Ecosystem Conservation and Management: The Concept of Large Marine Ecosystem

Journal of Coastal Environment

COES

ISSN 2229-7839Volume 2, Number 1, 2011

JCEJCEJCE

Journal of Coastal EnvironmentJournal of Coastal Environment (JCE) is published by the Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi twice a year. The Journal promotes the study and analyses of scientific, economic and policy issues related to ecology of the oceans and coasts, as well as its impact on the land and the atmosphere. The emphasis is to involve a large community of scientists and scholars from India and abroad in developing a framework of discussion and debate on conservation and sustainable development.

Frequency : Biannual

Editor-in-Chief : S.Z. Qasim, Chairman, Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi

Editor : Kishore Kumar, Secretary & ConsultantCentre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi

© Journal of Coastal Environment (JCE). All rights reserved. No portion of material can be

reproduced in part or full without the prior permission of the Editor.

Note : The views expressed herein are the opinions of contributors and the Editor, and do not

reflect the stated policies of the Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies.

Correspondence: All enquiries, editorial, business and any other, may be addressed to:

The Editor, Journal of Coastal Environment (JCE), A-2, East of Kailash (Basement),

New Delhi 110 065; Tel /Fax: 91-11-46078340; E-mail : zqasim@hotmail .com;

[email protected]; Website: www.coes-india.orgISSN : 2229-7839

K. KathiresanProfessor, Centre of Advanced Study in Marine

Biology, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu

M.C. VermaIAS (Retd.) and former Member, Forest

Advisory Committee (MoEF), New Delhi

B. MeenakumariDeputy Director-General, Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, New Delhi

Satish R. ShetyeDirector

National Institute of Oceanography, Goa

Malti GoelFormer Adviser, Ministry of Science &

Technology, New Delhi

Amalesh ChoudhuryFounder & former Head, Department of Marine

Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata

Rasik RavindraDirector, National Centre for Antarctic &

Ocean Research, Goa

Anil ChatterjeeInstitute of Tropical Aquaculture

University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia

Sudhir K. ChopraFellow, University of Cambridge at Rue de

Neufchateau, Arlon, Belgium

Baishnab Charan TripathyProfessor, School of Life Sciences

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Vijay SakhujaDirector (Research), Indian Council of World

Affairs, New Delhi

Dinabandhu SahooAssociate Professor, Department of Botany,

University of Delhi, Delhi

Editorial Board

Journal of Coastal Environment

JCE

Volume 2, Number 1, 2011

Centre for Ocean and Environmental StudiesA-2, East of Kailash (Basement), New Delhi 110 065; Tel/Fax: 91-11-46078340

E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];

Website: www.coes-india.org

The two issues of the first volume pertaining to the year 2010 of the

Journal of Coastal Environment (JCE) have been received well, both

within the country and abroad. We have received papers from scientists

and scholars from the coastal centres in India as well as from the Centre

for Ocean Studies and Marine Biology in Port Blair. It is heartening to

note the variety of research being carried out in the universities and

research institutes in various coastal and island centres of the country

which are providing papers for the JCE in a continued manner.

The first number of the Volume 2 of the Journal gives an excellent

coverage of a wide variety of subjects. The first paper deals with the

fauna and flora which constitute the biodiversity of coastal

environment. The various threats which affect the decline in

biodiversity include habitat destruction largely because of human

activities such as trawling for food fishes which in turn seriously affect

the different components of the environment. The next factor is over-

exploitation of animals because of their increasing demand as human

food. Once the natural population of animals and plants (i.e.

biodiversity) decreases, non-native (invasive) species replace the native

ones. Lastly, pollution threats of different types, and particularly oil

spills from tankers, create a lot of environmental problems affecting the

biodiversity. Several instances of oil spills by oil tankers have been cited

as examples. Climate change as a result of carbon dioxide emission from

human activities leads to an increase in the temperature of coastal

waters which results into a geographical shift in the composition of

biodiversity.

The next paper on the Lakshadweep ecosystem provides an overview to

the fragility of the Lakshadweep environment in which the livelihood of

islanders depends largely on coconut and fish. It reinforces the need for

a science-based conservation effort. It has been suggested that the

fragility of the island ecosystem requires special attention to coral reef

research and a management approach to preserve the different aspects of

the ecology of Lakshadweep Islands. The next paper on Oil Pollution

and its Impact on Fisheries indicates that economic liberalisation has

increased the export and import of different commodities of the

countries of the world, particularly of India and China which are

emerging as two important economies, resulting in an increase of oil

Editorial

consumption and its transport. These activities have also resulted in

increased oil spills which in turn affect the fish population. The paper

points to the danger of contamination of fish products with oil. The next

paper on the impact of mining on land and water of Goa describes

mining as an important activity in the land and water areas of Goa. This

adds up to a considerable amount of revenue to the Government, nearly

60 per cent of the total iron export of the country. There are several

environmental problems connected with mining operations which have

been indicated.

The paper on Deepwater Horizon accident in the Gulf of Mexico, USA

describes the rights of British Petroleum for drilling in the area, and

indicates the possible consequences due to poor risk management. The

next paper discusses the concept of large marine ecosystems (LMEs),

developed by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA). The LME-based conservation focuses on the degradation of

coastal and marine ecosystems, and recognises its various consequences.

It demands a coordinated approach by different regions, for example in

the Bay of Bengal which has been designated as a region of tropical

climate. The next paper gives an account of the growth of juvenile

Epinephelus fuscoguttatus which was used as a dietary supplement of

probiotics for a limited period, indicating the possible use of this diet in

aquaculture. The last paper on environmental control in Kuantan

Mangrove Ecosystem, Malaysia gives an account of the distribution of

foraminiferan assemblage in relation to several environmental factors.

He concludes that the main environmental parameter influencing the

distribution and density of foraminifera (a unicellular marine organism)

at the Kuantan mangrove ecosystem is the sediment characteristics, such

as sand, silt, clay and total organic carbon (TOC).

S.Z. Qasim

This publication has been supported by the Ministry of

Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India.

Threats to Biodiversity in Coastal Environment 1

S.Z. Qasim

The Lakshadweep: Islands of Ecological Fragility, 9

Environmental Sensitivity and Anthropogenic Vulnerability

P.S.B.R. James

Oil Pollution and its Impact on Fisheries 27

P. Muhamed Ashraf and B. Meenakumari

Impact of Mining Activities on Land and Water Areas of Goa 43

Shaikh Muhammad Parvez Al-Usmani

Deep Water Horizon : Lessons for the Future 55

Usha Dar

65

Kishore Kumar

Effect of Probiotics on Growth Performance 79

of Juvenile Brown Marbled Grouper

Mithun Sukumaran, Pradeep Padmaja Jayaprasad,

Thekkeparambil Chandrabose Srijaya,

Anuar Hassan, Mohammad Effendy Abdul Wahid,

Zainudin Bachok and Anil Chatterji

Environmental Control over the Distribution of Foraminiferan 97

Assemblages at the Kuantan Mangrove Ecosystem

Mohd. Lokman Husain, Sulong Ibrahim,

Zainuddin Bachok and Ravindran Chandran

Ecosystem Conservation and Management: The Concept of Large Marine Ecosystem

C o n t e n t s

Threats to Biodiversity in Coastal Environment

S.Z. Qasim*

Biodiversity of coastal environment, like any other environment, indicates the

inherent richness of fauna and flora of an ecosystem. The year 2010 has been

declared as the year of biodiversity to make people aware and to promote the need

for conservation of the biological wealth of an environment. Major threats of

biodiversity are (1) Habitat destruction largely because of human activities, (2)

Overexploitation because of increasing demand of animals as human food, (3)

Invasion of non-native species. Once the natural population decreases, it begins to

be replaced by invasive species which affects the fauna of other natural population,

(4) Pollution threats of different types particularly of oil-spills. These are generally

caused by accidents to oil tankers. Examples such as the oil spill of TANSHURON in

1974 created a lot of problems on Kiltan an atoll of Lakshadweep. Other examples

are of TORRY CANYON, ARGO MERCHANT, IXTOC I, BURMAH AGATE, JUPITER,

CHITRA etc. All these resulted in oil spills. (5) The climate change, because of CO2

emission from human activities leading to temperature increase of coastal waters.

It has resulted into geographical shift in distribution of several species.

IntroductionThe year 2010 has been designated as the International year of

Biodiversity. Therefore, it is still important and relevant to write

something on this topic. The basic idea behind earmarking one year to

biodiversity is to create an awareness of diversity of both marine

animals and plants and thus to encourage the conservation of species

in their natural environments.

Main ThreatsAccording to Handerson (2010), some of the main threats currently

challenging biodiversity are:

* Former Secretary, Govt. of India and former Member (Science), Planning Commission, Govt. of India.

Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 2, No. 1, 2011

Abstract

1. Habitat destruction

2. Overexploitation

3. Invasion of non-native species

4. Pollution of the environment in general and oil spills in particular

5. Climate Change

1. Habitat DestructionMany species of both animals and plants have either disappeared

or are on the verge of extinction because of the destruction of

their natural habitat by human interference. For example, several

sessile forms living at the seabed such as clams, oysters and snails

including seaweeds of economic importance have become rare or

absent in many well-established seabed areas because of the

destruction of their habitat as a result of fishing activities using

trawls or several other types of dredging gears.

2. OverexploitationThe demand of food-fishes is increasing every day and hence

these are being exploited in increasing quantities. The result is

that several fish populations are overfished and their catches

require greater efforts to obtain the desired quantities. This is

more evident in fisheries of higher latitudes as compared to

tropical waters. For example, hake populations are overfished and

similar is the case with cod and several species of clupeiods

which are long-lived fishes which mature in their second or third

year of life. Thus their number in the population, because of

natural and fishing mortality, decreases year after year. The result

is that their stocks get easily overfished. Unlike the temperate

species, the fishes of tropical waters are short-lived and generally

attain maturity during the first year of their life itself and as a

result their population gets replenished every year. Thus,

symptoms of overfishing do not become very obvious in their

populations. The only group, where overfishing has often been

suspected, are the prawns. Their yield has been diminishing and

an increase in effort is required year after year to obtain a desired

quantity.

Journal of Coastal Environment2

3. Invasion of non-native species

Invasion of species such as fouling organisms transported by the

ships or ballast water pose threats to local biodiversity. Studies on

shores of shallow water have indicated the effects of invasive

molluscs in intertidal areas off several coasts being inhabited by

non-native species, particularly the shelled animals like the

bivalves and gastropods. Fouling organisms form another category,

the dispersal of these in coastal areas is affecting the native

species.

4. Pollution of the environment in general and from oil spills in

particularEnvironmental pollutions of all kinds such as sewage discharge,

domestic or industrial wastes or by oil spills create deleterious

effect on the coastal environment. Urgent attention is required to

be given to protect the different inshore habitats from human

interference to preserve species biodiversity. Oil spills generally

occur by accident either by collision of an oil tanker with another

vessel stationary or moving or the oil tanker running aground

along an indifferent pathway or by hitting submerged rock or

coral reef. In such circumstances the oil from the tanker gets

spilled into the marine environment causing damage to the

environment and killing large variety of fauna and flora. The

casualty includes all types of fishes, crustaceans molluscs etc.

including birds. Planktonic organisms are the first to be severely

affected. Depending upon the magnitude of pollution, the

environment gets non-functional for quite some time. Examples of

some well-known tanker-accidents seem important to draw

inferences and conclusion.

On the evening of 26 September 1974, an American oil tanker

TANSHURAN owned by Hudson Waterway Corporation and

chartered by U.S. Navy ran aground on the coral reef of Kiltan,

one of the islands of the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) Archipelago.

(Fig. 1)

3Threats to Biodiversity in Coastal Environment

It is reported that the disaster tool place because of some fire hazard

in the boiler room, because of which the ship lost control, began to

drift and finally hit the island. Several of its storage tanks got ruptured

and oil began to flow in the surrounding sea (see Qasim et. al. 1974,

for details). The ship was carrying furnace oil. It had sailed from

Bahrain and was bound for the Philippines. Kiltan is one of the 20

atolls of the Lakshadweep. (Fig. 2)

4 Journal of Coastal Environment

Fig. 2

Kiltan Atoll showing the relative position of the island, coral reef and lagoon.

The site where TRANSHURON ran aground has been indicated.

Fig. 1

Damaged oil tanker TRANSHURON lying

abandoned on the northern tip of Kiltan Atoll.

5

Fig. 3

A portion of the lagoon beach showing intense deposition of tar-like substance.

The volatile elements of the oil was evaporating and the thick tar like substance had seeped into the coarse white sand up to about 3-10 cm forming slicks. The south-western side of the atoll was also heavily contaminated with oil and the rock pools had thick layers of floating oil. Mortality of animals was fairly large and widespread. Dead fishes, crabs and holothurians were recorded several days after the spill. In the lagoon, dead plankton organisms and seaweeds were found floating at the surface in thick layers. The naval authorities made several aerial surveys to track the shoreward movement of the spilled oil and rescued the crew of TRANSHURON. The oil tanker was abandoned and it remained on the Kiltan site for more than one year when it was towed away.

On March 18, 1967, owing to a navigational error, the super-tanker

The oil tanker was carrying about 18,500 tonnes of furnace oil. Of

this, about 3,325 tonnes was spilled all over the atoll. The beautiful

beach along the lagoon had thick deposits of tar-like substance. (Fig.

Threats to Biodiversity in Coastal Environment

Torrey Canyon struck Pollard's Rock on Seven Stones reef between the Cornish mainland and the Sicily Isles causing disaster. The tanker was ill-equipped with navigational charts and used only the LORAN system instead of the more accurate DECCA Navigator. At that time, the tanker was the largest vessel ever to be wrecked. In an attempt to disperse the oil, the Royal Navy vessel used a detergent which was used for the first time and its toxicity was unproven with the result that it created further problems with the environment. The U.K. Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his cabinet decided to set fire to the remaining oil to avoid the oil disaster getting worse, but the efforts proved in vain. However, some 80 km of French and 190 km of Cornish coast of U.K. were seriously contaminated with 120,000 tonnes of dispersed crude oil and 10,000 tonnes of the toxic dispersants used. About 15,000 sea birds were killed, along with huge numbers of marine organisms including all fish within 1200 km radius. Much damage was caused by the intensive use of the so-called detergents.

The next oil spill worth mentioning was by the Liberian tanker Argo

Merchant which ran aground on December 15, 1976 on Fishing Rip,

29 nautical miles southwest coast of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts stin adverse weather conditions. On 21 December, the vessel broke into

two and thus spilling the entire cargo of 7.7 million gallon of No 6

fuel oil into the sea. Another vessel Amoco Cadiz ran aground in

stormy weather off the coast of Brittany, France on March 16, 1978,

spilling the entire cargo of 68.7 million gallons of oil into the sea and

thus polluting about 200 miles of Brittany coastline. Similarly, the 2-

mile-deep exploratory well, IXTOC I blew out on June 3, 1979 in the

Bay of Campeche, off Cindad el Carmen, Mexico. By the time the well

was brought under control, an estimated 140 million gallons of oil was

spilled into the bay. This is the largest spill of all time. On November

1, 1979, the vessel Burmah Agate collided with the freighter, Mimosa,

of Galveston Entrance in the Gulf of Mexico. The collision caused an

explosion and a fire that burned until January 8, 1980. An estimated

2.6 million gallons of oil were released into the environment and

another 7.8 million gallons were consumed by the fire. On March 24,

1989, the Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef of Alaska. It spilled

10.8 million gallons of oil into the marine environment. The impact of

oil spill was felt up to 1,100 miles, which was the largest oil spill in


U.S. history. On September 16, 1990, the tanker JUPITER, while

offloading gasoline at a refinery caught fire and exploded. On

September 2009, the offshore drilling rig, Deepwater Horizon, capable

of drilling at a vertical depth of 10,683 metres, about 400 kilometres,

southeast of Houston, a blowout occurred, which caused fire, the

vessel sank, leaving the well gushing at the sea floor and causing the

largest offshore oil spill in U.S. history.

On August 2010, a catastrophic collision of MSC Chitra with another

merchant ship occurred at Mumbai Port, which resulted in spilling of

800 tonnes of bunker oil. Beside oil, its cargo contained hazardous

chemicals in 293 containers which fell from Chitra into the near shore

fishing areas around Mumbai harbour. Fishing was totally suspended

for several days until the effect of oil and toxic chemicals remained in

the environment.

The account given above gives a summary of the major oil spills

which occurred in the past in the inshore areas of the coastline of

India and elsewhere and which were dealt with different agencies.

The primary responsibility of dealing with oil spills in India has been

entrusted to the Indian Coast Guard Organisation which interacts with

the Indian Navy and several other institutions in close vicinity of the

inshore areas of oil spills as the situation demands.

Biodiversity and Climate Change (Global Warming)The global climate is changing at a rate unprecedented during the last

millennium due to atmospheric emissions from human activities. Its

ecological impacts are likely to result in massive alterations to marine

ecosystems. Changes in the climate, induced by human activities such

as carbon dioxide emissions, are unlikely to stop in the next few

decades. The coastal waters of North Atlantic from where some

reliable information is available have shown a warming trend.

Analyses of historical and survey data have shown some dramatic

distributional changes in Britain. Since global warming began to

accelerate in the mid 1980s, warm water species from the southern

regions from a wide range of taxonomic groups have extended their

northern limits pole wards. The southern limits of cold water northern

species have also, but not at the same rate, led to an increase in

biodiversity. Within the next 50-80 years, however, biodiversity is

7Threats to Biodiversity in Coastal Environment

likely to decline as the loss of species continues. At the moment,

biodiversity has shown mixed responses to climate change: some

species have responded negatively by reducing their geographical

range, declining in population size and changing their life history

attributes, while others have responded in the opposite way, and few

species have not shown any reaction at all to climatic variations

(Handerson, 2007).

ReferencesHenderson, P.A. 2010. The effects of climate change on biodiversity.

Journal of Marine Biological Association of United Kingdom, Global

Marine Environment Special Spring Issue, 11, pp. 1-11.

Pulsord, A. 2010. Global Marine Environment. Journal of Marine

Biological Association of United Kingdom, Global Marine Environment,

Special Autumn Issue, 12, pp. 1-3.

Qasim, S.Z., Nair, P.N. and Sivadas, P. 1974. Oil spill in the Laccadive

Sea from the oil tanker. TRANSHURON. Mahasagar Bulletin of the

National Institute of Oceanography, Vol. 7, pp. 83-89.


The Lakshadweep : Islands of Ecological Fragility, Environmental Sensitivity

and Anthropogenic Vulnerability

P.S.B.R. James*

The delicate balance between the environment and development in Lakshadweep

islands is greatly hinged on to the complex fragile ecosystems with the livelihoods of

the islanders being dependent on coconut, fish and the coral reefs which are the

lifelines of the islands. The perceived environmental threats to the islands,

development and population growth might tend to weaken the symbiotic

relationship between the society and the environment, necessitating effective

implementation of the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2006.

