student has performed a note-worthy behavior. Quality and credibi-lity of praise are probably muchmore important than quantity. Praiseis much more effective when teacheriu e it selectively, coitentrating theirpra'se on genuine student progress oracc i mplishment (Brophy, 1981 b). Infact when teachers are-consistent in3' praise contingently, students dorecog ize that they've donesomething praiseworthy when theyreceive praise (Brophy, 1981a).However, if teachers overuse praiseor use it indiscriminately,acknowledging both genuine accom-plishment and not so significant ef-fort, the praise becomes ambiguousand meaningless for students.

In judging what constitutes praise-worthy progress "or accomplishment,the individual student's past history


14TEACHER PRAISE / 9

or perfqrmance pectation should beconsidered. That is,' more effectivepraise is contingent upon some stan-dard of performance which is appro-priate to the individual instead ofsofne rigid, absolute standard pre-scribed for all or comparisons ofother students. Thus, it might be ap-propriate to praise slower students foraccomplishments that may not beconsidered praiseworthy for brighterstudents. (Such praise might also bestbe given privately.) Similarly, itmight be appropriate to praise a stu-dent who gave an incorrect responseif the effort behind the respbnse wassignificant or 'indicated some level ofcreativity, imagination or goodthinking.

SpecificityEffective teacher praise is specific;

it provides concrete information tostudents about their competence, thevalue of their accomplishment or thepraiseworthy aspects of their behav-ior. For example, in response to bluegroup's moving quietly and quicklyto their seats in the reading circle, aneffective, praise statement would be,"Very good! You all moved so quietlyand quickly to the circle today. Youeven pushed in your chairs quietly."The praise not only gives specificfeedback about the students' behav-ior, it also reconfirms the teacher'sexpectation and rule for moving intoreading groups. In contrast, a less ef-fective praise response would besimple, global statement like, "Vegood, boys and girls!"

Anderson, Evertson and Brophyfound that much teacher praise isvague rather than specific. In a study -of first grade teachers (1979), theyfound that teachers were specificabout 40 percent of the time in their

praise of good conduct but onlyabout 5 percent of the time in theirpraise of good work. While its truethat in many academic situations, it'sobvious to the student what is beingpraised, these overall rates are verylow, particularly if teachers wanttheir praise to be effective (Brophy,,1981a).

Praise should also help students tomore fully understand their accom-plishments and better appreciate theirown thinking and problem solving.Students frequently know whenthey've done well and a teacher'spraise becomes an affirmation ofwhat they already know. However:there are some -situations in whichteachers can use their praise to singleout specific noteworthy aspects of astudent's accomplishment which heor she may not fully appreciate. Suchpraise might be particularly valuablewhen students are s -cful in gen-erating creative ideas ions todifficult problems or in working oncomplex projects. It can also"be help-ful to students who suffer self-doubt.As much as possible, praise shouldalso focus on the student's accom-plishment and not on the teacher asan authority figure or evaluator. Thishelps students to appreciate theirwork for intrinsic reasons and.notalways for extrinsic reasons (Brophy,1981b),

CredibilityPerhaps the most important aspect

of praise is credibility. Effectivepraise leaves the student convincedthat the teacher has considered theperformance carefully and meanswhat he or she says about it(Brophy, 1981b). For praise to be ef-fective, it must be sincere and genu-'ine and the teacher's expression ofpraise must reflect that sincerity.

10 / TEACHER PRAISE

14,


Several researchers have noted alack of credibility in teachers' praise,particularly in how they. express theirpraise and in the situations theychoose to praise. Sometimes the prob-lem is monotony of expression; theteacher relies on only one or twostock phrases and delivei's them with-out animation (Brophy, 1981a). Moreeffective' praise has variety in expre-sion ancspecificity, highlighting thestudent's accomplishment. It is sim-ple, not gushy or overdramatic anddelivered in a natural voice Whichconveys sincerity.

A different kind of credibility prob-lem arises when the teacher's verbalexpression is contradicted by somenegative. non-verbal expression orbody language such as frowning, gri-macing, a show of disinterest or flataffect. This seemed to be a particularproblem when teachers praised high-ly disruptive students, students theydisliked, or students ho were hostileto the teacher ( Brophy, et al. 1981).Body language is thus an importantaspect of credibility since students arejust as sensitive to what teachers saywith their body language as they areto verbal expressions.

The credibility of a teacher's praiseis also dependent upon thi context inwhich the praise is given. More effec-tive teachers are sufficiently aware ofstudents' performances to selectively,concentrate their praise on genuinestudent accomplishments and to com-ment meaningfully on their work.Consider the following examples ofteacher praise. "John, I really enjoyeyour story, especially the machine -that converts peanut butter into ener-gy. I'd like you to read it to the classlater today. Also, how about drawinga picture of what that machine mightlook like? ...Mary, you did a fine job.I especially like the way you wrote

so

your story so neatlycentered head- -ings, no smudges, writing' carefullyon the lineskeep up the goodwork!" ( Brophy, 1981 a)

The teacher's praise of John's workis genuine-and sincere focusing onreal success. By drawing attention toa pFticular detail of John's story, shehas indicated that she truly was im-pressed with his work. John is likelyto be very pleased about the teacher'spraise. In contrast,' the teacher'spraise of Mary's work focuses on herform and neatness, not onsubstancethe content or crea vityof her writing. The absende of any in-dication that,the teacher liked Mary'sstory or even remembered the par-ticulars of it, espscially.coming rightafter the praise of "John's story, is like-ly to cause Mary to, suspect that.theteacher either didn't like her story ordidn't think. too much of her writing

Thiscredibiliteacherspraise sogenuine a

ample illustrates- thegap that can occur whennsistentlyand publicly..e students for substance orcomplishment and others

for mere forma perfunctory expres-sion of praise. If this practice occurstoo frequently, it establishes a clearmessage regarding the teacher's ex-pectations for some students. Nodoubt, John will appreciate theteacher's praise and view it as a gen-uine sign of personal accomplish-ment. However, Mary will probablycome to disregard the teacher's praiserecogni in its association with form

me 'gless for her. Thus, inszt4Ny praise credibly, teachers

be aware not only of the con-ten and sincerity of their statementsbut also the genuineness of the stu-dent's accomplishment and the con-text within which the praise isdelivered. What may be considered


1

TEACHER PRAISE / 11

praise under one set of circumstancesmay be considered insincere ormanipulative under another set.

More effective teachers alsoenhance the credibility of their praiseby considering the preferences of thestudents whom they are trying topraise. Typically, 'tudents in he ear-ly elementary grades are adult-oriented and highly interested inpleasing5the teacher. These studentsare reinforced by teacher praise,especially public praise. However;not all students are receptive toteacher praise. Some students simplydo not appreciate receiving praise; .cembarasses them, especially if it'spublic, of otherwitemakes them feeluncomfortable: As students growolder and become more peer-oriented, teacher praise becomes lessinfluential and when given publiclycan be a negative reinforcer.. In otherwords, it so embarrasses the studentto be praised in front of their peersthat they avoid behaviors which maybe considered praisewOrthy by theirteachers. These same students mightbetter appreciate receiving teacherpraise if it were delivered in privateor in writing.as in a meaningful com-ment at the top of a paper. Still, forother students, teachers may have todevise other ways of recognizing stu-dent accomplishment such as highgrades, gold stars (young students),displaying a student's work, givingthe student an opportunity to sharehis or her work with the class or ask-ing the student questions concerninghis or her work.

CONCLUSIONSimple, timel feedback--positive,

negative o rrective---iis essential toefficient 1 rning. There is no ques-tion that udents need to know howwell they a performing, what their

strengths and. weaknesses are, andwhat they know and do not know inorder to truly learn.

However, teacher praise of studentperformanCe, which' has long beenadvised as a form.of reiriforcement, isnot essential to student learning.Brophy foUnd in study after studythat teacher praise was either not be-ing used as an effective reinforcer' orthat fits impact on students showedpraise to be a weak reinforcer at best.Thus, students do not actually needpraise in order to master the cur-riculum, to leti good conduct, oreven to develo healthy self-concepts. Further reflection on thisfinding can be reassuring as the timeand effort required for teachers tonotice and effectively praise all thedesirable behaviors Sand performancesthat should be reinforced wouldseriously impair their instructionalfunctions (Brophy, 1981b). On theother hand, most students enjoyreceiving teacher praise in some formand most teachers enjoy praising. Ef-fective praise can be informative,helping students to more fully ap-preciate their accomplishments; rein-forcing under some circumstances;and appropriate feedback for meetingother student needs such as pro-viding encouragement and supportand establishing friendly relationshipsbetween the teacher and student.

For praise to be most effective inany of its functions, it must possesscertain qualities. It should be givenonly when a genuinely praiseworthyaccomplis ent has occurred,recognizin that the standard for suchan accomp 'shment may vary depen-ding upon t degre 'of progress ex-pected from a indi 'dual student.The teacher's prai e should be infor-mative, specifying some particularsabout the noteworthy behavior or

12 / TEACHE PRAISE

3 146EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


performance to help the student better understand his or her successes:-And praise should be genuine,

sincere and credible. The followingtable offers some additionalguidelines on praising effectively.

REFERENCESAnderson, L., Evertson, C., and Brophy, J., "An Experimental Study of Effective Teaching in

First Grade Reading Groups," Elementary School Journal, 1979, Vol. 79, pp. 103-223.Barringer, D., and Gholson, B., "Effects of Type and Combination of Feedback upon Como:

tual Learning by-ChildrenhImplications for Research in Academic Learning," Review ofEducational Research, 1979, Vol. 49, pp. 459-478.

Brophy, Jere; "Teacher Praise: A Functional Analysis," Review of Educational Research,Spring 1981a, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 5-32.

Brophy, Jere, "On Praising Effectively," The Elementary School Journal, May 1981b,Vol. 81, No. 5, pp. 269-278.

Brophy, J.E. and Good, T.L., "Brophy-Good System" (Teacher-child Dyadic InteractiOn. InA. Simon and E.G. Boyer (eds.). Mirrors for Behavior: An Anthology of Observation In-struments continued, 1970 supplement Volume A. (Philadelphia: Research for BitterSchools), 1970 (a).

Brophy, J.E. and Goode T.L., Teacher-Student Relationships: Causes and Consequences.(New York: .Holt, Rinehart, and Winston), 1974.

Dunkin, Pd. and Biddle, B., The Study of Teaching.((New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston), 1974.

Evertson, C., Anderson, C., Anderson, L., a.d Brophy, J., "Relationships Between ClassroomBehaviors and Student Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes,"American Educational Research Journal, 1980, Vol. 7, 4

pp. 43-60.O'Leary, K. and O'Leary, S., (eds.), Classroom Management: The Successful Use of Behavior

Modification (2nd ed.). (New York: Peigamon), 1977.Stokes, T., Fowler, S., and Baer, b., "Training Preschool Children to Recruit Natural Com-

munities Reinforcement," Journal of Applied BehaVioral Analysis, 1978, Vol. 11,pp. 285-504.

Yarrow, M., Waxier; C., and Scott, P., "Child Effects on Adult Behavior," DevelopmentalPsychology, 1971, Vol. 5, pp. 300-311.

Walker, H., The Acting-Out Child: Coping with Classroom Disruption. (Boston: Allyn andBacon), 1979.

Ware, B., "What Rewards Do Students Want," Phi Delta Kappan, 1978, Vol. 59,pp. 355-356.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM TEACHER, PRAISE / 13

Nq

g

11

11

rn

I

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE PRAISE

Effective Praise

1. Is delivered contingently upon student perfor-

mance of desirable behaviors or genuine

accomplishment

2. Specifies the praiseworthy aspects of the stu-

dent's accomplishments

3. Is expressed sincerely, showing spontaneity,

variety and other non-verbal signs of

credibility

4. Is given for genuine effort, progress, or ac

complishment Which are judged according to

standards appropriate to individuals

5. Provides information to students about their

competenceor the value of their

accomplishments

6. Helps students to better appreciate their think-

ing, problem-solving and performance

7. Attributes student success .to effort and ability,

implying that similar successes can be ex-

pected in the future

8. Encourages students to appreciate their ac-

complishments for the effort they expend and

their personal gratification

Ineffective Praise

1. Is delivered randomly and indiscriminately

without specific attention to genuine

accomplishment

2. Is general or global, not specifying the success

3. Is expressed blandly without feeling or anima-

lion, and relying on stock, perfunctory

phrases

4. Is given based on comparisons'with others

and,without reird to the effort expended or

significance of the accomplishment for an

individual

5. Provides no meaningful, information to the

student about their accomplishment

6. Orients students toward comparing

themselves with others

7. Attributes student success to ability alone or

to external factors such as luck or easy task

8. Encourages students to succeed for external

reasonsto please the teacher, win a competi-

tion or reward, etc.

Adapted from Jere Brophy, "Teacher Praise: A Functional Analysis,' Review of Educational Research, Spring 1981, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 5.32.

M.

151

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:



TEACHER PRAISE

"To Praise or Not to Praise: That Is the Question"

To develop a greater awareness of and sensitivity to situa-tional contexts and their impact on providing appropriateand effective feedback

Group Discussion


15-45 minutes depending on the number of situationsdiscussed


Have teachers read the activity directions and some of thesituations. Either select a situation for the participants todiscuss or have them select one they're interested in. Askthe participants to share how and what kind of feedbackthey would give for each of the selected situations.Discuss as many of the situations as the participants seeminterested in`n discussing. (This is a very popular activity.)NOTE: There are no clearly right or wrong responses tothese situations."Most of them are fairly open-ended, .

allowing teachers to respond based on their own ex-periences and interpretation of the contextual factorswhich influence theindecisions regarding appropriatefeedback. In the discussion, it is these contextual factorsand subtle differences in feedback responses which areimportant to highlight.HINT: Sometimes, one or two of the situations can alsobe used as a warm-up discusson before presenting theresearch findings.


15

TEACHER PRAISE / 17

TO PRAISE OR NOT TO PRAISE: THAT IS THE QUESTION"Training Activity

forTeacher Praise

DIRECTIONS: Consider the following classroom situations and determinewhat kind of teacher response or feedback is most appropri-

, ate. Indicate whether you would praise, criticize, give simplepositive or negative feedback, provide some other correctivefeedback or not respond to the student. Also indicatewhether you think the feedback should be given privately orpublicly. Give an example of how you would respond.

1. A reluctant reader has just handedin his first book report.

2. You've instructed your class toselect one of three enrichment acti-vities you've provided to work .onin the event they finish the regularclass assignment early. A high-achieving student who finishesearly, once again selects the leastchallenging of the three activities.At the end of the period, he handsin the enrichment activity partiallycompleted. You know couldhave finished the entire activity.

3. A highly disruptive student inyour class has just picked up awhole stack of papers which wereaccidentally knocked off yourdesk.

4. You have graded the class' mathtests. The students' test results areconsistent with regular patterns ofperformance in class. The "good"students did very well, the"average" students passed, and the"failers" failed.

5. You gave an English test. The ma-jority of the class received 100%.

6. Johnny never participates in class

discussions. He has just volun-teered and given his first re-sponse. The answer is incorrect.

7 Ellen never participates in class.She has just volunteered andgiven her first response. Theanswer is correct.

8. A student for whom you havehigh expectations and who is ahigh-achiever has just failed aclass quiz.. s)

9. A student whose performance isgenerally average has just re-ceived his first 100%.

10. An underachieving student hasjust shown you some very sub-standard work of which she isvery prOud.

11, It was necessary for you to leavethe room in an emergency situa-tion. There was quite an uproarwhile you were out of the room.The teacher next door com-plained that your class's activitieswere disturbing to her class.Wh n you discdssed the problemwith your class, the guilty partiesadmitted their involvement.


1 r0

TEACHER PRAISE / 19

RESEARCH ON

DIRECT INSTRUCTION ORINTERACTIVE TEACHING


DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING /1

15

INTRODUCTIONThis research unit focuses specific-'

ally on effective teaching practices. Itdraws upon a wide body of researchand is fairly comprehensive iri itsreporting of the research findings onteaching effectiveness.

The bisic concepts presented in thisresearch summary are:

M' direct instruction or 1rderactiveteaching

M pacing and success ratesteacherquestioning strategies

M providing feedback to studentresponses

Given the volume of research find-ings covering the basic concepts, werecommend that this unit be presentedin, at least 'two 13/4 hour sessionsone on direct instruction or interactiveteaching and pacing and success rates,and one on teacher questioningstrategies and providing feedback tostudent responses. This allows 45minutes for concept presentation anddiscussion, 45 minutes for activities,and 30 minutes for the Reaction toResearch and Plan of Action exercises.Other grouping arrangements forpresenting the concepts are possible.


DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING / 3

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Research onDIRECT INSTRUCTION ORINTERACTIVE TEACHING

If there's one thing that research onteaching effectiveness clearlydemonstrates, it's that teachers domake a difference in student learning(Brophy, 1979). What teachers do tomake this difference represents an orchestration of a very large number ofdiagnostic, instructional, managerial,and therapeutic skills, tailored to fitspecific contexts and student needs(Brophy, 1979).

The research on teaching effec-tiveness has helped to identify pat-terns of instruction which are clearlymore effective in producing studentachievement gains. The term "pattern"is used for several reasons. First, theresearch on teaching effectiveness isnot comprehensive; it addresses onlycertain aspects of instruction. Con-siderably more research is neededabout how students learn and howteaching practices influence studentlearning. Secondly, while there arecommon threads within the identifiedinstructional patterns for all students,there are also identified and uniden-tified differences which correspond tothe differences among studentsinability, motivation, anxiety level'toward learning, and maturity: Whilethese patterns of instruction arerelated to achievement gains, theyalso influence affective gains.Teachers, who produce maximumstudent achievement gains, also pro-duce healthier attitudes amongstudents toward school and self(Medley, 1977).

The research su marized Jere' ad-dresses the followi g instructionalpractices: direct in traction or interac-tive teaching, paci and success

rates, teacher questioning and feed-back. It represents .a synthesis of thefindings from a very large number ofstudies by different researchers con-ducted at the elementary, junior highand high school level. Much of theresearch comes from elementaryclassrooms, primarily because of thefederal government's support ofresearch designed to evaluate the ef-fettiveness of federally funded in-tervention programs in early educa-tion. Like the classroom managementresearch, the findings on teaching of -,fectiveness are the result of manyhours of actual classroom observa-tibns of teachers who have beenclassified as more or less effectivebased upon their track record for Pro-ducing consistent student achieve-ment gains. In an effort to identifysome (certainly not all) contextual dif-ferences in teaching, teachers werefurther examined on the basis'of theireffectiveness in producing learninggains with lower ability, lowermotivated, higher anxiety studentsversus higher ability,-highermotivated, lower anxiety students.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION ORINTERACTIVE TEACHING

Studies of more and less effectiveteaching practices conducted at theelementary, junior high and seniorhigh school level have identified apattern of instructional practices orteaching style which is clearly moreeffective for producing greater studentachievement gains. The researchershave termed this pattern or styledirect instruction. For manyeducators, the term direct instruction

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING / 5

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conjures up a stereotypic vision of avery structured and disciplinedclassroom in which students sit inorderly rows and the teacher lecturesthe whole class from the front of theroom. However, in coining this term,the researchers are seeking todescribe a pattern of practices inwhich the teacher is clearly the in-structional leader, actively teachingstudents and engaging in academicinteractions with students as opposedto merely serving as a resource per-son or facilitator for students whoprimarily acquire their learning ontheir own through workbooks andprogrammed materials. Looselydescribed, this pattern of activeteaching is one in which:

M the teacher places a clear focus onacademic goals, promoting exten-sive content coverage and highlevels of student engagement inlearning;

M the teacher selects instructionalgoals and materials and structureslearning activities;

M the teacher actively presents theprocess or concept under studythrough oral presentations such aslectures and/or demonstrations;

M the teacher assesses student 7understanding and progressthrough follow-up with recitationsor practice exercises in whichstudents have an opportunity todemonstrate their acquisition ofknowledge or skills; and

tal the teacher provides immediatecorrective feedback to studentresponses. (Rosenshine, 1979;Good, 1979; Brophy, 1979)--/

From this description, it is clear thatthis pattern not only describes a setof practices or style in which theteacher is actively teaching, but also

C.a style in which the teacher activelyinteracts with students through oralpresentations, discussions and feed-back. For this reason, many research-ers and educators have begun to callthis pattern interactive teaching in-stead of direct instruction.

This pattern has been shown to beparticularly fective at the elemen-tary level w re the emphasis is onacquiring a using basic skills andat the seco dary level with lowerability or I achieving students whoare sti astering basic skills. Thispttern has also been shown to beespecially effective with secondarystudents of all ability and achieve-ment levels in such skill developmentareas as math and reading. In gener-al, it seems this pattern might provemost effective for teaching allstudents knowledge and skill acquisi-tion where such learning is hiear-chical in nature. At the secondarylevel, in subjects other than math andbasic English (language arts andreading skills), this pattern may bemost effective with, some modifica-tion or selective use. Other instruc-tional approaches may be more effec-tive for teaching such subjects asliterature appreciation and'analysis.

THE ESSENCE OFDIRECT INSTRUCTION ORINTERACTIVE TEACHING

The essence of direct instruction orinteractive teaching is teacher-directed learning and high levels ofteacher-student interactions,: Thesetwo components are key to producinggreater student achievement gains.Teacher-directed learning means theteacher series as the instructionalleader for students, actively selectingand directing or leading the learningactivities. Depending on students'

6 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING

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abilities and maturity levels, theteacher either actively makes all theinstructional decisions or prescribes arange of specific learning activities inwhich students can engage. In con-trast, teachers who give students toomuch responsibility for their ownlearning, allowing them t9...tnOcemany of the decisions or choicesabout learning activities and pacinghave students who make lessacademic progress.

As instructional leader, the teacheractively presents and/ordemonstrates new skills and contentto students; directs students to spendmore time working on reading andmathematics activities using texts,workbooks and instructionalmaterials; organizes learning aroundquestions she poses; assigns practicework or homework and holdsstudents accountable for its comple-tion; tests students frequently; andapproaches the subject matter in adirect business-like fashion (Soar,1973; Stallings and Kaskowitz, 1974;Stallings, Cory, Fairweather andNeedles, 1977; Good and Grouws,1979; Brophy and Evertson, 1974).In emphasizing academic goals, moreeffective teachers, at the elementarylevel particularly, spend less time onnon-academic activities such as artsand crafts. ti

High levels of teacher-student in-teraction 'mean during most of theday or period, or in most learningsituations, students spend their timeinteracting with the teacher either in-dividually or as part of a group as op-posed to spending most of their timein independent study or seatwork.Such interactions occur when theteacher orally presents new informa-tion to students, the teacher leadsdiscussions or solicits student

resp ses to questions, and theteac r provides feedback tostu nts. More effective teachers arecon cious of the distribUtion of theirint ractioris, providing all studentswith a fairly equal opportunity to in-teract individually with the teacher.'However, not all interactions need beon an individual basis, students learnfrom hearing others interachwith theteacher and receive feedback as ingrotip discussions (Stallings, 1981).

THE RELATIONSHIP OFDIRECT INSTRUCTION TOINDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION,

Many educators who advocate in-dividualized instruction view directinstruction or interactive teaching tobe in conflict with their goals sincethey stereotypically interpret directinstruction to be whole class instruc-tion. Such interpretations are verynarrow and inaccurate. Indeed bothapproaches are easily integrated andmutually supportive.

Consider, the essence of direct in-struction or interactive teaching isproviding teacher-directed learningand high levels of teacher-student in-teraction. It is true that proponents ofdirect instruction advocate instructingstudents in a whole group or in a'fewsmall groups, in most situations.These are the best approaches tomaintaining maximum interaction.Having students work in groups,rather than individually, insures thatthey can be managed relatively easilyby the teacher and that'the teacher'sinteraction time is not spread toothinly. Proponents of direct instruc,'tion also recognize that groupingallows teachers to better meet thevarying educational needs of theirstudents, the major thrust of in-dividualized instruction.



Now consider, the essence of in-dividualized instruction is helpingeach student develop to his or herfull potential by tailoring instructionto meet individual learning styles orneeds with the input of students.However, like direct instruction,many educators have different inter-pretations of what individualized in-struction means and how best toreach its objectives.

Some educators attempt to designtheir instruction to meet the needs ofeach student in their classroom in-dividually. Such highly individual-ized instructional approaches tend tobe less effective in producing studentlearning gains because they lack thequalities of teacher-directed learningand maximum teacher-student in-terktion. These ineffective in-dividuali.zed instruction programsplace greater resonsibility on the stu-dent for his or her own learning. Theteacher no longer actively teaches.but assumes a role more similar to aresource person or facilitator.Students, in this setting, spend most,if not all, of their time working in-dependently at their own pace, ac-quiring their learning indirectlythrough workbooks or sources otherthan the teacher, and working onhighly differentiated materials orassignments. These forms of in-dividualized instruction are ineffec-tive because they involve unrealisticexpectations about the degree towhich students, particularly in theearly grades, can access informationand manage their learning indepen-dently (Brophy and Evertson, 1976).

Stallings (1981) notes that manynewly developed programmedreading, mathematics and sciencematerials aimed at providingchildren with activities in which they


could work independently and pro-gress at their own rates have beengenerally unsuccessful. Studentslearn best when new information ispresented by the teacher to a smallgroup of students who are operatingat a similar pace. Learning occurswhen students read aloud, ask ques-tions and receive feedback, and hearothers ask questions and receiveresponses. Individualized programsbased almost totally on workbooksdo not allow for this type of groupslearning experience.

Nor do highly individualized in-structional approaches allow for ahigh level of individualized teacher-student interaction. Class sizenecessarily lirns this interaction to aminimum. For example, in a class oftwenty-five students where theaverage instructional period may lastfifty minutes, if the teacher provideshighly individualized interaction,each student will receive only twominutes of interaction with theteacher and will spend forty-eightminutes working alone. This situa-tion overly taxes the teacher's abilityto effectively interact with students.