The islands of Lakshadweep need an enlightened and science-based conservation

effort. The present widely disparate and incoherent approaches at coral reef

research in the country need to be coordinated and brought under an umbrella of

an exclusive Institute for Coral Reef Research and Management, with the ultimate

goal to ensure the preservation of the delicate ecology and the dependent

livelihoods of people of the island territories of the country.

IntroductionThe Union Territory of Lakshadweep, a group of 11 inhabited and 25

uninhabited tiny islands, is geographically isolated and segregated at

200-400 km. from the Malabar Coast along the west coast of India. The

only atolls in the Indian Union, they attracted the attention of

naturalists for centuries. In view of the vast marine resources of the

region, the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI)

Cochin established a centre for research at the Minicoy Island in 1958.

* Former Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin.


Abstract

Jones and Kumaran (1980) published a monumental treatise on fishes

of the Laccadive archipelago. The marine fisheries research conducted

in the Archipelago up to 1986 was briefly reviewed in a series of

articles incorporated in a special issue on Lakshadweep (Anon, 1986).

Fisheries and marine biological features and the pole and line tuna

fishery in Lakshadweep were described by James, et.al. (1987 a and b).

History of marine research in Lakshadweep was reviewed by James

(1989). The CMFRI carried out a comprehensive survey of the fishery

potential of the islands from January to March 1987 and published the

results in a bulletin (Anon, 1989) I n the following years and till date,

the institute and several other institutions, organization and

individuals have contributed significantly to the scientific knowledge

of terrestrial and aquatic resources and development of the islands.

Taking into consideration these recent observations as well as the

earlier background and personal knowledge and experience of the

author, the present paper attempts to highlight some important

ecological, environmental and human impacts on the islands.

Ecological FragilityThe archipelago consists of 12 atolls, three reefs and five submerged

banks. There are 36 islands, covering an area of 32 sq.km., which are 0 ' geographically isolated and segregated from the mainland (08 00 N

0 0 0and 12 30' N lat. and 71 00' E and 74 00'E long), about 200-400 km

from the Malabar Coast, the coral formations rising from depths

ranging from 1500-4000m. The islands scarcely rise 2m above the

surface of water.

Except Androth, which is the biggest island, all the islands have a

lagoon. Bitra is the smallest island with a large and magnificent

lagoon. Among the uninhabited islands, Suheli is a coconut growing

and fishing centre. Pitti or the bird island is a small reef with a sand

bank visited by thousands of birds for nesting, is designated a bird

sanctuary. The islands range in area from one ha. to nearly 440 ha.

The oceanic islands have a continental shelf of about 4336 sq.km, the

lagoon area of about 4200 sq.km, territorial area of 20,000 sq.km and

the EEZ of 4,00,000 sq.km accounting for 20% of the Indian EEZ.

Lakshadweep is one of the world's most spectacular tropical island

ecosystems. The marine ecosystem is extremely diverse, attributed to


geomorphologic and climatic variations along the coast. The precious

heritage of ecology and culture is supported by the extremely fragile

ecosystems. The major components are the coral reefs, logoons,

seagrasses, seaweeds, algae and mangroves. These delicate ecosystems

are inhabited by a wide variety of fishes, tunas, live-bait, octopus,

crabs, molluscs, sponges, echinoderms, other invertebrates, reptiles,

dolphins and whales. From the terrestrial side, the coconut

plantations, rodents and the birds play their roles. Brief notes on a few

important ecosystems are given below:

Coral reefs: Pillai and Jasmine (1989) identified a total of 103 species

of corals fewer than 37 genera from Lakshadweep; and Pillai (1996)

dealt with the coral reefs of India, their conservation and

management. Hoon Vineeta (1997) reviewed the extent, conditions,

research and management status of the coral reefs of India.

An extensive study from 1987 to 2005 on coral reefs of Mombasa

(Kenya) by the Wildlife Conservation Society and the University of

California at Santacruz, made a comparison of overfished reef systems

and fishery closed reef. In the former, sea urchins were the dominant

grazers where their predators, trigger fish and wrasses, were largely

absent. The grazing sea urchins reduced the abundance of crustose

coralline algae, a species of algae that produce calcium carbonate.

Coralline algae contribute to reef growth. By contrast, reef systems

closed to fishing have fewer sea urchins- the result of predatory fish

keeping urchins under control. Reefs with more sea urchins grew

significantly slower, than ones with more complete fish communities.

Herbivorous fish like the surgeonfish and parrotfish did impact the

growth rates of coralline algae in reef systems. They also remove

fleshy algae that compete with coralline algae. According to the study

(published in Ecology, Dec.2010), the grazing effect was found to be

stronger and more persistent than the strong El Nino that devastated

coral reefs throughout the tropics in 1998.

Management of coral reefs is included in the National Biodiversity

Strategy Action Plan 2004. The Wildlife Act of 1972 and 2002 prohibit

collection of corals and coral reef associated fauna. A few other Acts

also deal with conservation and management of coral reefs. The

management of coral reef ecosystems has also been affirmed in India's

11The Lakshadweep : Islands of Ecological Fragility, Environmental Sensitivity and Anthropogenic Vulnerability

National Conservation Strategy and Environment Action Plan (UNDP,

1997). The Indian Coral Reef Monitoring Network and the Indian

Coral Reef Initiative established in the 1990s also cover coral reef

management.

Lagoons: All the islands have lagoons, except Androth. The lagoon

ecosystem supports a wide variety of animals and plants that support

the livelihoods of people. They provide access to the islands through

navigation, which requires constant dredging to maintain the depth of

navigating channels. While it is an essential activity, it caused

irreparable damage to corals and other fauna and flora by

accumulation of silt and resultant sedimentation leading to chocking

of corals and ultimate mortality. The live-baits, important for tuna

pole and line fishing in the islands, abound in the lagoons and are

collected by fishermen. Reports indicated the live-bait resources

declined over the years, but attributed the damage to lagoon ecology

through human activities and pollution of the lagoon waters. High

human population pressure is said to have a direct effect on lagoon

resources. Hydrobiology of the lagoons indicated surface water 0

temperature ranged between 32 and 38 C, salinity 36 and 39.39% and

dissolved oxygen 2 and 6ml per litre. In most of the lagoons,

secondary production was very poor but biomass of zooplankton from

the seaward side of the lagoons was slightly higher, suggesting that the

oceanic zooplankton might be nourished by coral reef community.

Seagrasses: Seagrass zones are conspicuous in the lagoons of all atolls

except Bitra and Kiltan, forming dense beds alongside the islands in

calm zones (0.50-3.00 m depth). Six species of seagrasses, namely

Cymodocea rotundata, C.serrulata, Halodula uninervis, Halophyla

ovate, Syringdium isoetifolium and Thalassia hemprichii, the last

species being the most dominant (Vijay Anand, 1994) and Vijay

Anand and Pillai (2005; 2007).

Several associated marine plants and animals utilise seagrass habitat

for food, shelter and nursery grounds. According to Vijay Anand and

Pillai (2007), the most dominant fishes that occurred on seagrass beds

in juvenile stages belong to Acanthuridae, Apogonidae, Carangidae,

Chaetodontidae, Holocentridae, Labridae, Lutianidae, Mullidae,

Scaridae and Siganidae. Seagrasses act as safe habitats for young


fishes and they generally occur in shallow waters in Lakshadweep,

with large predators normally keeping away from shallow waters. In

the transitional stage, juveniles migrate from seagrass beds to adult

habitats (rubble, live and massive corals) after they have transformed

enough. Seagrass bed nurseries are susceptible for disturbance by the

operation of fishing nets and this may result in decline in the steady

supply of sub adults on to the adult-reef-habitats after transforming

from their juvenile stages (Vijay Anand & Pillai (2007). The structure

of major seagrass beds from three coral reef atolls (Agatti, Kavaratti

and Kalpeni) was studied by Jagtap (1998).

Seagrass beds harbour producers (seagrasses, gastropods, rays, sharks)

and grazers (urchins), suspension feeders (clams and tube worms)

detritus feeders (clams, worms), carnivores, (gastropods, rays, sharks),

other fish, turtles and dugongs. They also contribute to transportation

of organic materials to adjacent regions which form food for other

communities.

Seagrasses are threatened by several human and environmental

impacts. Seagrass beds constitute coastal ecosystems of great value but

are seldom given the attention or protection they deserve. Adequate

public awareness has to be created for conservation and management

of seagrass beds.

Seaweeds: Altogether 114 species under 62 genera of seaweeds were

recorded from Lakshadweep (Kaliaperumal et.al. 1989). The CMFRI

demonstrated seaweeds can be cultured at Minicoy Island. Siltation,

sedimentation, erosion, accretion, dredging, construction, effluent

discharge, sewage, grazing by fish and overexploitation are known to

cause damage to seaweeds.

Mangroves: These are limited to Minicoy Island only, on the

southeastern and southwestern sides of the island. Two species,

Bruguiera cylindri and Ceriops tagal occur. One site is land locked and

the other inundated by seawater (Nasser et.al.1999). In Lakshadweep,

the terrestrial activities are likely to impact the coastal ecosystems.

Reduction of these inimical impacts would depend on development of

suitable land use patterns. Transplantation of mangroves to Kalpeni,

Kavaratti, Bangaram and Suheli was suggested for their beneficial

attributes.


Marine ornamental fishes: Extensive observations were made on

these fishes by Vijay Anand (1994) and Murty (2002).He described the

distribution in space and time and determined stock sizes and catch

quotas of 165 species of fishes with the possibility of fishing a total of

8.6 million fishes per year. The lagoons are very shallow and easily

accessible. Therefore there are chances of overexploitation of

ornamental fishes within a short period and also cause damage to

corals and the environment. Only non-destructive methods like trap

fishing and hand net fishing by diving for capture of ornamental

fishes are suggested (Murty, 2002).

Birds: The birds of Lakshadweep play an important role in the

functioning of ecosystems. The common birds include the terns, grey

heron, curlew, golden plower and others. In an ornithological

expedition to the archipelago, various islands, sand flats and reefs

were surveyed in March 2006 by Satish Pande et.al. (2007). According

to them, Pitti and Cherbaniani islands attract local residents for guano

collection, during which time, eggs and nestlings of pelagic birds are

poached. Because of extensive coconut plantations on Bitra, Parli 1

and 2, Tinnakara, Suheli Veliakara and Cheriakara, the nesting sites on

these islands were abandoned. Due to the growing human population

and increased pressure on available land, uninhabited islands are

being opened for human activities to the detriment of bird

populations.

Ecosystem functioning: There are several components of the island

ecosystem which maintain the food chain. Particularly off the Minicoy

Island, upwelling takes place during the south-west monsoon period

(July-Sept), bringing up nutrient rich waters from the deep to the

surface which supports abundant life near the surface. A zone of

sinking causes loss of nutrients found in the open ocean. Runoff from

the land also enriches coastal waters. Excreta of oceanic birds,

especially the terns, form an important source of nutrients in the

euphotic zone of the sea increasing primary production through

photosynthesis. Euphasids form the staple food of small fishes, such

as sprats which in turn become the prey of tunas. The highly

productive and diverse coral formation of the islands help in land

building and providing ideal habitats for complex communities of the

sea, corals themselves living symbiotically with the unicellular


zooxanthellae. Crab populations, including the hermit crabs,

abundantly found in coastal areas and the shores play key role in

scavenging on the discarded and decomposing bodies of animals,

recycle the nutrients, thus forming a vital link in the food chain. They

also form prey of eels and other animals.

According to an ecological survey of the lagoons by Rodrigues (1996)

corals on reef flats and lagoons of uninhabited island were diverse and

dense. Most of the inhabited islands can be classified as endangered.

Environmental sensitivitiesBeing oceanic, small and far removed from the mainland;

geographically isolated and exposed, environment could be cruel to

the islands at times. Since they are surrounded by the vast open

ocean, they are subjected directly to storms, cyclones and heavy rains.

Their low level makes them vulnerable to sea level rise (even by about

two meters and the consequent impact) as an effect of the potential

global warming and climate change. The islands also face the risk of

inundation of sea water due to storm surges as well as tsunami waves.

Kalpeni and Androth were devastated, several people died and

coconut trees were destroyed during the great cyclonic storm of April

1847 (Mannadiar, 1997).

According to a national task force appointed by the Government of

India in 2005 for a special study of Lakshadweep to assess

vulnerability to various hazards and suggest mitigation / prevention

measures. In 1891 a violent storm struck Kavaratti, Agatti and its

attached islets and the Amindivi group of islands. Other major storms

were recorded in 1922 (Kalpeni), 1941 (Kavaratti), 1963 and 1965

(Androth), and 1977 (Kalpeni). The cyclone from 5-7 May 2004

affected Kavaratti, Amini, Kiltan, Agatti and Kadamat. Low lying areas

of some of these islands were inundated. On the east coast, breaches

10-30m in width and 1-1.5m depth were reported. They also impacted

the physical and social infrastructure and became a set back to the

pace of development of the islands. It was stated, within 115 years, 27

storms and depressions affected Lakshadweep during the Apr-Dec.

period. The tsunami of 2004 which affected several countries across

the globe had also caused minor impacts in Minicoy and Androth

indicating the vulnerability of Lakshadweep also to such phenomena.


Though earthquakes have not been reported from Lakshadweep,

information indicates the islands have moderate seismic activity.

Coastal erosion is one of the serious natural problems being faced by

Lakshadweep. About 200 running km of sea shore is stated to be

subjected to severe erosion according to the Centre for Earth Sciences

Studies (CESS), Thiruvananthapuram. The Space Application Centre

(SAC) mapped coral reefs and atolls of the entire Union Territory.

Lakshadweep is influenced by south-west monsoon winds. During

southwest monsoon, the maximum height of waves is 5m and in non-

monsoon time 1.4 m (CESS study). Data of the India Meteorology

Department indicate mean wind speed in Lakshadweep in May-Sept.

ranges between 6.10-9.25 knots in Minicoy and 7.35-12.54 knots in

Amini. Average annual rain fall is about 1640 mm (Minicoy) and 1504

mm (Amini).

Lakshadweep is on the trade route between Africa, Arabia and west

coast of India (Malabar). There has been a drastic increase in

passenger and cargo traffic across the seas when untreated wastes and

waste oil are discharged from oil tankers and ships into the sea. These

cause heavy pollution, resulting in damage to the coral reefs. Toxic

ocean pollutants, marine garbage, non-point pollutants like runoff

from land also add to environmental damage. According to a study by

the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad,

around 25% decrease in growth rate (calcification rate) of hard corals

(Porites sp.) was observed between 1993 and 2003 attributed to global

warming caused by high levels of carbon dioxide.

In a study by the James Cook University, Australia (Ph.D. thesis), the

EL Nino southern oscillation of 1998 caused mass mortality of corals

in Lakshadweep due to anomalies in sea surface temperature (SST).

The observations indicated mixed pattern of recovery amongst corals

depending on the degree of exposure of sites to seasonal monsoonal

storms. Relatively low level of fishing despite high human population

densities has significant but completely unintended positive

consequences for the resilience of the reef. In a study by Rohan Arthur

(2005), four years after an EI Nino induced coral mass mortality in

Lakshadweep atolls, an event of unprecedented severity in 1998, in

six atolls to check if there were geographic trends in recovery patterns


across the archipelago. It was found live coral cover was relatively low

on most atolls and thin algal turfs dominated the benthos. Clear

benthic differences were apparent between eastern and western

aspects of reefs, pointing to the importance of local hydrodynamic

conditions in determining recovery rates. Where recovery was the

most apparent, it was dominated by fast growing and bleaching-

resistant coral genera. High herbivorous fish abundance was likely

responsible in controlling macrophyte levels and may be crucial for

further benthic recovery in these reefs.

Rucha Karkarey (2010) conducted a study to understand the effects of

loss of structure of reefs after the 2010 mass bleaching event on the

diversity and distribution of apex predators (groupers) in

Lakshadweep. In Lakshadweep, the mainstay of commercial fishing is

skipjack which has caused a great reduction in fishing pressure on

coral reefs. Due to low fishing pressure ambush predators like the

groupers (usually not targeted by fishers) are the dominant apex

predators on these reefs. Bleaching related loss of habitat may

negatively affect abundance and distribution of apex predators such as

groupers that use ambush for capturing their prey and thus rely

heavily on structure of reefs.

Coral bleaching or loss of colour from corals which are under stress

due to environmental conditions, especially the high water

temperature, probably due to global warming, was studied by the

Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) in

Lakshadweep. Corals live in symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae

which give them a peculiar colour but expel them under stress. The

corals get a lighter colour or become completely white. They continue

to bleach even if the stresser is removed, taking weeks or months to

revive. They may be recolonised by the same species or others. Large

massive coral (Porties lobata) withstand extreme temperatures while

branching corals (Acropora) are far more susceptible to thermal stress

following bleaching event. Bleach resistance, coral tolerance, reef

recovery, patchy bleach shade are factors that protect corals against

mass bleaching. A stream of cold water can reduce risk of bleaching

and also health and genetics of coral and zooxanthellae can influence

risk of bleaching. Bleaching stress was also found in soft corals,

Tridacna (giant clam) and some sponges. Other ecological causes


triggering bleaching in corals according to the study include seawater

temperature drops or increase, seasonal cold air outbreaks, solar

irradiance, subaerial exposure, low tides, sea level drops, freshwater

dilution, inorganic nutrients, diseases, chemical contaminants, etc.

Heavy metal partitioning in five species of massive, ramose and

foliaceous corals was studied by Anu et.al. (2007). Highest

concentrations of all the trace metals (except Zn) were reported for

ramose corals in their skeletons. In tissues, all the metals showed

highest concentrations in the same corals. Results also showed

significant differences between metals and between species leading to

high skeleton / tissue- species interaction as well as skeleton / tissue

metal interaction.

Climatic conditions biofouling and bioerosion by boring sponges,

mollusks and sea-cucumbers cause extensive damage to corals.

Environmental damage sets in motion a chain of actions and reactions,

leading to depletion of coral and coral associated organisms and

proliferation of algae and other animals that thrive on dead and

decaying corals which also form a base for borers and bioerosion. The

resultant calcium sediments fill up the lagoons. Destruction of corals

impacts availability of live bait on which the pole and ling tuna

fishery depends. Fortunately, no large scale grazing by urchins on

calcareous algae was so far reported from Lakshadweep because there

has been no intense fishing on the reefs except for sustenance fishing

during monsoon. Amongst the predators of corals, the crown of thorns

starfish, Acanthaster plancii, although reported from Lakshadweep, as

well as from the Andamans, their populations have so far not been

reported to explode, as in some other countries.

Recolonisation and ecosystem improvement depends on several

factors like water currents, availability of planulae larvae, modification

of habitat and scale of destruction of corals etc. In Lakshadweep, in

order to rejuvenate and recolonise corals, there should be no further

interference with the reefs, dredging should be abandoned, erosion

should be effectively controlled and destruction of live corals should

be avoided.

The large scale mortalities of corals caused by El Nino in 1998 and

2010 across the globe, including Lakshadweep, call for rejuvenation,


recolonisation and restoration of coral habitats on similar lines as

done by the U.S in the Gulf of Mexico to re-establish the oyster beds

devastated by oil pollution in April 2010 since livelihoods of people of

the islands are hinged on to the resources of the atolls. Steps are

required to restore lost grounds by well known methods already

demonstrated by the Japanese for artificial propagation of corals.

Taking into consideration, the carrying capacity of the islands, the rich

biodiversity and the geologically unstable zones, certain Environment

Impact Assessment (EIA) norms were prescribed in the Ninth Five

Year Plan period (1997-2002) for Lakshadweep. Development and

population growth on the islands tend to weaken the symbiotic

relationship between the society and the environment. The islands

need enlightened and science based conservation efforts. Clean

environment in the islands can be maintained by adhering to the EIA

norms and implementation of the Provisions of Environment Impact

Assessment (EIA) Notification of 2006.

Anthropogenic VulnerabilityThe islands and the reefs support the livelihoods of people, providing

food, income, employment, shelter and protection. However, the

economic development of the islands over the years brought in its

wake, several anthropogenic vulnerabilities to the islands. Thus, the

delicate ecosystems and the unpolluted environment were brought

face to face with developmental activities. Land is very scarce but the

seas surrounding the islands are expansive. It would therefore be

imperative to carefully deal with land and land resources, develop

water resources sustainably. In the Lakshadweep, the inland and

coastal ecosystems are intimately connected. Terrestrial activities like

agriculture, deforestation, raising domestic animals, construction, road

laying and runoff from land lead to degradation of coastal ecosystems.

Thus, development of land use practices has a strong bearing on

ecosystem health.

The major economic activity is oceanic tuna fishing around the

islands. Pole and line tuna fishing is dependent on live bait collection

from the reefs and lagoons which are common property resources to

be shared by all. The reef fisheries were diverted for tuna fishing with

certain incentives and training. This indirectly helped the


conservation of reefs and their animal communities. The short term

goal should be to protect the reefs, fauna and flora and the long term

objective is to rebuild and extend the reefs for their sustainability.

However, quantitative studies on various aspects of corals and coral

reef communities are still lacking in Lakshadweep (Bakus, 1994).

These and other lacunae justify the establishment of an exclusive

institute for coral reef research and management in Lakshadweep as

proposed by the author about two decades ago to the Central

government. Hopefully, the crucial role such an institute could play

for the development of island territories would be realized someday.

While diverting away intense fishing activities from the reefs in

Lakshadweep helped to protect and preserve them, the fisheries

resources of the islands are grossly underexploited, mainly due to the

operation of only pole and line for tunas. The total fish production in

the year 2009-10 (CMFRI Annual Report) in Lakshadweep was 10,189t

of which tunas accounted for 8,254t and other fishes 1,925t., whereas

the total potential yield was estimated to be 1,00,000 t (tunas 50,000t

and other fishes 50,000t) according to the document on integrated

perspective plan for fisheries development of Lakshadweep (CMFRI,

CIFT, ICAR and Department of Fisheries, Lakshadweep). The

document also indicated average annual fish landings to be 11,000t of

which tunas formed an average of 6,000t (1995-2004). About 50% of

total tuna landing is used for masmin production, a boiled, smoked

and sun-direct product. The rest is consumed fresh.

Although pole and line fishing for tuna is internationally

acknowledged to be environment-friendly, it is constrained by

inadequate and inconsistent supply of live-bait fish, which is crucial

for its success. Therefore, for making full use of the national

resources, fishing in oceanic areas around Lakshadweep as well as in

international waters needs to be diversified and intensified, especially

by operating longlines, troll lines and gill nets to increase the tuna

catch (skipjack, yellowfin, frigate tuna and little tunny) and also of

other related fishes, sharks, perches, halfbeaks, fullbeaks, seerfish,

carangids, barracudas, red mullets, flying fish, cephalopods and

others. For harvesting these resources, necessary fishing vessels,

processing facilities and other modern infrastructure are required to be

developed.


Blasting and dredging the lagoons for deepening the navigational

channels damage the reefs and cause coral mortality. Removal of

corals from the shore and shingle extracted from the reefs and lagoons

endangered the reefs. Disturbing the surface soil, and mining of sand

stone were done for human needs. On the land, construction activity,

removal of vegetation, introduction of exotic plants, introduction of

cattle and goats, excessive application of pesticides on land and their

washing into the lagoons impacted the coastal waters. Throwing of

fish processing wastes and other organic matter into the lagoons and

on the shore upsets the pH of the water (turning acidic), thus affecting

the flora and fauna in lagoons. The isolated island economy is affected

by population pressure estimated to be around 1616/ sq.km. The

discharge from toilets entering the lagoons and open sea creates

unhygienic conditions for people and upsets the balance in nutrients

in the lagoons causing algal growth to compete with reef growth.

Dumping of garbage, plastic, batteries, electric glass bulbs, bottles,

cigarette cartons, cans etc. is prevalent on bird nesting islands of Pitti

and Cherbaniani. Lagoons tend to concentrate toxic wastes as they are

cut off from the sea.

Coconut production is the life-line of Lakshadweep. The industry tops

in productivity and output of copra and coconut oil, with highest

copra and coconut oil production in the world. The sector provides

livelihood and food security to over 61,000 people and protection to

coastal ecosystems. About 68% of cultivable land in the islands is

under coconut cultivation. The growth of the industry is reported to

be stunted mainly due to lack of allied manufacturing units, marketing

and value addition. Although rodent attack on the palms is rampant,

excessive use of rodenticides, (zinc compounds) was found ineffective

on the ground and when leached out into the soil and water, was

found to be toxic. It was suggested that coconut plantations should

not be permitted on uninhabited islands, especially the Pitti and

Cherbaniani islands which are important for bird nesting. Extensive

coconut plantations on Bitra, Parli1 and 2, Tinnakara, Suheli Veliakara

and Cheriyakara resulted in their being abandoned as nesting sites by

the birds (Satish Pande, et.al., 2007). Frequent visits by tourists and

fishermen to Suheli Pitti Island drove away nesting pelagic birds.

Poaching of eggs of marine turtles is also known. Turtles are killed by


fishermen for oil used for painting fishing boats. Cutting of indigenous

vegetation decreases the availability of sandy beaches for turtle

nesting. It was recommended to declare some of the uninhabited

islands as sanctuaries, conduct monitoring and surveillance of bird

populations, disallow habitat modifications, ensure effective

monitoring by Coast Guard and their exposure to ecology of the

islands ban the use of rodenticides, control pollution of land and

water through waste disposal and create public awareness of the

importance of ecology of the islands (Satish Pande, et.al., 2007).

Tourism development offers immense potential in the islands. The

islands are endowed with the beauty of the coral reefs, sandy beaches,

lagoons and unpolluted clear water. The reefs teem with colourful

organisms of various kinds providing opportunities for recreation,

sport, fishing, rowing, diving, snorkeling and other waterborne

activities. However, only tourism that is consistent with the ecology

and fragile nature of the surroundings can be promoted. Since the

island ecology is very sensitive, monitoring of environmental impact

of coastal tourism is essential. The perceptions of coral reefs differ

according to the priorities of the people in contact with the reef.

Navigators, tourists, industrialist and others view the reefs differently

and use them accordingly. These common property resources can

generate conflicts and hence require monitoring and management

(Hoon Vineeta, 1997).

The interactions between the community and the coral reef eco-

system raise questions as to who are the main stakeholders and

whether conflicts are arising due to different priorities of the users

(Hoon Vineeta, 1997). Declaration of sanctuaries, biospheres and

marine protected areas (MPAs) could conflict with the interest of the

communities. Participation of the reef stakeholder's in planning and

implementation of MPAs is essential for their long term success. The

poor are often excluded from programmes on coastal resource

management and conservation although they depend on these

resources in complex ways. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

notification 1991 is the only legal protection to the reefs. Under the

CRZ-IV, there are restrictions on materials to be used for construction,

dredging and blasting, beach resorts / hotels etc. However, there are


implementation problems of the regulations, lack of trained man

power and difficulties in monitoring reefs underwater. The marine

protected areas are under the forest department who have very little

knowledge of coral reef ecology. Corals are not yet covered under the

Wildlife Protection Act 1972. There is a recent move to exclude the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep from the CRZ

notification 1991 and bring them under a separate Island Protection

Zone notification with no specific regulatory provisions for tourism.

Tourism should come under strict control of the law to protect the

fragile ecosystems in Lakshadweep (Hoon Vineeta, 1997). The present

author is also of the opinion, even if some safeguards have been put in

place by the administration, careful monitoring of all human

activities, including those of tourists and strict implementation of

rules and regulations are essential for the prosperity of Lakshadweep.

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Bakus, G.J., 1994 (Ed). Coral reef ecosystems. Oxford and IBH

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Oil Pollution and its Impact on Fisheries*

P. 1 2Muhamed Ashraf and B. Meenakumari

Economic liberalisation has increased the export and import business between the

countries. India and china emerged as two important growing economies and this

has increased oil consumption, its transport through the sea and oil exploration.

This has led to higher risk of oil pollution in the oceanic waters through accidental

spill, ballast water discharges, bilge oils by fishing fleets and river water runoff. 12

oil spill incidents were reported during 2005-2010. Oil spills can affect fisheries

resources in many different ways. There can be direct effects on fish populations

and fisheries, interference with fishing activity and indirect effects through

perturbations in the ecosystem such as impacts on trophic chains. Oil-tainted

seafood is unpalatable even at very low levels of contamination which provides a

safety margin in terms of public health. Fishery closures can be imposed after an oil

spill in order to prevent or minimize fishing gear contamination and to protect and

reassure seafood consumers, which can continue until visible sheen test and

sensory tests for oil induced taint turn negative. The paper highlights impact of oil

spill on fisheries and its management measures.

IntroductionOil pollution has been receiving increasing attention since the middle

of the 19th century with the increase in tanker operations and oil use

and frequent marine tanker collisions and accidents resulting in oil

spills. Oil pollution is a major concern nationally and internationally.

India and China assumed to be the major emerging economy in Asia

* Paper presented in the National Seminar on “Coastal Pollution: Mitigating Threats from Oil Spills”, New Delhi, Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, May 6-7, 2011.

1 Scientist, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin. 2 Deputy Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.


Abstract

and increasing consumption of oil has influenced number of oil

tankers along the Arabian Sea. The oil consumption during 2005 was

84 b/day and it will become 116b/day by 2030 [1].Human-mediated

sources of petroleum hydrocarbons include offshore oil production,

marine transportation, atmospheric or aerial depositions from

combustion of coal and gas flaring, direct ocean dumping, coastal,

municipal and industrial wastes, and runoff [2].Several major oil and

gas companies operating in India for oil exploration and some of them

are Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Oil India Ltd, Canoro Resource

Ltd, Geoenpro Petroleum Ltd, Jubilant Energy, Geopetrol International

Inc. and Premier Oil. The Ministry of Environment and Forests

(MoEF), Government of India has accorded environmental clearance

(EC) for drilling over 400 exploratory wells to ONGC and about 100

exploratory wells to the Oil India Limited [3].

The west coast of India (Arabian Sea) has a coastline of 3700 KM and

is exposed to the risks of oil pollution on account of the heavy

transportation of crude oil by Tankers, exploration of offshore oil wells

and movement oils within the country. With ca. 5000 ships berthing

annually, the Mumbai Port is among the busy ones. These ships were

exchanging ca. 50 million tons ballast water within the premises of

Mumbai port. Sources of oil pollutions are accidental oil spills,

refinery operation, offshore production, normal operation of oil-

carrying tankers, merchant and naval vessels, the disposal of oil waste

materials, natural seepage of oil from underwater oil reservoir and

evaporation of oil to the atmosphere and its precipitation on the sea

surface. Both the east and west coast of India are reported to show

pollution due to oil spillage.

About 2 million barrels of oil are spilled annually from the routine

discharge of dirty ballast waters and tank washing, partly due to the

lack of shore reception facilities. Toxicity and physical damage from

clean-up operations, remains a problem, though responsible and

appropriate use of dispersants and sorbents can result in substantial

benefits [4]. Oil pollution accounts for 0.51.51% total organic carbon

(TOC) compared to the 0.5 natural background levels. Data by Al-


Ghadban, et. al. [5] showed an increase in TOC to 2.8%, which results

in shifts in planktonic populations from diatoms to flagellates

dinoflagellates and benthic algae. Besides increasing primary

production, benthic algae may out-compete corals and other reef

building organisms [6]. Spilled deposits may persist for many decades

[7]. The enormous volume of ballast water from tankers may have

introduced exotic biota; for example there has been an increase in

recorded dinoflagellate species from <40 in 1931 to ~200 species in

1996 [8]. Detailed investigation about this subject is initiated by

international and national agencies [9].

Apart from accidental spills, oil pollution occurs during routine

operations such as loading, discharging and bunkering, which are

normally carried out in ports or at oil terminals. Concerns have arisen

recently about the number of illegal discharges from the large volume

of shipping within the region. After evaporation of the lighter fractions

of oil and photo-oxidation, the heavier fraction gradually forms into

tar balls. Driven by wind and current, these tar balls are deposited on

the beaches. Periodic tar ball and raw oil pollution is observed at all

the major beaches, mainly during the onset of monsoon and

sometimes throughout the year. The life of tar balls in the sea varies

from 33 to 58 days, while the same is not yet known for the beaches.

However, due to the half yearly changes in surface circulation, these

tar balls are deposited along the beaches of India [10].

Oil spill in the world

An oil rig Deep water Horizon owned by BP in the Gulf of Mexico was

undergone explosion during April 2010 and it took more than 3

months to contain the oil flow. It was the biggest oil spill ever the

world faced and 1600 to 2400tons per day of oil spilled to the sea

(official claim was 800tons). This oil spill was considered to be one of

the worst environmental disasters in the American history. Another

similar incident was happened during 1979 due to the blow out of

Ixtoc I platform in the Bay of Campeche. The containment of spill was

taken 9 months and close to half million tons of oil were released to

the sea [28, 29].

29Oil Pollution and its Impact on Fisheries

The oil spill incident was very common during 1970s and the average

oil spilled in the ocean was about 0.3 million tons per year, with no

single year below 0.13 million tons. In the first decade third

millennium it was reduced significantly to 0.02 million tons per year

with no single year above 0.06 million tons (Oil Tanker Spill Statistics

2009, http: / /www.itopf.com/information-services/data-and-

statistics/statistics/documents/Statspack 2009 -FINAL.pdf.). During the

year of 2009 oil spilled to the ocean was only 100 tons and it was

significantly low. This was mainly because of introduction double

hulled tankers, sectioning of cargo hold, establishment of sea lanes

especially in the Malacca straits, narrow channels, English Channels

and strict monitoring of ship movement through satellites and other

new technologies. Strict monitoring of near shore areas and territorial

waters of developed countries have successfully reduced the other

types of discharges like ballast water, bilge water discharge etc. The oil


Fig. 1

The Gulf of Mexico in 3D perspective indicating

the location of the two marine blowouts.Source: NOAA

(http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/tools/mapping/media/gis_gulf.html)

pipeline ruptures and leakage incidents were increased during the last

four decade and it was 47 incidents during 70s and now it was more

than 350 per year (U.S. Minerals Management Services 2010). This

was mainly attributed to the ageing of pipelines, poor maintenance,

increased length of pipelines etc. There is not much marine blow out

after 1980s and major blow out was happened during 2009 and 2010.

Montara oil well, Australia spilled 20000 tons of oil in 2009 and the

recent deep horizon incident as described earlier. The recent

advancement in drilling technologies has kept the blow out number to

a minimum. After the Torrey Canyon spill there was no quantification

with regard to the damage done on populations of fishes, crustaceans,

and molluscs, but the overall effect on fisheries was seen as mild [30].

Oil spill in Indian scenarioIndian waters experienced 21 numbers of oil spill from 2000 to 2010

and the data from 2005 is given table 1.One of the recent oil spill

occurred in Gopalpur district of Orissa by an Essar owned Vessel M V th

Malavika collided with barge on 12 April 2010 and fuel oil was

spread in wider area ranging from Arjipalli to Rushikulya river mouth

about 20km from port. The Rushikulya rookery is known mass nesting

site of Olive ridley turtles Lepidochelysolivacea (F. Cheloniidae)

[11].Oil rapidly spread to a stretch of 2030 km towards the river

mouth and over a 7 sq. km area off the beach, 200 m away from the

river mouth where the olive ridleys had laid eggs in March 2009.

Some of the oil also reached the sands of the nesting grounds at

Gokharkuda and Kantigada beaches. This stretch is one of the three

mass nesting sites of olive ridleys. The spill also led to death of fishes

and may have affected the fish breeding sites, which is likely to affect

the turtles feeding on live fish. According to the report about 155000

Olive ridley turtles were nested along the coastline of Rushikulya

rookery and contrary to the fears of the effect oil spill risk, thousands

of hatchlings were found entering into the sea during the month May

2010. It was feared that there occurred mortality of hatchlings but

there was little impact due to the oil spill probably due to the nature

of spilled oil was non persistent.

On 30 May 2006, a bulk carrier, MV Ocean Seraya ran aground along

the Karwar coast spilling 650 tonnes of oil. Due to the rough SW


monsoon, the spill spread to some beaches in south Goa. Intertidal

sampling was carried out on 10 June 2006. Organic carbon (1%) and 1

petroleum hydrocarbon (13 ìg g ) were highest at Polem, as it was

closest to the spill site. Twenty macrobenthic taxa which included

crustaceans and bivalves were identified. A review of the oil spill data

indicates that accidental spills have shown a decline globally, in

contrast to increase in maritime transport. However, a reverse trend

was observed along the Indian coast for the Arabian Sea. Further,

majority of the spills occurred during the SW monsoon period, which

coincided with the recruitment period of most commercial and non-

commercial species. Therefore, although the spills occurring along the

west coast are of small volume, frequent occurrence, particularly

during the critical stages of the life cycle of organism, may have a

long-term impact on the marine biota [10]. Due to the monsoon winds,

the impact of the slick was also visible more than 20 km away in

south Goa at Palolem and Canacona.