However, not all individualized in-struction is ineffective. Indeed, manyindividualized instruction programsare highly effective because they in-corporate the essence of direct in-struction. These educators long agorecognized that highly individualizedinstruction characterized by twenty-five students working independentlyon twenty-five related but differentthings most or all of the time is un-manageable and ineffective. Whetherthese more effective teachers in-dividualize through smallmanageable groups or through in-dependent learning activities, mostinstructing situations are still teacher-


directed and high levels of teacher-student interaction are still main-tained. The teacher actively presentsnew information and/crdemonstrates skills in! fnostly wholeor small groups. Within these groupsettings or the teacher-student con-ference, the teacher preparesstudents for all independent work,assesses student progress and pro-vides feedback. Thus effective in-dividualized instruction approachesutilize many of the same componentsof direct instruction or interactiveteaching.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION:A PRACTICAL GUIDE

Following is a list of InstructionalFunctions* which serve as a practicaldescription of, or guide to, direct in-struction. These functions describe anapproach which insures that theteacher is directing and leading stu-dent learning and spending con-siderable time interacting academical-ly with students in the form ofteacher presentations of newmaterial, question and answer,discussion or problem-solving withstudents, and corrective feedback tostudents.

Perhaps the most significant itemin this list of Functions is numberthree, "Leading initial student prac-tice." Research has shown that lesseffective teachers immediately pro-vide independerkt practice or seat-work following the presentation ofnew content while more effectiveteachers provide an \initial teacher-led student practice period beforeassigning independent student prac-tice. The purpose of this initial stu-dent practice period is both to rein-force the concepts presented by theteacher through practice and feedback

and give the teacher an opportunityto assess students' understanding ofthe content presented. During thispractice stage, the teacher mightdirect questions to the students as ina recitation setting, lead a discussionof the new material or assign prob-lems or exercises for the students towork independently at their deskswhile some work them at the board.As the students 'complete the prob-lems, the teacher immediatelyreviews them with the students, pro-vides feedback end checks forstudents' understanding. At this pointthe teacher can determine if thestudents fully understand the newmaterial and are ready for indepen-dent practice, if additional practice isneeded to fully reinforce the concepts,or if reteaching of the material isnecessary for some or all of thestudents. If the teacher finds that allbut a few students understand thematerial, he can move on to the nextfunction and assign the class in-dependent practice or seatwork (orhomework). Those students who donot yet firmly understand thematerial can be grouped forreteaching and additional teacher-directed practice. Alternative ap-proaches to presenting the materialmay be necessary to insure masteryof the concepts for this group.

*This list of instructional Functions ifrom an unpublished paper entitledFunctions in Instructional Programspresented by Barak Rosenshine at the Na-tional Institute of Education's Conference onThe Implications of Research on TeachingPractice, February, 1982. The Functions '-represent a synthesis of the findings from alarge number of studies on teaching effec-tiveness and most closely approximate TomGood's list of effective teaching behaviors formathematics.


in

This list of functions is a guideline. 3.What teachers do to specifically im-plement and integrate the functionsand diagnose student needs with re-spect to ability and maturity levels,will vary with teacher style. For ex-ample, for lower ability and lowachieving students and for less ma-ture students with short attentionspans, teachers may want to presentnew content and skills in smallerchunks, and provide extended peri-ods of initial student practice andteacher feedback. Dividing a givencontent into two smaller chunks andusing two consecutive sequences of 4.presentation, initial practice and feed-back, steps 2-4 may be necessary toteach these students a given content.For higher ability and high achievingstudents, the teacher may presentlarger chunks of content or skill atone time and provide smaller or dif-ferent initial practice periods accord-ing to student need.

INSTRUCTIONAL FUINIC2IONS

Barak RosenshineRobert Stevens

February 1982

1. Checking previous day's work andreteaching (if necessary).check homeworkreteach areas where there are stu-

dent errors2. Presenting and/or demonstrating

new content and skills.provide overviewproceed in small steps, if

necessary, but at a rapid paceif necessary, give detailed or

redundant instructions andexplanations

phase in new skills while old skillsare being mastered

5.

6.

Leading initial student practice.provide a high frequency of ques-

tions and overt student practice(orally with the teacher and withmaterials),

provide prompts during initiallearning, when approriate

give all students a chance to re-spond and receive feedback

check for understanding byevaluating student responses

continue practice until students arefirm

insure a success rate of 80% orhigher during initial learning

Providing feedback and correc-tives (and recycling of instruction,if necessary).give specific feedback to students,

particularly when they are cor-rect but hesitant

student errors provide feedback tothe teacher that 'correctionsand/or reteaching is necessaryfor some or all students

offer corrections by simplifyingquestion, giving clues,explaining or reviewing steps, orreteaching last steps

when necessary, reteach usingsmaller steps

Providing independent practice sothat students are firm andautomatic.seatwork and/or homeworkunitization and automaticity (prac-

tice to overlearning)need for accountability procedure

to insure student engagementduring seatwork (i.e., teacher oraide monitoring)

insure a success rate of 95% orhigher

Providing weekly and monthlyreviews.reteaching, if necessary

Permission to reprotvre this list was grantedby Barak Rosenshine.



DISSEMINATION PROGRAMr.V411

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SOME SPECIFIC FINDINGS AT THEELEMENTARY LEVEL

The research findings on direct in-struction or interactive teaching,at theelementary level show that studentstaught with a structured curriculumdo better than those taught with moreindividualized or discovery learningapproaches; and those who receivemuch of their instruction directlyfrom the teacher do better than thoseexpected to learn on their own fromone another (Bennett, 1976; Ga e,1978; Good, 1979; McDonald, al.,1975; Rosenshine, 1976; Stalli gs,1975). Additionally, teachers' interac-tions with students in the form of lec-tures and demonstrations are impor-tant, as are recitiation, drill and prac-tice (Brophy and Evertson, 1976;Good and Grouws, 1975; Brophy,1979).

Brophy and Evertson found thatearly elementary students, andespecially those with lower abilityand motivation levels, showedsignificantly higher achievementgains in more structured en-vironments in which learning ishighly teacher-dire ed. Tiesignificance of a structured environ-ment is in part due to the emphasison mastering basic skills at the earlyelementary level (as opposed to usingbasic skills in the later grades to ac-quire new knowledge), and in partdue to the lower cognitive develop-ment of these students.

The early elementary grOes ap-propriately involve more small groupinstruction relative to whole class in-struction. More effective teachers ofearly elementary students present 'new information or demonstrate newskills in smaller chunks, providingstudents with immediate and suffi-cient opportunities to practice skills

after teacher demonstrations. Theseteachers closely monitor student per-formance and provide immediate,corrective feedback. More effectiveteachers of early elementary studentscirculate around the room frequently, 1and more often initiate feedback com-ments with students who are workingon assignments independently in con-trast to letting students come to theteacher for feedback. This limitationon young students' physical move-ment insures a greater degree ofteacher-directed student movementand can help to minimize studentbehavior problems.

In contrast, instruction for upperelementary students (grades 4 and,up), higher ability and higher achiev-ing students is less structured. Thedirect instruction pattern of teachingis still most effective for producingachievement gains, but older, moreable students benefit from being of-fered more freedoms and some OD-portunities for independent learning.As these students are generally wellmotivated, they can be expected totake some responsibility for their ownlearning. As these students demon-strate that they are capable of assum-ing more independent responsibility,more successful teachers allstudents the opportunity of ovingmore freely about the room, or insmall groups. Similarly, as low abili-q or low achieving students benefitfrom a structured curriculum anddemonstrate substantial progress,more successful teachers recognizethe need to relax the structurednessof the environment and offer thesestudents more freedoms and oppor-Widnes to make choices (Brophy andEvertson, 1976).

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION P

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1 ei

SOME SPECIFIC FINDINGS AT THEJUNIOR HIGH LEVEL

Evertson, Anderson and Brophy(1978) studied more and less effec-tive junior high teachers ofmathematics and English. Theyfound that more effectivemathematics teachers:1 emphasized lectures and drill, and

spent less time using individual-ized instructional techniques.

2, were highly task-oriented in theirinstruction (although there were in-dications that personal interest instudents and tolerance of somedistractions were effective in low-ability/achievement classes).

3. were more active (e.g., they hadmore interactions With studentsand tended to lead all interactions).

4. made more extensive use of effec-tive praise during class discussionsand treated student contributionswith respect.

Brophy and Good (1984) alsofound that teachers who exhibitedmore of the behaviors in column Ahad students who achieved more andheld more positive attitudes towardlearning and their teachers than didthe students of teachers who ex-hibited more of the behaviorscolumn B.

JUNIOR HIGHMATH TEACHER BEHAVIORS

Column A

GREATER STUDENT ACHIEVEMENTMORE POSITIVE ATTITUDES

III Effectiveness of teacher's manage-ment methods

Student obedience to teacher

U Consistency in enforcement ofrules

U Efficiency of transitions duringclass period

U Teacher enthusiasm

III Student respect for teacher

Teacher deals effectively with per-sonal problems

U Academic encouragement byteacher

Column B

LESS STUDENT ACHIEVEMENTLESS POSITIVE ATTITUDES

U Classroom interruptions

NI Length of time after bell for classto begin

U Variety and choice inassignments

111 Teacher use of self-paced work

Teacher primarily assignsseatwork

12 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING1 6 ,1 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


M Teacher concern for academicachievement and grades,.

M Teacher use of blackboards for lec-tures and discussion

M Time,, allotted for class discussion

Amount of class time spent in pro-ductive work

Interestingly, their findings onEnglish teachers showed that therewere no consistent patterns ofteaching to suggest why someteachers were more effective. The in-vestigators suggest that part of theproblem may be that English teachers(in contrast to math teachers) tend toagree less on goalssome valueliterary analysis-§kills, others valuewriting skills. These findings suggesta conclusion similar to the onereached by McDonald (1975) andSoar and Soar (1978), that differentpatterns of teaching may be effectivefor different goals or subjects (Goodand Brophy, 1980).

Indeed, while research has showndirect instruction or interactiveteaching to be an effective pattern forteaching skill and content to 'studentsat all levels (with adaptations as tothe degree of structuredness, vat,?tyand independent learning), otherteaching patterns may be more effec-tive for other kinds of student learn-ing, like secondary level literature ap-preciation and analysis.

Fa- teaching basic skills in secon-dary schools, Stallings, Cory,Fairweather and Needles (1978) iden-tified a number of effective instruc-tional strategies including interactiveinstruction, time management, andfocus of instruction. Effective teachers

who helped secondary students.,reading at the first- to fourth-grade`level gain up to two grade levels inone school year distributed their classtime in the following way:

Instructiongiving examples, explana-tions, linking to studentexperience

Reviewdiscussion of seatwork andstory content

Drill and practice to help

16%

12%

memorize 4%Oral reading in small groups 21Silent reading 9%Written assignments 4%

(Actual percentages varied accordingto student achievement levels.)Observe that the greatest time alloca-tions are given to highly interactiveteaching behaviors.

Stallings (1981) notes that ampleamounts of oral-reading were helpfulfor low achieving students, althoughit was not so important for those stu-dents achieving above a fourth-gradelevel. Low achieving students need tohear and way words as well as readand write the words. These studentscan usually pronounce or sound outwords, but often do not understandwords in the Context of the story.These secondary students' com-



16L)

prehension scores art? often lowerthan their vocabulary scores. Oralreading allows the teacher to hear thestudent's reading problem, ask clari-fying questions, provide explanationsto help students comprehend newwords, and link the meaning to thestudents' prior experience orknowledge. Students who were inclassrooms where slight or no gain inreading was made spent more timethan other students on writtenassignments (28%) and silent reading(21 %). They had less instruction,discussion/review, and drill/practice.In short, these students received lessdirect instruction and less interactionwith the teacher than other students.Some of these students were assignedto spend entire periods working inworkbooks with very little instructionfrom the teacher. Such classroomsoften exhibited more misbehavior.

Throughout the study, it was clearthat teachers who were interactive intheir teaching style had students whoachieved more in reading. Accordingto Stallings, this interactive style in-cluded providing oral instruction fornew work, 'discussing and reviewingstudents' work, providing drill andpractice, asking questions,acknowledging correct responses andsupportively correcting wrongresponses.Stallings (1981) also notes that thistype of interactive instruction is im-portant when teaching subjects otherthan remedial reading. Tom Good(1980) found junior high schoolstudents learned more mathematicsin classrooms where teachers activelyinstructed, made assignments, pro-vided clear directions, asked studentsappropriate questions, and providedimmediate feedback to studentresponses. Stallings (1981) also notes

14 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERP::::.'E 'TEACHING

that, unfortunately, many teachers ofgeneral math students are not interac-tively teaching. In a study of mathclasses in 11 schools, Stallings andRobertson (1979) found that teachersmore often assigned general mathstudents workbook exercises and lessoften gave instruction\or reviewedseatwork than they did, with studentsin geometry or calculus classes. Infact, some teachers of both advancedand other general math classes were Iobserved actively teaching the ad-vanced classes and not the otherclasses. While all studentS, need activeor interactive teaching to Inaxitnizelearning gains, students in! basic classesespecially need active te4ching to bet-ter understand relationships and tostay on task.

PACING AND SUCCESS RATEPacing and success/ate are two im-

portant and related factors influenc-ing student learning./Pacing refers tothe speed with which teachers movestudents through thee material to belearned, i.e., specific lessons, ac-tivities and the curriculum. Ingeneral, research/shows that suc-cessful teachers /move students brisk-ly from step to step, keeping, thesteps small an easily attainable bymost students (Brophy, 1978). Theprinciple underlying successful pac-ing is teaching material that is at theappropriate level of difficulty butmoving students through it briskly.

Success rate refers to the overalldifficulty level of the material being3:, !-:;ented to students. The CaliforniaL: ginning Teacher Evaluation Study(RTES) found that students v.,ho aregiven an opportunity to engage inlearning activities which they cancomplete successfully 75 percent ofthe time achieve more than students


1

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who are given instruction at a dif-ficulty level in which they will besuccessful only 5Q percent of thetime. For example, during the initialpractice period with students whichmay be a recitation, optimal learningtakes place when teachers ask ,

students questions that they can tieexpected to answer correctly about75 percent of the time (a 75 percentsuccess rate).

The figure of percent is only anaverage estimate of the overall levelof success students should be ex-periencing. It is intended to serve as abarometric reading for the class notas an exact measurement of howmany times any given student or allthe students answer questions cor-rectly. Recall that students learn fromhearing other students respond cor-rectly. In general, the research datastrongly supports the approach ofgiving students a high level of suc-cessful learning experiences (not tobe confused with giving work that istoo easy) over the popular notion thaistudents peed to be constantlychallen d. Too often this latter ap-proach esults in trying to teachstudents material that is too difficult.Allowing students to master materialsquickly creates a feeling of personalsuccess and progress. Even Kounin'sresearch on classroom managementstresses giving students a sense ofprogress to minimize againstboredom and maintain students' at-tention to their work.

The fundamental principle thatlearning will be optimal whenpresented at the optimal difficultylevel is supported by considerableresearch including the Brophy andEvertson (1976) study of second- andthird-grade teacheis,/as well as theCalifornia Beginning Teacher Evalua-tion Study. The findings from Brophy

and Evertson suggest that low a ityor low achieving students learn oreby having less material taught tthem, by having it presented in s e 11

steps which they can easily masterwit! Iut becoming frustrated, and `byhaving it taught to the point ofoverlearning. In fact, it seemed im-portant for teachers of low abilitystudents to "err" on the side ofoverteaching rather than move toobriskly. Thus more successfulteachers moved at a relatively slowpace, taking time to teach and reteachthe fundamentals of reading, ritingand arithmetic., Most assignm ntswere at the skill practice or fa almemory level. In terms of successrate, students learn best when in-struction is tailored to give themgreater opportunities for successfulexperiences, say 8D percent of thetime. Again, while this is only anestimate, it's clear these students,who so often experience failure,achieve more when they are giveninstruction which they can .quicklyand successfully master.

Rosenshine's review of educationalresearch (1982) confirms this point.For younger students and' lower abili-ty students, the key concept here ismastery to the point of overlearning.Basic skillsarithmetic anddecodingare hierarchically learnedskills, so that success at any givenlevel is dependent upon the applica-tion of knowledge and skills learnedat an earlier point. Typically, studentsare not able to retain and applyknowledge and skills unless they /have been mastered to the point ofoverlearning to the point wherethey are automatic. Thus studentsmust be helped to achieve this levelbefore they can successfully move onto the next step.

Rosenshine also argues that this



6

overlearning, and automaticity ofbasic skills is' necessary for higherprocessing. In discussing beginningreading, Beck (1978) noted that thedata supports the position that thebrain is a limited capacity processorand that if a reader has to spe denergy decoding a word (wh therthrough phonics or context) thenthere is less energy available to com-prehend the sentence. Similarly, inmathematics, Rosenshine (1982)notes that mathematical problemsolving is 'enhanced when the basicskills are learned to the point ofautomaticity.

For higher ability and higherachieving students, this finding forautomaticity must be balanced withBrophy and Evertson's finding thatproviding interesting variety andstimulating assignments was moreimportant for higher ability and morehighly motivated students than con-tinued practice at mastering the fun-damentals. These students cover thesame material more quickly andlearn more by being given material insomewhat larger chunks at a fasterpace and by bekg challenged withslightly more difficult questions andassignments. More effective teachersVaried their materials and teachingmethods, and blended in some prob-lem solving and other high level ac-tivities involving application of theskills as well as mastery of the skills.

These higher ability or high achiev-ing students learn best when they ex-perience a success rate of about 70percent. It seems particularly in-teresting that while these studentsneed to be challenged more, they stillneed to experience a fairly high levelof success. Teachers have the difficulttask of challenging these brighterstudents without overchallenging

them to the point where they t?ecomefrustrated and achieve less. //

In judging success rate, Brophyand Evertson make a clear/distinctionbetween learning situatiOins in whichthe teacher is present to provide im-mediate feedback and/help tostudents and those situations, such asseatwork or even homework, inwhich IF?. teacher/may not be im-media'.'.1:1 kr available for feedback forall students. Du.ritig the latter situa-tion in which the teacher cannot beavailable for /all students, Brophy andEvertson recommend that students begiven assignments which they can eexpected to complete successfully-15their own about-9-51)-6cent of thetime. Such a high success rate isnecessary if teachers are to expectstudents to work continuously tocompletion.

's This raises an important considera-tion for homework, a situation inwhich the teacher is totallyunavailable to the student. If ateacher finds, that his or her studentsare not completing their homeworkas he or she expects, one possible ex-planation Might be that the assignedhomework was too difficult forstudents to complete on their own.From, a slightly different but relatedperspective, the amount of workgiven was not consistent with theteacher's overall homeworkassignments. (An overly long assign-ment, compared to most, may beconsidered too difficult.)

Finally, success rate as a criticalfactor influencing student learning isless applicable to older, average orhigher achieving students at thesecondary level. Instead, self-motivation plays a much strongerrole (Fisher, 1982).

16 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHINGEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


TEACHER QUESTIONING ANDFEEDBACK

As with much of research, whilethe findings on teacher questioningand feedback are not comprehensive,the research has identified severalfactors which influence the effec-tiveness of teacher questioning ofstudents and proViding feedback.These factors address the issues ofto whom you direct questions, Whatkinds of questions you ask, how youask questions and how you respondto student -esponses.

Who to call on: Turn TakingTurn taking refers to the process by

which teachers select students to re-spond to the questions they pose.Most educators and many eduCationalresearchers, including Jacob Kounin(1970), have argued that more effec-tive teachers randomly select studentsto respond to questions on the theorythat holding students in suspense asto when they can expect to be calledupon keeps them alert and holdsthem accountable for the entire classdiscussion. This accountability is agood group focus technique (Seeresearch on Effective Group Manage-ment Practices) which insures highlevels of student engagement.

However, Brophy's research onteacher questioninegrfatn4 thatteachers who used 'ordered or pat-terned turn taking pr6cedures forselecting students achieved betterlearning results than teachers whoused random turn taking. In a two-year study of elementary classrooms,Brophy and Evertson (1976) foundthat teachers who called on studentsto read in a reading group in a pat-terned order rather than a randomorder tended to produce betterachievement gains tharileachers who

did not. Patterned turns seem toreduce the anxiety level in studentsbecause everyone knows when theyare going to read. This allowsstudents to concentrate more fully ontheir performance. Furthermore, atleast among younger children, theydon't appear to circumvent the lessonby not paying attention when otherchildren read and only "boning up"on their paragraph or passage.

The most important advantage ofpatterned turn taking is that it givesevery student an opportunity to becalled upon to demonstrate theirknowledge to the teacher and toreceive feedback from the teacher. Itis an efficient way to insure that allstudents have equal opportunities tointeract directly with the teacher.From the research on interactiveteaching (Stallings, 1982), it's clearthis is an important variable in maximizing student achievement.

Brophy found that teachers whocall on students randomly tend tomore often call on certain competentstudents who are more likely to re-spond correctly or demonstrate skillsaccurately while ignoring certainother students who experience moredifficulty responding. Thus teachers'expectations of students may un-conscigusly influence their choices ofstudents when they select turn takersrandomly. Still other teachers seem tounconsciously miss students seatedin certain areas of the room as in thestudents sitting closest to the win-dows. Some teachers avoid looking inthe direction of the windows becauseof the glare. Brophy observed oneteacher .who systematically called onall the students in the class exceptthose seated in the first row. Whenthis was brought to her attention, shewas surprised. Apparently from her

I


1 64

vantage point in the front of theroom, she looked directly over andbeyond the heads of the students inthe first row.

Patterned turn taking also has im-plications for student ability levels. Inhigh ability reading groups or otherinstructional settings where there isstrong competition for either extrareading turns or opportunities toshow off to the teacher, patternedturn taking helps to eliminate some ofthe need for competition and insureeveryone an equal number of turns.In low achievement groups whereanxiety can be a key stumbling blockto learning, patterned turn taking hasbeen shown to reduce anxiety or atleast hold it to a minimum. Likewiseit serves to insure that everyonereceives an equal nuViber of oppor-tunities to interact with the teacher.

In considering the seemingly con-flicting research findings on randomturn taking versus patterned turn tak-ing, it is important to consider the in-tent underlying both bodies ofresearch. The intent of random turntaking is to hold students' attentionand keep them accountable duringthe lesson. Brophy's research hasshown that with younger studentssuch accountability techniques maynot be so critical, but with olderstudents particularly, such account-ability or group focus techniques arenecessary to maintain studentengagement. Indeed without suchtechniques, older students, unlesswell motivated, are more likely to"tune out" the teacher and the lessonuntil they anticipate being calledupon to respond. The intent of pat-terned turn taking is to insure that allstudents have equal opportunities tointeract with the teacher and receivefeedback, an important factor in stu-


dent achievement. Brophy arguesthat the merits of insuring such op-portunities for interaction faroutweigh the liabilities of losingstudents' interest. The best approachfor selecting students seems to be acombination of the two intents.Teachers need to identify processes.or patterns for selecting students bywhich they can readily determinewhich students have or have not hadan opportunity to respond. Such pat-terns or processes need not be readilyrecognizable to the students and canbe changed daily or weekly. For ex-ample, teachers might, use a seatingchart to record which studentsthey've called upon during a lessonor the day, or they might drawstudents' names from a fishbowl, etc.

Another consideration in determin-ing which students to select to re-spond to teacher questions is whetheror not to call on volunteers. As withpatterned turn taking, Brophy andEvertson (1974) found that teachersshould limit the number of timesthey all on volunteers in order tocontro the distribution of opOor-tuniti s for students to interact withthe acher.

What Questions to Ask: Success RateAlthough teachers are frequently

urged to ask students higher-levelcognitive questions, recent researchdoes not support this emphasis(Rosenshine, 1979). In fa4 there isconsiderable evidencd. to siiggest thatstudents (particularly low achievingor low ability students) achieve morewhen they are asked a high frequen-cy of lower-level questions of the fac-tual or inferential single-answer type(Rosenshine, 1979). Students whoare asked a high frequency of higher-level, open-ended, opinion type ques-

1


tions actually achieve less (Stallingsand Kaskowitz, 1974; Soar, 1973;Brophy and Evertson, 1974). In anexperimental study, Gall (1975)found that askig students differentnumbers of,higher-level questionshas no effect on the students' perfor-mance on essays or on tests measur-,,ing these.

One explanation for thesesomewhat surprising findings mightbe that most of the research onteacher questioning has been con-ducted at the elementary level andthere is some uncertainty as to theexpected cognitive development ofthese students and their ability to re-spond to higher-level questions.Another explanation lies in the use ofstandardized tests as a measure ofstudent achievement. Most achieve-ment tests ask lower order factual orsingle-answer questions; they seldomask question's requiring interpretiveor critical thinking skills.

Thus it seems from the research,asking students a high frequency offactual or inferential questions ismore effective for producing studentachievement gains. However, increas-ing achievement per se is not theonly goal of education; students doneed critical thinking skills. Develop-ing such skills among students maybe addressed by diversifying teachers'questioning strategies to incorporatehigher-order "thought" questions.Keeping in mind the research on suc-cess rates, teachers will be more ef-fective if they pose questions whichstudents can answer successfully 75percent of the time.

How to Ask Questions: Wait TimeKounin's research on group focus

found that more effective teachersmore often ask a question before call-

ing on a student totechnique helps toand tuned in to thethem in suspense aselected to respon

sp. d. Thiseep s dents alertLess by holdingtp/w o will be

is techniquealso gives the to cher time to con-sider which stu nt(s) can successful-ly answer the question posed (suc-cess rate).

Having asked a question, wait timebecomes a critical factor for both highand low achieving students. Rowe(1974) found-that one of the mostcommon mistakes teachers make is to -push too hard for student answers.After asking a question, teachers givestudents an average of just one sec-ond to initiate an answer. If a studentfails to reply within that second,.teachers typically repeat the questionor redirect it to another student.When teachers do get a response,they wait somewhat less than a sec-ond after the response before com-menting, asking a new question ormoving on to another topic. Underthese conditions, students tend to re-spond to questions using shortphrases and seldom- offer complexanswers.

When teachers lengthen the waittime between asking a question andcalling on a student to three seconds,Rowe noticed a significant impact onstudents' responses. Students'answers became substantially longerand contained more expamples ofspeculative thinking. Teachers alsoreceived more appropriate answers.Similarly when teachers waitedlonger (three seconds) after studentsresponded before commenting ormoving on, it gave students an op-portunityo enlarge on what theysaid. Generally, longer pauses beforerepeating a question or edirecting toto another student gave students



longer time to prepare their answers.This greatly reduced the number oftimes teachers received an "I don'tknow" or no response. Overall, in-creasing the wait time makes recita-tion activities more conversationaland less inquisitional (Gage andBerliner, 1979).

PROVIDING FEEDBACK TOSTUDENT RESPONSES

Feedback, receiving knowledgeabout one's performance, is essentialto student learning. To be effective,feedback should-be timely and specif-ic; it should give the student informa-tion. Feedback can be positive, as ina simple affirmation that a responseis correct, "right," "yes," or "okay;"negative, as in a simple response,"no, that is not correct;" or corrective,as in simplifying the question orresponding with a statement thatgives the student a cue to the correctresponse or the correct responseitself.

Brophy and Evertson (1976) foundsignificant differences between moreeffective patterns of providing feed-back to high ability or high achievingelementary students and low abilityor low achieving elementarystudents. In general, they found highability or high achieving classroomswere characterized by well motivatedand competitive (sometimes overlycompetitive) students who were eagerto respond-to the teacher's questions.They raised-their hands energeticallyand tended to speak out loudly andclearly when giving their answers. Incontrast, low ability or low achievingclassrooms were charcterized Mostlyby students who wished to avoid be-ing called upon. When they were,these students often looked down oraway, muttered, shrugged or spoke

20/ DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING

172

in a whisper. It was clear thesestudents were trying to avoid re-sponding at all.

While effective teachers of highability or high achieving studentswould have little difficulty getting theresponse they wanted from theirstudents, they would have to workhard to control the competitiveness oftheir students. This meant workinghard to keep students' E ntionfocused on content ratht.r than racingto be the first one to give a correctanswer. It also meant maintainingorder and control over students'responses to insure respect for afellow student's turn to respond.More effective teachers enforced rulesagainst call-outs, insisting on quietand respect whenever another stu-dent was responding or thinking of aresponse.

In contrast, effective teachers oflow ability or low achieving studentsoften had to work to get any kind ofresponse at all from their students, letalone a correct response. Whileteachers of high ability students hadto deal with competitiveness, teachersof low ability students had to dealwith a fear of failure. As a result,more effective teachers patiently andpersistently worked to get students torespond. They made it clear that theyexpected to receive a response fromtheir students, and would wait to getit, whenever the students were calledupon, even if the response was sim-ply, "I don't know." The importantthing to these teachers was encourag-ing students to give any kind ofreasonable response. Thus, in con-trast to the approach used with highability students, these teachers en-couraged student initiated comments,accepted student call-outs when theywere relevant, and praised good ef-


fort even if the answer was not com-pletely correct.

More effective teachers of highability or high achieving studentsconducted fast paced lessons inwhich they moved around the groupquickly, giving a large number ofstudents multiple opportunities to re-spond. Questions posed to studentswere of a difficulty level in which 70percent of them could be expected tobe answered correctly. In those in-stances in which a student who wascalled upon gave an incorrect answeror was unable to answer, the teacherusually gave the correct answer andonly sometimes redirected the ques-tion to another student. It seemed im-portant for the teacher to provide thecorrect answer as feedback instead ofcalling on another student to respond,since too often calling on another stu-dent only reinforced an unhealthy at-mosphere of over-competitiveness,with students rushing in to be thefirst to give a correct answer whensomeone else failed. Furthermore,Brophy and Evertson's researchshowed that attempting to improveresponses (probing for some answerfrom an "I don't know" or eliciting ahigher level answer) ;rom these stu-dents was more often associated withless learning gains. At first surprising,these researchers determined thatsince most high ability studentsalready know most of the answers tothe questions they are asked (at leastto the extent of what they gave), at-tempting to improve upon theirresponses was often pointless pump-ing. If these students knew a betteranswer they would have alreadygiven it. To the extent that high abili-ty students are asked to respond fac-tually,this research seems valid.Some teacher discretion may be in

order when students are asked to"reason" through to an answer. Inthis situation, probing by the teachermay prove to be more successful inreaching a higher level response fromthe student.

In low ability classrooms, lessonsmoved at a much slower pace. As ageneral rule, it was better for teachersto teach thoroughly to the point ofoverteaching rather than movingthrough material too quickly. Theresearch indicates that it's important 1for the teacher to provide studentswith immediate opportunities to prac-tice the skills presented as well as im-mediate corrective feedback. Thusmore effective teachers of low abilityor low achieving students conductedshort group lessons, giving cleardemonstrations, and then immediate-ly moved around the group givingeach student an opportunity to prac-tice the skill learned and receive time-ly, corrective feedback. Teachers whosimply gave demonstration lessonswithout providing students with animmediate opportunity for practiceand feedback and/or teachers whogave opportunities for practiCe butdidn't monitor to provide studentfeedback were less effective thanthose who did.

To elicit student responses toteacher questions, more effectiveteachers were patient and made itclear that they expected a response.When students responded, "I don'tknow" or responded incorrectly, itwas often because they were fearful(of failure) or anxious. When theteacher recognizedauch a situation,he or she tried to get an improved '-response by providing clues or hintsand by simplifying the question.Simply repeating the same questiononly made the students more anx-

-

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERA TII/EfTEACHING / 21

1 '7 Q 4c,

Jious. When the student clearly gavewhat he thought was a correctanswer and was wrong, attempts toelicit an improved response werealmost always unsuccessful withoutsubstantial teacher help in the formof providing more information. Oneexception to this practice occurred inreading instruction where phonics

clues (providing the first sound, etc.)were useful for children, particularlylow ability students. Giving a studenta clue when they were stuck on aword helped make the responseeasier for the student and establishedan expectation that students wouldmake responses when called upon.

22 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING 174EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


REFERENCES

Bennett, N., Teaching Style and Pupil Progress. (London: Open Books Publishing, Ltd.),1976.

Brophy, J., "Teacher Behavior and Its Effects," Journal of Educational Psychology, 1979,Vol. 21, pp. 733-750.

Brophy, J. and Bvertson, C., Process-Product Correlations in the Texas TeacherEffectiveness Project: Final Report. Research and Development Center for Teacher Educa-tion, University of Texas, Austin, 1974, Report No. 4004.

Brophy, J., and Evertson, C., Learning from Teaching: A Developmental Perspective.(Boston: Allyn & Bacon), 1976.

Evertson, C., Anderson, L., and Brophy, J., Texas Junior High School Study: Final Report ofProcess-Outcomes Relationships. (Vol. 1) Report No. 4061. Research and DevelopmentCenter for Teacher Education, University of Texas, Austin, 1978.

Fisher, C., Personal communication regarding student success rates and interactive teaching,1982.

Gage, N., The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching. (New York: Teachers College Press),

1978.Gage, N. L., and Berliner, C. B., Educational Psychology, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton

Mifflin), 1979.Gall, M. D., et al., The Effects of Leacher Use ofQuestioning Techniques on Student

Achievement and Attitude. (San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Researchand Development), 1975.

Good, T., "Classroom Expectations: 'reacher-Pupil Interactions." In J. McMillan (Ed.), ThesycloSocial rllvogy of School Learning. (New York: Academic Press), 1979a.

Good, T., and uws, D., "The Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project: An Experi-mental Study in Fourth Grade Classrooms," Journal of Educational Psychology, 1979b,Vol. 71, pp. 355-366.

Good, T. L., and Brophy, J. E., Educational Psychology, 2nd ed. (New York: Holt: Rinehart

and Winston), 1980.Good, T. L., and Grouses, D., Process-Product Relationships in Fourth Grade Mathematics

Classrooms. Final report of National Institute of Education, Grant (NIE-G-00-3-0123).University of Missouri, October 1975.

Rowan, J., Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms. (New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston), 1970.

Matonald, F., Research on Teaching and Its Implications for Policy-making: Report onPhase II of the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study. Educational Testing Service,Princeton, New Jersey, October, 1975.

Medley, D. M , Teacher Competence and Teacher Effectiveness: A Review of Process:Product Research. (Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher

Education), 1977.Rosenshine, B., "Classroom Instruction." In N. Gage (Ed.) The Psychology of Teaching

Methods. National Society for the Study of Education, Seventy-Seventh Yearbook, 1976.Rosenshine, B., "Content, Time and Direct Instruction." In P. Peterson and H. Walberg (Eds.),

) Research on Teaching: Concepts, Findings and Implications. (Berkeley, Calif: McCutchan),

( 1979.Rosenshine, B., Teaching Functions in Instructional Programs. Prepared for the National

Institute of Education's Conference on the Implications of Research on Teaching for Prac-tice, February, 1982.

Soar, R., Follow-through Classroom Process Measurement and Pupil Growth. Final report,College of Education, University of Florida, 1973.

Soar, R., and Soar, R., Setting Variables, Classroom Interaction, and Multiple Outcomes.Final report for the National Institute of Education, Project No. 6-0432. Gainesville:University of Florida, 1978.

EDUCA ORAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEM AVON PROGRAM


/75

Stallings, J., "Implementation and Child Effects of Teaching Practices in Follow ThroughClassrooms." Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1975, Vol.40, Nos. 7-8 (Serial No. 163).

Stallings, J., "What Research Has To Say To Administrators of Secondary Schools aboutEffective Teaching and Staff." In K. Duckworth, et al. (Eds.), Creating Conditions for Ef-fective Teaching. Prceedings from the conference held at the Center for EducationalPolicy and Management, Julq' 1981.

Stallings, J., Cory, R., Fairweather, J., and Needles, M., A Study of Basic Reading SkillsTaught in Secondary Schools. (Menlo Park, Calif.: SRI International), 1978.

Stallings, J., and Raskowitz, D., Follow-through Classroom Observation Evaluation. (MenloPark, Calif.: Stanford Research Institute), 1974.

Stallings, J. and Robertsen, A., Factors in Influencing Women's Decisions to Enroll inElective Mathematics Classes in High School. Final report to National Institute of Educa-tion. (Menlo Park, California: SRI International), 1979.

24 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING 1 J,71

0 EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

TnaEARCH ON

I INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS1. Studies of relatively more and less

effective teachers at the elemen-tary, junior high, and secondarylevel have clearly established thatdirect instruction or interactiveteaching is more effective in pro-ducing student achievement gains(skill and knowledge acquisition).Or, students learn best when theteacher is actively teaching and in-teracting with students.

2. Loosely defined, .direct instructionor interactive teaching describes apattern of active teaching where:II the teacher places a clear focus

an adademic goals, promotingextensive content coverage andhigh levels of student ,engage-ment;

1111 the teacher selects instructionalgoals and materials and struc-tures learning activities;

111 the teacher actively presentsthe process or concept understudy through lectures and/ordemonstrations;the teacher assesses studentprogress through follow-upwith recitations or practice ex-ercises in which students havean opportunity to, demonstratetheir acquisition of knowledgeor skills; andthe teacher provides immediatecorrective feedback to studentresponses.

3. The two basic ingredients of directinstruction are: teacher-directedlearning and a high level ofteacher-student interaction.

4. The degree of structuredness andstudent independence associated

with the direct instruction ap-proach vary according to studentability and maturity levels.

5. While direct instruction is effectivefor skill and knowledge acquisi-tion, not all types of learning fallinto this category. For example, asecondary English unit onliterature appreciation may bemore ectively,iaught throughano er approach.

6. A practical guide to direct instruc-tidn encompasses the followingMajor instructional functions:111 checking previous day's

assignmentIN orally presenting and/or

demonstrating new content andskills

IN directing initial student practiceto assess understanding

IR providing positive feedbaCkand correctives

la providing independent practiceso students are firm andautomatic in content and skillsproviding weekly and monthlyreviews.

7. This guide to direct instruction ishighly flexible in that teachers canselect specific strategies for im-plementln,g the guidelines whichfit their style, desire for varietyand assessment of student ability.

8. Generally, to the extent thatstudents are younger, of lowerability (mastering basic skills), andless motivated, teachers are moreeffective when they:IN structure students' learning

experiences

EDUCAUOIAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM


177

II actively present new informa-tion in small steps but at arapid pace

with more opportunities tomake choices.and to work in-dependently

II give detailed and more actively present new informa-redundant information and tioh in larger, but appropriatelyexplanation sized steps and at a rapid pacehave a high frequemy of initialstudent practice in the form ofquestions, especially at the fac-

have a fairly high frequency ofinitial student practice (not ashigh as for lower ability'

tual levelIN encourage students to respond

to questions, accepting call-outswhen they are relevant to thesubject

II provide positive feedback, in-cluding some praise when

students) using questions at thefactual level as well as somehigher level questions involv-ing application

III insure a success rate of 70-75percent

al call on students to respond,students respond correctly andfirmly, and a moderate amount

maintaining order and control,---over students' responses

of process-oriented feedbackwhen students respond correct-ly but hesitantly

N insure a success rate of 80percent

respect for fellow studentsII provide simple-p6sitive feed-

back when students answercorrectly and fintly, or im-mediately pose another_ques-

111 divide seatwork into smallerassignments

tion (as a feedback signal) to 'maintain momentum

provide continued student II provide moderate amounts opractice to theipoint of over-learning or adtomaticity.

)reinforcing or process-orientedfeedback when students arecorrect but hesitant

9. Generally, to the extent thatstudents are older, of higher 'abil-ity, and well-motivated, teachers

III give the correct answer moreoften as feedback whenstudents respond incorrectly

are more effective when they:have less structured learningexperiencesprovide students

II provide interesting variety andstimulating assignments forcontinued student practice.

x_., 26 /DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING

173


SUMMARY OF KEY INSTRUCTIONAL BEHAVIORSFOR MATHEMATICS TEACHERS

Daily Review .(First 8 minutes)a) review the concepts and skills

needed to do the homeworkb) have students correct each

other's papers. If necessary re-teach areas where students hadproblems and difficulty.

c) ask several mental computationproblems

Development of new material(20 minutes)

a) briefly focus on prerequisiteskills and concepts

b) teach the new material usingexplanations, demonstrations,"process explanations" and il-lustrations

c) assess student comprehension ofnew material by askiiig questionsand/or supervising practice

d) repeat explanation wherenecessary

Prompted practice (10 minutes)a) students work 1-3 problems -with

teacher supervision and helpb) teacher provides frequent process

explanationsc) continue prompted practice until

success rate is high

Seatwork (15 minutes)a) provide uninterrupted suc..qsful

practiceb) get everyone

sustain involvemewc) alerting: let students ;.crow their

work will be checked i:At end ofperiod

d) accountability: check tudent'swork

Homework assignmenta) assign on a regular basis at the

end of each math periodb) should involve about 1.5 minutes

c' work to be done at homec) should include one or two

review problemsSpecial reviews

Weeklya) conduct during the first 20

minutes each Mondayb) focus on skills and con;.epts

covered during the previousweek

Monthlya) conduct every fourth Mondayb) focus on skills and concepts

covered since the last rnonthlyreview

Thomas Gocd and Douglas Grouws, The Missouri Teacher Effectiveness Project in Mathematics.Journal of Educational Psychology, 1979,



1 73


1Training Activity, /

forDIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING RESEARCH

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

9 ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:

"Planning Instructional Time"

To focus teacher's attention on how much time theyallocate to interactive instruction.

Group Discussion


15\ to 30 minutes

Reproduce. Activity for appropriate number of participants

Have teachers read the entire activity. Ask them to com-plete the chart based upon a class or subject they've alreadytaught or upon their plan for teaching an upcoming class.Encourage teachers to reflect on whether they would makeany changes in their instructional plan based upon theresearch findings on interactive teaching. Ask teachers toshare their strategies for reteaching those students tyhohave not successfully mastered the material taught. Hint:Knowing how to plan for and provide reteaching for'students seems to be a particular instructional managementproblem for teachers.


1 80\

PLANNING INSTRUCTIONAL TIME


Direct Instruction or Interactive Teaching Research

Drawing on your own classroom situation, pick out a particular class or subjectyou taught this past week which you felt went extremely well, or one you areplanning to teach which you want to go extremely well. Fill in the followingchart with the information requested. Analyze your time allocations to deter-mine where your priorities seem to be with respect to the instructional func-tions. Are you spending sufficient time interacting ,vith students, reviewing,presenting and practicing material?

ClassTotal Allocated Time

minutes

INSTRUCTIONAL FUNCTIONS

FORMAT

TIME () () (k")

Review of homzwork (or previous lesson)

Need to re-teach?

Presentation of new concepts/skills:

Initial student practice/feedback

Need to re-teach?

Independent student practice:dragrStioUlhdXIIMSLI,S;

Need to re-teach?


181

Assignment:

Whole Class

Small Groups(A, B. C. or D)

Individual

32 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING 182

'Indicate criteria for grouping:A = ability C = student choiceB == interest D = other


.1



DIRECT INSTRUCTA JN OR INTERACTIVE TEACHING RESEARCH

TITLE: "Teaching Effectiveness, Case Study"

OBJECTIVES: To recognize effective direct instruction or interactiveteaching behaviors and the contextual factors which helpshape the degree of structuredness and teacher directednessassociated with this pattern of instruction.

PROCESS: Group Discussion

FORMAT: Large or Small Group

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT: 15 to 30 minutes

PREPARATION: Reproduce activity for appropriate number of participants.

^-\ 'DIRECTION:1 Piave f chers read the entire activity. Then, depending onthe av lable time, eit!.)er ask the teacherS to jot down theirans rs to the questions in the space ptovided before shar-

g them, or simply lead a discussion, having the teachersshare their response-TOthe questions with the group.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONSA. Y u would expect to se- e lower ability or low achieving

st dents in her class. The clues to identifying the typesof 'students present are:

1 high degree of structuredness2. teacher's acceptance of student call-outs3. large proportion of time devoted to teacher presenta-

tion/demonstration and monitored student practice4. investment of several days of instruction on the

same skillB. Mrs. Johnson appears to be a very effective teacher. It

seems likely that her students will have a high successrate. Some of the clues are:



183

1. the amount of time devoted to review, presenta-tion/demonstration and monitored student practicebefore assigning seatwork

2. the degree of feedback and individual assistancegiven to students

3. the willingness/to reteach students4. the degree of preparation of students for assign-

mentsclear directions and expectations for workC. Allow teachers to 'share their own strategies

34 / DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR, INTERACTIVE TEACHING 8 4 13,?I DC.ATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

TEACHING EFFECTIVENESSCASE STUDY


Direct Instruction or Interactive Teaching Research

The following is a case stu y"-'description of an effective to cher whoexhibits many of the direct i structionor interactive teaching practi s. Readthrough the case study and answerthe questions at the end.

CASE STUDYEach day as students enter Mrs.

Johnson's classroom they find a writ-ten schedule of the day's activities, in-cluding a breakdown of time, subjectarea, skill or concept, types of seat-work and homework assignments, i.e.worksheet, workbook, textbook, etc.,and what materials students willneed.

Mrs. Johnson feels this gives herclass a sense of the number andnature of the tasks she expects themto be involved in during the day. Shehas also taught her students (as partof her rules and procedures) toorganize their materials according tothe schedule to make for easy transi-tions between activities. As studentsenter and "put things in order," theyflip over a green card taped to thefront of the desk indicating they areready to "go." Mrs. Johnson, therefore,

Questions:A. Assuming Mrs. Johnson is an ef-

fective teacher, what kinds ofstudents would you expect to findin her class? What are the clueswhich help you identify studentcharacteristics?


can quickly scan the room during at-tendance, assist those students whoare having trouble, and get the classunder way. When all students areorganized," the cards are flipped

back, to be used at the beginning ofeach new activity.

A Typical LessonA typical math session in Mrs.

Johnson's class might look like this.Mrs. Johnson reviews the skills/concepts of the previous night'shomework, as students check eachother's papenl. Where there seems tobe .,roblem or lack of understand-ing, Mrs. Johnson will go back overthe problem, working it through onthe board or overhead projector. Shesometimes has a student workthrough the problem for tl:?, class butonly if she is sure the ,..r.;.!nt under-stands it. She constantly monitors theclass with quirk checks )r under-standing. In addition, she may askstudents to solve additional problemsreflecting the same skill or concept.When necessary she "re-teaches"skills/concepts with which studentsare having trouble.


183

B. Do you feel Mrs. Johnson'sstudents will have a high successrate? What clues determine yourresponse? What other techniquesdo you use to insure student suc-cess in responding to'questions?

C. The "Green Card" is just one ex-ample of a "check" for readiness,attention, and understanding.What other techniques can yousuggest which are "quick checks"particularly in small or large groupsituations?

Presentation of New MaterialWhen new material is presented,

Mrs. Johnson is very activedemonstrating new skills, watchingstudents practice the same or similaractivity at the board, asking questionsand explaining the process. Studentcall-outs are allowed if related to thework. If a student responds to a ques-tion incorrectly, she waits for self-correction, provides clues or rephrasesthe question. The teacher presenta-tion/demonstration and monitoredstudent practice segments of thelesson involve about 70% of the mathtime slot.

Individual seatwork assignmenttime ranges from 15-20% of he mathperiod. During this tirric, tt7r:-s. Johnsongives clear directions as to what is to

be accomplished by the class, checksfor understanding, and then circulatesaround the room giving individualhelp and feedback to students as shechecks their work. She does cue thembefore the end of the session with agentle reminder. Once all studentscomplete the work and turn it in, Mrs.Johnson explains the homeworkassignment. Students may spendseveral thqs on the same skill/concept and often Mrs. Johnson usestime left at the end of the period for agame which reinforces the skillspresented.

TransitionAs students complete an activity,

they ready themselves for the nextone and flip over the green card. Mrs.Johnson checks for readiness beforebeginning the next activity.




RESEARCH ON

TIME ON TASK

I

0.6

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM TIME ON TASK / 1

18?

INTRODUCTIONThis research unit 'son managing

instructional time maximize stu-dent learning is body of research,/known as Time on Task, overlaps theareas classroom management andteaching effectiveness. As such it canbe presented either as a unit follow-ing the research on Direct Instructionor Interactive Teaching, as shownhere, or as the first research unit inthe entire training sequence. Wepresented this unit after the Direct In-struction unit because the findings inthe studies summarized here supportthe Direct Instruction or InteractiveTeaching research and because,unlike the other research units, theimplication: of the findingc on Timeon Task go beyond the tea'cher's im-mediate control within the classroom.While teachers can implement manyof the findings, other findings requireadministrative support. At least in-

in the training sequence, wefelt teachers ought to be in total con-


trol of selecting concepts for im-plementation and determining theiroutcome. However, there are someadvantages to presenting this researchunit first as it introduces th6, ideas oftime on task, and on-task versus off-task behavior. These are expressionswhich are frequently used in theclassroom management and teachingeffectiveness research.

The basic concepts presented inthis research summary are:

allocated timeIS engaged timeNI academic learning time

This research unit can be presentedin a 13/4 -hour training session, with20 to 35 minutes for presentationand discussion of the concepts, 20minutes for an activity, and 30minutes for the Reaction to Researchexercise from the previous sessionand the Plan of Action exercise forimplementing the new researchconcepts.

\.)

18L

TIME ON TASK / 3

RESEARCH ON

TIME ON TASKOne of the most widely discussed

concepts to emerge from the researchon teaching during the 1970s wastime on task, or the amount of timestudents actively spend working onacademic tasks. Many educators nowfeel that increasing student time ontask will increase student achieve-ment. While there is considerable re-search to support this feeling, simplyincreasing a student's time on taskmay not t) enough to substantiallyincrease learning. The issue of quali-ty of time or how students spendtheir time and its relationship tolearning is one which has yet to befully explored by researchers.

The birth of the interest in time asan ess rte iel factor in learning can betrac to John Carroll's 1963 paper,"A odel of School Learning" (Ander-so 1982), in which he linkedschool learning directly to time. Car-roll suggested that learning is depen-dent upon the amount of time stu-dents actively spend learningsomething compared to the amountof time students need to learnsomething. In other words, if a stu-dent needs 60 minutes to learn ormaster a new skill, does this studentspend a full 60 minutes working onlearning the skill? According toCarroll's model, if this student spendsless than the needed 60 minuteslearning the new skill, he will notcompletely master it. SymbolicallyCarroll's idea is represented by thefollowing equation in which learningis a function (I) of time spent learningand time needed to learn.

Learning = f time spenttime needed


Considering Carroll's equation, 11 astudent only spends 30 minuteslearning a new skill, he will succeedin only half learning the ,skill (30minutes spent/60 minutes needed).Carroll also suggested that a defini-tion for student aptitude might be theamount of time a student needs tospend learning a skill in order tomaster it.

Since the Carroll paper, a numberof research studies, conducted at theelementary and secondary level haveexplored the relationship of time tolearning and the use of time in class-rooms. In essence these studies havefocused primarily on Carroll's conceptof "time spent" in learning. Thesestudies largely indicate how time iscurrently being used in classroomsand suggest how time can be moreefficiently used. They also identifythose instructional qualities whichlead to seater amounts of active stu-dent participation in learning or timeon task. These studies do not indi-cate, however, how much time is ac-tually needed by average, below av-erage or above average sL dents tolearn something, other than to saythat below average students requiremore time to learn something thanaverage or above average studentsand average students need more timethan above average (Stallings, 1981).