Year Quantity (t) and position Vessel/ others

Mar 2005 110 Off Aguada Lighthouse, Goa MV Maritime Wisdom

Jun 2005 49,537/cargo and 640/FO MV Jinan VRWD-5Vishakhapatnam Port

Jul 2005 350 m3 base lube oil Mumbai Harbour Dumb barge Rajgiri

Jul 2005 33/FO NE of Paget Island (N. Andaman) MV Edna Maria

Jul 2005 80 Off Prongs Lighthouse, Off Mumbai OSV Samudra Suraksha

Aug 2005 9 n mile off Tuticorin MV IIDA

Sep 2005 100 Off Visakhapatnam MV Royal Ocean 2

May 2006 650/FO Oyster rocks, Karwar MV Ocean Seraya

Aug 2006 4500 Great Nicobar Island Bright Artemis

Oct 2007 137 Jakhau MV Star Leikanger

Aug 2009 200 S Gujarat and N Maharashrta Unknown

April 2010 08 Gopalpur Orissa MV Malavika

Oil spill incidents in Indian coastal waters during the period of 2005- 2010Source: 1) “Blue waters” Indian coast guard Newsletter; 2) Sivadas et al. 2008 [10]


Table 1

Hydrocarbon concentration in Indian waters and fishesOil pollution in coastal waters has higher impact on recreational and

commercial fisheries. Large oil spills risk the sustainability of coastal

fishery resources. Juvenile and adult fish are generally able to avoid

oil slicks in open seas. However, the rapid advection of large volumes

of oil into estuary and embayment can trap fish populations,

culminating in substantial fish mortality [12].Studies on oil pollution

in the aquatic environment exhibited that aquatic organisms can bio

accumulate petroleum hydrocarbon fractions[13].

According to the studies [Ref Nos. 12 & 14], the adult fish can tolerate

much higher concentrations of hydrocarbons than egg and larvae.

Toxic signs of oils manifested in adult fish are, heart beat rates,

respiratory rate, gill hyper plasmia, enlarged liver, reduced growth and

impaired endocrine system, behavioral changes and alterations in

feeding, migration, reproduction and schooling. Penetration of oil into

the fish is mainly through the gill or skin. Tar balls and other

contaminants ingress through the intestine by water gulped in the

physiological process of desalination. Although human health had not

been considered to be at risk from concentrations of petroleum

hydrocarbons in fish, the possible consequences of bioaccumulation

cannot be ignored especially in communities consuming large

quantities of fish [15].Studies of the accidental and intentional

releases of petroleum-based products to the aquatic environment

indicate that aquatic organisms are able to bioaccumulate some total

petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) fractions, particularly polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons [16, 17].

Petroleum hydrocarbons are among the most common contaminants

bound to estuarine sediments [17, 18].Some heavier petroleum

fractions are capable of accumulating in environmental substrates.

This can lead to stress on bentho-pelagic organisms [19]. The effects

of hydrocarbon laden sediments on flatfish tissue and the fish itself,

particularly the juvenile stage have been reported by Moles and

Norcoss [20].

Sengupta, et. al. [21] studied the hydrocarbon concentration in the

Arabian Sea and it was ranged from 1.8 to 11.1 mg/l in water, 1.84 to

5.81 mg/g dry weight in sediments and 0.33 to 3.67 mg/g wet wt in


fish [21]. Qasim and Sengupta [23] had detailed study on dissolved

and dispersed hydrocarbons in the upper 20m of Bay of Bengal and

Arabian Sea and the concentration of hydrocarbon in different years

was given in Table 2.

Veerasingam, et. al. [23] studied the concentration of petroleum

hydrocarbons in important fish species of Tamilnadu reported that the

hydrocarbon levels were lower than the prescribed limit. Petroleum

hydrocarbons (PHC) residues in ten fish species along Tamilnadu

coast varied between 0.52 and 2.05 ìg/g (wet wt). Among the ten fish

species, S. longiceps has a high PHC concentration from all locations.

This study suggests that S. longiceps can be used as a good biological

indicator for petroleum hydrocarbon pollution in water.


Hydrocarbon concentration in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal [23]

Table 2

Arabian Sea. Concentration Range (µg/Kg)

1978 0.9 - 42.5 24.31 0 - 28.2 17.14

1979 10.4 - 41.6 24.48

1980 2.4 - 9.0 5.28 1.2 - 27.4 12.47

1981 0 - 2.8 1.40

1983 0 - 17.7 5.02

1984 0 - 3.4 1.70

1985 0.65 - 31.0 7.64

1986 1.0 - 23.5 7.5

Year

Range RangeMean Mean

Bay of Bengal. Concentration Range (µg/Kg)

Oil spill and its impact in Indian fisheriesThe marine fish landing was about 3million tonnes during 2010 and

fish catch was increased recent years. This was attributed to advanced

gears, mechanized trawlers and improved forecasting techniques [24].

Contrary to the above statement, landing in the Indian Ocean region

and worldwide decreased significantly recent years. It is difficult to

pin point a single pollutant and oil pollution may be one of the reason

for fluctuation in fish catch, as hydrocarbons can greatly reduce the

individual organisms chances of survival [25]. Studies of Garcia et al

[26] showed that the landings of some of the species were increased

where as some decreased after Prestige oil spill in Galicia. It is clear

that the landings were decreased by 17.1% after the accident.

However, no homogeneous patterns in landing behaviours have been

identified. Some species clearly diminished while others increased.

This second pattern might be mainly the response to the harvesting of

mature individuals present at the moment of the accident, to the

exploitation of new species or to a possible increase in the fishing

effort. It was observed that a disruption in the cycle of landings after

the oil spill, after modeling a scenario in the absence of the accident.

Fishing and aquaculture industries are mainly affected if any oil spill

occurs in the marine environment. Commercially important fishes and

other animals will be damaged due to oil smothering and toxicity of

oil. A variety of factors influence the impact of oil spill and it is very

difficult to pin point specific characteristics to draw final conclusion.

In general, toxic effects of oil on marine life depend on the duration of

exposure and oil concentration. Fishes from oil spilled or

contaminated areas will acquire an oil derived taste called tainting or

it becomes physically contaminated. Adult free-swimming fish, squid,

shrimp and wild stocks of other commercially important marine

animals and plants seldom suffer long-term damage from oil spill

exposure. This is because oil concentrations in the water will only

rarely reach sufficient levels to cause harm. Huge economic loss are

also due to contamination of fishing gears, fouling of boat hulls with

oil, affect tourism, loss of confidence in the market and halting of

commercial fishing and thereby livelihood of fishers. Shoreline

cultivation like oyster racks, shell fishes, cages etc are more

vulnerable due to oil pollution. Fishes in the captive environments

like tuna fattening, fishes grown bigger cages in the ocean etc. will be

exposed to more stress. The cultivation of seaweed, fish, crustaceans,

molluscs, echinoderms and sea squirts frequently involves the use of

onshore tanks to rear the young to marketable size, or to a size and

age suitable for transfer to the sea. These facilities require pumping

sea water frequently and these intakes occasionally may be under

threat from sunken oil or dispersed oil droplets. This will contaminate

pipes, tanks and the loss of cultivated stock.

Filter feeders and fatty fishes has higher tendency to absorb

hydrocarbons and their flesh becomes oily in taste. This will decrease


the public confidence on seafood. It is very difficult to evaluate the

concentration of tainting agents since many are unknown and there

are no threshold values. Properly conducted sensory tests can judge

whether the seafood is fit for human consumption. The aromatic

fractions of oil contain the most toxic compounds, and amongst these

it is the 3- to 7-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) that

command particular attention. Some of the PAH fraction is

carcinogenic and not much has been done on the risk evaluation,

frequency and duration of the PAH exposure. Generally it is

concluded that oil spill derived PAH contamination of seafood is not a

significant threat to the public health, even for subsistence consumers.

The major impact due to oil spill was smothering in the shoreline

animals since the tidal rise and fall exposes more to the edible

seaweeds and sea urchins. Apart from mortality oil may cause more

subtle long term damage to behavior, feeding, growth or reproductive

functions. Oil spill damage may more aggravated by indiscriminate

use of dispersants, which will expose animals and plants more with

oil droplets. Physical barriers like booms are employed to protect fixed

fishing gear aquaculture facilities. The entry of oil to the aquaculture

cages, gears and floats were mainly prevented by spreading plastic

sheets around the perimeter of the cages. Sorbent booms also used for

removal of oil sheens from water and tank surfaces. However, oil-

saturated sorbents should be replaced regularly to avoid them from

becoming a source of secondary pollution. Utmost care must be taken

when considering remedial methods in the vicinity of fishery

resources since most of the clean up procedures will cause additional

damage.

Management in aquaculture areas during oil spill

1. Shifting the floating cages away from oil slick.

2. Suspend sea water pumping to the shore tanks and hatcheries

temporarily and increase recirculation in the tanks. Also suspend

feeding since there is a chance contamination by floating oil.

3. If feared oil contamination, early harvesting of stock is advised. At

least the farmer will fetch some value to make up his loss.


Management of Fishing and Harvesting BansA variety of management strategies are available to prevent or

minimise oil pollution impact on the fisheries sector. The simplest

involves no intervention beyond monitoring the evolution of an oil

spill and any threat to seafood quality. Low-key intervention can take

the form of advisory information or the issuing of guidelines to the

seafood industry. Fishing and harvesting bans can be imposed after an

oil spill in order to prevent or minimise fishing gear contamination

and to protect or reassure seafood consumers. This can be done with

voluntary suspension by fishermen or by closure of the market. The

fishermen can be suitably compensated by way of sufficient free

ration and food items during the ban period.

Fishing ban is withdrawn once there was no visible oil or sheen, and

there is no problem with sunken oil. Credible decision-making with

respect to fishing and harvesting bans should be based on sound

scientific principles and common sense. Knowledge of fishery

resource management is essential, as is in understanding of oil

pollutants, their physical and chemical characteristics, and

background levels of contamination, both locally and nationally.

Seafood consumption patterns and seasonal variations in availability

will further help define a public health risk profile and allow

regulators to form a considered opinion on risk management. It is vital

to determine the criteria which will be applied for reopening a fishery

before a ban is put in place, and they need to be realistic in terms of

the normal seafood quality in the area. It is unrealistic to set criteria

which are unachievable, such as open ocean background PAH

concentrations. Seafood quality managers need to strike a balance

between the need to inform and protect the public and the risk of

raising unnecessary fears. Preferred strategies will reflect cultural and

administrative traits in different countries. The media can play a

valuable role in promoting a rational reaction to temporary

disruptions. Remote sensing techniques can be employed for

monitoring the oil spill [27].

Clean up of oilThe three fundamental strategies for addressing spilled oil were

adopted i.e. contain it on the surface, away from the most sensitive

areas, to dilute and disperse it in less sensitive areas, and to remove it


from the water. The Deepwater response employed all three strategies,

using a variety of techniques. The response included deploying many

miles of containment boom, whose purpose is to either corral the oil,

or to block it from a marsh, mangrove, shrimp/crab/oyster ranch or

other sensitive area. Booms extend 1848 inches (0.461.2 m) above and

below the water surface and are effective only in relatively calm and

slow-moving waters. The government of India has given prime

importance regarding the threat of oil spill, hence they acquired

variety of equipments to contain oil spill. Some of the management

measures of oil spill taken by Indian coast guard are shown below.

Indian coast guard acquired facilities to contain oil spill like recovery

of low and high viscosity of oils, jet water system, skimmer and

inflatable primary arm system.

Conclusion

lEconomic liberalization led to the import of oil and movement

of tankers in the east and west coast of India.

lOil spill, ballast water discharge and pipeline ruptures are the

major threats to the marine environments.

lIndia also experiences frequent oil spill incidents and recent

years its numbers were less.

lCommercial and recreational fishery has affected mainly by oil

pollution. Oil spill also risks sustainability of coastal fishery

resources, egg and larvae and fish mortality

lOil pollution will reduce the catches and also fish health will

be affected due to tainting and smothering. Heavy economic

loss due to contamination fishing implements and loss of

public confidence.

lPAHs are toxic contaminant among that high molecular weight

fractions are carcinogenic. Not much risk analysis was done on

the subject.

lManagement strategies during oil pollution include ban or

fishing, harvesting, selling, compensation to fishers continuous

monitoring for lifting the ban at the earliest.lSteps to be taken to make awareness to the public regarding the

unwanted fears.


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Impact of Mining Activities on Land and Water Areas of Goa

Shaikh Mohammad Parvez Al-Usmani*

Mining has played a significant role in the development of many countries. It is an

important contributor to the regional economy of Goa. The mining of iron ore

started in Goa during the Portuguese regime in 1950s. The government of Goa

collected revenue of Rs. 966.11 crores from the ore exports of 51 to 52 million tonnes

from Mormugao port during the financial year 2010-11. According to the

directorate of mines, Goa Government, over 60% of the country's iron ore export is

from Goa. The iron ore mining in Goa uses open cast technology. The unwanted by-

products generated through open cast mining pose a serious environmental

problem in the mining areas. The nature of mining operations creates a potential

negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for

years after the mine is closed. Water pollution from the mine rejects is a major

intractable problem. It has been observed that the fine material present in the mine-

dumps flows with the rain water and assume light brown to rust-red colour during

the season. It drains into the nearby rivers, rivulet, nullah, ponds and other water

bodies thereby increasing the water suspended load, depletion of dissolved oxygen

of water, deposition of silt, and depletion of the overall index of water in the water

bodies. Deposition of silt affects water retaining capacity of these water bodies

giving rise to occurrence of flood and frequent water logging during the excessive

rainfall. Hence, immediate remedial measures are required to reduce the

discharge of silt into the water bodies. Adopting a cost-effective local environmental

technology will help in filtering the residual suspended matter and colour at non-

source points.

IntroductionMining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological

materials from the earth, usually from an ore body, vein or (coal)

seam. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious

* D.M.'s College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Assagao, Goa.


Abstract

metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil, rock salt and

potash. Any material that cannot be grown through agricultural

processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory, is usually

mined.

Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of stone and metals. It

has been going on since pre-historic times. Modern mining processes

involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a

proposed mine, extraction of desired materials and finally reclamation

of the land to prepare it for other uses once the mine gets closed. The

nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the

environment both during the mining operations and for years after the

mine is closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations to

adopt regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining

operations. Safety has long been a concern as well, though modern

practices have improved safety in mines significantly. Mining today is

able to profitably and safely recover minerals with less negative

impact on the environment.

Impact of mining of iron ore in GoaThe state of Goa is endowed with rich mineral resources namely

manganese, iron, ferro-manganese, bauxite and small quantities of

industrial clay, lime stones and quartzes. Mining has been the main

industry in the history of modern Goa and a significant foreign

exchange earner besides providing employment. It provides

employment for about 25,000 persons directly and many more are

actively involved indirectly. A major contribution to the economy of

Goa is from the export of over 50 million metric tonnes per year of

iron and manganese ore from Mormugoa port.

The mining of iron ore started in Goa during the Portuguese regime in

1950s. In the beginning of the first 10 years of mining in Goa, it was

manual and production was mainly manganese and ferromanganese.

With increasing demand for steel industry in Japan, the thrust

changed to mining of iron ore. By 1970s, it witnessed a substantial

growth in the ore production. From 1958-1959, the production of iron

ore picked up and within a period of about 3 years, the iron ore

mining was no longer the pick and shovel exercise as it was a few

years ago. At one time a total number of 868 leases/concessions,


covering an area of 65,400 out of the total surface area of 365,563

hectare existed. Out of 581 mining concessions/leases which were in

force, only 211 were reported working during the year 1980. A large

number of concessions have since been terminated by the government

of India for their failure to operate. At present, around 400 leases are

in force covering an area of approximately 14% of the total area. The

government of Goa collected revenue of Rs.966.11 crore from the ore

exports of 51 to 52 million tonnes from Mormugao port during the

financial year 2010-11 (Directorate of Mines, Goa Govt., 2011).

On an average, Goa exports about 60% of the total iron ore exported

from India. The area has the advantage of having a natural harbour at

Marmugoa. It is being on the water shade zone of western ghat having

Mandovi, Zuari and Tiracol rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea. Rivers

like Mandovi, Zuari and their tributaries flow through the mining

areas. The mining belt of Goa covers about 700 sq. km. and mostly

concentrates in the four talukas viz. Bicholim, Salcete, Sanguem, and

Quepem.

According to Ripley et al (1996) mining activities takes place in the

following sequential stages:

I. Exploration, which may involve geochemical or geophysical

technique followed by the drilling of promising targets and the

delineation of ore bodies;

II. Development, preparing the mine site for production by shaft

sinking or pit excavation, building of access road, and

construction of surface facilities;

III. Extraction, ore removal activities that take place at the mine

site itself, namely extraction and primary combination;

IV. Beneficiation, which takes place at a mill usually not far from

the mine site where a large fraction of waste material is

removed from the ore.

The exploration and extraction of ore depends on other factors as well.

Iron ore mining in Goa is undertaken under mining leases granted to

the private companies by the state government. The practice followed

in Goa is called surface mining open pit. Mining operations are carried

45Impact of Mining Activity on Land and Water Areas of Goa

out by open cast method which requires stripping and removal of over

burden and by forming regular benches on the hill tops. The cross-

section of a typical open cast mine is shown in Fig. 1. These

operations are largely mechanised. The mine rejects are mostly

dumped on the hill slopes from where it is carried to fields and river

Beneficiation is the dressing of an ore in preparation for subsequent

stages of processing such as smelting, leaching and refining. Basically,

it serves to remove unwanted ore constituents, thus increasing the

concentration of the desired mineral and to alter the physical

properties of the ore. A flow chart of the present day beneficiation is

depicted in Fig. 2.


Fig. 1

Cross-section of open-pit mineSource: Marshall, 1982

rivers and other water courses. About 11% of the mining rejects settle in

sediment at 0-5PSU salinity. About 21% of them are deposited at 15-20

PSU salinity regime (Anonymous, 1981). The remaining is washed

downwards by strong currents and gets settled at the bottom in the

polyhaline (18-30 PSU) zone. Thus, a substantial part of these rejects

settle in the estuarine benthic environment.

The rejects so generated are dumped in the form of heaps near to mining

areas within the leased areas or are transported to the land acquired

specifically for the disposal at some distance from the mining area. The

mining areas of Goa are dotted with such dumps. The dumps may be

classified as 'dead dumps' and 'active dumps'. Dead dumps are old dumps

where no further dumping is done and active dumps are those where

dumping of wastes is continuing. These dumps mainly consist of

overburden material, rejects ore, sub-grade ore, clay, or mix of all

materials and originate from the beneficiation plants. The dumps of the

course material always have some percentage of fine material.

47

Fig. 2

Flow chart of beneficiation stage of mining

Impact of Mining Activity on Land and Water Areas of Goa

The damage to the environment is most evident during the rainy season.