One of the most significant "timeand learning studies" has been theCalifornia Beginning Teacher Evalua-tion Study (BTES). The purpose ofthis study was to identify teaching ac-tivities and classroom conditions thatfoster student learning in elementaryschool (Fisher, et al., 1980). Thestudy focused on reading and mathe-matics instruction in grades two and

IS3

TIME ON :ASK

five. Three important time conceptsemerged from the research findings:allocated time, engaged time, andacademic learning time. These con-cepts are currently receiving consider-ible attention from researchers, edu-cators and administrators. Two of theconcepts, allocated time and engagedtime, are concerned with the quantityof time students spend learning. Thethird concept, academic learningtime, addresses the quality of timestudents spend learning.

ALLOCATED TIMEAllocated time is the total amount

of time allocated or available forlearning. It can refer to the length ofa school day, the length of a class pe-riod, or the amount of time scheduledfor a specific content area or skill de-velopment. Allocated time is a mea-sure of "opportunity to learn." Itestablishes the upper limit on thetime available within school for stu-dents to learn.

Findings from the BTES show theamount of time allocated to instruc-tion in a particular content area in-fluences the amount of student learn-ing attained in that area (Fisher, etal., 1980). That is, teachers who allo-cate more time to a specific contentarea have students lAto achieve athigher levels within tliaLazea thanteachers who allocate less time -to' thesame area. This finding is also sup-ported by Cotton and Savard's (1u8!)review of rty -five studies on 'in-structional time. They found that in-creasing allocated time led to in-creases in student achievement, espe-cially for low ability students andparticularly when the amount of in-structional time allocated to teacher-student interaction was increased (SeeInteractive Teaching Research).

The issue underlying allocated time

6 / TIME (N TAsK

is whether sufficient instructionaltime is made available for students toachieve at appropriate levels. Theminimum number of minutes perday or hours per week allocated forcertain subject areas is usually man-dated by the states or school districts.However, the actual allocated timewithin curriculum areas is often in-fluenced by building level decisionsregarding scheduling and the curricu-lum eeds of the students served bythe schol. Actual allocated timewithin--th classroom, particularly forspecific skills is further influenced byteachers' sense of priorities for subjectareas and student learning needs.These factorsstate or district man-dates, building level decisions, andteacher influencecombine to createlarge differences in allocated time or"opportunity to learn" time for stu-dents within schools and betweenschools.

Findings from several studies of el-ementary and junior high classroomshave indeed noted such differences inallocated time. Harnischfeger andWiley (1978) found that the length ofa school day between two secondgrade classrooms in the same schooldistrict differed by 45 minutes. In theNational Follow'Through Study (Stall-ings, 975), first grade classroomsvarie,_, as much as 11/2 hours in thelength of their school day. In a studyof secondary schools (Stallings,Needles and Stayrook, 1978), remedi-al reading classes varietlbetwr_.'en 40and 55 minutes in length.

The BTES looked at how class timewas allocated for hr_r.2.ernic activities,including reading, mathematics, sci-ence and social studies; non-academ-ic activities, including music, art,storytelling and physical ,..lucation;and non-instiuLti.mal in-


NCI

cluding transitions, waiting between of time allocated to each of theseactivities and routine class business. areas -is summarized below.Their findings on the average amount

Average Class Time AllocationsTHE BTES

Academic ActivitiesNon-academic ActivitiesNon-instructional Activities

Grade 22 hrs. 15 min.

55 min.44 min.

Grade 5 .2 hrs. 50 min:

1 hr. 5 min.45 min.

From Rosenshine, 1980, p. 110(Note: the average second grade day was shorter than the average fifth grade day due to thenumber of split classes in second grade-9 to\ 2/10 to 3.)

In both the second and fifth gradeclas.srogms observed, academic activi-ties accounted for approximately 60percent of the time; non-academic ac-tivities accounted for almost 25 per-cent or I/.1 of the time; and non-in-structional activities consumed almost20 percent or 1/5 of the day. Thirty-five of the forty-five minutes spent on

non-instructional activities was due totransitions between activities.

A breakdown of how the academicactivity time was allocated to readingand language arts, mathematics, andother academic areas, mostly scienceand social studies, in the second andfifth grade follows.

Average Time Allocations for Academic ActivitiesThe BTES

Grade 290 min.35 min.

8 min.

Reading & Language A?t-.3---MathematicsOther Academic Areas

From Rosenshine, 1980, p. 111

Again, the average amount of timeallocated to specific subject areas wasproportionally thesame for both sec-ond and fifth grades. However,Fisher, et al., of the BTES, foundwide differences between classeswithin the same grade in the amount

Grade 5110 min.45 min.17 min.

of time allocated to ea subject area.For sample, the av rage amount oftime allocated for athematics in thetsecond grade ranged from a low of25 minutes per day in one classroomto a high of 60 minutes per day inanother classroom. The average math


19iTIME ON TASK / 7

time for all second grade classroomswas 35 minutes per day. Similarly, infifth grade classrooms, the averageamount of time allocated for readingand reading-related instructionranged from a low of 60 minutes perday in some classes to a high of 140minuted per day in others. By com-parison, the average reading time forall classes was about 110 minutesper day.

Even within reading and mathclasses, there were differences be-tween teachers in the amount of in-structional time riven to specific skillareas. For -xample, during the courseof the school year an average studentin one second grade class received 9minutes of instruction on the use ofmoney while an average studcht in

SUBJECTReading instruction,Language arts"MathematicsScienceSocial science, art, music,

physical education combined

Within-class differences were alsoobserved. IRT found in the area ofwriting instruction that students inone class were given instructionaltime only for the mechanics of writ-ing (spelling and punctuation) whilealmost three-fourths of the instruc-tional time in another class was de-voted to the composing process ofwriting (sentence completion, com-posing sentences, gathering informa-tion for reports). Also, in two of theobserved classrooms, non-instruction-al activities, including lunch, fire-drills, classroom interruptions, transi-tions between lessons, bathroombreaks and social activities consumed

another second grade class received315 minutes of instruction on thesame topic. Similarly, students insome fifth grade classes received anaverage 1,000 minutes of instructionon reading comprehension through-out the school year (or 10 minutesper day), while students'in other fifthgrade classes received 5,000 minutes(50 rihinutes per day) of reading corn-prel4nsion instruction during thesame school year.

Similar,differences in allocated in-structional time ere found inanother study of six elementary assrooms in Michigan conducted by theInstitute for Research on Teaching(IRT). IRT found the following rangesin allocated time within the samegrade level:

RANGE IN:_MINUTES PER DAY24-8436-6728-63

0-48

14-55

as much as 42 percent of the day(151 minutes out of the total 360minutes).

The findings from these studies in-dicate that there are substantial differ-ences between districts, schools andclassrooms in how much instruction-al time is allocated for the schoolday, specific subjects, and specificskills. These differences are signifi-cant because allocated time repre-sents a clear measure of opportunityto learn. Students in classroomswhich have greater amounts of in-structional time have a greater oppor-tunity to learn and achieve more thando students enrolled in classrooms

8 );,1 IASI<

19 )

I- EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

with less instructional time. Thus,allocated time is an important factorin the effort to provide equal educa-tional opportunities for all.

ENGAGED TIME OR TIME ON TASKEngaged time is the amount of

time students are actively paying at-tention to instruction or working on alearning activity. It's the amount oftime students are on task. While alio-catedaime sets the upper limit on theamount of classroom time availableto students for learning, not all of thistime is actively utilized by studentsfor learning. There are any number of,factors which pull students awayfrom their learning or cause them tolose interest, thereby reducing thetotal learning time:MI school management practices

unnecessary or untimely publicannouncements, unscheduled in-terruptions, visitors, drills, studentpull-outs, etc.

M classroom management practices"jerky" transitions between ac-tivities, inefficient routine pro-cedures for distribution and collec-tion of assignments, supplies, etc.

M instructional practicesoverreliance on seatwork or other non-interactive instructional styles,poor group focus, lessons whichare uninteresting or too difficult.

Thus, engaged time more accuratelyreflects student learning time. In fact,the BTES found that the more en-gaged time students have, the morethey learn as evidenced by higherachievement.

As with allocated time, the BTESalso found differences among class-rooms-in the amounts of time studentswere actually engaged. Lvethe secondgrade, students typically spend 1hour and 30 minutes engaged in rele-

vant academic activities. Thisamounts to less than half (40 percent)of the total in-class time. In contrast,second graders in the most effectiveclassrooms spend 1 hour and 55-ninutes engaged in relevant academ-ic activities. This means these stu-dents effectively have an additional25 minutes of learning each day.Similar time differences were ob-served in fifth grade classrooms aswell. Students in the most effectiveclassrooms are engaged in learning35 minutes more each day than stu-dents in average classrooms. Com-pared to the least effe&v class-rooms, the most effective Claroomshad students engaged an additidnalhour each day (Rosenshine, 1;180>While the differences of 25 minutesand 35 minutes per aly in engagedtime between the average and mosteffective second and fifth grade class-rooms may not seem like much, overthe course of a school year 25 min-utes daily becomes 75 hours and 35minutes daily becomes 105 hours. Ifsome students ar' actively engaged inlearning for 75 ,-n ore hours a yearthan qther students, it seems reason-able that they would learn significant-ly more than other students.

In accounting for these differences4.n the amount of time students are'actively engaged in learning, theBTES identified both instructional fac-tors and management factors whichimpact on student engagement. TheBTES found that highly interactive in-structional stylesthose with highlevels of teacher-student interactionparticularly in the form of teacherpresentations, questions, answers,feedback and explanationsled tohigher amounts of student engagedtime. Overall, students were activelyengaged (in learning) 84 percent ofthe time during teacher-led activities

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH MIDDISSEMINATION PROGRAM

1 93TIME ON TASK / 9

but only 70 percent of the time dur-ing seatwor:c. Partiiplarly disturbingwas the fact that seatwork and stu-dents working alone was the domi-nant activity pattern found in theclassrooms studied. In fact, studentsspent about 66 percent of their read-ing time and 75 percent of their mathtime doing seatwork. The BTES alsofound that student engagementdropped considerably lower whenstudents spent almost all of their time(90 percent) doing seatwork.

Thus highly interactive instruction-al styles (see research on InteractiveTeaching) led to greater amounts ofstudent engaged time and subse-quently, greater student learning.During group work especially, theBTES found that high levels ofteacher-student interaction not onlyled to higher overall engagement ingroupwork but also higher engage-ment during seatwork. This suggeststhat the teacher-guided practice andfeedback during groupwork betterprepares students for seatwork andthus keeps them more engaged dur-ing seatwork.

Cotton and Savard's review ofresearch on time (1981) also foundthat students with high engagementrates in listening, discussing, questionanswering and other kinds of interac-tive learning activities achieved morethan students with high engagementrates in non-interactive activities suchas seatwork. Furthermore, students)who were highly engaged in interac-tive activities had better self con-fidence and attitudes.

Some non-engaged time is typical Iof all classrooms. For example, timespent on non-instructional activitiessuch as transitions between activitiesor following breaks, housekeepingtasks, exchange of papers, distribu-tion and collection of assignments,

materials and supplies, and waitingbetween activities is necessary. Whilemost teachers spend approximately45 minutes each day on such non-instructional activities, it's clear thatgood classroom management prac-tices are essential to holding this deadtime to a minimum; otherwise it canquickly grow beyond this level andsignificantly reduce learning tame.Consider the following scenario.

.Suppose by law, the minimumamount of time required for mathe-matics instruction in the second gradeis 40 minutes each day. Suppose,too, that the mathematics time beginsat 11:10, after a recess, and ends atnoon. The principal, teacher, and su-perintendent may well feel that thestate minimum requirement is beingmet and even exceeded by 10 min-utes. Howev er, closer examinationwill reveal otherwise. An 8-minutedelay in the start of work on mathe-matics may occur as students noisilyenter the room, stand around talkingbefore taking their seats, calm downand finally get out their worksheets.Another 4 minutes in transition timemay be lost during the period asstudents change from one activityand begin-Work on another. Towardthe end of the allocated time,students are putting workbooks andcuisinaire rods away, getting lunchesout and lining up for noontime dis-missal. Another eight minutes arelost. Functional time for mathematicsis now reduced to 30 minutes, whichis 75 percent of the legal require-ment. Over the course of a schoolyear, that 10 minutes lost each dayfrom the required time can add up to1800 minutes or 30 lost hour's of re-quired math instruction.

Maintaining time management bez'comes an important and sometimesdifficult skill to master. Even the best

10 / TIME ON TASK

teacher's time management system isoften exacerbated by unscheduled ad-ministrative interruptions such as an-nouncements over the P.A. system,messages from the office, calls tocome to the office, firedrills, studentpull-outs, ete. Consider the effect of asimple announcement over the P.A.system. Not only is students' atten-tion drawn away from the lesson tothe announcement for its duration,but the momentum of the lesson isaltered. Valuable learning time is lost,as the-teacher must work to re-focusstudents' attention and regain thelesson's momentum. The problemcan be further compounded by thegene:al temperament of the class asBorne are more difficult to managethan others. Or, consider the effect ofa school rule which requires teachersto be in the hall monitoring studentswhile they pass between classes. Byhaving to be in the hall until the bellrings signalling the start of class, theteacher is unablet to provide the nec-essary leadership\to insure that stu-dents enter his or her class properlyand quickly get ready to start class.Instead, the teacher has to use thefirst minutes of the instructional peri-od to ready the class. If this is a par-ticularly difficult class which requiresa strong, instructional and managerialleader or if the teacher is a poor man-ager, considerable allocated instruc-tional time can be lost trying to focusthe students.

ACADEMIC LEARNING TIMEThe third concept, academic learn-

ing time, is-conccrned with the quali-ty of time students spend learning.Academic learning time is theamount of time students spend 'ac-tively working on learning activitiesor tasks which are of an appropriatelevel of difficulty. The BTES defines

appropriatOevel of difficulty as onein which there is a high success rateor a situation in which students havea good grasp of the academic taskand make few errors.

The concept of success rate islinked to the cyclical nature of learn-ing which is a process of moving'from coot knowing something loknowing. When new content or skillsare first introduced, a student mostlikely will not understand it com-pletely and will make some errors.Through teacher-guided practice, ex-planations, feedback and corrections,a student comes to understand thematerial and makes fewer errors. Ad-ditional (generally independent) prac-tice and review help to solidify orconsolidate learning. Eventually, thestudent's understanding reaches alevel where he knows the materialand performs correctly. At this stagecontinued practice is of minimalvalue (Fisher, et al., 1980).

The B,TES found that to keep stu-dents engaged in learning activitiesand consequently to maximize stu-dent achievement, students need tohave a high level of successful learn-ing experiences. Specifically, studentswho were presented new material orgiven exercises to work on at a diffi-culty level in which the studentscould be expected to succeed 75 per-cent of the time, achieved more thanstudents who were given more diffi-cult work in which they were suc-cessful considerably less than 75 per-cent of the time. In other words, themore time students spend working onreading and mathematics activitieswhich they can perform with highsuccess (correctly), the more engagedthe students will be and the morethey will achieve.

The 75 percent success rate figureis more of a "rule of thumb" figure or


19aTIME ON TASK t. 11

general indicator of how well theclass and specific students are pro-gressing. The -BTES found that lowerability and lov,ver achieving studentsbenefit by having a slightly higheroverall success rate, 80-85 percent,while higher ability and higherachieving students benefit by beingchallenged a little more, experiencinga success rate of 70 percent. The evi-dence for high levels cif successfullearning experiences is also supportedby Kounin's behavior managementresearch. Recall that he found thatstudents needed to experience a gen-uine sense of progress in their aca-demic work to keep them on taskand minimize their need to seek otherforms of diversions in the way of off-task or inappropriate behavior.

The key to designing lessons andstudent practice with a high successrate is good diagnostic and prescrip-tive skills. In planning for studentsuccess; a caution is raised that theconcept does not suggest thatstudents should spend all of theirtime worlzing on high success tasks.A balance between providing suc-cessful experiences and challengingstudents must be found. The messageis td be careful not td over-challengestudents to the point where theybecome frustrated. In particular, areal balance must be found for oldermore mature students and highachieving students who are skilled inproblem solving. These students needsuccessful experiences but they donot need as much time working at ahigh success rate. Finally, the BTESalso found that high success ratescontributed to higher levels of studentesteem (Fisher, et al., 1980), anespecially important factor for lowerachieving students.

Implications for Classroom

Management and TeachingEffectiveness

The research findings on the widevariance among classrooms in allocat-ed time, engaged time and academiclearning time and their impact on stu-dent achievement suggest in

for teacher's claksrociA manage-ment and teaching effectiveness skillsas well as administratively controlled,school-wide management strategies.In particular, the research emphasizesthe necessity of having good class-room management processes andhighly interactive teaching styles tomaintain student engagement over ahigh degree of seatwork and indepen-dent learning. This section will linksome of the findings on classroommanagement and teaching effective-ness to the specific time concepts.

Classroom Management ReLiearchThe difference among classes in

allocated time and engaged time arein part due to the differences amongteachers in their ability to managestudent behavior and their ability tomanage time, both their time and stu-dents' time, efficiently. Good class-room management skills and strate-gies help to minimize student off-taskbehavior.

The Evertson, Emmer and Ander-son Beginning of the Year ClassroomManagement research stresses the im-portance of planning efficient roomarrangements, establishing studentbehavioral rules and instructionalprocedures, teaching and reinforcingrules and procedures, assumingstrong leadership for the class, andactively enforcing all rules. Planningan efficient room arrangement pro-vides for an easy and orderly flow ofstudent traffic throughout the roomand insures a high level of teacher-

12 / TIME ON TASK1 96

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AIML'ISSEMINATION PROGRAM

student eye contact. A good room ar-rangement reduces student bottle-necks and opportunities, for studentsto cause disruptions or distract otherstudents who are on-task. It also in-sures that students moving about theroom can do so quickly and easily.Eliminating physical barriers whichimpede the teacher's ability to main-thin a Iv_ti level of eye contact withstudents eases the teacher's job ofmonitoring and helps to keep stu-dents on task during assignments oractively attend!ng to the teacher dur-ing presentations. High eye-contactreduces opportunities for studentmisbehavior by reinforcing the ideathat the teacher knows what studentsare doing at all times (see Kounin'sresearch on with-it-ness).

Establishing, teaching, reinforcingand enforcing classroom behavioralrules set clear expectations for stu-dent behavior and how they are tooperate in the classroom. While thisstrategy does not eliminate all studentmisbehavior, the research shows itclearly and .greatly reduces the occur-rence of student misbehavior or otherforms of off-task behavior by estab-lishing an instructionally effective en-vironment in which students knowthey are expected to enter rooms'ap-propriately and quickly get to work.Not only does this reduce the amountof allocated time wasted due to dis-'ruptions, it also reduces the amountof time (and energy) the-teacher mustdevote to handling disciplinary'Matters.

Establishing and reinforcing effec-tive instructional procedures alsoserves to create more efficient use oftime. For example, one of the contrib-uting factors toward loss of_allocatedtime is inefficient transitions betweenactivities. Having good procedures forentering the room, turning in and

handing out assignments, moving tolearning stations or groups, etc.reduces the amount of time neededfor transitions. Teaching these proce-dures to students to the point wherethey become automatic hips them tobe performed quickly, quietly andsmoothly.

Kounin's researc on classroommanagement identi ed specific teach-er behaviors whic promote higherlevels of student on-task behavior.With-it-ness refers to a teacher's abili-ty to both actively monitor students'behavior and to communicate this ac-curate and "omnipresent" awarenessof °student behavior through her ac-tidhs to stop inappropriate behavior.By demonstrating that she "has eyesin the back of her head," the teachersends a clear message to her studentsthat any efforts to misbehave will be,clearly noticed and decisively actedupon. In short, for the cooperating/student, the-message is "why /bother?'

Smoothness and momentum referto the teacher's ability to handlemovement within and between les-sons, i.e., pacing, momentum, transi-tions. The teacher's ability to movesmoothly fromone activity to anotherand to maintain momentum withinan activity serves to keep students'attention focused and on-task, andgreatly reduces transition time. Beingprepared and managing instructionaltime so there is a steady flow of ac-tivities which keeps students activelyfocused on instruction eliminates"lulls" or dead time which give stu-dents an opportunity to turn their at-tention elsewhere.

Group focus and accountabilityalso serve to maintain student on-taskbehavior. Group focus refers simplyto the techniques a teacher uses tokeep all students within a group ac-


TIME ON TASK / 13

tively.attending to the teacher andthe learning activity. By structuringactivities so as to insure.a highdegree of student participation, activeand/or passive,' teachers effectivelymaintain high student engagement.Accountability refers to the tech-niques a teacher uses to holdstudents accountable tor (ic,ing thenecessary work. Setting clear expecta-tions that work must be done helpsto maintain student on-task behavior.

Finally, variety in learning activi-ties, especially seatwork is an instruc-tional strategy which helps to keepstudents active:y on task by holdingstudents' interest and reducingboredom. Obviously, if tasks are in-teresting, students are more likely towork on them to completion.

From this brief overview 9f theclassroom management research, it isobvious that effective classroom man-agement skills and strategies play ani portant role in maximizing allocat-d time by preventing most outbreaks

of student misbehavior or other formsf off-task behavior and by creating

more efficient use of time for teachersand for students. Furthermore,classroom management strategiesenhance student engaged time bymaintaining student's attention andhigh interest.

Teaching Effectiveness ResearchThe differences among classes in

student engaged time or time on-task,and adacemic learning time (engagedtime in which students are workingsuccessfully) are directly related tothe teaching effectiveness research. Infact, findings from the BTES and JaneStallings' research on time and stu-dent achievement identify a series ofteaches behaviors associated withhigher levels of academic learningtime and student achievement. In

both studies, interactive instructionalbehaviors or those beha tors com-monly referred to as direct instructionare associated with high levels of stu-dent achievement while non-interactive instructional behaviors arerelated to lower revels of achieve-ment. Briefly, the BTES identified thefollowing interactive teacher behav-iors associated with higher studentengagement and greater learninggains:

M ability to accurately diagnose stu-dent skill levels

M prescription of learning tasks ap-propriate to student's skill levels(high success ''rate)

M substa five interaction betweenthe teacher and student consistingof oral presentations-of new con-tent and skills, asking questions,monitoring of student work andproviding corrective feedbackabout student performance

M structuring the lesson and givingclear, concise directions on taskprocedures.

Stallings, Cory, Fairweather andNeedles (1978) identified a series ofstrategies for teaching basic readingskills in secondary schools. tssential-ly, Stalling, et al., found that thoseteachers who were interactive in theirstyle of teaching, i.e., providing oralinstruct-on, discussion and reviewingstudents' work, providing drill andpractice, asking questions and pro-viding corrective feedback, hadstudents who achieved more inreading than teachers who had anon-interactive style, relying heavilyon written assignments and silentreading. A list of specific interactiveand non-interactive behaviorsfollows:

14 / TIME ON TASK

19dI EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


Interactive

M Discussion of homework

M Instructions for new work

M Drill and practice

M Students rig -,d aloud

HI Focusing instruction on smallgroups and whole group

M Praise and support

M Positive corrective feedback

M Short quizzing

Non-interactive

M Teacher working on own man-agement tasks

M Outside intrusions (visitors,

U

ou

loudspeakers) *

Social interacttons

Student misbehavior

Offers students too many options

Too many written assignments

Too much silent reading

Too much individual work withor without teacher intervention

*Came up as an unexpected variable as research was being conducted.

Stallings (1981) also' found that thedistribution of time across several ac-tivities during the class period wasalso an effective strategy for helpingstudents on task. Effective teachers inStallings studies of secondary schoolsdistributed time in the followingways:Organize/Management Activities(15%)M Take roll111 Make announcementsM Make clear expectations for quality

and quantity of workM Clarify behavioral expectations

Pass papers or books (out and in)

Interactive On-Task Activities (50%)M Review/discuss previous workM Inform/instruct (demonstrate/give

examples)M Question/check for understanding111 Reteach small group (if necessary)

M Read aloud/develop concepts

Non-Interactive On-Task Activities(35%)M Written work111 Silent readingKG Teacher-monitoring/guidingFrom this brief overview of the timeon task research associated with ef-fective teaching, it is apparent thathighly interactive teaching styles andteacher-directed learning activitiesplay a significant role in maintaininghigh student engagement rates andhigh student achievement. Also,teachers' diagnostic skills, interactionwith students, and monitoring of stu-dent performance help to insure thatteachers structure learning activitiesat an appropriate difficulty leVel forstudents. This leads to greateracademic learning time and, subse-quently, student achievement.


193,

TIME ON TASK / 15

REFERENCES

Anderson, L.W., Time and Learning. Presented at the Conference on Instructio al Time andStudent Achievement, Evanston, Illinois, May 1981.

Fisher, C.W., et al., "Teaching Behaviors, Academic Learning Time and Stude Achieve-ment: An Overview." In C. Denham and A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to Learn. (Washington,D.C.: National Institute of Education), 1980.

Harnischfeger, A., and Wiley, D., Conceptual and Policy Issues in Elementary SchoolTeacher-Learning. Paper presented at the 1978 meeting of the American Educational.Research Association, Toronto, Canada, March, 1978.

Stallings, J., "Implementation and Child Effects of Teaching Practices in Follow-throughClassrooms," Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1975, Vol.40, Nos. 7-8 (Serial No. 163). /

Stallings, J., What Research Has To Say To Administrators of Secondary Schools aboutEffective Teaching and Staff Development. In K. Duckworth, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of aConference held by the Center for Educational Policy and Management, Eugene, Oregon,1981

Stallings, J., Cory, R., Fairweather, J., and Needles, M., A' Study of Basic Reading SkillsTaught in Secondary Schools. (Menlo Park, Calif.: SRI International), January, 1978.

Stallings, J., Needles, M., and Stayrook, N., How to Change the Process of Teaching BasicReading Skills in Secondary Schools: Phase II and Phase III. (Menlo Park, Calif.:'SRI Inter-national), 1979.

16 / TIME ON TASKad ll


RESEARCH ON

TIME ON TASK

A REVIEW OF CONCEFTS1. Time on Task is one of the most popular and widely discussed concepts

among researchers, administrators and educators to emerge from theresearch on teaching during the 1970s.

2. Many educators now feel that simply increasing student time on task willincrease student achievement. While increasing the amount of timestueents are actively involved in learning is important, the more significantissue may be quality of time, or how students spend their time inclassrooms, and its relationship to learning. This issue has yet to be fullyexplored by researchers and educators.

3. In linking learning to time, John Carroll suggested that how much students,learn depends on the amount of time students actively spend learningsomething compared to the amount of time students actually need to learnsomething.

4:The California Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study identified three impor-tant time concepts which impact on student achievement: allocated time,engaged time and academic learning time.

5. Allocated time is the total amount of time allocated or available for instruc-tion (or learning). Generally, it refers to the length of the school day, thelength of a class period or the amount of time scheduled for instruction ina specific content or skill area.Some specific findings:11 The amount of time allocated to instruction in a particular subject or

content area influences the amount of student learning attained in thatarea. Specifically, teachers who allocate more time to a given skill areahave students who achieve higfier in that area.

1111 Factors which influence the amount of time allocated for the school dayor to a specific subject or skill area are: school district policies, buildinglevel decisions regarding scheduling, and teachers' sense of priorities forskill development relative to student needs.

11 Studies show there are significant differences in the amount of timeallocated for the school day, content instruction and specific skilldevelopment between school districts, schools within the same district,and even classroOms within the same school.

6. Engaged time is the amount of time students actively spend paying atten-tion to instruction or working on a learnircactivity; it's the amount of timestudents are on-task. Some specificArn'dings:M Engaged time more accurately reflects a measure of student learning

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINgTION PROGRAM

2 iTIME ON TASK / 17

since students may not be acflvely engaged in learning during anygiven, allocated time period.

MI Factors influencing the 'amount of student engaged time include schoolmanagement practices, classroom management practices, instruc-tional practices.

II School management practices which can reduce students' engaged timeby pulling them off-task are: unnecessary or untimely public announce-ments, unscheduled interruptions by visitors, drills, student pup-outs,etc. More effective schools establish schgol-wide policies with teachersregarding the above which allow teachers to better manage their time byplanning for the interruptions during certain times of the day.

II Effective classroom management practices concerning preparations ofmaterials for lessons, smooth transitions between activities, efficient pro-cedures for routine housekeeping chores and instructional tasks, etc. areessential to good time management and keeping students' attentionfocused on academic activities.

Highly interactive teaching behaviors characterized by high levels ofteacher-student interaction in the form of oral presentations on newmaterial, question and answer or recitation type practice sessions withstudents, and feedback and explanations lead to higher amounts of sti4.-

dent engaged time.1 Studies show there are significant differences between classrooms in the

amounts of studert,eng ed time. W hile the differences of say 25minutes per may no seem like much, over the course of a year thisdifference becomes 75,h urs (of learning)!

7. Academic Learning time 6Ahe amount of time students spe,nd working onlearning activities or tasks which are of an appropriate level of difficulty.Some specific findings:111 An appropriate level of difficulty is one in which students have a high

success rate or high level of successful_learning experiences.El The research shows that students who are given the opportunity to

engage in learning activities which they can complete successfully 75percent of the time achieve more than students who are given instruc-tion at a difficulty level at which they will be successful only 50 per-cent of the time.

IIII The more time students spend actively working on reading'and ,

mathematics activities which they can perform successfully, the moreengaged students will be and the higher they achieve.Research shows a 75 percent success rate seems optimum for mostclasses (slightly higher fqr lower ability classes and slightly lower forhigher ability classes). This'figure is intended to serve as a barometricreading for the class, not as an exact measurement of how many. timesany given student or all the students answer questions correctly.

8. The research findings on the wide variance among classrooms in allocatedtime, engaged time and academic learning time and their impact on stu-

18 / TIME ON TASK

202


dent achievement underscore the importance of having good classroommanagement practices to maximize the available instructional time andhighly interactive teaching practices to optimize students' engagement andachievement.

9. The findings also highlight the important role that administratively-controlled, school-wide management policies play in supporting teachers'time management and classroom management practices.

M


TIME ON TASK / 19

TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:



TIME ON TASK RESEARCH

"Finding the Time" in Elementary Classrooms

To identify classroom routines which may be potentiallytroublesome for teacher's time management and strategiesfor performing these routines more effectively

Group Discussion

Large or Small Groups

15 to 30 minutes

Reproduce activity for appropriate number of participantsI

Have teachers read through the activity, and if time per-mits, write down their answers. Ask the teachers to sharetheir strategies for managing the trouble spots effectively.Encourage the teachers to identify specific strategies foreach of the items, particularly the last one on creatinglearning experiences from routine tasks.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ANDDISSEMINFION PROGRAM

2044*

TIME ON TASK / 21

"FINDING THE TIME"in Elementary Classrooms

Train* Activityfor

Time on Task Research

t.pe Efficiently utilizing allocated time is sometimes easier said than done. Usethe following'exercise to take a 'closer look at your classroom routines todetermine which ones you.are already perfomiing effectively and which onesyou would like to run more smoothly. Share your strategieewith others.

1. What are the no&academic classroom routines or tasks that are performedin your class on a day, weekly, or occasional basis? List them along withan estimate of the time used to complete each routine.

2. Who is currently responsible for perfor,ming the above routines?Which routines do YOU perform? /

/

Which routines does someone else perform? (Para, student aide, classmonitor, etc.)

Are there some routines which you are currently performing which some-one else could take responsibility for? (There is considerable evidencewhich indicates that teachers tend to burden themselves with tasks thatstudents can perform.)

3. The research on time management stresses that considerable time. can belost during transition periods between academic activities. What proceduresdo you use for handling transitions-smoothly and effectively ?.


205TIME ON TAIT-7-C

4. Some classroom routines-can be organized to provide learning experiencesfor students thereby -treating learning time from dead time. Consider thefollowing strategy for using student monitors to pass out books andsupplies.

Appoint student monitors to pass out materials. A class chart can be de-vised to decide who are the monitors; how long they will be the monitors;and, what they will be responsible for distributing to the class. (You mightalso want to consider how you distribute materials to ensure maximumuse of time.)

The materials monitors might be required to correlate the daily attendancetally- with the number of books and materials needed for different learningassignments, by whole class or by groups. Voila! This routine can becomea math and sorting activity.

ACTIVITY:Consider the following classroom routines. Select one or two from tfise listor another routine from your class and try to think of ways in which theseroutines could be used to provide academic experien'ces for students. (Youmay want to share a routine you've already designed for this purpose.)

Attendance

Lunch Count

Collecting Monies

Taking Care of Classroom Pets

Passing Out Materials

Housekeeping

24 / TIME ON TASKEDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


TITLE:

OBJECTIVES:

PROCESS:

FORMAT:

RECOMMENDEDTIME

ALLOTMENT:

PREPARATION:

DIRECTIONS:


Training 'Activityfor

TIME ON TASK RESEARCH

"Finding the Tinie" in Secondary Classrooms

To identify potential trouble spots for time mana ementin secondary classrooms and strategies for copin withthese problems effectively

Group Discussion

Large or Small Groups

15 to 30 minutes


Have teachers read through the activity, and if time per-mits, write down their answers. Ask the teachers to sharetheir strategies for managing the trouble spots effectively.Encourage the teachers to identify specific strategies forusing "others" to help with routine tasks, and for begin-ing and ending class.


n

TIME ON TASK / 25

"FINDING THE TIME"in Secondary Classrooms


Time on Task Research

Efficiently utilizing allocated time is sometimes easier said than done. Thefollowing exercise focuses on potential trouble spots for time management.Read through the activity, answering the questions as you proceed. Thinkabout the areas you might want to run more smoothly in your class. Shareyour strategies with others.,

A. ROUTINES:1. What non-academic routines (attendance, collecting and passing out

papers, distributing materials, etc.) are part of class time?iS

2. What routines do YOU take care of?

What routines does someone else take care of? (Para, student aide, classmonitor, etc.)

Are there some routines yt, are presently doing which someone elsecould take responsibility for?

3. How do you take attendance?Call roll name by nameScan for empty seats (using seating chart)Other (using quizzes, assignments, etc.)

4. What successful provisions have you made for collecting and returningassignments or materials?

B. BEGINNING OF CLASS:Because most secondary teachers receive a totally different group of stu-dentls every 45 to 60 minutes 5 or 6 times a day, the "beginning": of classoccurs more often than in elementary rooms and this "transitio0 is moredramatic. Therefore, it becomes a potential hazard for wasted time.


206TIME ON TASK / 27

How soon after the "official" start of class do you begin?

What kinds of "activities" could prevent the clasS from starting on time?

Do you have routines at the beginning of each class or while students areentering which help to ready students and focus tfietr attention while youtake care of necessary administrative tasks or prepare to begin? (Examples:journal writing, picking up materials, copying assignments, etc.)

What 1-6 been successfUl for you?

An AneddA seconda -teacher could not understand why she.had problems.main-

taining her 5th period on task as efficiently as other classes. Her frustrationpervaded the whole period, losing a lot of time. After examination of thepossible contributing factors, she realized that 4th period was her lunchtime and she was getting to class at the same time as the students. In herother classes, she was already there waiting for ,students and using passingtime to regroup. When she realized this,,she re-organized her time.Without giving up her lunch timew she made sure she was there to greetstudents and start the class on time: She reports that it has made a signifi-cant difference in student on-task behavior and has lowered her frustrationlevel grcatl /

C. ENDING CLASS:Secondary classrobkItis frequently have fewer transitions during any oneperiod than elementary classrooms since-the number of activities is limitedby the short time. A potential hazard toward the end of a period occurswhen the class finishes the planned activities with time left, but insuffi-cient time to start something else.

What are some successful ways of utilizing this "end of class" time?

D. What "school" factor poses the greatest problem for you and your col-leagues in relationship to time use?

28 / TIME ON TASK cE41138,6EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND


The System Largely Depends on People in Their Fifties

Adult Life Cycles and Teaching

DON ROBERTS

In English Journal

(ADULT life cycles have a defi-nite effect on teaches and theirteaching. Recognizing the phe-nomenon of adult life cycles and ageneralized understanding of thedynamics of change in the adultcan lead to improved communica-

\tion among teachers, teachirs andadministrators, and teachers andstudents.

Until recently adulthood wasconsidered to be a kind of devel-opmental plateau on which agerudely intruded. Educators and

\ 'psychologists explored childhood\ and adolescence, but until Eric

.Erikson began publishing his find-ings, adulthood was regarded as astatic and featureless psychologicallandsCape.

Contemporary psychologists be-lieve that adult development oc-curs according to a generally pre-dictablecl., age-grouped timetable.Underlying each person's individ-ual differences are basic governingprinciples of development. Ad-vancing from one adult stage to thenext means meeting specific devel-opmental tasks. Ignoring the chal-lenges and crises inherent in tht,life cycles can stifle normal devel-opment during the early and mid-dle periods.

What designates adulthood is

APRIL 1978

Don Roberts is a teacher-writer,John Day, Oregon. Londensedby permission of the NationalCouncil of Teachers of Englishfrom English Journal, LXV/ (Sep-

tember 1977), 38-41.

subject for debate in itself. Itwould appear that the only way toarrive at any one acceptable defi-nition or description of an adult issimply to assign a chronologicalage as the boundary betv(reen ado-lescence and adulthood.

Becoming V! Adult, or the Ter-rible Twenties.The 20s is a per-iod of impatience and idealism."Now" becomes an obsession andchange must be quick. Those intheir early 20s are infatuated withideals but have not experiencedand observed enough life toprovide a workable basis for them.This contradiction often leads toimpetuous behavior which isregarded by authority figures asrebellious and by adolescents aspatronizing. Young teacherscaught in an age bind, where theyare too young to identify with theircolleagues and too old to identifywith their students, suffer fromisolationist feeliAgs of nonaccept-ance.

The young teacher's adherenceto idealism will oft6r1 translate inteacher-student relationships as an

Reprinted with permission of Education Digest, April, 1978.

210

e

ADULT LI

overestimation of fact. Youngteachers frequently overestimatetheir students' abilities, which is afine error with optimistic implica-tions. But eventually there is asouring effect. "Why can't the lit-tle savages appreciate poetry?""When I give them freedom, whydo they climb the rafters?" "Theyjust don't want \m learn!" Tem-perance becomes just temper.

In contrast, older teachers tendto underestimate. ;Their pessimismis sometimes poisbnous to the en-thusiasm of disk students, but hasa positive effett et the, teachersthemselves. When a student doestranscend the norm, it comes as apleasant surprise.

4' Crucial to the passage intoadulthood is The Dreameachyoung adult's imaginings of him-self in the world. The Dream isusually cast in an occupational con-text. To help realize their dream,many people in their 20s seeksomeone one or more decadesolder who takes the young fledg-ling under his professional wing,shows him the ropes, imparts ad-vice, and, most importantly,bestows his blessings.

The need for mentors in theeducation field is difficult to re-pudiate, yet there is little or noconcerted effort by most schooldistricts to encourage such a rela-tionship. It is, however, a relation-ship which could be easily arranged.Unfortunately, mentors in this fieldare a rare species, basically becausemany likely candidates are so con-scious of protecting their own posi-

FE CYCLES 15

tions that they will not risk beingidentified with the "foolish"young.

The Thirties: the TrAnsitionPeriod. By the time a teacherreaches age 30, young kids, teen-agers, even college students seemremote and untouchable. Yet theearly 30s are marked by turmoiland confusion reminiscent of ado-lescence. The major differencebetween the teenager and the 30--year-old adult is that the adult istoo tired and cautious to berebellioushe is simply confused.

By the mid-30s most adults areM a period of transition and tur-moil. Painful self-reflection resur-rects nagging doubts: "What is lifeall about now that I am doing whatI am supposed to be doing?" Self-deception about the adequacy ofboth marital and career choice is acommon element of the 30s. Oftenthey feel whatever they did for thelast 10 years is suddenly wrong. Atthis point, they frequently changetheir jobs, or spouses, or seeksolace in a bottle (or all three) in adesperate attempt to mollify doubtand coddle insecurity.

In the late 30s the obsession sud-denly switches from ideals to prag-matics. At 35 we become systemspeople. The activists of the early1960s are now writing memos,punching their time clocks, andworrying about what color to paintthe trim. The energy once devotedto changing the system is nowlocked in on \overtime, deadlines,and upward nobility.

The Forties\ Dull Realization,

APRIL 1978

fie

16 THE EDUCATION DIGEST

or the Downhill Drag.At thispoint successes seem hollow andbittersweet. Many jobs, includingteaching, lose their challenge. The40-year-old has leatned the rules,knows the game thoroughly, andcan play it blindfolded. Life's mainingredient is a gnawing predicta-bility. Ideals are suspect and newconcepts seem like romanticvagaries and vacuous notions.Death becomes veal and heavy.

Change is vigorously opposedwhile the 40s person valiantlystrives against mental turmoil,aging, and bodily decline to pre-serve the certainties of the past.The 40- to 50-year-old teacherusually has a repertoire of stan-dard, glib responses to the 25-year -old teacher's dissatisfied mut-terings and naive revolutionaryconcepts. More often than notwhat results between the two is nota dialogue, but two separate inter-locking monologues.

After Fifty: Mellowing, or theGolden Age.At the 50th yearthe human is entering the era ofstahiization. There is not necessar-ily any personal resolve; TheDream may be. as amorphous asever. But there is a sense of totalself-acceptance and tolerance ofothers. There is no looking backnor direlling on morbid reflec-tions, and the paranoia associatedwith the future dissolves into thefluid warmth of the present.

The 50s person is interested inand concerned with world events,familial relations, interpersonalcontacts, and his job, but he no

APRIL 1978

longer reacts. He can afford to bephilosophical wi hour also beingcynical.

The survival of any system, in-cluding the school system, largelydepends on the 50s people. a is at50 and beyond that many teachersbecome the "master" teachers,teachers who support the systemwithout p.utdering to it. They havelearned to be honest and forthrightwithout Mug inflammatory. Fifty-year-olds do not so much controlothm as they establish, by theirown el:ample, an emotionalclimate conducive to harmony.

it is chafing this last adult lifecycle that people become awarethat life doe': not so much require"to be made sense of" as itrequires that "its incomprehensi-ble nature simply be accepted."

The adult life cycle researchersare years, perhaps decades, awayfrom arriving at a thoroughly de-tailed portrait of adult develop-ment. Obviously the idea of anadult life cycle can.be applied onlywithin the widest scope and broad-est range of interpretation. How-ever, to deny the orderly pro-gression of developmental stages inthe adult is to ignore a vast percep-tive field in the dynamics of man.

To admit and come to termswith the realization that adults dogo through dramatic change is tobegin a reasonable and logical re-evaluation of our social structures.

As Margaret Mead suggests, it 'snot enough simply to learn a uteach other. To survive we rnus alsolearn for and from each other. 0

212

Cy

FreeThe

herLaboratory helpseducators break the bondsthat restrict theiiteachingtime.by Mary SallyMary Sally is editor of Educational R&DReport.

Everyone knows that studentachievement is directly related to theamount of time teachers devote toinstruction, right?

But; as most teachers realize, raisingachievement isn't as simple as increas-ing the afnount of time allocated to asubject. Recent research studies, in facj,have revealed a more complex rela- <tionship between instructional timeand student learning. The mostnoteworthy is the Beginning TeacherEvaluation Study (BTES), described inthe Fall 1979 issue of Educational R&DReport.

The study shimed that besides thetime allocated to instruction, two otherfactors are important to achievement:

the amount of time students activelyengage in learning, and the degree ofsuccess they experience while learning.

To increase student achievement, thestudy suggested, teachers must:

make good use of time allocated toinstruction;increase the percentage of time thatstudents engage in learning; andassure that students spend morethan half their time working ontasks that provide high success.

Translating this "formula for success"into practice, unfortunately, isn't easy.But approximately 100 schools work-ing with Mid-continent Regional Edu-cational Laboratory (McREL) are dean-

8 Rh-1) RtiPoRT 213

pnstrating that it ca.: done.

Studies point way to success"After the BTES results came out,many educators in our laboratory'sregion asked us to help them translatethe findings into practical steps forimproving teaching and learning," saysC. Larry Hutchins, deputy director ofMcREL. "We began this task by takinga look at what research has to sayabout increasing Academic LearningTime."

Academic Learning Time, or ALT, isthe term researchers at Far West Labo-ratory coined to describe the amountof time students spend engaged in anacademic task that they can perform

4 *

with a high degree of success. Themore time'students spend actively en-gaged in such tasks, the more theylearn.

"We found that many. researchstudies on classroom conditions andstudent learning offer clues about howto increase at least one component ofALT," Hutchins continues. "Inter-.estingly enough,. most of these studiescome from the regional laboratorie.sand university -based r&d centers."

One example is research conductedby Carolyn Evertson and colleagues atthe R&D Center for Teacher Educationat the University of Texas. Theseresearchers spent thousands of hours

observing differences between effectiveand ineffective teachers. A major find-ing was that teachers set the tone forthe entire year during the first days ofschool.

"Teachers who immediately establishand teach classroom rules run classesin which more time is devoted toinstruction throughout the year,"Hutchins notes. "Obviously, then, oneway to improve learning is to helpteachers develop effective strategies foroperating their classrooms during thefirst few days of school."

After searching for similar clues onhow to increase ALT, Hutchins and hiscolleagues pulled together findings

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from a variety of such studies anddeveloped a workshop series in whichto present them to local educators.

Educators like itiow the workshops are put together

and just which topics are covered, .

though, depend on the requirements ofthe schools involved. That's one of thefeatures that appeals to local educators.

"What I appreciate most is that a lotof good information is included, butwe can pick what we're ready for," saysJim Meszaros, principal of Meadow-brook Elementary School in Rapid 'City,S.D. He and a team of teachers fromhis school participated in a workshopseries that began early in 1981.

"The McREL staff assume that parti-cipants are professionals with skills," hecontinues. "No one is saying 'We've gotthe answers and here's what you haveto do.' Instead, the attitude is 'Here'ssome information that you can applyto make your school better.'

"With this approach, we can pickand choose, and build on what we'vealready got."

One area that Meszaros and his teamtargeted for improvement was the wayteachers manage their classes duringthe first days of school. Prior to theopening of the school year. the teamarranged a day-long inservice for theentire school staff based on the re-search they had learned about earlierfrom McREL. The workshop incorpo-rated specific strategies for teachingclassroom rules to students and manag-ing instruction and behavior during thefirst days of school.

Meszaros claims a clear success forhis staff.

"During the first three weeks ofschool, every one of my 28 staffmembers commented on howsmoothly their classes-were goingcompared to previous years," hereports.

He also notes that during this timeperiod only one.student was referred tothe office because of a discipline prob-lem. "Now that's unusual in a school of656 kids," he adds.

"We don't have statistical proof thatimproving the way we've run classesduring these first weeks has resulted inan immediate increase in our student'sALT," he continues. "But we believe itwill. There's simply more time for

10 R&D REPORT

instruction. We're now a month intothe school year. And our judgment isthat were three irees ahead of wherewe were at this time last year."

Schools undertake improvementsThe McREL workshops thus helpteachers and administrators increaseALT. Before they can begin, though,school staff members need to knowjust where they now stand.

"We begin by giving participants ameans of looking at themselves andtheir students," explains Hutchins."Participants calculate the amount oftime they devote to instructional ac-tivities during the typical school day.They learn how to observe oneanother's classrooms to determine thepercentage of time students are en-gaged in learning. And they analyzestudent success rates on different typesof assigriments for each subject matterarea.

These written assessments are ac-tually modifications of some of thequestionnaires and observation proce-dures developed, tested and refined bythe BTES researchers. McREL staffanalyze the results and return the"scores" to individual teachers or for-mulate a composite score for the schoolas a whole.

Once teachers and administratorshave a fix on the time they devote toinstruction, their students' engagementrates and their success rates, they candecide what areas to target for im-provement. The rest of the workshoppresents strategies in three areasclassroom management, building man-agement and student testingthatcan contribute to increased ALT.

Covering all these areas might seemlike too big a job for a workshop.Actually, though, the McREL workshopseries is really a school improvementprocess that typically involves fourone-day sessions spread over a periodof several months. Between each ses- ,

sion, participants carry out"homework" assignments in theirschools.

The workshop series is generallyconducted for a school district or groupof schools within a district. Each par-ticipating school sends to the workshopa team of the principal and two orthree teachers; a central office staffmember is also involved.

"Teachers, of course, play the pri-mary role in increasing students' ALT,"says Hutchins. "Buts research on schoolimprovement shows that central officesupport and principal leadership arealso essential."

Principals are particularly important.They are responsible for ensuring thaetheir team carries, out the improvpmenteffort for their building. This meansdeveloping a way of sharing knowl-edge gained'atke workshop sessionswith the rest the school staff.Equally important, some improvementstrategies, such as ways to decrease .student disruptions, must be initiatedbuilding-wide to be successful.

"Dealing with behavior problemsrobs teachers of valuable instructionaltime and is responsible for low ALT inmany classrooms," says Hutchins. "Yetdiscipline is not just a classroom con-cern. Principals, and even parents,often become involved in the discipli-nary process. To ensure that unaccept-able behavior is handled consistentlyand effectively, it is critical to imple-ment a school-wide policy. Everyoneshould know what the rules are andhow they're enforced."

Climate for learning keyHutchins goes on to point out thatdiscipline is just one aspect of a school'sclimate that may affect ALT.

"A recent study from England provesthat what school a student goes to andwhat goes on at that school does.matter," he says. The study is. called15,000 Hours because that's approxi-mately the amount of time a studentspends in Britain's schools.

Accordingto Hutchins, the study isimportant because it rejected the usualmeasures of a school's success/such asthe amount of money spent,/the num-ber of books in the library arid theacademic degrees the teachers hold.Instead, the researchers loOked at suchfactors as:

the amount of emphasis placed onacademics;the consistency with which com-mon goals were shared by teachersand communicated to students;teachers' engagement in studentlearning:appropriate use of rewards; andthe degree to which students partic-ipated and shared responsibility.

216

"Schools that did well on all thesedimerisions of schooling produced stu-dents with much higher academicachievement, fewer discipline problemsand better attendance," says Hutchins.

Based on the study, McREL staffhave constructed an "Academic Indi-cators Survey" that helps educatorsfocus on those characteristics and con-ditions that the study says have thegreatest impact on student achieve-ment. The survey is completed by allthe staff of schools that participate inthe McREL workshop series.

Each of the 28 items in the surveyallows staff to rate the degree to whicha particular characteristic is true fortheir school. And for each item a list of"evidence" provides a concrete basis formaking judgments. A sample charac-teristic is "Disruptions of classroominstructional time are minimized." Oneof five pieces of evidence is: "Noiselevels in the hall are low." Staff mem-bers not only rate the characteristic, butcheck the pieces of evidence theyconsider most important. Space is pro-vided for adding other indicators.

"The survey results give schools avalid basis for deciding which areas totackle first," says Hutchins. "If a highpercentage of staff says student disrup-tions are a big problem, for instance,well, that's hard to ignore."

Class management affects ALTAlthough the McREL workshop seriesaims at school-wide improvement,many of the activities focus on theclassroom because that's where most-learning actually occurs.

"The way classrooms are organizedand managed," says Hutchins, "deter.mines not only the amount of timeavailable for instruction but whetherkids successfully engage in learning.Several research and developmentprojects offer strategies for streamliningand improving classroom organization,and increasing student motivation."

"A good example of the latter," hecontinues, "is Student Team Learning,a program developed and tested by theCenter for Social Organization ofSchools at Johns Hopkins University.This program encourages kids to tutorone another, increases their involve-ment in learning, and raises achieve-ment levels."