These dumps do not provide suitable substrate vegetation and are usually

susceptible to slumps, slide down during the rainy season especially at

the event of heavy rains. Several constituents of dump material flows with

rain water to the lower valleys and plains either as suspended material or

in solution. The rain water assumes red or brown colour and flow into

nearby rivers, rivulets, nullah, ponds and other water bodies. Studies

have shown that due to this, there is an increase in the suspended load of

water, depletion of dissolved oxygen in water, deposition of silt, depletion

of overall index of water in these water bodies. Consequently,

hydrological regime of these water bodies is disturbed. A clean shift in the

water quality is reported.

The silting of water in the water bodies lowers the water-retaining

capacity of these water bodies, thereby giving rise to occurrence of flood

and frequent water logging during the excessive rains given to the fact that

Goa receives on an average, about 120 inches of rain annually, mainly

from the south-west monsoon during the months June to September. This

also leads to changing of natural water course of the rivulets which results

in water logging on the roads and surrounding fields. It also hampers the

agriculture productivity, besides giving apprehension to rise in

waterborne diseases. Water logging at various places in Bicholim, Pale,

Velguem, Harvolem, Sanguem and Quepem and floods in Sanquelim

during the monsoon season of 2007 and 2010 confirm the above fact.

Hence, there is an urgent need of developing a proper strategic planning

during the operation of new mines on the part of the mining companies.

The local municipalities and village panchayats with the help of other

government departments like the Public Works Department, Water

Resources Department, etc. can play an important role in implementing

the cost-effective local technology in cases of dead and abandoned mine

rejects.

While the iron ore mining industry contributes 10.14% of State's Gross

domestic products, it also causes environmental degradation to the tune

Rs.548 crore per annum (Herald Reported, 31 December 2010). According

to the National council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), major

portion of environmental degradation comprises of deforestation which is

valued at Rs.467.3 crore annually. According to a report prepared by Govt.


49

of Goa, the benefits of iron ore extraction in Goa are much more than the

environmental loss associated with it. The report further says that Goa

will lose Rs.1842.20 crore every year if it bans the iron ore mining. It also

provides an employment of about 75,000 persons, which is next to the

tourism sector.

It is important to assess in detail, the various kinds of damage caused to

the environment and to the quality of human life due to mining in Goa.

Mining inevitably causes damage to land and to the soil and plants.

Mining implies selection, which in turn implies the rejection of waste and

the very process of selection will cause an impact on the environment.

Some of the impacts of mining activities on the environment are as

follows:

DeforestationIn Goa, deforestation has become inevitable as 70% of the mining activity

is carried out in forest areas. Deforestation of more than 350 sq.km of

mining concessions and leases is within the forest areas of the Western

Ghats. Damage to the forest land caused by the opening of pits and by

dumping of reject and waste was observed during the present study in

Bicholim taluka. However, in the thickest forest areas, mining activities

have resulted in the depletion of forest wealth. Several economically

important plants like cashew, coconut and banana have disappeared from

the slopes of mining hills. This has also reflected from the poor

biodiversity area.

a) Land Degradation and Damage to Agriculture:Land degradation due to mining can be categorized into three as follows:

i) Land excavation to obtain the oreii) Land used for dumpingiii) Land degraded due to mining activity in agriculture and

horticulture areas, siltation of drains, lakes and other water

bodies, etc.

All these activities cause extensive and widespread land damage. Each

year, some 30 million tonnes of rejects are generated and stacked in large

dumps. In this process, a good amount of these rejects are strewn along the

roads and they finally settle down in agricultural land, paddy fields and

coconut groves. In addition, there are certain areas where damage has



taken place from a polluted mine but no single mine owner can be held

responsible because a large number of mines are polluting the river. In

addition, there is a considerable damage to mangrove forest from the

mining activities. The siltation from the washing of mine rejects causes

mortality of the young plants in the area.

b) Mining and Dust Pollution:

Ore is transported from the mines-sites to iron ore jetties on the river

banks by trucks, mostly on public roads. These roads are used by mine

owners/contractors to carry ore to barge-loading bunkers. They are the

main source of dust pollution affecting the vegetation and local

communities. During the process, large quantities of dust enter the houses

situated on the wayside and add considerably to the misery of the

inhabitants. Villagers complain that their houses have to be washed and /

or cleaned several times a day to get rid of the film of red dust and that

inhabitants suffer from dust-related diseases, especially the young and

old-aged ones. No compensation is made available from the mine owners

in such cases. Inhabitants of these areas have protested time and again and

even blocked the mining trucks from plying to draw the attention of the

government and the mining companies.

The two twin-towns of Curchorem and Sanvordem in south Goa and

Velguem in north Goa bear the major brunt of mining dust pollution. In

some villages the situation is so grim that many citizens have left the place

in search of ash-free locations. It is difficult to imagine the hidden costs to

economy of the region due to such relocation of inhabitants.

c) Ground Water Depletion:In some of the mines, the mining operations have led the water table going

down as pumping out water from the mining pits is needed regularly. This

In the process of large-scale earthwork, dust emissions are inevitably a

problem. The dust particles originate from the following potential

sources: ore crushing, conveyance of crushed ore, loading bins, blasting,

mine and motor vehicle traffic, use of hauling roads, waste rock piles,

windblown tailings, and disturbed areas. Dust can contain toxic heavy

metals such as arsenic, lead etc. These toxic heavy metals, when

incorporated with the dust can contaminate the air. Dust can also get

deposited at the surface water causing sedimentation and turbidity

problems.

51

has resulted in the depletion of the water in the vicinity, and thus

depriving the neighbouring villages of well water supply which becomes

essential during the summer month. This eventually affects the

biodiversity in the forests and rivers due to shortage of water. In some

cases, due to accumulation of water in pits, the water in the wells located

in the lower contours becomes turbid. De-vegetation also increases the

evaporation of water from the soil which results in a reduction in the

quantum of water which normally percolates to the substrata, thus

affecting the ground water supply.

DiscussionThe mine-reject-dumps including the old and abandoned sites leave a scar

on the environment even after the mining operations cease to continue. It

is thus clear that not only the on-going dumps of the mine-rejects, but also

the old and abandoned mine-reject-dumps pose a danger to the water in

the water-bodies of the adjoining areas. Different views on this subject

have been expressed during the discussions of the Federation of Indian

Mineral Industries, New Delhi, 1989 and these are given in volumes I and

II of its reports. It has been observed that the fine materials present in the

mine dumps flow with the rain water which assumes light-brown to rust-

red colour during the rainy season. It passes though the water drainage

into the nearby rivers, rivulet, nullah, ponds and other water bodies

thereby increasing the suspended load of water, depletion of dissolved

oxygen of water, deposition of silt, depletion of overall index of water in

these water bodies (Parulekar, et. al., 1986).

Water pollution from the mine reject is a major intractable problem.

However, this problem can be tackled by planting trees at the site of the

rejected dumps around the periphery of the dumps or by constructing a

laterite wall compound of about 1 to 1.5 metre broad and about 1.5 metres

high at the base of such dumps. Planting of trees, especially fruit-bearing

trees will also help in increasing the horticultural productivity and/ or

planting of the ornamental trees will help to add the esthetic value of the

surroundings. The boulders of the laterite required for the construction of

the compound wall can be obtained from the rejects by segregating the

boulders of laterite stones from the rest. This is a cost-effective local

environmental protection technology which can be used in abating water

pollution. Such a method will act as an initial step in filtering the residual

suspended matter and the colour of water in abating pollution at the



unused sources. Subsequently, the water can be treated by adopting the

various suitable methods. Periodic de-silting of the water-ways at least

once a year will also help in avoiding water logging and floods during the

heavy rains. Therefore, immediate measures are required to reduce the silt discharged

into the water bodies. Adopting a cost-effective environmental

technology as discussed above will help in filtering the residual

suspended matter and colour of water at different points. It is thus

suggested that a proper environmental management is an important issue

for the sustainable mining activities in Goa.

Impact of mining on coastal marine environmentThe real impact of mining activity seems to affect both the terrestrial and

aquatic food chains (Modassir, 1994). This impact is clearly seen in the

talukas of Bicholim, Sattari and Sanguem and also in the estuarine zones.

Its principal features are:

Turbidity increase with high concentrations of suspended load which

reduces the amount of light penetration to planktonic life, therefore

affecting the productivity.

lThe suspended matter and soluble Iron affects the quality and the

quantity of phytoplankton in the water bodies.

lMine tailings deposited in the estuarine zone probably

depletes the benthic fauna.

lMetals like Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni, Co, Zn, Pb which are carried from

mines and get settled within the estuary.

lVarious organisms are known to bio-accumulate heavy metals.

lHigh turbidity also creates siltation problem.

Sustainable development and environmental considerationAs there is an inherent conflict between mining and environment, it

would be unrealistic to expect that the mining of minerals could be

accomplished without affecting the environment. The approach is to

strive to minimize both on-site and off-site problems of mining by

controlling sediments and the pollution of land, water and air (Tata, 1997).

In open cast mines, as practiced in Goa, the extra substance is removed

53

and mostly dumped nearby. The trees that grow over the area under

mining operations are lost as also the agricultural land nearby.

It is generally perceived that the environmental conservation is a

stumbling block in the development of mining and other industry. It is

argued that the cost of environmental conservation and pollution control

are so prohibitive that development activity will not survive the high cost.

In reality, the objective of sustained development with minimum

environmental degradation at a sensible and affordable cost is not such a

farfetched idea. It is possible to prevent long-term side effects to the

environment by incorporating some of the mitigating measures noted

above.

References

Anonymous, 1981. Eco-development plan for Goa (report of task force on

coastal area planning). p. 42 (Mimeo).

Federation of Indian Mineral Industries, New Delhi, 1989. Papers of

National Seminar on Protection of Environment and Ecology. Vol. I, by

Mining Industries, New Delhi at Kala Academy, Goa.

Federation of Indian Mineral Industries, New Delhi, 1989. Papers of

National Seminar on Protection of Environment and Ecology Vol. II. by

Mining Industries, New Delhi at Kala Academy, Goa.

Iwugo, K.O., and Mahendra, S., 1992. Evaluation Study of Commonwealth

Fund for Technical Assistance for the control of pollution from mining

Industry in Goa, India.

Marshall, I.B., 1982. Mining, Land use and the Environment: Part I. A

Canadian overview. Land use in Canada series, No. 22. Ottawa, ON: Land

directorate, Environment Canada.

Modassir, M., 1994. Impact of current Iron ore mining activities on the

environment of Goa and proposed measures to minimize long term

environmental and economic changes, Dissertation, University of Hull,

U.K.

Parulekar A.H., Ansari, Z.A. and Ingole B.S. 1986. Effect of mining

activities on the clam fisheries and bottom fauna of Goa estuaries. Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 95. 325-339.



Ripley, E.A., Redman, R.E. and Crowder, A.A. 1995. Environmental effects

of mining. St. Lucei Press, Florida.

Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi and Goa, 1997. Areawide

Environmental Quality Management (AEQM) Plan for the Mining Belt of

Goa.

Deep Water Horizon: Lessons for the Future*

1Usha Dar

The paper gives the definition of 'Deep Water” and then go on to British Petroleum's right to drill in the Gulf of Mexico. It will then examine the reasons for the Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill on April 20, 2010, such as institutional failures and poor risk management. The paper will also focus on the economic as well as the ecological impact of the oil spill, and briefly give the findings and recommendations of the DEEP WATER Report.

British Petroleum and oil explorationIn the 1990's the global company which made the biggest news in the

Gulf of Mexico was BP. This company was founded in 1908 and in

1954 it was named British Petroleum. It had for decades built its

business around crude oil in Iran and the neighbouring Middle

Eastern countries. In the 1960s and 1970s BP achieved great success

in discovering and developing oil reserves in the North Sea and in

Alaska's Prudhoe Bay. However by the early 1990's BP had been

exiled from the Middle East and Nigeria. Proudhon and North Sea

were in decline. Billions of dollars had been invested in unprofitable

non-petroleum ventures and an ambitious exploration programme had

yet to bear fruit. The company tottered on the brink of bankruptcy.

Sir John Brown, as Executive Vice President of Sohio BP's American

subsidiary, reigned in spending and cut staff to place the company on

a better footing. Returning to London in 1989 he reorganized BP's

exploration arm. Upon becoming Chief Executive in 1995 he directed

a major part of BP's upstream focus to the deepwater Gulf. In the deals

* Paper presented in the National Seminar on “Coastal Pollution: Mitigating Threats from Oil Spills”, New Delhi, Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, May 6-7, 2011.

1 Director (Research), World Environment Foundation, New Delhi.


Abstract

he negotiated to acquire Amoco, Arco, BP emerged with a greatly

expanded portfolio of Gulf leases and assets.

In the late 1990's BP's Gulf exploration team made a series of

remarkable deep water discoveries. Once the fields came on line, they

vaulted BP ahead of Shell as Gulf's largest producer. BP joined with

Exxon in developing deep water discoveries in Hoover and Diana

fields in the Western Gulf. Shell shifted to managing production from

its large number of deep water developments. BP sprang faster than

anyone else to confront the Gulf's nagging exploration challenge-the

salt.

In a costly and complex undertaking BP combined new advances in

computer processing for 3D seismic imaging with new methods of

acquiring seismic data from multiple directions to gather a better

understanding of the salt history, stratigraphy, and the sources and

migration pathways of oil in deep water. BP scientists and engineers

found geographically promising areas just as large as those discovered

in the shallower Continental Shelf. However, it is important to

remember what Dave Rainey BP's deep water exploration manager

said.” One of the lessons we have learned about the Gulf is never to

take it for granted.” Way back in 1970 one of the consultants had

observed “Each oil well has its own personality, is completely

different from the next and has its own problems.” Too often on

drilling structures he complained, one found inexperienced

supervisors and employees who overlooked rules and regulations the

purpose of which they did not understand, and perhaps most

troubling, even orders from bosses to cut corners, all of which create

conditions for an 'explosive situation.'

By 2010 after numerous acquisitions BP had become the world's

fourth largest corporation (based on revenue) producing more than 4

million barrels of oil per day from 30 countries. 10 % of BP's output

came from the Gulf of Mexico where BP America (headquartered in

Houston) was the largest producer. But “BP had a tarnished reputation

for safety. Among other BP accidents 15 workers died in a 2005

explosion at its Texas city, Texas Refinery. In 2006 there was a major

oil spill from a badly corroded BP pipeline in Alaska.


57Deep Water Horizon : Lessons for the Future

In September 2009 Transoceans Deepwater Horizon semi-submersible

made a historic discovery for BP at the Company's Tiber project. In the

Keathley Canyon, drilling in 4,000 feet of water and to a world record

total depth of 35,055 feet Deepwater Horizon tapped in a pool of 4-6

billion barrels of oil equivalent, one of the largest US discoveries.

Drilling in extreme water depths poses special challenges to risers

connecting a drilling vessel to the blow out prevention on the sea floor

have to be greatly lengthened, and they are exposed to strong ocean

current encountered in the Central Gulf. Managing higher volumes of

mud and drilling fluid in these long risers makes drillers jobs more

demanding. Connecting and maintaining blow out preventers

thousands of feet beneath the surface can only be performed by

remote operating vehicles. . Knowledge which is required about

localized geography, types of hydro carbons and pressure profiles in

ultra deep water wells is not thoroughly developed. Each well indeed

has its own personality that requires maintaining an extremely

delicate balance between the counteracting pressures of the sub

surface formation and drilling operation. Beneath the salt, pressures in

the pores of the sediment are extremely hard to predict. Reservoirs in

lower tertiary are thicker and with greater viscosity than the fluid

found in other rocks. Finally ultra deep water developments are far

removed from shore and thus from established infrastructure. As a BP

technical paper prepared for May 2010 Offshore Technical Conference

noted “the trend of deep water discoveries in the Gulf of Mexico is

shifting towards one with greater challenges across many disciplines

separated by the conditions of Lower Tertiary discoveries.”

Nevertheless the challenges seemed manageable and the rewards

appeared worth the perceived risk.

Lease and permitsOn March 19, 2008 BP acquired the lease to Mississippi Canyon Block

252 in the Central Gulf of Mexico at Minerals, Management Services

(MMS) lease sale. The 10 year lease started on June 1, 2008. The

ownership of the lease was shared as BP 65%, Anadarka Petroleum

25%, and MOEX Offshore 10% with BP as the lease operator.

Drilling the Mocando wellBP actually used two Transocean rigs to drill the Mocando well and

two BP well site leaders were required to be on the well at all times.


The Marianas began work in October 2009 and drilled for 34 days

reaching a depth of 9090 feet before it had to stop drilling and move

off site to avoid hurricane Ida. The storm damaged the rig badly and

BP called in the Deepwater Horizon to take over.

While Marianas had been anchored in place with huge mooring

chains the Deepwater Horizon was a dynamically positioned mobile

offshore drilling unit (MODU).It relied on thrusters and satellite

positioning to stay in place. The rig arrived on January 31, 2010 and

began drilling operations Transoceans Offshore Installation Manager

Jimmy Harrel took over the responsibility as the top Transocean

employee on the rig.

After continuous drilling the engineers concluded that they had “run

out of drilling margin and would have to stop short of the original

objective of 20,200 ft. After cautiously drilling to a total depth of 18,

360 feet BP informed its lease partners Anadorko and MOEX that

“well integrity and safety “ issues required the rig to stop drilling

further. At that point Macando was stable.

After surmounting a number of difficulties at 5.45 A.M a Haliburton

Company engineer sent an email from the rig Deepwater Horizon to

his colleague in Houston. He had good news. “We have completed the

job and it went well.” Yet the same day the tragedy occurred. The rig

exploded. The National Commission on BP Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill was

announced on May 22, 2010 consequent on the on the BP Deep Water

Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling on April 20, 2010.

The mandate of the Commission was to determine the causes of the

disaster and to improve the country's ability to make offshore energy

production safe.

The Foreword to the Report by Bob Graham (co-chair) and William K.

Reilly(c0-Chair) states that “ The explosion that tore through the Deep

Water Horizon drilling rig last April 20, as the rigs crew completed

drilling exploratory Mocando well deep under the waters of the Gulf

of Mexico began a human, economic, and environmental disaster…

the costs from this one industrial accident are not yet fully counted,

59

but it is already clear that the impacts on the regions natural systems

and people were enormous and the economic losses total tens of

billions of dollars.”

The Report observed that “The scientific understanding of

environmental conditions in sensitive environments in deep Gulf

waters and in areas proposed for drilling such as the Artic is

inadequate. The same is true of natural and human impacts of oil

spills… As we know from other oil spills their environmental

consequences play out in long and unexpected ways.”