Information about such strategies ispresented in the workshops. Topics

R&D REPORT 11

0include ability grouping of students,whole-class instruction vs. independentwork, motivational techniques, rewardsystems, strategies for dealing withdiscipline problems, and the relation-ship between achievement andteachers: expectations of students.

Research conducted by McREL:s staffshows, for instance, that students getoff task during independent learningeasier than during whole-classinstruction.

"But independent learning shouldn'tbe abandoned just because it can resultin kids goofing off," states Hutchins."In fact, teachers can use independentlearning activities to meet individlialneeds and improve the amount ofsuccess students experience, providedthey help kids stay on task."

Materials developed at Far WestLaboratory, he explains, skell out waysto help students of differen\ ages re-main on task while working alone.Suggestions include: explaining to stu-dents what independent learning

.t. means; defining rules for workingalone; clarifying what's to be learned;identifying and discussing problems

. that might arise; setting up routines forwhen students are finished with theirtasks; developing in sfaents the ex-

. pectation of a delayed teacher-responseto tlxir work; and evaluating withstudents their success at independentlearning.

in other words, teachers need torecognize that children must be taughtto work alone," says Hutchins. "Andteachers must treat independent learn-ing as serious business. If they do, theirstudents will, too."

Testing procedures,questionedarsides covering both building-levelaatVlassroom management strategiesfor-increasing students' ALT, the work-shop incorporates information ontesting.

"Schools are traditionally judgedthrough students' performance on testsusually nationally normed, stan-dardized tests," says Hutchins. "But alot of evidence suggests thatstandardized-test results are a poorindicator of school success."

Hutchins explains that a recentanalysis by the Institute for Researchon Teaching at Michigan State Univer-sity has shown that 30 to 40 percent of

12 RtrI) REPORT

the items on leading tests are notcovered bylmajor commercialtextbooks at the same grade level. Yetteachers are guided primarily by thetextbooksithey use.

"If sch4ols intend to improve studentachievenient by increasing ALT, theyneed to/take a second look at the waystude is are evaluated," he says. "lesnot p ssible to have a clear pidure of asch )I's effectiveness unless tests coverw is taught."

Of course, teachers and building-).vel administrators generally find it

/impossible to develop alternativeevaluation systems. Such changesusually require district-wide action,which can take several years.

"Instead of developing a new testingprocedure," Hutchins notes. "schoolstaff must often make the best of whatthey have and increase its validity formeasuring what they're teaching. Soour workshop participants learn howto assess the content of tests, how tomake sure that what they're teachingconforms to what they're testing, andhow to improve their students' test-taking skills."

Junior high principal commentsThe McREL workshop series thus offersteachers and administrators a solid,research-based foqdation on which tobuild a total school improvement ef-fort. It provides tools for assessingcurrent practices as well as strategiesfor improving building management,classroom management and studenttesting procedures.

Although this approach to improve-ment is most applidtble to elementaryschools, some secondary schools haveparticipated as well.

"Not all the research knowledgepresented is applicable to all the subjectareas taught in junior high," says VinceHenderson, principal of South JuniorHigh in Rapid City, S.D. "But it'sextremely valuable for subjects likeEnglish, social studies, reading andmath.

"Some of our teachers have changedtheir entire teaching format based onwhat they've learned," he continues."And even those who haven't foundthe research particularly applicable totheir subjectindustrial arts t,eachers,for instancehave reported tpatthey've applied certain techniques totheir situation."

Henderson comments on the McRELimprovement strategy. "Often such tworkshops offer a lot of theory. Not sowith McREL staff. They spell out good,practical applications."

According to Hutchins, these com-ments are consistent with what otherparticipants say. "Evaluations of theworkshops show that educators believethey're an effective approach to schoolimprovement. We hope to furtherprove the process works through aformal field test with the MapletonSchool District north of Denver," headds. This year, McREL staff are con-ducting a research project with sixschools in the Mapleton area to deter-mine how the workshop series affectsteacher behavior and studentachievement.

You can participateThe Mapleton and Rapid City teamsare among more than 100 that willhave started or completed the work-shop series by the end of the 1981-82school year. The teams come fromschools in the region served by McREL.With offices in Kansas City and Den-ver, McREL is a regional laboratorythat works primarily with schools inseven states: Colorado, Kansas,Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota,South Dakota and Wyoming. However,McREL staff are willing to conduct theschool improvement workshops forschools in other states on a cost-recovery basis.

'Typically, this would first involvediscussions that might lead to a half-day awareness workshop for a group ofschools or an entire district. After theawaeness session, school and districtstaff Would decide whether or not toproceed. The workshop can bepackaged to meet different localrequirements.

Much of the research covered in theworkshop has been reported in theSummer 1981 issue of Noteworthy, a

magazine produced by McREL for dis-tribution in its region. Single copies areavailable for $3.

To order a copy of Noteworthy or tofind out more about the workshopseries, contact Hutchins, deputy di-rector of the Mid-continent RegionalEducational Laboratory 1800 PontiacAve., Denver, CO 80220; 303/399-9285.

David Berliner was director o:California's Beginning TeacherEvaluation Study, the primesource of today's attention totime-on-task. In this interviewwith Execbtive Editor RonBrandt, Berliner claims there'sone best way to make teachersmore effective.

c.

41C_

On Imp laving TeacherEffectiveness: AConversation with DavidBerliner

What's been Your experience inhelping teachers tisi: the re-search oirteacher effectiu. +less?

Be r I've tried to disseminateknoAcdge by making presentations,but tilt seemed to have sere little im-pact. '('tic times l'ye gone into e lass-rooms. though. what I did and saidmeant something to teachers and itmade a difference. W,e mld chart thechanges. So nn e is simple:the research on teacher et ectienessgets used when somebotly arks withteachers in their classrooms There'sno substitute for what Bruce losce calls"coaching.-

Q: \\that is that like' \,ICtik. "'hit doYou do?

Berliner: Take the major kanahlt of"engaged time.- I asked teacheis in .1district near Tucson if we could send

'graduate students into their classroomsto take some records of their funition.ing and feed it back to them. 'I hegraduate students had learned how tocode engaged.tinic, transition tone.wait time. and so on. 1.11 ((de(' Mittgraphed data to iii three. four, maheIlse visits. Then thus sat down withthe teacher and hid a conference. Its-

cry precise consultationtechniques deselopcd hs hotessinJohn Bergan of the rink eisits ii .\ri-

Bergan's approach is designedto elicit from the client both a state-ment of the problem and a statementof intent to change it.) \Viten the teachers had defined theirproblems and solutions, the consul-tantsthe graduate studentstooksonic inure measures. rive of the sis

classes showed remarkable change;they went from 40 or 'in percent on-

David Berliner is Professor of ViliicationalPsvcholtw, linirersit) Arizona. T nest»,

eprinted from Educational Leadership, October, 1982,zliFitAsociation of Supervisionid Curriculum Development, 1982. Used by permission

1.82EDUCA't (.FAI)1161111)

task time up to whatever goals theteachers had set-70 or 80 percent.The only exception was a mathematicsteacher whose time-on-task was about40 percent. That teacher said, "Fine,that's all I want it to be." At thatpoint, we had nothing more to do.Teachers have to make those decisions.

Q: That indirect, consultative ap-proach seems inconsistent with the im-age of direct instruction.

Berliner: It's indirect in the sense thatwe don't tell teachers what their prob-lem is or how to solve it. It's coercivein that we never leave an interviewwithout a statement of the problemand either a proposed solution or theteacher's, statement that he or shedoesn't want to change.

Q: How does setting a goal lead to im-provement?

Berliner: Let me give you an example.I might say to the teacher, "Your time-on-task in mathematics averages "43percent over the five days we observed.How could you bring it up?" Theteacher might say, "01-- /, let methink. Maybe, because I'm grading pa-pers when they're ,doing their mathworkbooks, I'm not monitoring themenough."

"Terrific. Why don't you take somebreaks frOm your grading of papers andwandei the classroom a little bit. Let'ssee-if that has an effect."

So we collect data as the teacher in-creases his or her monitoring. Well,we happen to know that works. If theteacher is roaming the classroom, at-tending rates are higher.

Another thing the teacher might sayis, "When kids are through with thpirassignments, have other assign-ments ready so they'll have somethingto work on."

OCTOBER 1982

In our consultative model, the con-sultants learn eliciting questions like,"What can you do to accomplishthat?" "Is there any other way you canuse resources?"

Q: Wouldn't it be simpler just to tell agroup of teachers some of the commonproblems and some ways to make bet-ter use of time?

Berliner: Teachers already know thesethings; they've heard about them inmethods courses; they've beenpreached to. But nothing happens un-til someone gets the teacher to sicecifywhat he or she is going to do, andthen monitors and helps the teacherlook at the effects.

Q: Considering all the things teachersneed to be concerned with, how im-portant is time management?

Berliner: Probably 50 percent of allteachers don't have to worry abouttime allocation. But the other 50 per-cent ought to look at it. And half ofthem-25 percent of all teachersareprobably badly under-allocating timein some areas of the curriculum. Wehave evidence that the actual time'available for instruction in reading andmath in some elementary classroomsmay total less than 100 hours. Thatstrikes me as a gross misuse of time. SoI'd say that as many as one-fourth ofthe teachers in this country couldmake marked improvements in instruc-tion by just looking at time allocations.

Beyond that, maybe 70 percent ofteachers could be helped by attendingto engaged timehow time is used.Whenever managers in the businessworld do time audits, they find ways tosave minutes. And that's true of teach-ing. For example, when, the Austin,Texas, school district took this conceptseriously, they found ways to save the

"But nothing hap-pens until someonegets, the teacher tospecify what he orshe is going to do,and then monitorsand helps theteacher look at theeffects."

equivalent of 10-14 days of school,worth $2-3 million.

Q: Determining engaged time involvesmaking judgments about whether stu-dents are doing what they're supposedto be doing. How can an observer tellwhether students a e*on-task or not?

Berliner: Young kids ve no guile.To observe on-task or o sk behaviorin kids third grade or under asy.You and I could sit in the 'back theroom, come up with some rulesabout ten minutes, and show alm stperfect reliability all day long: Yo ngkids either are or are not on-task andyou can tell. If they're off-task, they'redancing, tapping their pencils, chattingwith friends, and soon. They're on-task if they scrunch up their faces andhold their pens and pencils tightly..You can almost see them thinking!

As students get older, you begin tosee "anticipatory graduate student be-havior": head-nodding, smiling, note-taking, and other signs of attending.

213 13 -

You may code this as on-task, but inyour heart of hearts, you know thekid's not processing anything. '!'lie op-posite occurs with the kid who's look-ing out the window: you code him off-task even though you're pretty sure he'sprocessing everything. Because of this,we decided that with older students,individual data may be faulty, but themeans for classes or groups are stillvalid. There are probably as many stu-dents off-task that we coded "on" ason-task that we coded "off." So onceyou and I agree on sonic coding rules,our inter-rater reliability would be

about .95 at virtually any grade level.

Q: Arc you suggesting that principalsand central office supervisors shouldconcentrate their staff development ef-forts on in-class coaching?

Berliner: I sure am. I think theyshould bring in fewer speakers and in-stead have somebody in classroomshelping teachers make changes. .

Q: But that's a very time-consumingapproach. With fewer people in super-visory roles can we really expect themto do coaching?

Berliner: They won't get much changeunless they do. I'M convinced that thenumber of people who will change byexposure to books and lectures andworkshops is just too small.

Q: How would someone who's alreadya principal or supervisor learn moreabout consultation skills?

Berliner: Well, Professor Bergan'smodel takes time to learn because itinvolves asking questions that do notprompt but elicit. BecOniing expert re-quires many practice sessions, as wellas analyzing transcripts of those ses-sions. It's extraordinarily useful. butvery technical. But there are otherconsultation models: Meredith Gall

14

and Keith Acheson' have one, and I'msure there arc others.' The behavioralone appeals to me because it puts theresponsibility on the person beingcounseled.

Q: How confident are you that this iswhat is implied by the term "coach-ing"?

Berliner: A precise definition isn't nee-ess,iry. What's important is that some-body who knows the skills in questionis in the classroom and provides feed-back. Just as a batting coach mightsay, "Spread your legs a little fartherapart," or "Hold the bat a little high-er," a teaching coach might say, "Youhad the opportunity at that point to askan analytic question and von didn't.Let's figure out why."

Q: That kind of statement is part of theconsultative model?

Berliner: Not during the time of elicit-ing solutions. At that pciint you'd onlysay, "Here's the data. Is this what youwant?" If the teacher says, "No, I wanttochange," you say. "Okay, how canyou change?" The teacher might say."I'm going to try to ask analytic ques-tions." Then you can follow up bywatching and saving, "Here was an op-portunity to ask an analytic question.Why didn't you?"

What I exclude from coaching iswalking into the classroom and saving,"You're deficient in analytic questions.I'm going to tell you how to do it.".That strikes Inc as the wrong way toWork with professionals.

Q: Must the consultant be an expert.teacher?

Berliner: Coaches may not have to be

superior teachers themselves, but theymust know good teaching. I'll use an-other analogy. We all marvel at theOlympics when somebody does a verycomplex dive and the judges hold up ,

scores within three tenths of a point ofone another. It happens because everyone of those judges knows how to ana-lyze a dive. Even though the div'e takesonly 1.8 seconds, they have coded 30 -different aspects of itentry into thewater, where the legs were, whetherthe rollover was correct, and a lot ofother things that experts know andnovices don't. They're connoisseurs ofdiving. We need connoisseurs ofteaching.

Q: What else besides time allocation,engagement rates, and time manage-ment do you watch for when you'reobserving classrooms?

Berliner: One thing is the match ofthe instructional materials to the goalsof the school or district. For example,if the district says second grade kidsshould learn two-column addition,look for whether there's two-columnaddition going on, I check the teacher-made materials to see if they're con-gruent with the expected goals, be-cause lots of teachers work very hardmaking their own materials, sonic ofwhich are good and sonic which arenot. I've seen teachers put a lot .of ef-fort into producing units that are irrel-evant to the goals of the district.

Another thing. is classroom manage-.ment and discipline. If the class is notlearning because the teacher's time isbeing taken up. by two or three kids,that has to be dealt with.

I also look for politeness and kind-ness. Classrooms should conform to amodel of what a democratic workplace

EnuctvrTAL LEADERSHIP

is like: the teacher is in charge and thekids have work to do. But they shouldbe able to talk to each other abouttheitassignments, there should besome choices, there should be consid-eration.

Q: These things you look forare theybased on research or are they simplycommon sense and personal values?

Berliner: They're really extrapolationsfrom research. We don't have researchthat says polite classes do better, butwe do have research that says observ-ers' ratings on a scale of one to ten for"How willing would you be to sendyour own child to this place?" correlatepretty well with school effectiveness in-dicators.

It takes a connoisseur of classroomsto know what that means, just as ittakes a connoisseur of wine to know afull-bodied wine. You can't define aneffective classroom precisely, but I canpoint to some things: there's laughterand the teacher doesn't bother with it,doesn't say, "Quiet." If it goes on forten minutes, though, the teacher does;there are limits.

Kids should learn that school is funand school. is work. Classes that arehigh on academic engaged time dobetter. Classes that are high on conviv-iality also score higher.

Q: There's no inconsistency, then, be-. tween what you like to see and what

research says you should be seeing?

Berliner: No. The only time I hit aninconsistency was on the issue of suc-cess rate. I didn't believe very highsuccess rates were necessary for kids tolearn. I thought kids should be"stretched." Thc data changed mymind on that. It changed Barak Rosen-shine's and Jere Brophy's minds, too..Now, we're all sayingespecially foryoung kids and slow.learnersthathigh success rate is important.

Q: You also seem to be saying that testscores aren't the only measure ofteacher effectiveness.

Berliner: Effectiveness can be definedthat way, but I don't think you canavoid certain moral concerns. If aschool produces achievement betterthan other schools but its suicide ratefor teenagers is higher, is that a priceyou're willing to pay? We have evi-dence that there are schools like that.

We need at least two criteria forjudging schools: we have to see them

Ocro Bt:a 1982

as work places in which society expectscertain things to be mastered. Butschools are also! places where youngpeople spend important parts of theirlivesso they should be enjoyable.

Q: But time-on-task research can bemisused if educators aren't concernedwith both criteria?

Berliner: Sure.

Q: Are you worried that some adminis-trators may in fact be abusing the ideaof time-on-task? That their singlemind-ed devotion to improving test scoresmay be at the cost of other outcomes?

Berliner: I don't think so. I haven'theard of any real abuses. History maylook back on these times and say therewere some; I don't know. The admin-istrators who adopted scientific man-agement principles in the 1920s proba-bly didn't feel foolish even thoughhistory says they did some of the stu-pidest things possible. I don't knowwhat a Callahan4 would say about thecurrent back-to-basics movement, butmy feeling is that for the most partwe're reasonably well-balanced.

If American schools have gone over-board, it's in the direction of an educa-tional smorgasbord: smatterings ofknowledge and low time-on-task. Weought to take more seriously -the out-comes we want.

Q: Your comments seem a bit para-doxical. You've said supervisOrs needto recognize that teachers have goals oftheir own, so they can best be ap-proached by asking, "How can I helpyou accomplish your goals?" Childrenhave goals as well, but the time-on-task researchers say effective teachersdon't waste time involving students indecision making. They tell kids whatthe goals arc and get on with teachingthem.

Berliner: You've tapped right into abasic educational philosophy of mine.I believe the amount of choice youshould give kids in school looks like aninverted pyramid. It should be verylimited in the first few grades, butmaximal in the last year or two of highschool. In the early grades where basicskill acquisition is taking place, weshould offer whatever opportunities forchoice are reasonable because that'sthe way we should treat human be-ings--but In fact, the expected out-comes of education are quite clear atthat level; there aren't a lot of choices.

We shouldn't be hypocritical about it;kids are there to learn to read and writeand do math, and a school has failed iflarge numbers of its kids can't do thatby the end of elementary school.

But schools have also failed if that'sall students can do at the end of 12grades. Once they've acquired basic lit-eracy, students should begin makingchoices about their own education.

Q: There are early childhood class-rooms that are very impressive in theamount of freedom children arc givenand the amount of self-control they de-velop. In some of those classrooms thekids continue to work even when theteacher leaves the room. Yet thoseclassrooms tend not to produce thehighest standardized test scores, at leastin the short run. Wouldn't it be wrongfor a supervisor to come into that kindof classroom and report data abouthow the kids are not quite as muchon-task as they would be if the teacher.stood up in front and said, "Everybodylisten to me "?

Berliner: If the teacher has a good sys-tem working and we're talking about afew lousy items on a standardized test,I'd leave the teacher alone. If the classis at the 20th percentile but predictedto be at the 60th, the teacher hassomehOw missed the boat.

The kind of-classroom you've de-scribed is wonderful, but among teach-ers who have tried it, more have failedthan succeeded. You can get teachersto succeed more easily in a direct in-structional model than in an openmodel. So if I have to make a choice,and only 10 percent of the teacherscan pull off the, more open kind ofclassroom, while 90 percent failandI think the rates are pretty close tothatI'm going to try to redirect someof them into a more structured situa-tion. That way, kids won't be cheatedof their education: But for the 10 per-cent who can pull it off, my god, hugthem. EL

'J. Bergan, Behavioral Consultation (Co-lumbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1977).

'Keith A. Acheson, and Meredith D.Gall, Techniques in the Clinical Supervisionof Teachers (New York: Longman, Inc.,1980).

'See also David Champagne and R. CraigHogan, Consultant Supervision: Theory andSkill Development, .1981, available fromC. H. Publishing Company, 812 Irving St.,Wheaton, IL 60187.

4Raymond E. Callahan, Education andthe Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1962).

15

Instructor Special Featuri

How much quality teaching time is there in your

day? How much time dspend engaged in lealikely, a great deal lessrecent research is anyconsultant Elizabeth F.

o your students actually

ruing activities? Quitthan you may think, if

ndication. Educator and

Noon tel you how to

. and yo t productivityincrease time on task .

as a teacher.

Reprinted from Instructor Magazine, September, 1981. Copyright 1981 by Instructor Publica-

tions, Inc. Used by permission. 222

A teacher I know had a hard and fast rule:students could use the pencil sharpeneronly before school. This, she hoped,would save time during the school day.But it didn't work out that way; when thebell sounded, more than half of the kidswere still in line at the pencil sharpener!That little operation had become a majorevent to them . . . and it killed a lot oftime. But being conscious of time wasted,the teacher .hanged the rule. Childrencould go to the sharpener whenever theywantedone at a timeso long as no onewas speaking. The sharpening of pencilsbecame incidental and natural. Problemsceased. And in the end, the teacher in-creased that valuable commodity knowntoday as time on tusk.

While that may seem a rather remotecase of time lost, more than likely it isn't.Have you ever calculated how much qual-ity timelearning time is dissipated inyour class by students lining up for thisor ,that, competing with themselves forattention, redoing work they already cando, sitting passively while a handful ofothers participate in a classroom situa-tion, moving from room to room for spe-cial classes and the like, and waiting im-patiently while you perform operationsthat they could do as easily themselves,thereby freeing you to use their timeand your ownmore efficiently?

Consider this: If just five minutes anhour are lost, that's equal to a half houror more each school day; or two and ahalf hours a week; or an entire day in justover two weeks. And that's figuring onlyfive minutes an hour. Yet, in some studieschildren were found to be spending onlyabout 25 percent of their school time inactivities directly related to learning goals.Clearly, something is wrong here. Andyou pay the price for this wasted timebecause you're being deprived of time todO what you want to doteach children.Children lose out, too, because they aremissing all that valuable learning time.

How can we avoid such a loss? Let'slook at three areas in which it may notseem as if time is being wasted, but inmany cases a great deal of it is. Theseareas are school and classroom systems,responsibility sharing, and individualteaching style.

Analyze your school and classroomsystemsFirst, think of yourself as a classroommanager and consider your systems ofoperation. Is more time devoted to tasksthan' is needed, at the price of importantlearning time? Certainly, there are tasks

56 INSTRUCTOR. September 1991

common to every school and classroomthat are necessary and time consuming,but sometimes they assume undue impor-tance. For starters, think about the dis-tribution and collection of work materialsand ironies, dissemination of informa-tion, and room housekeeping chores.They all have to happen, but can they besimplified or dc- emphasized? Irrsomecases you may have unnecessary rules thatcan be phased out; in ,other cases, youmay need better systems of operation thatwill result in new rules. Remember, too,that you aren't efficient if you are "doingfor the children" what they can be doingfor themselves.

Sometimes overall school programs areset up to provide efficiencies, but the netresult is insufficient attention to individ-uals. In one school that had to have fourlunch periods, the principal insisted thatall children be lined up outside the doorto the cafeteria well in advance. Andwhen the door opened, it was another 10

Primary teachers foundthey were spending upto eight hours a week

on housekeeping

minutes before the children at the end ofthe line were served. Teachers pointed outthat one class lined up in advance wasenough. The others could come alongmore gradually. .

Bottlenecks, frustrations, irritations areinevitable with 25 children in a room andmaybe 12 times that many in the school.But invariably, there are things we can doabout them. One teacher moved her artclass to the first period after lunch. Thenshe had a monthly committee of studentsthat arranged all the materials on students'desks when they returned to the classroom.Time was saved.

In another school, primary teachersanalyzed their time and found they werespending up to eight hours a week onhousekeeping. They worked out modelsand kept refining them until they got itdown to about an hour a week.

A principal who had a good corps. ofparent volunteers asked them to collectlunch and milk money, freeing teachersfrom that time-consuming task.

In the same school, teachers asked theprincipal for a better break with the PAsystem. They were being interrupted onan average of six times a day. Now ithappens far less frequently.

A big problem teachers .omplain of is

children being taken from the classroomfor Title I, speech classes, and the like,with little consideration for their classschedules. One teacher decided enoughwas enough. She went to the principal andsaid that she was responsible for the chil-dren's progress,' she could and wouldteach them to read. And she did! In othercases, where teachers and students haveworked together to improve the carryingout of classroom tasks, they often doubledtheir time on task quotients. The result:more time for art and music, more timeto read to children, more time to workwith individual students, and higher pro-ductivity for everyone concerned. What'sthe point? As you clean up operations,eliminating nonproductive tasks and busy-work, there is more time and incentive forchildren to be the dreamers, thinkers, andhypothesizers you want them to be. (And,remember, you undoubtedly have someinstances in your school day where youare exceedingly efficient to begin with.Think of why, of what you did to scorethis success in your classroom manage-ment, and then use those techniques inother situations.)

Share responsibilities with childrenA big difficplty in achieving better timeon task lies in an inbred distrust of chil-dren. That's right! Teachers are often re-luctant to hand over operations or evenshare them.

Today's kids feel pretty useless. Theold days of household and school choresare gone and no one wants them back.But what must happen to replace them?Who needs Billy? Who is depending onhim for what? If he isn't there will it makeany difference?

Inherent to greater learning efficiencyare opportunities for children to take holdof their lives and run them. They mustconsciously obligate themselves to ac-complish prescribed tasks. The patternhas to start early and continue in evergrowing complexity.

It's easy to see why teachers get off onthe wrong foot. Children begin schoolwith few of the skills needed to carry outthe type of experiences thy have inschools. Many times they iFe" self-cen-tered and only moderately equipped to fitinto a group. So as far as school is con-cerned, we treat them as if they have justbeen born. They are protected and di-rected instead of being encouraged to beindividuals ready to claim their birthrightsof dependable fulfillment.

What is involved in giving them moreresponsibilities is not permissiveness but

223

the opposite of it. In Kindergarten A thechildren are lined up and taken to the toi-lets and water fountain. In KindergartenB'the teacher says from the first day thatit is just like home. When one needs toleave the room he or she does. The firstfew weeks in Kindergarten B find a pro-gression of children trying out the privi-lege, but the more interesting their activ-ities become, the less they go, almost tothe point the teacher needs to remind themonce in awhile.