The National Commission on BP Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill was

announced on May 22, 2010 consequent on the on the BP Deep Water

Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling on April 20, 2010.

The mandate of the Commission was to determine the causes of the

disaster and to improve the country's ability to make offshore energy

production safe.

The Foreword to the Report by Bob Graham (co-chair) and William K.

Reilly (co-chair) states that “ The explosion that tore through the Deep

Water Horizon drilling rig last April 20, as the rigs crew completed

drilling exploratory Mocando well deep under the waters of the Gulf

of Mexico began a human, economic, and environmental

disaster….the costs from this one industrial accident are not yet fully

counted, but it is already clear that the impacts on the regions natural

systems and people were enormous and the economic losses total tens

of billions of dollars.”

The Report observed that “The scientific understanding of

environmental conditions in sensitive environments in deep Gulf

waters and in areas proposed for drilling such as the Artic is

inadequate. The same is true of natural and human impacts of oil

spills….As we know from other oil spills their environmental

consequences play out in long and unexpected ways.”

The Report points out that the lessons learned from the Deep Water

Horizon are not confined to our own government but are relevant to

the rest of the world.

Deep Water Horizon : Lessons for the Future


Policy and legislationThe foundations for the Federal Regulation of offshore oil and gas

development were laid on the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

1953. In 1970 starting with the National Environment Policy Act 1970

Congress enacted new environmental protection and resource

conservation laws. It required Federal Agencies to prepare

'Environmental Impact Statements for all proposed Federal actions.

In 1978 the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act was passed. It was the

last major resource management law Congress passed in the 70's.

Institutional arrangementsThe Office of Offshore Energy and Minerals Management and the

Revenue Management Program (MMS) were the Federal Agency for

leasing, safety, environmental compliance and collection of royalty for

offshore drilling.

Overtime MMS increasingly fell short in its ability to oversee the

offshore oil industry. The Agency's resources did not keep pace with

the industry's expansion into deeper waters and industry's related

reliance on more demanding technologies. The senior officials focus

on safety gave way to efforts to maximize revenue from leasing and

production.

MMS realized that a command and control prescriptive method did

not adequately address the risks generated by the offshore industry's

new technologies and production activities including industrial

expansion into deeper waters.

In 1989 the Agency commissioned The Marine Board of National

Research Council to make recommendations for overhauling MMS's

regulatory programme to best fulfill its safety mission at current levels

of staffing and budget. The Marine Board's Report delivered in 1990

concluded that MMS's emphasis on a list of “potential incidents of

non-compliance” could lead to an attitude on the part of an operator

that compliance with the list equals safety, thereby diminishing

“recognition of the operator's primary responsibility for safety.” The

Report recommended that MMS. “…Place its primary emphasis on the

detection of potential accident producing situations particularly those

involving human factors, operational procedures and modifications of

61

equipment, rather than scattered instances of non compliance with

hardware specifications”.

Despite the recommendations no action was taken. At the time of the

Mocando blow out the MMS had still not published a rule mandating

that all operators have plans to manage safety and environmental

risks. The Agency's efforts were repeatedly revised, refined, delayed

and blocked alternatively by industry or 'skeptical agency political

employees.' MMS thus never achieved the reform of its regulatory

oversight of drilling safety consonant with practices that most other

countries had embarked decades earlier

It was clear that MMS needed to be reorganized. The Secretary of

State for the Interior announced (nineteen days after the rig sank) that

MMS would be reorganized into three separate entities with distinct

missions:

1. A Bureau of Ocean Energy Management2. A Bureau of Safety and Environment Enforcement3. An Office of Natural Resource Revenue

Impact on natureThe Deepwater Horizon oil spill immediately threatened a rich

productive marine ecosystem. To mitigate both direct and indirect

adverse environmental impacts, BP and the Federal Government took

proactive measures in response to the unprecedented magnitude of the

spill. Scientific knowledge of deepwater marine communities is

limited and a significant volume of oil was dispensed so the scientists

do not yet know how to predict the ecological consequences and effect

on key species that might result from the oil exposure in the water

column both from below and near the earth surface.

Economic impactsThe Deepwater Horizon Water Oil spill put at risk two major

industries namely tourism and fishing. Both these industries are

highly sensitive to direct eco system harm and public perception and

fears of tainted seafood and sea beaches. It may be mentioned here

that Gulf coast economy depends heavily on commercial fisheries and

tourism.



Impact on human healthThe Deepwater Horizon crew bore the immediate devastating effects of

the rigs destruction. Eleven deaths and seventeen injuries and the

unquestioned trauma of losing colleagues, the terror of explosions and

fires, the sense of involvement in wider damages that ensued; the

rigors of the investigations and the recovery effects and the disruption

of the families. The Report observes: “Assessing the environmental,

economic and human health damages from the Deepwater Horizon oil

spill is of course the threshold challenge. The even larger challenge

now facing the Gulf is how to achieve its restoration not withstanding

years of failed efforts to recover from past destruction”

Results of investigations and recommendations by the Deepwater

Report

- The explosive loss of the Mocando well could have been

prevented

- The immediate cause of the Mocando well blow out can be traced

to a series of identifiable mistakes made by BP, Haliburton and

Transocean that reveal such systemic failure in risk management

that they place in doubt the safety culture of the entire industry.

- Deep water exploration and production, particularly at the

frontiers of experience involve risks for which neither industry

nor government was prepared, but for which they can and must

be prepared for the future.

- To ensure human safety and environmental protection regulatory

oversight of leasing, energy exploration and production require

reforms even beyond those significant reforms already initiated

since the Deepwater Horizon Disaster. Fundamental reform will be

needed in both the structure of those in charge of regulatory

oversight and their internal decision making process to ensure

that care is taken of political autonomy, technical expertise, and

full consideration of environmental protection concerns.

- Because regulatory oversight will not be sufficient to ensure

adequate safety the oil and gas industry will need to take its own

unilateral steps to increase dramatically safety throughout,

including mechanisms that supplement government enforcement

63

- The technology laws and regulations and practices for continuing,

responding to and cleaning up spills lag behind the real risks

associated with deep water drilling into large high pressure

reservoirs of oil and gas located far off shore and thousands of

feet below the ocean surface. Government must close the existing

gap and industry must support rather than resist efforts.

- Scientific understanding of environmental conditions in sensitive

environments in deep Gulf waters along the regional coastal

habitats and in areas proposed for drilling such as the Arctic is

inadequate. The same is true of the natural and human impacts of

oil spills.

To these recommendations may be added another one. It is not enough

to consider the balance sheet or the rank of a company in giving rights

for oil exploration. A careful assessment needs to be made of the risk

management efforts of the company concerned.



Kishore Kumar*

The Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) concept is used as a tool for enabling ecosystem

based management, as well as providing a collaborative approach to resource

management in a transnational mode. The concept has been developed by the US

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), consistent with the

1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III, 1982). The LME-based

conservation is based on the recognition of coastal and marine degradation by

unsustainable resource exploitation, pollution, emerging diseases, and so a

positive action to mitigate them requires coordinated efforts by nations.

The Bay of Bengal LME is characterised by tropical climate and is situated in the

monsoon belt. The primary driving force in marine ecosystem is the threat from

both natural (climatic) and anthropogenic sources — be it monsoons, storm surges

or cyclones on the one hand, and rampant fishery activity and industrial and other

pollutants on the other. The concerns of ecosystem health are common throughout

the region — stress due to expanding coastal population, degradation of

mangroves, corals and other habitats that support fisheries, use of unsustainable

fishery gears, pollutants from agricultural pesticides and industrial wastes, and

heavy oil tanker traffic and resultant oil spills. The countries of the Bay of Bengal

region house over a quarter of the world population, calling for an urgent need for

conservation and ecosystem management which, in turn, requires coordinated

effort on the part of the countries, participation of local community and other

stakeholders, apart from those of the various international, regional and sub-

regional institutions operating in the region.

The Large marine ecosystems (LMEs) have been defined as the

entire expanse of ocean and coastal space that extend out to the

seaward boundary of continental shelves and the seaward

margins of coastal current systems. The large regions encompass

* Consultant, Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi.


Abstract


river basins and estuaries (wetlands) and other coastal habitat

(mangroves, coral reefs, sea grasses, etc.) that provide food and

shelter to myriad of organisms besides providing protection

against erosions and disasters. LMEs are extensive areas of ocean

space on the order of 2,00,000 sq. kms., or more, characterised

by distinct bathymetry (depth), hydrographic regimes (surveying

and charting of water bodies), submarine topography,

productivity and trophically (nutritionally) dependent 1populations. They are perhaps richest area in terms of

biodiversity and source of services provided to the humankind:

major resource base is fishery/aquaculture; hydrocarbons and

minerals; services like marine transport, including oil tankers;

coastal tourism (especially in islands); evolution of coastal mega

cities; and challenges like pollution, natural disasters and

pressure on existing resources. In other words, as an

organisational unit, the LME facilitates management and

governance strategies that recognise the ecosystem's numerous

biological and physical elements, and the complex dynamics

that exist amongst them.

Evolution of LME managementEcosystem management may have been subject to different

interpretations, but the underlying concept is similar to that of

the long-standing ethic of conservation. The most important

direct drivers of change in the marine ecosystem over the last 50

years have been fishing and related activities that have affected 2the structure, functions and biodiversity of the oceans.

However, the initial negotiations on environment and

sustainable development did not appreciate this factor, and

concentrated instead on shipping related pollutants as this

particular sector had been the major source of revenue for

developed nations.

rdThe 3 UN Conference on the Law of the Sea accorded

substantial attention to protection of marine environment. The

67Ecosystem Conservation and Management: The Concept of Large Marine Ecosystem

effects of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment

(1972) were clearly discernible, as also the attempt to implement

At the Caracas session of UNCLOS III, Maurice Strong, then Executive

Director of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), urged the

Conference to adopt standards and principles for the protection of

marine environment through competent international organisations

like the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisation

(IMCO), now the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). But a

number of countries, India, Egypt, Iran, Nigeria, etc., contended that

the coastal States, not the flag States, should have the primary

responsibility for protection against vessel source pollution of their 3marine environment. In other words, it would have to be

'environment self protection' wherein there would be national

standards for environment protection, not the one determined by the

IMO. This was again enforced in the EEZ doctrine wherein the littoral

countries had the responsibility of protecting their ocean and coastal

Fig. 1

UN Atlas of the OceansSource: www.oceansatlas.org

68

Fig. 2

The Bay of Bengal Large Marine EcosystemSource: www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/as.htm

This brought the focus on to land-based sources of pollution of the

coastal zone and the heightened concern on the part of coastal States.

Thus, mitigating the negative impacts of threats to the coastal/marine

areas and adopting management practices that sustain ecosystem

function and health became an international priority. On the

imploration on the part of coastal States to halt and reverse the

deteriorating condition of coastal areas, the International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the US National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) joined in an action programme

on planning and implementing an ecosystem based strategy, focused

on LMEs as the principal assessment and management units. In a

complementary exercise, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic

Commission (IOC) of UNESCO and its partners, the World Maritime

Organisation (WMO), the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) worked


through the coastal modules of the global ocean observing system

(GOOS) to develop ecosystem monitoring and forecasting methods to

be applied by coastal States.

Around the same time, developing coastal nations approached the

Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and its implementing agencies

UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank, and executing agencies like the UN

Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), for assistance to

restore and protect their coastal and marine ecosystems. The GEF

provided assistance within the framework of sustainable development,

with recommendation to use the LMEs and their contributing

freshwater basins for integrating changes in sectoral economic

activities. The two principal processes to engage the scientific

community of participating nations were: (a) Trans-boundary

Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) for establishing ecosystem based priorities

across national boundaries, and (b) Strategic Action Plan (SAP) to

jointly determine policy, legal and institutional reforms, and

investments needed to address the TDA priorities, as also adoption of

management regimes based on the concept of adaptive management 4for the ecosystem as a whole, not sectoral issues in isolation.

All this has been a result of the follow-up action to the UNCED

declarations (1992) on the declining state of global coastal ocean areas.

With the initiation of the Benguella Current, Yellow Sea, Baltic Sea

and the Guinea Current LME projects, 30 countries in Asia, Africa and

Eastern Europe made ministerial level commitments to ecosystem

based assessment and management practices. It was in support of the

objectives of Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 of the Earth Summit (UNCED,

1992), in order to assist 120 countries in operationalising the

ecosystem approach. The project includes several regions, from the

Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, through the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, 5to the Bay of Bengal and South China Sea.

Bay of Bengal LMEEcologists have studied and discussed the concept of ecosystem for

several decades, but applying the same to world's costs and oceans

required a proper definition of coastal zone, their characteristics,

resources therein, as well as their sustainability factor. As mentioned

earlier, the most important direct driver of change in the marine



ecosystem has been fishing activity, which affects the structure,

function and biodiversity of the oceans, especially the coastal zone.

The increasing interest in marine ecosystem management, thus,

stemmed from overexploitation of world fisheries and the perceived

need for broader perspectives in fisheries management in a holistic

manner which included its linkages with other aspects of

oceanography, e.g. sustainable yield, maintenance of biodiversity, and 6protection from the effects of pollution and habitat degradation.

In the mid-1980s, Kenneth Sherman of NOAA's Marine Fisheries

Service and Lewis Alexander of the University of Rhode Island

pioneered the LME concept. They recognised that large areas of ocean

work as ecosystem, and that overexploitation of marine resources,

together with pollution from air, land and water, influence their 7

productivity. Sherman and Alexander put the issue in perspective :

“The LME approach brings multidisciplinary marine

studies to bear on regional-scale concepts of resource

sustainability by examining the causes of variability in

the productivity of those regions around the margins of

the world's oceans from which 95% of the annual yields

of usable fisheries biomass is harvested. Emphasis is

placed on identification of the primary, secondary and

tertiary driving forces controlling the large scale

variability of biomass yields within and among LMEs”.

Earlier, ecosystem management approaches had failed to look beyond

individual sectors and political boundaries, and decisions were taken

in isolation. For instance, fish harvest decisions were made on a single

species basis, not recognising interactions among species, and

predator-prey or competitive relationships. Though some policy

makers/scientists would characterise individual ecosystems like the

Baltic Sea or the Gulf of Mexico, they stopped short of applying a

fully interdisciplinary approach to ocean ecosystems throughout the

world. On the other hand, they took up the challenge scale across

national boundaries, thus providing the basis of cooperation among

countries that shared the boundaries.

71

Sherman, Alexander and other scientists published a number of

scientific volumes, containing LME description and case studies. The

concrete programme started when Angola, Namibia and South Africa 8agreed to jointly study and manage the Benguela Current LME .

Thereafter, authorities responsible for coastal and marine resources

across Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean,

and Eastern Europe understood the implications of declining trends in

their natural resources and the marine ecosystem. The objective was

to implement strategies for reversing the decline in their marine

ecosystem, restoring the depleted biomass and conserving the

ecosystem for future generations. A number of countries prepared

proposals to improve their coastal health and restore depleted biomass

yields West Africa (Canary Current LME), east Africa (Somali and

Agulhas Current LMEs), Latin America (Gulf of Mexico, Humboldt

Current and Pacific Central American LMEs) and Asia (BOB LME).

The management methodology centered on productivity, fisheries,

pollution and ecosystem health, socio-economic and governance.

thThe Bay of Bengal (BOB) LME was the 34 out of the 64 LMEs

identified by the NOAA, UNEP, IOC and other international bodies.

The bay forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, resembling a

triangle, and bordered by India and Sri Lanka to the West, Bangladesh

and India's West Bengal to the north, and Myanmar, southern part of

Thailand and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands to the east. The

southern boundary extends as an imaginary line from Dondra Head at 9the southern end of Sri Lanka to the northern tip of Sumatra . The

area covered by the BOB is 2,172,000 sq. km., with 2,090 km length,

1,610 km width and an average depth of 2,600 metres (maximum

4,694 km).

The LME has certain characteristic features:

i) Tropical climate with severe monsoon and cyclones.

ii) Ecosystems like wetlands, marshes, mangroves, etc. play an

important role in overall productivity.

iii) Coastal areas serving as nursery grounds for commercially

viable species.



iv) Changing environment conditions influence currents,

productivity and coastal pollution.

v) A large part of population in the eight countries of BOB LME

depends on coastal resources for food and livelihood security

(over 400 million people living in the LME catchment area,

and many subsist at or below the poverty level).

vi) Many international, regional and sub-regional institutions

operate in the BOB, with similar and overlapping mandates.

Coastal ecosystemSince the coastal zone constitutes some of the world's most dynamic

and productive habitat, there have always been hectic human

activities in the area. The establishment of industries, ports, harbours,

tourism facilities, etc., has led to exponential growth of human

settlements along the coast. In addition, natural calamities, pollution

and devastation of natural habitat, have led to mounting ecological

pressure being put on the coastal environment. Some Critical factors

are:

i) Human population or manpower, which is our biggest strength,

has turned out, in the context of urbanisation, one of the biggest

threats to the environment, in conjunction with consumption

and pollution. By the year 2020, it is estimated that some of the

biggest cities will be in the BOB area Kolkata, Dhaka, Bangkok

and Jakarta. Added to that, land reclamation has further

aggravated the situation the Salt Lake City in Kolkata is the

prime example of low swamps and marshlands having been

dredged and filled, often at the detriment of civic amenities and 10coastal ecology.

ii) Coastal erosion takes largely during the months of June to

September when heavy surf and strong wave action takes away

part of the coast. A study by the Land Reclamation Project (LRP)

in Bangladesh has revealed that more than a thousand sq. km.

coastal land has been eroded in the Lower Meghna estuary. In Sri

Lanka, the most severe areas affected is the western and

southwestern coast of the 685 km of coastline, about 1,75,000 to

2,85,000 sq. metres of land is lost each year. The principal causes

of erosion are monsoon generated wave attacks, extraction of

73

sand and corals, and improperly sited buildings and maritime 11

structures.

iii) The growth of commercial activities, including infrastructure

development, in the coastal areas is due to transport advantages

(import/export) and the need for large quantities of water. The

resultant waste disposals, including discharge of highly toxic

material in the aquatic ecosystem and also oil spills, have

detrimental impacts on the coastal ecology. Toxic substances like

lead, mercury and cadmium enter the food chain of adjoining

population. On the other hand, shipping requires dredging of

channel and soil disposal, which affect the physical and

biological system in the area. Moreover, release of garbage and

ballast water from ships, along with pollution, anti-fouling paints 12and emissions, has severe impact on the marine ecosystem. The

IMO has adopted clear-cut guidelines against such pollution, but

each LME has to make its own institutional arrangements.

iv) The fishery sector is perhaps the strongest factor in the tropical

region of BOB that is well reflected in the catch composition.