The Kindergarten A teacher also helpsto dress her children for the playgroundon cold days, while the Kindergarten Bchildren tug and pull with their boots.Kindergarten A teacher wears herself outproviding duplicated sheets to color andpatterns to trace When her children goto the library, she has the easy or picturebooks put out so that no one will pick toodifficult a book, and kids walk in lineboth to and from the classroom. Through-out the day, Teacher A makes decisionsfor students. By 3:30 she has put in a hardday, having been totally dedicated to hertasks. But, time on task was lost. Andthere were few chances for ego fulfillmentby the children. In Teacher B's case,however, time was saved and egosgratified.

T\ Are you guilty of similar practices?When you consider strategies for a lesson,do you solicit alternative ways from thestudents, then let them elect the one thatworks best for them? ost teachers andtextbooks do not vest such responsibilityin children. Either the curriculum, text-book, or teacher is to decidc what is tobe learned and how to go about it. Thenit is up to the students to follow through.Maybe so, but it sure doesn't put muchtrust in the kids.

The biggest area most teachers reservefor themselves is evaluation. As a result,some children go through school notknowing what evaluation is all about.They tell you tests are to get marks or togo on report cards or to put in teachers'books. But testing in school should be tofind out if something is mastered or re-quires more practice. It tells you and thechildren whether the strategies used wereeffective. It is the prime tool whereby youimprove your efficiencies; for it says

carry on, or stop and consider what needsto be changed.

Elementary children need many sub-tests, immediately marked by them to seeif they are on target. And if they aren't,they turn to you, the expert, to find outwhether they should change methods,study more, even to make sure they un-

derstand the basic process and what it isall about.

How much of the testing process areyou ready to share with your students?Are you prepared to lay mastery or thelack of it squarely on their desks and ex-pect them to do something about it? That'swhat trusting kids really means, and youwon't have an efficient operation untilthis happens.

So we are talking about three points:insisting that children assume responsi-bility for their behavior; including themin selecting strategies to achieve mastery;and involving them in each evaluationoperation that directly affects thcirachievement.

You won't make changes in these areasovernight, but you might think about in-stances where you can begin. For exam-ple, make a list of tasks and experiencesthat occur during the day. Note those thatyou reserve totally for yourself, thosedone largely by the children, and those

t."40`#01:IMPtiOn: #14?le;chi141. ren

*Pilevey `being, told"

in which both occur. A sample list mightinclude: arranging the room; keeping theroom neat; maintaining standards of cour-tesy; settling personal differences; check-ing homework; collecting homework andother papers; controlling movement in theclassroom; selecting learning objectives;selecting strategies to achieve objectives;carrying out strategics; carrying out eval-uations; carrying out major evaluations;making media selections; deciding onneed for additional work; deciding on or-dering of tasks; and movement outside ofthe classroom.

Now, select two situations for change:one, a task or control which you totallyreserve for yourself at present and anotherin which you and the children share re-sponsibility but which you think theymight possibly take over. In both cases,determine what the risks are in changing,what the advantages' are to you, and whatthe advantages are to students. Your an-swers will determine your action. Do theadvantages outweigh the risks? Are therereally.iny risks at all? Act "accordingly!

Critique your teaching stylePrivately and to ourselves, we are profes-sional enough to admit that some of ourdaily teaching techniques could be more

224

efficient. The day is gone when it is suf-ficient for a classroom to be quiet andorderly, and no longer does each child getthe same amount of time in skill areas:15 minutes a day is enough for some chil-dren to spend on reading, but others need30, 45, 60, and maybe 75 minutes, andwe have to have management techniquesthat will accommodate that kind ofvariance.

So let's look at the heart of the matter,how to make daily teaching techniquesmore time efficient. Let's start with a listof what's wron , today.1. Many teachers talk too much in theirdesire to orient, motivate, and explain.One reason might be that the objective ofthe lesson is too big or not clearly artic-ulated. But regardless, it's a false as-sumption to think children are learningmuch while they are "being told."2. Time is wasted and a lot of learningopportunities missed when an entire classis supposedly involved but only a fewchildren are making responses. It wouldbe far more economical to have four si-multaneous groups with peer leaders.3. Unevenness in rate of accomplishmenthas always been a problem, with somechildren completing a task while othersare just getting', started. Teachers copewith this situation in varying ways suchas extra or bonus assignments, but thebonus task should not be on the same levelas the task just completed. If the studentcan already do the task, why do more ofthe same to fill up the time?4. Often a child is told to do somethingwithout really knowing why he is doingit, thereby diminishing his personal ef-ficiency. Similarly, when he isn't in-volved in selecting the method of mas-tery, he may be employing a method thatmakes poor use of his attributes.5. Not having enough evaluation breaks(times when the student stops and checkshow he's doing) results in learning errors,especially if the student is on the wrongtrack. He also loses interest if the taskcontinues without his knowing how he isdoing.6. Poor planning within a room or poorcoordination among teachers often causesstudents to "sit and wait." Because theyare children, we are careless (though un-intentionally). They must wait for us withmore grace than we wait for them.

Those six problems are often noted bytime on task experts as they observe inclassrooms. But they also note a numberof positive actions being taken to makebetter use of time.1. Teachers are increasingly rejecting the

. continuedINSTRUCTOR. September 1981 57

TIME ON TASK continuedbusywork type of workbooks and dupli-cating sheets.2. They are setting up a goal and thenselecting methods t meet it. This can'thelp but lead to better appraisals of whatworks effectively and what doesn't.3. Teaqhers are applying variety to indi-vidualized instruction and learning.4. Materials are more precise and relatemore directly to their users.

Here's an example of how a teacher setup a time-efficient lesson, The main goal

was mastery in single letter alphabetiza-tion; the time was 30 minutes.

To increase motivation, she prepareda sample- worksheet with a list of classmembers typed down the middle. On theleft, students were to alphabetize the firstnames, on the right the last.

Passing out materials, warmup, anddirections took about five minutes. Chil-dren were advised that as soon as theywere through, they were to pair up withothers who had finished and the two

If 'five Minutes an hourare Oat ;eaqh, day,Mari eft) entire day

in just Oiler 'two weeks

would check their work together. (Suchpaired activity was one of the subgoalsof the lesson.) The teacher was deliber-ately not providing answer sheets becauseshe wanted students to look critically ateach other's work. BO there was a simpletally system at the bottom of the page,adding up the two columns and subtract-ing the misses with no translation intoletter or percentage scores.

For those who would finish in advanceof others, there were "game sheets"which they could play with their partners.These contained shorter lists of words re-quiring attention to the second and thirdletters. Not more of the same, but a stepforward.

While most of the students proceededon their own, the teacher worked with thefive slower children at a table at the backof the room. For them, she added alphabetcards to which they could refer.

After about ten minutes, all five wereat work on their own and the teacher wasfree to return to her desk. She said shewould be glad to check game sheets withstudents as they' were completed. Twiceshe got up and touched the shoulders ofcheckers to remind them to keep theirvoices down.

In about 20 minutes, the main activity

58 INSTRUCTOR, September 1981

was complex(' by all but those still atwork at the back of the room. The teacherrecorded the scores, noting names of stu-dents who had gone on to the more ad-vanced work. Some asked about gradeequivalents; she responded by askingwhat standard, less than perfect would beacceptable. She asked for suggestions ofplaces where alphabetizing occurs in whichit would be confusing to have a word,name, term, town, and so on out of place.Practically every child was able to namea situation where it would make a bigdifferencedictionary, city or road list,encyclopedia, and so on. The messagewas clear. No room for error.

Any good teacher will say there wasnothing spectacular or different about thatlesson. Of course, there wasn't, but it wastime effective. It had a goal, strategy, andevaluation: It placed responsibilities onchildren. It provided for individual dif-ferences. No one wasted time. It made apoint. And it was fun.

Time on task in actionThe following reports tell how teachersacross the country are finding ways toincrease time on task . . . and learning.

Individualization can be time effi-cient Laura Mader wanted time to spendwith seven, first graders who were defi-cient in reading skills. This is hard toachieve, especially early'in the year whenstudents lack independent facilities formoving ahead on projects of their ownwithout teacher direction. But she deviseda plan.

Ms. Mader had a large board with apocket for each child, clearly lettered withhis name, sturdily built and designed tolast for the year. Few of the children couldread proposed -activities; so color codingand pictures suggesting projects had to beher allies at first. Examples: A bookdrawn on the card meant the child couldselect one and take it to his seat. Likewisefor a puzzle or manipulative. A green cardmeant the teacher had looked over hisworkbook and he was to inspect it and seewhat she had marked. A yellow card en-titled the child to go to the media centerif he wished.

Once the children left for lunch, it tookMs. Mader about five minutes to put thecards in the pockets. But behind that was

-a lot of organization, because she wanteda good mix of activities that were mean-ingful and would keep interest high. Fre-quently she had to strike a balance be-tween needed drill and creative activities.It was a varied and balanced diet.

continued

"42 percent of theday is spent in

noninstructionalactivities"

Linda ShalawayRecent research concerning time on taskhas pointed out not only the obviousthe more time students spend on a sub-ject, the more they learnbut also theominousmany teachers are not mak-ing the best use of time on task.

For example, a study at MichiganState University's Institute for Researchon Teaching (IRT) revealed that someelementary classes receive the equiva-lent of five and one half weeks moreinstruction yearly than other classesduring the same number of days!

What causes this loss of valuablelearning time? Drastic differences, ac-cording to the study, in time spent onnoninstructional activities such as tran-sitions between lessons, classroom in-terruptions, beginning and ending ex-ercises, special assemblies, lunch, andrecess. In fact, in several of the class-rooms studied, as much as 42 percentof the school day was spent in just suchnoninstructional activities.

Research also shows that not onlydoes the amount of instructional timevary among classrooms, but the timeteachers allocate to individual subjectsdiffers substantially as well. In the IRTstudy, for example, researchers foundthat the average daily time allocated toreading ranged from 24 minutes in oneclassroom to 84 minutes in another.Differences in time spent on other sub-jects were just as great.

Other researchers have also noted thattime given to different topics within asubject likewise varies among classes.Researchers conducting a BeginningTeacher Evaluation Study (BTES) at the.Far West Laboratory for EducationalResearch and Development found thatmath instruction on the use of moneyranged from an average of nine minutesper year in one second grade classroomto 315 minutes in another. These dif-ferences, the studies stress, obviouslyindicate that some students have moreopportunity than others to learn certainsubjects and skills.

'12

Now when engaged time is consid-eredthat portion of the allocated timeduring which a child is actually workingor paying attentionthe differences inopportunity to learn are reported to beeven greater. BTES researchers CharlesFisher, David Berliner, and colleaguesfound that in math instruction, studentengagement ranged from 50 percent to90 percent among the classes they stud-ied. But they further estimate that insome classes students are engaged aslittle as 35 percent of the time. In a 30-minute lesson, that amounts to slightlymore than 10 minutes of actual learningtime.

The situation described by researchboils down to one simple fact: Time isopportunity to learn, and some studentshave more opportunity than others. Whatcan be done about it? Plenty. And here'swhat recent research suggests.

First, find ways to increaseinstructional time itlelf

I. Control outside interruptions andrecover wasted minutes. A short dis-cussion with your principal, for exam-ple, can help control time wasters likefrequent intercom announcements, sur-prise visitors, and unnecessaryassemblies.

2. Reduce transitions between les-sons and activities. Transitions are thosemoments lost when students are gettingout bOoks, sharpening pencils, puttingaway materials from previous activities,and otherwise "getting ready." Insome rooms, transition time has becnrecorded by researchers at over 70 min-utes per day. Established routines canhelp keep transitions brief. If childrenknow what to' expect and what comesnext, they can move quickly from oneactivity to another. Also, make sure stu-dents have the necessary materials at theproper time.

Next, find ways to increase the amountof instruction within yourinstructional time

I. Better pacing of lessons is oneway, according to research reports. Thefaster the pace, the more content cov-ered and the more students achieve.Certainly, there is a limit to how fastyou can go. But research clearly showsthat many teachers underestimate thepace students can follow and the amountof content that can be covered.

2. Integrating or combining subjects

into multipurpose lessons is anothersuggestion. For example, have studentswrite a science report, or read an ac-count of an historical event,

3. Be businesslike and work-ori-ented, Many rcscarchcrs, including Ber-liner, have noted that a teacher's attitudeis a critical factor in this issue, and thosewho arc businesslike and work-orientedseem to be the most successful in gettingtheir students to pay attention and learn.He suggests that this does not mean youshould not be warm and caring; you canbe both serious and enthusiastic whilestill communicating the belief that ac-ademic learning is important.

4. Abundant research also points tothe effectiveness of ',direct instruc-tion." Organized and structured les-sons, formal presentations of the ma-terial to be learned, and teacher leadershipand supervision help decrease the num-ber of errors students make on academictasks. And fewer errors mean greatersuccess at a task, which also increasesattentiveness.

.5. Studies reveal that even the formof an activity or instruction 'affects thetime students spend on a task. BTESresearchers report that students whospent more time in a group setting hadhigher rates of engagement. But rateswcrc low when students spent two-thirdsor more of their time in seatwork andhad little interaction with an instructor.

6. Monitoring and supervision ofwork, researchers found, are also nec-essary to keep students on task. In therooms of effective teachers, they notedlittle free time or unsupervised activity.Careful monitoring, they added, is per-haps easiest in a group setting, whichdoesn't mean instruction can't be indi-vidualized or that children can't workon their own. It just means that teachersmust be faster on their feet, even thoughmuch physical energy is required ofthose who monitor well in rooms wherestudents work individually.

Time, as, various studies conclude, isthe one resource in short supply in everyschool, rich or poor. It's also the re-source with the greatest effect on studentlearning. Effective use of time on taskis a skill, and not an easy one to master.Like other important skills, it takestime. But considering the gains, it'stime well spent.

Linda Shalaway ie a contributing editor ofINSTRUCTOR

226

TIME ON TASK continuedAbout 45 minutes a wcck were required

to lay out her master sheet showing whatcards would go in what pockets duringthe week, but the discipline was worth it.

By February, the card pockets had moreextensive use. There wcrc cards for on-going projects of two or three days as wellas the daily ones. A student could dividehis time between the two, giving theteacher even more flexibility in helpingslower children to have additional practice.

In evaluating this plan, Ms. Maderpoints out that each child is working in-dependently and feels an individual re-sponsibility to complete his task. She con-siders it a big improvement over handingout duplicated worksheets which some dofast, some slow, and some never complete.

Sometimes minor modifications can bemajor time-savers Three fourth gradeteachers assigned math homework fournights a week. Teacher A began mathclass by collecting the homework. Theprocess took about five minutes and oftengot the class off on a sour note, sincechildren without homework were scoldedor given a penalty.

Teacher B had weekly charts with thestudents' names in alphabetical order andfour places to check off. When a studententered the room, he dropped his home-work into the box and put a check besidehis name in the appropriate column. Theteacher could quickly look down the sheetand see whose work was missing.

-Teacher C appointed two pairs of mark-ers each week. When a student arrived,he took his paper to a marker, who useda felt-tip pen to credit him with thc numbercorrectly done. Then he went to a chartand entered that number. Every studentin class had the chance to be a marker,a much sought-after job.

Teachers A, B, and C all got to see thepapers. Teachers B and C got their maclasses off to a better start and picked upvaluable minutes each day. Teacher Calso eliminated the need to mark the pa-pers and vested responsibility in students.

In some cases, time on task may requireusing more time than you might expectto use A fifth grade social studies cur-riculum called for children to have aworking use of words denoting land orwater forms such as strait, island, penin-sula, and the like.

Two teachers created somewhat similarmodels, differ only in the responsibil-ity put on the. students. In Model A thestudent had to create and write the defi-nition for each te,m, while in Model B;

continuedinissRucsoR. September 1981 59

TIME ON TASK continuedthe definitions were given in differentorder in a second column and the studentneeded only to draw a line to the correctresponse. Thereafter, the models wereidentical in requiring students to make adiagram illustrating each definition, andthen to find a location on the globe thatillustrated it.

In Mode! A, creating the definitionsproved hard, even using the dictionary,though by the time they had them done,students could usually spell the words,too. Three students used three days, 16used four, 7 ran over into the fifth day,In Model B, 17 students finished in twodays, and all others in three days.

Both classes took an identical test basedmostly on identification. There was noappreciable difference in the marks, withModel A doing just slightly better thanModel B. But four weeks later, they weretested again. This time Model A scoreswere almost double those of Model B. Theteachers checked again near the end of the

year. with similar results. They decidedthat the more intensive Model A was es-sential for mastery.

When everyone participates, instruc-tion requires less time Teaching stu-dents to reason and argue effectively isa middle grade social studies objectivethat usually takles a lot of time. When Ms.Randall analyzed time spent on this ac-tivity. she recognized that many childrenin her class didn't even participate exceptas listeners or observers. To provoke dis-cussion, she often did a great deal of thetalking. Also, she was usually the solearbitrator in the arguments.

To improve this situation, she an-nounced a topic one day in advance andreminded students about it in brief men-tions. Then she started the class- by an-nouncing groups of three, explaining thateach was going to carry on a debate withan affirmative speaker. a negative speaker.

and a judge.For about five minutes. the teacher so-

licited pro and con arguments. and asusual, most responses came from a smallgroup of students. This was the pump-priming part of the activity.

Then for a few minutes. each debaterhad the chance to organize his attackwhile the teacher was meeting with thejudges to discuss how they would recordpoints of argument and rebuttal so as tochoose' winners.

Eight debates occurred simultaneously,viith the teacher working the egg timer,which had a loud bell, and listening in,here and there. Each speaker had two

62 INSTRUCTOR. September 1981

minutes, the judge talked for two minutesmore, followed by one minute rebuttalsin the reverse order, Points were tallied,winners declared, Five affirmatives, threenegatives. Every student in the class hadbeen a participator.

Too much preparation on your part notonly takes time; it deprives children ofvaluable learning experiences Everyweek, Mr. Mitchell spent a good hour toan hour and a half preparing a worksheetthat would accompany the weekly spell-ing list. To acquaint children with thewords, he wrote sentences and they hadto supply correct spelling words. Some-times he gave definitions and they had toput in the appropriate word.

But when he stopped to think about it,he was doing most of the work . . andeating up time. He was making up thesentences and definitions; the studentsonly had to put in the words. Also, thesheets might be good language exercises,

but they seemed to have little effect onweekly spelling scores.

Then Mr. Mitchell set out to morenearly meet the needs of each student.New worksheets provided space and de-vices for students to make their own anal-ysis of words. They listed those theythought they were sure of and, those thatlooked hard. They set individual goals forhow many they would master.

Some exercises pointed out idiosyncra-cies in the words, places where they werenot phonetic, or other variances. There

were clues for studying. When the teacherwanted sentences, he might say. "Pickthe hardest half of the words you arclearning and write sentences using themon the back of the sheet." He might alsouse a light touch. "There will be a small

prize for the student using the most wordson the list in a single sentence that makes

reasonable sense."Mr. Mitchell had learned some impor-

tant lessons. When he made his originalsheets, it was a group activity. When chil-dren wrote their own sentences it was anindividualized activity. When a studentcommitted himself to learning so manywords, he had taken the first step towardmastery. When he became involved in

identifying the foibles of the words, how

they are syllabified, and their tricky spell-ing, he was further along the way.

Time can be saved by allowing two ob-jectives to be met at one time It wascustomary in Ms. Fox's kindergarten for

her to sound a bell at 9;30 A.M. This was

a signal for kids to put away what they

were doing and form a circle on the floor.

A variety of activities then took place;kinesthetic, musical, reportorial, count-ing, and the like, followed by the morningstory which she read or told.

It seemed to take the children longerand longer to put away their things, oftenusing as much as 15 minutes of what Ms.Fox thought was the most valuable partof the day, thereby crowding out the storyentirely. This defeated her purpose of in-teresting them in books as well as pro-viding a quiet time before they went out-side to play.

A goal of the kindergarten was to teachorganizational skills and Ms. Fox decidedto attend to it as well as her other problemwith a single management decision. Eachweek, two children were appointed to putaway the playthings, and in introducingthe plan, Ms. Fox and the class discussedwhat would be involved. As soon as theyheard the bell, all but the.two would comeimmediately to the group. The weekly"putter-awayers" would ever so quietlypick up the toys and stow them away.

The new system worked amazinglywell. To her great surprise, the two didthe picking up in just about the same timethat the whole class was using before.Then they would quietly join the group.When the hour was over, Ms. Fox wouldgo with the two to inspect how they had

done their jobs. She could confirm how. quietly they had performed, or subtly sug-

gbst that they be a bit more careful aboutnoise. When a child introduced a new sys-tem os. arrangement, she would see it and

comment on his judgment or creativeidea. In almost every instance, she notedan improvement' in how they put things

away from Monday to Friday. Clearly,they grew in their jobs . . . and she had

the full time to work with the group.And that's what time on task is all

about; increasing the amount of qualityteaching time during your limited day,increasing the time your students spend,learning rather than moving about or sim-ply waiting, taking full advantage of the

time you have at your disposal . . . to the

benefit of your students, and yourself.

Elizabeth F. Noon is a writer and educationconsultant and Editor Emeritus ofINSTRUCTOR.

227

Teachers frequently complain aboutthe number of events that constant-

ly interrupt instruction in their schools.Assemblies, field trips, student councilmeetings, and other activities seem regu-larly to remove one or more students fromevery classroom. As a result, classroomteachers must often revise, postpone, orrepeat lessons.

One school, however, has come upwith a plan to eliminate daily interrup-tions. The plan, known as the FridayPlan, was initiated this year at the Modern(Missouri) Middle School.

Larry Lightyear, assistant superinten-dent in charge of innovation, explainedthe plan: "We have taken all the typicalevents that interrupt instruction as-

semblies, club meetings, and the restand scheduled them for Fridays. Underthe Friday Plan, teachers carry out regularinstruction on Mondays through Thurs-days. Fridays are reserved for all the otheractivities that would normally interruptinstruction. Since no instruction occurs onFridays and there are no interruptions onthe other days, no lesson plans ever haveto be altered in any way."

To illustrate how the plan operates,Lightyear provided the following schedulefor a typical Friday at Modern MiddleSchool:

8:10 - 8:35: Prayer and MeditationA new Missouri Senate bill will allow

five minutes of prayer per day. Under theFriday Plan, that translates to 25 minutesevery Friday. Anticipating full legislativeapproval, the innovative staff at Modernintends to be the first in the state to imple-ment a prayer program. Participation willbe voluntary, and a priest will be on dutyto hear confessions.

8:35 - 8:45: Swish and SpitAfter cleaning their minds through

prayer, students clean their mouths withfluoride. A companion program, Wipeand Flush, has been discontinued.

8:45 - 9:30: Advisor /Advisee ProgramDuring this time, teachers meet with

small groups of students to "rap." Stu-dents and faculty are able to rid them-selves of much hostility during these ses-sions oy sharing their real thoughts aboutone another.

RICHARD B. JOHNS teaches seventh-grade social studies in Marshall, Mo. The Mar-shall schools do not currently use the FridayPlan. CO 1982, Richard B. Johns.

THE FRIDAY PLANby Richard B. Johns

9:30 - 10:30: Assembly of the WeekLast week the Moral Minstrels, a gos-

pel group from Joplin, shared their musicwith the students and also talked abouttheir past experiences as gang membersand drug addicts.

10:30 - 11:00: Collection of MoneyBecause of budgetary problems in the

district, Modern has instituted the "Fund-Raising Project of the Week." Recently,students collected unread newspapers ontheir way to school and sold them to pass-ing motorists. The school office also col-lects various debts from the students (suchas lunch charges and library fines) at thistime. Representatives of a local financecompany are available for consultation.

11:00 - 11:30: Lost and FoundStudents- who have misplaced items

during the week are allowed this 30-minute interval to search the building.Finders-keepers rules are strictly ob-

served.

225

11:30 - 12:00: Study PeriodDuring this time, students may turn in

all the assignments that they left in theirlockers on Monday through Thursday. Ifhomework is still unfinished, students usethe time to dream up creative excusesbefore visiting their respective teachers.

12:00 - 12:30: LunchLeftovers are served every Friday so

that the cooks, like the teachers, have onlyfour preparations per week.

12:30 - 1:30: Film of the WeekThe most popular film from the

Monday-through-Thursday classeschosen by student vote is shown back-ward and with stop-action to the entirestudent body.

1:30 - 2:30: Club ProgramVarious groups meet with teachers or

community volunteers to learn about

(Continued on page 630)

Ronrinted from Phi. Delta Kappan with permission of the author, © 1982.

The Friday Plan(Continued from back cover)

favorite hobbies or special interests. Somecurrent offerings include "Strategy andTactics in Electronic Football," "Crea-tive Desk Graffiti," "Our Drug Laws,""How to Watch TV," and "Your Rightsin Juv`eltile Court."

2:30 = 3:00: Pep AssemblyRecently, the girl's field hockey team

was honored with an assembly as theyprepared for their first intrasquad game ofthe year.

According to Lightyear, the FridayPlan is working quite well at Modern Mid-dle School. Although teachers must stillplan lessons four days per week, no plansare needed on Fridays, and no plans everhave to be changed. One veteran staffmember. commented, "Nobody ever did

anything on Fridays anyway. Why notblow the whole day?"

The students at Modern appear to belearning just as much as in the past,because there no interruptions to in-struction. In addition, attendance has im-proved on Rtidays. One student stated:"Friday irit lot more fun now than it usedto be. We call it Fun Day."

The Friday Plan can be adapted to fitthe needs of almost any school that has aninterruption problem, according to Light-year. He warned, however, that the plancould fail if the interruption level has notyet reached a sufficient level. To deter-mine the interruption level of a givenschool, Lightyear suggested that staffmembers keep interruption logs forseveral weeks, recording the number andlength of all interruptions to basic in-struction. If the interruptions averagefour to five hours per week, Lightyearbelieves that the Friday Plan will success-fully solve the problem.