Despite a steady rise in total landings, there are signs that the

harvest level may not be sustainable, especially with regard to

tuna fishing in the Maldives, Malaysia, Thailand's Andaman

coast and Sri Lanka. Heavy fishing through open access and

unauthorised incursion of foreign trawlers, conflicts between

artisanal and large scale fishermen, cyanide fishing in the LMEs

coral reefs, and pollution of mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs

(fish spawning and nursery areas) as well as coastal aquaculture

are major areas of concern. Most of the countries in the BOB

LME do not have adequate and appropriate policies, strategies

and measures for the sustainable management of fishery

resources. The Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP) is a regional

fisheries project executed by the UN's Food and Agricultural

Organisation (FAO) to promote, facilitate and secure long-term

development and utilisation of coastal fisheries, based on

responsible fishing practices and environmentally sound

management programmes. The ultimate aim of the programme is

to connect member countries, exchange their resources and

knowledge, to help the fisher folk in livelihood opportunities and 13

improve their quality of life.


v) For coastal biodiversity, the difficulty is that the river flow

towards the Bay of Bengal carry large amount of silts during the

monsoons not allowing the growth of corals, but mangroves grow

well. Not only these, even estuaries, lagoons, marshes, sandy

beaches and mudflats are severely threatened, in some areas

facing extinction, by logging operations, reclamation of swamps,

salt production and aquaculture. The waters off the Surabaya

coast in Indonesia show the existence of large volumes of

domestic and industrial waste, making it the second most

polluted coast after Jakarta Bay. A relatively weak control in the

eastern part of the archipelago makes it difficult to deal with

frequent violations like disposal of toxic/hazardous wastes and

trespassing in the catchment's zone almost 70% of coral reefs are

in degraded condition apart from fast depletion of mangrove

forests. Malaysia has also faced ecological problems like resource

depletion, destruction of natural habitat, beach erosion and

environmental degradation in Sabah, Sarawak and Pulau Pinang 14coastal areas.

vi) The destruction by tropical cyclones and storm surges in the Bay

of Bengal is ranked one of the foremost natural disasters,

surpassing even earthquakes. India's neighbouring countries like

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Arakan coast of Myanmar are

severely affected devastating storm surges in Bangladesh in

November 1970 and April 1991 left hundreds of thousands of

people dead, apart from destroying livestock and property. A

group of scientists in IIT (Delhi) has implemented a storm surge

model at the India Meteorological Department (IMD) to predict 15

direction and track of the storm. Continuous radio broadcasts,

network of weather radar and high resolution images from

satellites help predict the location of the next strike, thus helping

to take advance steps in suspending fishing activities, closing

ports and harbours, provision of shelter, stocking food and water,

and finally evacuation of population.

Institutional arrangementsThe ocean space is used more intensively today than a few decades

ago which has created new and significant source of pollution and

coastal degradation. The interplay of variety of elements, such as


75

geography, depth, temperature, water currents, coastal habitats,

nutrient influx and food chain, create the natural system which in

turn are affected by human interference. The world community took

cognisance of the deteriorating condition when the 1972 Stockholm

Conference on Human Environment referred to the menace of

pollution. The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS

III) indicates, in Part XII, the protection and preservation of the marine

environment, and measures to be taken to protect and preserve rare

and fragile ecosystems, as well as the habitats of depleted, threatened 16and endangered species, and other form of marine life.

By the time, the UN Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED, 1992) met in Rio; the need was felt for a more holistic

approach to ocean use management. The Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 of

UNCED was entitled, “Protection of Oceans, all kinds of Seas and the 17Protection, Rational Use and Development of their Living Resources.

The burden of proof shifted from those who seek to protect the

environment to those who maintain that some ocean use is not

harmful (hence, not to rest on the assimilative capacity of coastal

waters). Those Conventions and legislations, along with subject

specific conventions under the IMO, UNEP, etc., underlined the fact

that despite the pattern of national enclosure of the ocean space, the

need for international cooperation would be the imperative need.

Even before the Earth Summit (1992), countries in the BOB region

initiated a number of programmes to protect their marine and coastal

environment, along with passage of domestic legislations on the

subject. India released the Ocean Policy Statement (1981), Maritime

Regulation Zone (MRZ, 1976), Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ, 1991),

establishment of Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB

and SPCB) to identify land based pollutants, as well as initiation of

scientific projects like Integrated Coastal and Marine Area

Management (ICMAM, 1997-98) and Coastal Ocean Monitoring and

Prediction System (COMPAS) for monitoring critical habitats and

effects of anthropogenic activities. Even other countries like Indonesia,

Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have developed their own coastal zone

management programmes, with assistance from international bodies

like the UNEP, World Bank, ASEAN USAID, WWF, Danish

International Development Agency (DANIDA), and so on.



The need for regional and sub-regional cooperation arises mainly

because individual States face limitations in managing marine

resources on their own, as well as protecting their coastal/marine

environment. The UNEP had already taken the initiative with its

Regional Seas Programme, encompassing 18 marine regions and

participation by over 140 coastal States and territories, with Protocols

signed and ratified on pollution from land based sources, ocean 18

dumping and oil spill response. In the Bay of Bengal region, there

a l ready ex i s t in te rna t iona l , r eg iona l and sub- reg iona l

programmes/institutions like the Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission

(IOFC), Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), the Bay of Bengal

Programme (BOBP IGO), Bangladesh-India-Myanmar-Sri Lanka-

Thailand Economic Cooperation (BIMST-EC), the UN Economic and

Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), South Asian

Cooperative Environment Programme (SACEP), Indian Ocean Marine

Affairs Cooperation (IOMAC), and so on. But the most interesting and

productive development has been a recent partnership between the

Regional Seas Programme and the LME Project funded by the GEF to

bring about a more focused ecosystem based approach for the coastal

and marine environment.

ConclusionsThe ecosystem management for the coastal and marine areas adopts

an integrated and holistic approach covering both environmental and

socio-economic dimensions. The scale of operation and level of

management may vary with respect to geographical scale, but the

objective is basically similar, i.e. addressing crosscutting

environmental and sustainable development issues worldwide.

Although, to date, the BOB LME projects have tended to be at the

level of studies and projects, focusing on exploration and planning,

the real task is to move them to actual implementation. Also, the

initiatives focusing on pilot projects on estuaries and small areas of

the coast should be scaled up to national efforts on integrated coastal

zone management.

References

1. Sherman, Kenneth, 1991. The Large Marine Ecosystem Concept:

Research and Management Strategy for Living Marine Resources,

Ecological Applications, Vol. 1, No. 4, November. 349.

2. UNESCO, The Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts and Islands,

Reports from the Third Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts and

Islands, Paris, January. 23-28.

3. Jude, Lawrence, 1996. International Law and Ocean Use

Management, Routledge. 33.

4. See, http://www.edc.uri.edu/lme/intro.htm

5. UNESCO, n.2; see also, http://www.oceansatlas.org

6. See, http://www.springerlink.com…t820u5w66t8v.3853

7. Sherman, Kenneth and L.M. Alexander, 1993. Large Marine

Ecosystems: Stress, Mitigation and Sustainability, Washington

D.C., American Association for the Advancement of Science

(AAAS) Press. 301-19.

8. See, http://noaa.gov/ecosystem.html

9. See, “LME 34: Bay of Bengal”, http://na.nefsc.noaa/lme34.htm

10. Ravichandran, V., “Land Use and Land Cover Changes in the

Coastal Region: Need for an Integrated Approach”, in

http://csdngo.igc.org/agriculture

11. Qasim, S.Z., 1999. Coastal Erosion and Its Protection, Journal of

Indian Ocean Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1, November. 69-73; on

Bangladesh : Integrated Coastal Zone Management in

Bangladesh. A Policy Review, http://www.leeds.ac.uk /

cwpd/pdf/Biczmweb.pdf; on Sri Lanka, Seneviratne, Chandana,

“Coastal Zone Management in Sri Lanka: Current Issues and

Management Strategies”, in http://servesrilanka.blogspot.com /

coastal-zone-management-in-Sri-Lanka.htm

12. Kelkar, Captain Ravi, 2001. Protection of Environment at Sea.

Seagull (Pune), Vol. 6, No. 24, February-April. 33-34.

13. See, http://www.bobpigo.org/aboutbobp.htm; see also “LME 34: Bay

of Bengal”, n.9.

14. On Indonesia : Indonesia ICM Country Profile, http://www.

globaloceans/org/country; on Malaysia : ibid, “Malaysia ICM

Country Profile.

2006.


15. Rao, A.D. and Dube, S.K. Marine Hazards: Impact on

Coastal Inhabitants, SIOS Occasional Paper 3, New Delhi. 24-25.

16. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED),

1987. Our Common Future, Oxford University Press. 62-65.

17. For Indian programme on coastal management, see Department of

Ocean Development, Annual Report, New Delhi, 2006-07; for

other countries, see n. 11, 14.

18. UNESCO, n.2, p.3; see also “LME 34: Bay of Bengal”, n.9.

2001.


Effect of Probiotics on Growth Performance of Juvenile Brown Marbled Grouper

1 1Mithun Sukumaran , Pradeep Padmaja Jayaprasad , 1 1Thekkeparambil Chandrabose Srijaya , Anuar Hassan , Mohammad

2 3 1Effendy Abdul Wahid , Zainudin Bachok and Anil Chatterji

Growth performance of the juvenile Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) upon dietary supplementation of probiotics for 90 days was successfully done. Different feeds incorporated at a ratio of 106 CFU/g feed with Brevibacterium sp. (BS) in Feed-B; Photobacterium damselae (PD) in Feed-C; Staphylococcus sp. (SS) in Feed-D; Feed-E with all three microbes (BS+PD+SS) and Control Feed-A without probiotics were tested. The growth performance including SGR, RGR and FCR were significantly different (P<0.05) with the probiotic fed fishes. The maximum percentage increments in body weight compared to control treatment were; 13.03, 21.01 and 30.05 and 34.04% with Feed-B, C, D and E, respectively. Nutritional evaluation of the microbes showed saturated fatty acid (FA) highest in PD (57.0%), branched FA with 10.6% and monounsaturated FA with 34.5% highest in BS, while polyunsaturated FA with 22.6% and other FA with 27.2% were highest in SP, showing their promising applications in the field of aquaculture.

IntroductionAquaculture activity requires better quality feeds with higher protein

contents, which would contain not only necessary nutrients but also

complementary additives to keep the organism healthy with better

growth. Some of the most utilised growth-promoting additives in

artificial feed include hormones, antibiotics, ionophores and different

salts Fuller, 1992; Klaenhammer and Kullen, 1999). Though these

1 Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu.2 Institute of Marine Biotechnology, University Malaysia Terengganu.3 Institute of Oceanography, University Malaysia Terengganu.


Abstract

Keywords: probiotics, Epinephelus fuscoguttatus, growth performance, Blood glucose, Fatty acid

additives do promote growth, their improper use can sometimes result

in adverse effects in the fish and the final consumer (Lara-Flores et al.

2003).

Alternatives for the antibiotics have evolved in different forms of

microorganisms in the live and particulate form, and they are known

as 'Probiotics'. Considering the performance of probiotics, the

application of such micro-organisms in aquaculture as the

environmentally friendly technology has been increasing rapidly

(Gatesoupe, 1999, 2002, 2007; Suzer, et. al. 2008; Merrifield, et. al.

2009). Few studies clearly demonstrated that the application of

probiotic helped in improving the intestinal microbial balance that led

to improved food absorption (Lara-Flores, et. al. 2003; Venkat et al.

2004; Carnevali, et. al. 2006; El-Haroun, et. al. 2006; Yanbo, 2007;

Merrifield et al. 2009; Saenz de Rodriganez, et. al. 2009), digestive

enzymes activities (Tovar-Ramirez et al. 2004) and reduction in

pathogenic problems associated with gastro-intestinal tract (Cole and

Fuller 1984; Goren et al. 1984).

Brown marbled grouper (BMG), Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal,

1775) besides their acceptability as an expensive food fish, their

commercial production could not meet its growing market demands

due to their poor survival rate of the larvae under the hatchery

conditions (Fukuda, et. al. 1999), slow growth rate and several disease

problems (Subramaniam, 1999; Seng, 2001; Pomeroy, et. al. 2002).

According to Marte (1999), development of a commercial diet for

grouper was a requisite for the challenges raised to the matter of

sustainability of the species. In the present research an effort was

made with a prime aim to improve growth rate and shortening the

culture period of BMG by using biological active agents (probiotics)

incorporated with the commercial feed.

Materials and methodsIsolation and identification of bacteriaMicrobiota associated with the gut of the brown marbled grouper

(BMG) collected from wild (12 fishes) was isolated as per the methods

described by Carnevali, et. al. (2004). These microbes were stocked in

the Disease Laboratory of the Institute of Tropical Aquaculture,

University Malaysia Terengganu. Among the different microbes


associated with gut, Brevibacterium sp. (BS), Photobacterium damselae

(PD) and Staphylococcus sp. (SS) were identified using 16S rDNA

method and selected for the current study.

Feed preparationThe broth with three strains of microbes was incubated in 200 ml

disposable centrifuge tubes for 48-72 hours in an incubating shaker omaintaining a temperature of 37 C and speed 120 rpm. The broth was

othen dispensed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 25 minutes at 4 C.

At first the commercial pellets (Asean, Taiwan) were powdered and 6

mixed with three different strains of microbes (approximately 10

CFU/g) as described by Carnevali, et. al. (2006). The pellets with

required size were made using a pelletiser that was fitted with a size

adjustable eluter. Four feeds namely; Feed-B (BP); Feed-C (PD); Feed-D

(SP) and Feed-E with a mixture three selected probionts such BP, PD

and SP (BPS) and a control without any probiont as Feed-A were

prepared. The protein, fat, ash, moisture and fibre contents of the

different feeds were approximately 43, 6, 16, 3 and 11% respectively.

The pellets incorporated with different microbes were stored oseparately in a refrigerator at 4 C for further use.

Experiment fishesFishes for the present experiment was obtained from a Marine Fin Fish

Research Institute (MFFRI), Tanjung Demong, Kuala Besut, Malaysia.

The juveniles of the fish ranging in size from 2.5-3 cm with average

weight of 1.09+0.2 g were taken for the experiment. Weighed

juveniles were introduced into the experimental tanks and kept for

acclimatization for 7 days before the commencement of the

experiment. Control diet without any probiotics was fed to fishes

during the acclimatization period.

Experimental setupTriplicate of five groups with 12 fish in each tank (100 l) were

maintained for 90 days in the present experiment. The fishes were fed

with 3% of their body weight with an increase of 1% feed every 30 st th

days (fed till satiation) to reach 5% of the ration from 61 till 90 day

of the experiment. This process of feeding schedule was followed to

avoid cannibalism among the fishes. The weighed feeds were given

three times a day at 0800, 1300 and 1900 hrs. Unfed feed was

81Effect of Probiotics on Growth Performance of Juvenile Brown Marbled Grouper

collected everyday (1 hr after each feeding time) by siphoning the ounfed feed on a filter paper. The unfed feed was dried at 60 C in an

oven and weighed. Partial flow through with UV treated water for 3

hrs per day was given to the experimental tanks. However, a full time

recirculation of water at the rate of ~3000 l/hr was maintained after

filtering the water through a cotton filter. The cotton filters were

frequently cleaned and sun dried prior to use to avoid the

proliferation of opportunistic microbes. Water quality assessment was

monitored regularly to maintain uniformity in environmental o parameters. Dissolved oxygen (mg/l), salinity (ppt), temperature ( C)

and pH were measured by YSI 556 MPS (Yellow springs, Ohio 45387,

USA).

Growth performanceThe growth of fishes was checked at the interval of every 30 days.

thTotal weight of the juveniles per tank was recorded at first on the 30

day. Thereafter fishes were weighed individually (absolute weight) to th thassess the wet weights on 60 and 90 days of the experiment. The

growth performance with respect to weight gain, feeding rate, relative

growth rate (RGR), specific growth rate (SGR), food conversion ratio

(FCR) and percent increment were calculated as per the reports of

Chatterji, 1976, Palanivelu, et. al. 2005 and Zhou, et. al. 2008.

Weight gain (g) = Final weight (g) - Initial weight (g), Feeding rate =

Total food consumed (g) / (Number of days x initial weight of fish),

Relative growth rate, RGR (%) = (Weight gain / Final weight of the

fish) x 100, Specific growth rate, SGR (%) = [ln (final weight in g) ln

(Initial weight in g) / (T T )] x 100, where, T and T are the time of 2 1 1 2

observations. Food Conversion Ratio, FCR = [Total food consumed

(Total feed casting Total feed residue)] / Total weight gain of the fish

(g). Percentage increment (growth) with respect to control, %

increment = [(Difference of body weight of control and Experiment

fishes) / Body weight of Control fishes] x 100.

Blood Glucose levelthAt the 90 day, a sterile surgical blade was used to make a small

incision at the caudal vein to collect a drop of blood onto a glucose

check strip (Accutrend Glucose). The blood glucose level (mg/dl) was

checked by a hand held glucometer (Accutrend GCT Roche, Germany).


Triplicate samples were taken from each group for the measurement of

blood glucose level.

Nutritional composition of probiontsThe protein content of the three probionts was estimated following the

standard methods of Bradford (1976), as per the prescriptions of

commercial kit (Bio-Rad Protein Assay Dye Reagent concentrate, 500-

00006). The absorbance was measured at 595 nm on plate reader

(Thermo Electron Corporation, Multi scan Ascent) and the percentage

protein content was expressed in AM+SD. One step method as

described by Abdulkadir and Tsuchiya (2008) combining the

extraction and esterification processes were used for the estimation of

fatty acid. Briefly, nonadecanoic acid (19:0) was used as the internal

standard. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were separated and

quantified using a gas chromatograph (GC Flame Ionization Detector,

Agilent Technologies, 680N) with FFAP-polar capillary column (30 x

0.25 m; 0.15 µm internal diameter) and helium as carrier gas.

Quantitative (expressed as percentage) and composition of individual

fatty acids were calculated by comparing the peak area of each fatty

acid with the total peak area of all fatty acids in the sample. Data were

presented as concentration (mg/g) and percentage of individual fatty

acids.

Growth performance and feed utilization efficiency parameters were

statistically compared using one-way ANOVA (P<0.05), and

differences among means were identified using 'tuckey's test' for

comparison. Analysis was carried out with OriginPro 7.0 version

computer statistical analysis software.

ResultsWater quality did not show any significant difference between and

within the different groups of fishes fed with different probiotics

incorporated diets. The dissolved oxygen, water temperature, pH and osalinity were in the range of 6.26+0.41 mg/ml; 27.92+0.52 C,

7.78+0.15 and 32.77+0.63 ppt, respectively.