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Reprinted with permission from The Elementary School Journal, May 1981, Vol. 81, No. 5,from the book, Focus on Teaching, University of Chicago Press, January, 1982.

23

t.

During a math class in Westwood LookingBehind theElementary School, Paul S., an 11-year-oldsixth grader, was, observed to pinch the Teacher's Backboys sitting next to him, throw spit wadsacross the room, and make punching mo-tions at the posterior of the teacher wholeaned over in front of him. Paul was not Dee Ann Spencer-Hallreprimanded; in fact, his behaviors went

UniversityStateunnoticed. At the end of the school year Central Missouri

Paul was selected by his teachers to win acoveted "Good Citizenship Award." Howwas it possible for a child to exhibit suchovert disruptive behavior in near proxim-ity to teachers and yet win an award re-served for children whom teachers consid-ered to be cooperative, well behaved, andgenerally nondisruptive? The answer liesin the fact that the teachers did not observePaul's disruptive behavior. To reprimanddisruptive behavior, a teacher must firstsee the behavior exhibited.

However, given the complexity ofclassroom settings, teachers are able to giveselective attention to some, but not all, of

113)the activities-in the classroom. W n a dis-ruption occurs, the teacher may 1 k for astudent whom he or she expects to becausing the disruption. One outcome ofsuch selective attention is explained byGood: "Since the teacher looks (because ofthe expectation) for a particular student tobe a behavior problem, the student is likelyto be criticized when the situation is am-biguous" (1980, p. 82). Good states thatwhen several disruptions occur simulta-neously, a student may escape the teacher'sdetection because the teacher might notlook in the student's direction, particularly Ths Elnanamy School Jwwalif the teacher did not expect that child to Volume el. Number 5

be disruptive. 00I3 59b4

8he5U0n000$y

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2H2 TI E ELEMENTARN' SC11001, JOURNAL

This' paper is concerned with teacherexpectations, but also examines the waysthat students help to mate and/or main-tain the expectations teachers have forthem. Students develop expectations for

teachers; they learn the extent andlimitations of teachers' selective attention:and they act in ways that support theteachers' expe' ctations for their behaviors.

The research reported here shows thatsome children become quite adept at tim-ing their disruptive behaviors to occur be-hind the teacher's back. The example ofPaul demonsthates that some children canand do anticipate \the actions of theirteachers (form expectations), manipulatetheir own actions to occur at particulartimes and for particular audiences, and,most of all, that they play an active role indetermining what occurs in classrooms.

Other children choose to behave inways they know will be acceptable to theteacher. They support the teacher's ex-pectation that they are not disruptive.These children are rewarded by eliciting apositive response from teachers and aself-fulfilling prophecy occurs through thereciprocal reinforcement of teacher andstudent perceptions and expectations forone another's behavior.

Other children have not learned whatbehavior teachers expect of' them, nor havethey learned that disruption can occur aslong as the teacher does not see that dis-ruption. These children complain that"Johnny gets by with murder, 'why do Ialways get in trouble?".Such children are"in trouble" more because they get caughtmore often. They get caught more often,.because they cannot perceive how andwhen they can be disruptive without beingseen, or when they should not misbehaveat all. By disrupting when the teachers arelooking at them, these children supportthe expectations teachers have for them asdisruptive children.

The research reported here is based onobservations of children Loth in interac-tion with teachers andindependent of that

interaction. While utmost studies in class-rooms have focused on teacher-pupilinteraction, few have looked at children'sbehaviors independent of interaction withteachers, A notable exception is foundthe recent work of Carew and Light hum(1979), who 'observed children innonteacher-structured schol activities todetermine how the children's behaviorsinfluenced the teachers' perceptions andtreatment of the children and to study theeffects of the teachers' behaviors on thechildrens' academic perliomances'.. Carewand Lightfoot have suggested that child-focused observations can "tell us mitchabout the teacher's understanding of chil-dren, of how they develop and how theirdevelopment can 1)e influenced, or howthey differ ind what aspect ofdiversity theteacher values" (1979, p. 71).

Most studies have defined children'sdevelopment in terms of their intellectualor academic growth. Children's classroombehaviors, however, include a wide rangeof academic and nonacademic activitieswhich occur either simultaneously with, orseparately from, one another. Taking allbehaviors into account gives a better pic-ture of the social world of the classroom.

Study designPupils and classrooms

Paul and his sixty-two fourth-, fifth-and sixth-grade classmates were observedas a part of a year-long field study inWestwood Elementary School (Spencer-Hall 1976). In a unit of the school therewere four teachers' and several studentteachers who taught as a team, and all theteachers had contact with all the children.The learning program was individualized,and in most classes children were workingat different levels. There were two featuresof the unit which are important to notebecause of their influence on classroominteraction.

First, the classrooms were more openthan traditional classrooms are, but lessopen than classrooms where children are

MAY 1981

allowed to move about frequently.Although students were required to stay intheir seats most of the time, the proxemic(spatial) arrangement of desks, tables, andchairs varied on a day-to-day basis. Thisarrangement made it impossible forKounin's "withitness" to occur. Accordingto Kounin (1970), when students are ar-ranged in typical traditional rows, teachersare able to detect disruptive behaviors evenwhen their backs are turned, because theyknow who is sitting in the area from whichthe noise or movement came. Withitnesswould also occur in traditional classrooms,because 'there is a front and back of theroom, with teachers taking the spotlight inthe front. In the observed unit, teacherscould turn in any direction and have stu-dents behind them, yet the teachers wouldnot know who was behind them at anyparticular time.

Second, these children all came fromsimilar socioeconomic backgrounds andwere white. Most were the children of pro-fessionals, primarily professors; nor* werefrom, working-class backgrounds. Theywere also high-achieving children whoscored well on standardized tests. The stu-dents' socioeconomic status influenced theways they interacted with their teachers,because the children possessed good verbalskills.

Data collectionInstnces of disruptive behaviors were

recorded over a school year in the form offield notes. From the field notes; severaltypologies were-developed for recording_the kinds of disruptions exhibited-byChil-dren, the responses Of teachers to thesedisruptions, and the responses of the chil-dren to teachers' acknowledgements oftheir disruptions. All the teachers and asample of children were interviewed on aformal and on an informal basis. Eachteacher was asked to list the three mostcooperative and three least cooperativechildren in the unit. Cooperative children,were defined for the teachers as children

BEHIND THE TEACHER 283

who tried to do what was expected ofthem. In interviews teachers definedcooperative children as ideal children; theydid not disrupt the class, did their work,and did not bother the teacher with un-necessary questions.

INTERVIEWER: How would you de-scribe an ideal child?

TEACHER: Well, the way he does hiswork and keeps quiet. I guess a modelchild would not disrupt class, just respectother people's rights and understand therules and try to abide by them.

INTERVIEWER: Why did you chooseJeannie as a cooperative child?

TEACHER: She could work well on herown, without requiring a lot of teachersu pervision.

INTERVIEWER: Is that the same reasonyou chose the other children as IVORcooperative?

TEACHER': Right. If I couldn't get tothem and they did have a question, theywouldn't disrupt the classroom. Theywould go on to something else, or theywould wait patiently.

Teachers viewed uncooperative childrenas argumentative and negative. Twoteachers expressed their definition of un-cooperative children in the following way.

TEACHER A: They never want to dowhat you tell them to clothey arguewith everything.

TEACHER B: They always think theteacher is wrong.

Four case studies are presented to showthe typical kinds of disruptive patternsfound among the children in theelementary-school unit. Each child (Hank,Charlie, Sally, and Paul) represents a com-posite style which some children used indealing with teachers.

The discussion is centered on conceptsdeveloped by sociologist Erving Goffman(1959). Goffman's approach to under-standing human behavior has been calleddramaturgical because of its analogy of lifeto the theatre. Coffman claims that per-sons' abilities to influence oth'ers (to theirown benefit) are a matter of their impres-sion management. Persons who have good

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presentations of self (say the right things,dress appropriately, etc.) can be said to besuccessful in managing the impressionsothers have of them. Goffman explainsthat interaction occurs either in afrontstage area (or arena) or a backstagearea. Frontstage areas are in public placeswhere one is trying to impress othea orkeep up a front. Backstage areas are thosewhere one can let down, relax, and pre-pare for the next frontstage encounter.-Inpresenting the case studies of Hank, Char-lie, Sally, and Paul, their different styles ofimpression management are compared. Inthe classroom context, the frontstage areais the proxemic situation where a teachercan see a child, 'while backstage refers toareas where she cannot, see a child (back-stage for a child is behind the teacher'sback or outside her view). As an observer, Icould note activities in both areas.

Case studies

Hank. Hank was a sixth grader whorarely disrupted either in the front- orbackstage areas. In fact, he worked hard atwinning the teacher's approval. Hank ex-hibited good impression management andconsequently was considered by theteachers to be among the most cooperativeof all the childrerkin the unit. He represents those children who teachers de-scribed as "ideal," that is, they did notcause problems, were pleasant, and in gen-eral did what they were expected to do ac-curately and quietly.

Being an ideal student was a consciouseffort on the part of children like Hank,who accepted a subordinate position toteachers as the only choice. Hank was alsoprotective of student teachers. I asked himif he thought it was important to follow therules of student teachers.

HANK: Yeah, because ... if they cankeep the kids under control, then theyget good grades and they can becometeachers. It's sort of like you had to helpthem.

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

Hank, and the others like him, workedvery hard all year to be good citizens inhopes of winning the Good CitizenshipAward (won by Paul). Being good meantnot causing trouble and sometimes seeingthat others followed the rules.

INTERVIEWER: What advice wouldyou .give a new person coming intoWestwood School?

HANK: Well, try to behave in theclassroom. Like if I've caught some

\orthe kids running- down the halls orfighting, you know, I just try to st pthem and everything because, you kno ,

you just try to make this look like a gooschool, because I found those two kidfighting on second floor, and I broke iup and held ,en1 away until a teachecame. ... There's this award called"Good Citizen's Award" for sixth-gradeboys and girls. And one of the boyswhich the teacher thinks stands out best,they have a vote on it. And whoever getsthe most votes wins. So it's academic andit's how you get along with your parents.

Being good all the time, while a case ofteachers and children meeting oneanothers' expectations, had the hiddenconsequence of the good children gettingless attention from the teacher. Selectiveattention was paid to the most salient chil-dren, that is, those who were noisiest, ormost disruptive, or expressed the leastunderstanding of lessons. Children likeHank tended to be quiet and self-sufficientand, therefore; when they did raise theirhands with a question, they were notalways acknowledged by the teacher.Rather than call out or walk over to theteacher, they waited for long periods oftime at their seats or gave up altogether.

Charlie. Charlie was a fifth grader who,in complete contrast to Hank, constantlydisrupted in both front- and backstageareas: Because he disrupted frequentlywhen the teacher was looking, he was alsofrequently reprimanded and was consid-ered the least cooperative student by mostof the teachers. His constant disruption inthe backstage area was also seen negatively

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by the other children; therefore, he be-came a social isolate.

Charlie constantly hopped out of hischair, punched other children, danced,tapped out tunes on his desk with his pen-cil, and propped his feed on the deskregardless of whether he was in the front-or backstage area of the classroom. I onceobserved Charlie in a music cuss in whichhe spent his time loudly talking or crawlingaround on the floor. While the class sang"I'm a Yankee Doodle Dandy," Charliemade little yells during all the upbeats andrests. Although the teacher's back was par-tially turned to the class because she wasplaying the piano, Charlie's disruptionswere so frequent and loud that they drewher attention to him. Over time, childrenlike Charlie received more attention fromthe teachers than most of the other chil-dren, that is, the salience of their disrup-tive behavior necessitated selective atten-tion to them over children like Hank.

Sally. Sally was a- 10-year-old fifthgrader who actively sought the teachers'attention by disrupting in the frontstagearea, but stayed on task and rarely dis-rupted in the backstage area. Her dis-ruptions, however, were quite differentfrom Charlie's. Children like Sally dis-rupted the classroom by challenging theteachers rather than by causing noise,

oving aimlessly around the room, ort rowing paper wads. In fact, they wereerious about their work and were self-

otivated in a way'similar to Hank.Sally challenged the teachers by re-

uiring them to explain their actions andbehavidrs. For example, children like Sallywould walk into a room where the chairshad been placed in a new arrangement andwould complain repeatedly, "Why do' wehave to sit like this?" Or at other times theywould argue that the work was "stupid" or"dumb." Thus, on the rare occasions whenthey were not on task or were caught talk-ing to a friend, they shifted the reprimandto the teacher, for example, "If this work


wasn't so boring we wouldn't be wastingour time." Sometimes the response wasmore defiant; children .would shout at ateacher such things as, "Ms. Bradley, youdon't run the program!"

The teachers could control these chil-dren to the same extent they were. able (orunable) to control their classes as a whole.For teachers who had little control, thesechildren were the source of frustration andembarrassment. In the following situationa math teacher, Ms. Waddell, was trying tohave a conversation with me after her.math class. We were interrupted by a girl'squestions.

The last girl to leave the room looksat Ms. Waddell and asks, "How comeyour hair is two colors?" (It looks asthough some streaks of blonde aregrowing from a time in the past whenMs. Waddell had dyed her hair.)

Ms. Waddell's face becomes quite reddue to her embarrassment. I pretend toconcentrate on my notes. She tries to getthe girl out of the room by saying, "Oh,it's just the way my hair grows,"

But to no avail. The girl says, "Itlooks like stripes. It's light, down hereand dark up there."' Ms. Waddell does not answer, andthe girl takes the hint and finally leaves.

Challenges were not always embar-rassing nor defiant; some were more sub-tle, yet successful, attempts to throw .theteacher off balance. The common featureto both types of challenges was the child'sassumption that the teachers could be ma-nipulated. In an informal interview out-side school a girl described how she "gother own way" with teachers and couldleave the classroom periodically by crying.She then demonstrated her ability to con-jure tears which were, indeed, very con-vincing. In her words, "It works everytime."

The underlying perception of these fchildren was that they were victims of Un--J.-fair adult discrimination. They expressedto me in interviews, and ininformal. dis-cussions outside school, that teachers gave

286 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

them no rights as peoplethat teachershad all the power and kids had no power.The following comments from my inter-view with Sally exemplify the perspectiveof these children.

SALLY: Well, I mean ... the teachersreally don't respect the kids that muchreally. If they really want some respect,they gotta, you know, show some. I (meanyou don't ever :.. the teachers can tellyou to shut up when you're getting loud,but the kids can'ttell them`to shut up.

INTERVIEWER: Why do you thi,ik thatteachers don't respect kids that much?

SALLY: Cause they don't show respectat all. They don't ever ask a kid whetheror not, they just say "Do thi'sl" And likethey can tell you what to cio, they're au-thority. mean it's like a cop can goaround with his siren On, running redlights and killing p,&ple. Well, theteacher can dd molt anything in theschool, cause of what they have, theirauthority of being a teacher.

INTERVIEWER: Do you think there aresome teachers who hate some kids?

SALLY: Uh huh. Like one of myfriends went down, she was having sometrouble with the teacher, she went downto the counselor to talk about it, and thecounselor went and told the teacher, andnow the teacher hates her.

These children were quite irritating tothe teachers, who preferred children likeHank who did not question their actions.Because the children did not willinglycomply with the rules, the teachers consid-ered them uncooperative. These children,however, preferred an uncooperativeimage, and it was something they workedfor. To be uncooperative meant you didnot give in to the teachers. Thus Sally andthe others like herteaw themselves as thedefenders of the rights of children.

Paul. Paul's behavior, as described inthe beginning paragraph, was unique be-cause of his ability to exhibit disruptive be-havior only whip the teacher's back wasturned or in the backstage area. LikeHank, Paul was aware of what it meant tobe good and knew how students shouldbehave so that teachers would think of

them as good, as was clear in Paul's corn-/ments during an interview;'

INTERVIEWER: If you ould give someadvice to a new person coming intoWestwood School, hOw would you tellthem they should ac4?

PAUL: I'd tell Mem to act pretty gooduntil they got/to know the teachers. ;There are some teachers who are niceand who act s6rt of casual, and so you getto know that way, and then there areother teachers that just rather you sitdown and get your work done as fast asyou can. So I'd just tell them to be gooduntil they get to know their teachers andsee how all the other people act and ev-erything, and who gets in trouble for

/What they are doing.1

This type of pupil often made a rapidshift from presenting a "good" nondirup-tive front to the teacher to disrupting lvhenher back was turned. Paul, for example,looked down at his paper and eitherworked part of the math problem, ormoved his pencil as if working the [prob-lem, when the teacher was looking.lHow-ever, he would quickly shift to punch a -'neighbor when she turned her back. Thisshifting back and forth obviously seriouslyreduced the time spent on task, but histiming of disruptive behaviors allowed himto do just enough work to stay on level.

These children were occasionallycaught, that is, the disruptive behaviorbecame so absorbing that they forgot tocontinue looking for the teacher's move-ments. If caught, they were likely tosheepishly grin, giggle, or show embar-rassment to indicate their slipup. Theteachers so rarely caught them that theycontinued to see them as cooperative, butsubject to an occasional lapse into under-standable childish behavior ("Children willbe children").

One of the additional benefits of dis-rupting in the backstage area was the posi-tive attention and support given by peers.Getting by with negatively sanctioned be-haviors or breaking the rules was admiredin children like Paul and was also great fun

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for them. If only for a brief moment,punching at a teacher's rear was a daringact and had a cathartic effect on the chil-dren. Paul, for example, was one of themost popular children in the unit.

Disrupting behind the teacher's backvaried according to the teacher and de-pended on the amount of control a teacherhad of the class. In situations when controlwas weak, the noise level raised to the pointwhere children could call some teachers"butts" and "assholes" and say other pro-fanities in loud tones. The noise provideda cover so that the teacher did not hear theprofanities, but the children could takepleasure in having said them loudly. Thefollowing episode took place when ateacher, Ms. Bradley, was having a discus-sion in one part of the room with one childwhile children were moving about andshouting in another location.

Andy, Ralph, and Paul arrange andrearrange their chairs. Jennifer con-tinues to argue with Ms. Bradley. Anneand Rose are sitting by themselves on thestage area. Anne shouts, "That's not fair,Bradley-butt."

Rose says, "Wow. what an asshole."Anne says something about her being anSOB. (Anne won the Good CitizenshipAward for the girls.)

When teachers had strong control ofthe class, behind-the-back-behavior took amore subtle form. For example, there wasa rule that only one person could go to therestroom at a time. To leave, children hadto write their names on the board anderase them when they returned. Somechildren who were in two different class-rooms worked out a system for breakingthe rule. They would simultaneously signout at a given time and meet in the rest-room where they could talk and socialize.Children in the same classroom occasion-ally broke this rule by waiting until a friendwho had signed out left; then they leftthemselves without signing out. By waitinguntil the friend had returned, the childwould usually slip in later unnoticedor,


if caught, could merely say he or she hadforgotten to sign out. Because they wereseen as good, nondisruptive children theywere excused.

ConclusionsObservations over a long period of time inWestwood School showed that childrenwere capable of utilizing complex andsometimes subtle or calculated ways ofdealing with teachers. Their behaviors re-flected differing abilities at impressionmanagement. While the strategies in andof themselves were interesting, compari-sons between the children's behaviors infront- and backstage areas were also ofnote. For example, Paul and Charlie hadsimilar rates of disruption. Paul was sel-dom reprimanded and Charlie was fre-quently reprimanded. This happened be-cause the teachers saw- few of Paul's dis-ruptions, while they saw most of Charlie's.Charlie's disruptions were done overtlyand noisily in the frontstage area. Paul'sdisruptions were done more subtly andquietly in the backstage area. Charliewould hit someone and say aloud, "Pow!"while Paul would hit them without saying aword when the teacher's back was turned.Both were aggressive acts, but Charlie'swas done verbally and Paul's was donenonverbally.\ Because children vary in the ways inwhich they misbehave, children's class-roorri'behaviors cannot be labeled as eitherdisruptive or nondisruptive, cooperativeor uncooperative; children are not inher-ently one or the other. Teachers' percep-tions of children, however, t to becomeern\categorized into those who cause roblemsand those who do not. For the outside ob-server, as well as children who could ob-serve Paul's total range of behaviors, Paulwas no less disruptive than Charlie, justbetter at timing disruptions, perceiving theproxemic differences in the front- andbackstage areas, and quieter in performingdisruptions.

In comparing the behavior of Paul and

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Hank, Paul was quite disruptive and Hankwas seldom disruptive, yet Paul was con-sidered more cooperative and a "good citi-zen" by the teachers. Because the teacherssaw neither pupil as disruptive, they basedtheir preference for Paul over Hank onother factors. One reason for their prefer-ence for Paul may have been that he smiledmore when they looked at him. He usedsmiling as a way of appearing innocent inthe frontstage after disrupting in the back-

r stage. He could punch someone one sec-ond when the teacher was not looking andsmile pleasantly the next second when shewas looking.

Paul and Sally were more similar intheir disruptive behaviors, but different inthat Paul's occurred quietly in the back-stage and Sally's occurred overtly in thefrontstage. Sally was seen as uncoopera-tive, disrespectful, and a general "pain inthe neck."

Compared to fifth and sixth graders,fourth graders were generally less adept atimpression management. They knew whatbehaviors were acceptable or unacceptableto teachers, but had not learned to timetheir disruptions either behind theteacher's back or under the cover of class-room noise. However, even in the fourthgrade, students learned, that there wereways to gain control of a situation bythrowing the teacher off guard. In thefollowing example a group of fourth-graders had engaged in a conversationwhich was disruptive but which they foundquite enjoyable. The example is interestingbecause it shoWs that there are some class-room disruptions which are beyond theteacher's normal range of responses. Theyare situations about which no one warnsteachers in teacher education classes.

"James is playing with his dick."Another boy chimes in, "He doesn't

have one, he's a girl." Then he says hehas to "go," he keeps holding himselfand another says he remembers a timewhen he had to go, and the discussioncontinues on and on. "Here's your dick,tickle it," and so on.

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Mrs. Rawls can hear the conversationbut ignores it. Her first acknowledg-ment, however, is to ask the boys if theyheard the rules for management yester-day.

Robbie ignores her and says, "He'shitting me where it counts," which is ac-tually what Robbie has been doing tosomeone else. Ms. Rawls ignores hiscomment.

Ms. Rawls changes the subject by at-tending to another matter and an-nounces, "Remember what we said therule for the fan wasan arm's lengthaway."

James and Robbie are still pokingeach other "where it counts" and gig-gling_and complaining at the same time.Ms. Rawls ends the disruption by havingthe children put up their current workand begin something else.

Other teachers dealt with similar situa-tions in the same waythey redirectedtheir responses to focus on another be-havior, as this example shows.

Curtis threw an eraser and hit Bert inthe head. Bert said, "Hey, you turd!"

The teacher looked up and said,"Bert, keep your hands to yourself."

Asking teachers to choose their most orleast cooperative children is interesting interms of comparisons to actual behaviorsand demonstates that the labels do notalways correlate with observations of class-room situations. As is clear in these case-study examples, children could be re-garded as uncooperative or cooperative, ordisruptive or nondisruptive, depending onone's vantage point. It is important, there-fore, that all perspectives, children's as wellas teachers', be taken into account in doingclassroom observations. Some instrumentswhich measure teacher-pupil interactionpatterns and their frequency would notdescribe the subtlety of children's behav-iors because of their focus on academic ex-changes between teachers and children inthe frontstage area. Much classroom activ-ity takes- place - which -isnot academic but itis nevertheless important social interactionthat affects academic interactions.

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.4

?.The observer must also look prox-emically at all areas of the classroom in re-lation to each.other. To look solely at theteacher's behaviors, at children's behav-iors, or at interaction seque\nces betweeneachers and children gives only a partial

(picture of the classroom worldit ignoresthe range of behaviors that happen behindthe teacher's back. What dy other studentsdo when the teacher is intei!cting with onestudent? The fact that behind-the-backbehaviors occur frequently shows thatchildren are capable of more thoughtful,clever, and perceptive plans of action thanis sometimes assumed, and that variouschildren may experience the classroom inways very different from each other and inways different from teachers.

In a study conducted in another schoolat a later point, this idea' was vividlybrought out. A sixth-grade language-artsteacher sat at her desk while children weredoing seat work, and sh uld allow them

boys came to he. desk with re-g-u11r ity.to come to her wit ny qties ions. Several

These boys were also-the best students, andtherefore she spent considerable tinclarifying the assignments. In an informaldiscussion outside school, however, theboys gave a very different version of theirpurpose for seeking help. It seems that theteacher, who was extremely attractive. wasalso quire buxom and did not always wear abra. The boys found that by going to herdesk they could look over her shoulder


and down the front of her blouse. It isdoubtful that in their pubescent fervorthey gained much from their discussionwith her. In fact, their difficult task was tothink of questions.

Children are thinking human beings atdiffering stages of learning impressionmanagement. Even though they may ap-pear to teachers to be attentive and on task,some students may be actively engaged indisruptive behaviors. These disruptionsmay take a subtle and nonverbal form.(meeting in the restroom or looking downa blouse), but nevertheless are strongstatements about the active involvement ofchildren in the world of school.

References

Carew, J. V., and Lightfoot, S. L. Beyond Bias:Perspectives on Classrooms. Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1979:

Coffman, E. The Presentation of Self in EverydayLife. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co.,1959.

Good, T. L. "Classroom Expectations:Teacher-Pupil Interactions." In The Social

----Psychology of School Learning, edited by J. H.McMillan. New York: Academic Press,1980.

Kounin, J. S. Discipline and Group Management inClassrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston, 1970.

Spencer-Hall, D. A. "A Grounded Theory ofAligning Actions in an Elementary Class-room." Ph.D. dissertation, University ofMissouri, Columbia, 1976.

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