Growth performanceIn all the sets of experiment, the survival of fishes was 100%. The

increase in average body weights in fishes for all groups for 90 days

(at 30 days interval) experiment is presented in Figure 1. The


84 Journal of Coastal Enviornment

maximum weight attained by the juveniles was with Feed-E

(11.42+0.22 g), however, the control Feed-A showed only 8.52+0.21 g that 90 day. Similarly, maximum average increase in weight gain

th(34.04%) was recorded with the combined feed (Feed-E) after 90 day

as compared to the control feed (Feed-A). The increase in growth was

13.03, 21.01 and 30.05% with Feed-B, Feed-C and Feed-D, respectively.

Feeding rate, SGR, RGR and FCR showed significant differences

(P<0.05) after 90 days experiment (Table 1). Compared to the control

group, the feed incorporated with probiotics showed better FCR

whereas, the minimum value was obtained for Feed-D.

Growth performance of the juveniles of BMG using different probiotic incorporated diets. (The data is presented in arithmetic mean+standard

a, bdeviation; significantly different from the control at P<0.05 and 0.005, respectively.

0 1.03+0.02 - - - -

30 3.26+0.10 2.23+0.11 16.87+1.49 68.38+1.45 3.84+0.15

A 60 6.70+0.13 3.43+0.08 33.39+1.66 51.31+0.89 2.40+0.06 1.77+0.03

90 8.52+0.21 1.83+0.24 47.00+0.22 21.43+2.40 0.80+0.10

0 1.10+0.02 - - - -

30 3.52+0.10 2.42+0.08 17.55+0.92 68.75+0.52 3.88+0.05

aB 60 7.37+0.14 3.85+0.04 33.03+0.31 52.26+0.55 2.46+0.04 1.67+0.14

a90 9.63+0.62 2.25+0.72 46.22+0.54 23.15+6.19 0.88+0.26

0 1.03+0.04 - - - -

a a a30 3.72+0.11 2.69+0.12 16.45+1.01 72.28+1.38 4.28+0.17

aC 60 7.97+0.11 3.85+0.04 33.96+1.98 53.30+1.01 2.54+0.07 1.66+0.13

b90 10.31+0.23 2.25+0.72 46.48+1.45 22.70+2.60 0.86+0.11

0 1.05+0.04 - - - -

a b a30 3.94+0.17 2.89+0.14 15.91+1.21 73.34+0.93 4.41+0.12

a aD 60 8.37+0.20 4.43+0.04 33.08+0.86 52.91+0.90 2.51+0.06 1.59+0.05

b90 11.09+0.25 2.73+0.36 46.03+0.94 24.56+2.82 0.94+0.12

0 1.10+0.00 - - - -

a b a30 4.04+0.07 2.94+0.07 17.10+0.68 72.77+0.50 4.34+0.06

a b bE 60 8.60+0.20 4.56+0.27 34.39+0.97 53.02+1.87 2.52+0.13 1.66+0.02

b a90 11.42+0.22 2.81+0.05 47.98+0.24 24.65+0.43 0.94+0.02

Table 1

Feed Days Absolute weight

(g)

Weight gain(g)

Feeding rate-1(mg fish

-1day )

Relative growth rate (RGR) (%)

Specific growth rate (SGR) (%)

FCR

85

Fig. 1

A comparison of feeds incorporated with different probionts during 90 days of experiment. (a: P<0.05; b: P<0.005)

Blood glucoseThere was no significant change (P>0.05) with the blood glucose level

in fishes fed with probiotics and the control group. The mean blood

glucose levels were; 4.53+0.3, 4.54+0.5, 4.55+0.5 and 4.55+0.4 mg/dl

for Feed-B, Feed-C, Feed-D and Feed-E, respectively. However, the

control group (Feed-C) showed values of 4.55+0.2 mg/dl which was

not significantly different than the other feeds used with probionts.

Nutritional composition of probiontsThe probionts showed 0.037, 0.132 and 0.05 % protein content with

the BS, PD and SS, respectively. Individual fatty acid concentrations

of the three selected probionts obtained by one-step method are

presented in Table 2. As many as 18 fatty acids (FA) were identified

from the three probionts, where the predominant ones were saturated -1

fatty acids (SFA). The presence of C15:0 (15.14+3.64 mg g ) and C17:1 -1

(13.89+2.99 mg g ) in large quantities was observed in BS, while 17:1 -1 -1

(13.895+2.99 mg g ) and 15:0 (15.14+ 3.64 mg g ) with PD and 12:0 -1

(0.645+0.35 mg g ) with SS, respectively.



Table 2

BSFatty Acids

PD SS

-1Fatty acid in Bacteria (mg g )

Fatty acid composition (mg g-1) of probionts (dry weight)

Saturated

8:0 0.18+0.01 0.89+0.67 0.28+0.26

10:0 0.10+0.06 0.15+0.17 0.04+0.03

11:0 0.12+0.02 - -

12:0 0.31+0.14 1.26+1.52 0.65+0.35

14:0 - 1.93+1.29 -

15:0 15.14+3.64 - -

17:0 - 9.18+7.15 1.57+0.42

18:0 - 4.19+3.43 -

21:0 0.160 - -

Branched

15:0 iso - 0.58+0.29 0.05+0.01

15:0 anteiso - 0.51+0.49 0.09+0.02

16:0 iso 2.36+0.43 - -

16:0 anteiso 2.08+0.32 - -

Monounsaturated

14:1 0.57+0.18 - 0.42+0.11

17:1 13.90+2.99 - -

Polyunsaturated

18:3n3 - 4.46+3.51 1.15+0.06

18:3n6 0.49 - -

20:5n3 - 0.69+0.37 0.24

Unidentified 6.52 7.08 0.88

Twelve different types of fatty acids were identified from BS, while 11

and 10 types from PD and SS, respectively. Fatty acids such as 11:0

(undecanoic acid), 21:0 (heneeicosanoic acid), 16:0 iso, 16:0 anteiso,

87

17:1 (heptadecenoic acid) and 18:3n6 (gammalinolenic acid) were

present in BS. Octanoic acid (8:0), 10:0 (decanoic acid) and 12:0

(dodecanoic acid) were present in all the three probionts. While, 14:0

(tetradecanoic acid) and 18:0 (octadecanoic acid) were present only in

PD. 17:0 (heptadecanoic acid), 15:0 iso, 15:0 anteiso, 18:3n3

(alphalinolenic acid, ALA) and 20:5n3 (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA)

were present in PD.

Fatty acid class concentration (%) is shown in Figure 2. High

concentration of SFA was reported in all the three probionts.

Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) was not detected in PD. The

method also categorised unidentified fatty acids as other fatty acids

(OFA). Among all the fatty acids, SFA was the highest in PD (56.92%).

Branched fatty acid (BRFA) with 10.59% and MUFA with 34.49% were

highest in BS while, polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and OFA in SS

with 22.63 and 27.20 %, respectively.

Fig. 2

Fatty acid class composition (expressed as % of total FA content) in three different probionts. SFA: Saturated fatty acids, BRFA: Branched fatty acid, MUFA: Monounsaturated fatty acid, PUFA: Polyunsaturated fatty acid and OFA: Other fatty acid).


88 Journal of Coastal Envrionment

DiscussionFood utilization is an important factor governing the growth and

reproduction of animals which is affected by various environmental

and biological factors (Arunachalam, et al. 1985; Palanichamy, et al.

1985 a and b; Palanivelu, et al. 2005). In the present study food

utilization parameter in E. fuscoguttatus has been studied in detail

with reference to the effect of probiotics incorporated in control diets

for a period of 90 days. The results of this present study indicated that

the incorporation of probiotics in commercial feed had improved the

growth performances of BMG. It has also been supported by the

reports of Irianto and Austin (2002) that showed the presence of gut

associated probionts in the wild fishes when incorporated in feed

helping better growth performance. Better growth performance by the

probiotic supplementation through diets was shown by many species

(Yanbo and Zirong, 2006; Daud and Alimon, 2007; Yanbo, 2007;

Merrifield, et. al. 2009; Saenz de Rodriganez, et. al. 2009).

The pathogenic effect is a prime concern while selecting a 'probiotic'

(FAO 2002). The species related to the selected probionts of the

current study has been reported for their pathogenic effects in some

fishes (Grin'ko, et. al. 2009; Jiin-Ju, et. al. 2009; Knox et al. 2005).

Though they are treated as pathogens, reports are also available on the

usage of similar strains as probiotics such as Brevibacterium sp.

(Reddy, et. al. 2003; Shkoporov et al. 2008). Hitherto, there is no

report available on the probiotic applications of Photobacterium

damselae and Staphylococcus spp. Since no mortality and symptoms

of disease was recorded during the experimental duration, it has

proven the safety of the microbes on the host's health.

In the present study the difference in feed intake with different feeds

could be related with the food selection as it has been observed by

Heath (1987). Our results clearly indicated that the performance of

growth in E. fuscoguttatus which was directly related with different

species of probionts as observed in common carps by Yanbo and

Zirong (2006). The best FCR values were observed with feed

incorporated with probiotics which suggested that the addition of

probiotics has improved feed consumption (Lara-Flores, et. al. 2003;

Yanbo and Zirong, 2006). Our studies clearly showed that though the

intake of feed incorporated with probiotic was not different than the

89

control diet, however, the growth performance of fishes were better in

all probiotic fed groups. A low requirement of such feeds necessary

for fish growth will certainly help in reducing the production cost. A

similar observation has been done by Ringo and Gatesoupe (1998)

where a significant improvement in the biological value of the diets

supplemented with probiotics was reported. Yanbo and Zirong (2006)

concluded that the feed incorporated with probiotics showed a high

increase in growth performance and a significant decrease in FCR

which supports the current results.

Several equations have been evolved in order to describe the growth

of the fish since many species of fishes have been found to follow

different growth patterns. In the present study RGR and SGR values

were the maximum with Feed-D followed by Feed-E. Yanbo and Zirong

(2006) also observed that the feed containing mixed probiotics showed

better RGR and SGR as compared to the control group in common

carp.

The biochemical studies accompanying probiotic applications is a

requisite to prove the health of the fish and also to compare the health

of the control fed fishes with this group of fishes. The current

experiment showed no significant difference in blood glucose level

between the treated and control group of fishes. According to El-

Rhman, et. al. (2009) an increase in blood glucose level with probiotic

exposure is an indication of the stress and could be a chance of

pathogenecity of the microbe administered to the fish. The usage of

microbes selected in the present experiment could be thus considered

as potential probionts in aquaculture, especially for E. fuscoguttatus.

From a nutritional point of view and in agreement with the data of

Shelby, et. al. (2006), the present results revealed that the use of the

probiotic microbes as a feed additive for BMG is strongly

recommended to stimulate productive growth performance and

nutrient utilization. The nutritional composition of the microbes

especially with high presence of fatty acid and protein content was an

additional remark to be considered as probiotics. The effect of highly

unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) on the growth performance of the

fishes has been reported earlier (Schauer, et. al. 1980; Wilson, 1991;

Watanabe and Kiron, 1994; Izquierdo, 1996; Sargent, et. al. 1999;


Izquierdo, et. al. 2000; Huynh and Kitts 2009). The presence of

heptadecanoic (17:0), branched (15:0) iso and anteiso, EPA, ALA with

PD and SS is an additional remark as a probiotic and could have been

the reason for the better growth performance of the fishes fed with

incorporated microbes (Kastel, et. al. 2007). The influence of PUFAs

on teleost physiology has been reported by Sorbera, et. al. 1998, 2001;

Bruce et al. 1999.

Feed utilization was the highest in BMG fed with mixture of

probiotics-supplemented diets that showed the nutrients were more

efficiently used for growth performance. The addition of probiotics

will certainly be reduced the culture cost as evident from the present

study where it has been clearly demonstrated that the probiotics

incorporated feeds enhances the growth performance and better feed

utilization in fishes. Further researches should be required to detect

the mode of action of probiotics, their genetic expression on growth

and immune response.

AcknowledgementsThe authors are grateful to Prof. Faizah Shaharom, Director, Institute

of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu, for

providing necessary laboratory facilities. The authors (MS, STC and

PPJ) would also like to thank Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia

for providing graduate research fellowships. One of the authors (AC) is

grateful to UMT for providing Principal Research Fellowship. The

study is a part of a project supported by the Fundamental Research

Grant Scheme of Ministry of Science and Technology (MOSTI),

Government of Malaysia (Vote No: 59120).

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Environmental Control over the Distribution of Foraminiferan Assemblages

at the Kuantan Mangrove Ecosystem

Mohd-Lokman Husain*, Sulong Ibrahim, Zainuddin Bachok and Ravindran Chandran

A study was conducted at Kuantan mangrove areas in Pahang in Malaysia to determine the distribution of foraminiferan assemblage with relation to environmental parameters such as sediment texture, elevation, salinity, pH and total organic carbon. The distribution of benthic foraminifera was evaluated by analysing the surface sediment samples collected along 3 transects. In addition, core sediments were also collected to determine the changes in foraminiferan distribution with depth using univariate and multivariate data analysis performed by using Canoco 4.5 and PRIMER v.6 statistical packages. Overall there were 25 foraminiferan species in the surface sediments. Most of the foraminiferan species were agglutinated type. Arenoparella mexicana and Miliammina fusca were the most dominant species at Kuantan mangrove sites. Further analysis using cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) showed that there were 2 main similar based associations and 2 sub-associations. The two main associations were Arenoparella mexicana / Miliammina fusca/ Haplophragmoides wilberti in Kuantan mangrove. The 2 sub-associations were Haplophragmoides wilberti/ Miliammina fusca / Trochammina hadai sub-association and Arenoparella Mexicana / Miliammina fusca sub-association in Kuantan mangrove. All associations those were found in Kuantan mangrove areas are new record for the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia mangrove ecosystem. The correlation between the environmental parameters with the foraminiferan distribution showed that total organic carbon content, vegetation, sediment texture, and elevation were the most influential factors in this study area. However, pH and salinity exerted less influence on the distribution of foraminifera comparatively.

IntroductionForaminifera are unicellular testate marine organism with a long

stratigraphic history (Loeblich and Tappan, 1964; Scott and Medioli,

* Professor, Institute of Oceanography, University Malaysia Terengganu.


Abstract


1986). Generally, foraminifera are marine animals with few brackish or

even fresh water species. Foraminifera are single-celled animals which

belong to the protozoa group. A number of foraminiferans developed

shell made of calcareous material secreted by the animal itself,

agglutinated foreign material or chitin (Cushman, 1948). Even though

foraminifera exclusively unicellular but it can function as

multicellular animals. Foraminifera can eat, defecate, grow, move,

reproduce and respond to variety of stimuli. This is because

foraminifera and other protists occupy sub-cellular components as

organelles to perform these various function. There are two broad

morphological features which distinguished the foraminifera from

other protists which is granulo-reticulopodia and the test (Sen Gupta,

1999). Foraminifera have planktonic and benthonic modes of life.

Studies on meiofauna in mangrove ecosystem started in the early 70's

focusing on the description of new species (Gerlach, 1957) and

changes of macroepifauna species composition with tidal height

(Macnae and Kalk, 1962). These studies have not specifically focused

on benthic foraminifera. The same situation occurred in Malaysia

where the information on the foraminifera or researcher who involves

on foraminifera studies especially in mangrove area are very limited

(Alongi and Sasekumar, 1992; Lokman, et. al., 2008). Therefore, the

present paper aimed addressing the distribution of foraminifera in

Kuantan on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. In addition,

relationship between foraminifer's species and environment (sediment)

was also studied to identify the factors controlling their diversity and

distribution.

MethodologyStudy areaThe Kuantan mangrove forest situated on the east coast of Peninsular

Malaysia is facing the South China Sea. The area falls in the

administrative districts of Pahang (Lat: 3º46'-3º48'N and Long:103º17'-

103º20'E) as shown in Figure 1. The Kuantan mangrove habitat is

dominated by Avicennia alba, Rhizophara apiculata and Bruguiera

gymnorrhiza. The other species with low abundance are namely;

Xylocarpus granatum, Eucalyptus apiculata, Sonneratia caseolaris,

Bruguiera sexangula, and Bruguiera parviflora.

Sediment sample collection and analysisAt each transect, the surface sediment sample (10 cm² areas and 1 cm thickness) (in triplicates) was collected at 10 m intervals during low tide with the help of hand shovel. The samples were transferred in polythene sample bags and labelled. The samples were then washed within 36 hours of its collection. The sieving of the sediment sample was done by a set of sieves (63-600 µm mesh size). The residues from the small sieve were kept in a liquid suspension of formalin/Rose Bengal mixture for staining and preservation of foraminifera. The samples were then poured into Petri dish in the laboratory and the specimens (living and empty tests) were identified and counted (total count) separately under a binocular microscope under wet medium. Those samples with high number of specimens were split using a plankton splitter (Scott et al., 1996) and counted separately. The core sediment samples were collected from one place along each transect either at marsh edge, middle or back mangrove zone. The D-section corer was used to collect the core sediment (1 m length x 2 cm diameter). The samples then wrapped in plastic bags, labelled and brought to laboratory for species identification and down-core variation. At each sampling site, the elevation (MSL) was measured by a TOPCON theodolite surveying instrument. The elevation was

Study area of Kuantan Mangrove Ecosystem on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Round Label Indicates the Sampling Location)

99Environmental Control over the Distribution of Foraminiferan Assemblages at the Kuantan Mangrove Ecosystem

Fig. 1


measured along each transect with 10 m intervals at the sediments sample collection point. A separate portion of sediments (~250 g) was collected from each sampling for sand, clay and silt ratio in order to determine the sediment texture. The sediment was analyzed by applying initial (wet) sieving methods (Mesh No.240, British Standard) and followed by pipette analysis as described by Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938). To determine the percentages of total organic carbon (TOC) in sediment sample, the oxidation dichromate acid technique were used (Holme and McIntyre, 1971).

Multivariate analysisMultivariate analysis consisted of cluster analysis (CA),

multidimensional scaling analysis (MDS) and correspondence analysis

(CA). The cluster analysis was used as a matrix of similarity

coefficients computed between every pair of samples to construct a

dendrogram. This method was suitable to use in samples which were

expected to fall into natural groups. The ordination was more

appropriate for the faunal pattern that was related to a more

continuous environmental gradient (Clarke and Warwick, 1994).

Species richness (d') (Margalef, 1958), species diversity (H') (Shannon

and Weaver, 1949) and evenness (J') (Pielou, 1977) were the indices

used for species diversity. These indices were calculated using

standard protocols. Multidimensional scaling plot showed the samples

on a two-dimensional 'map' with the distances between samples

matching the rank of similarities from the similarity matrix. ''Stress

coefficient'' that was a measure of the extent to which the two sets of

ranks did not agree which determined the success of the plot. Ideally

stress showed <0.1 for a good ordination (Clarke and Warwick, 1994).

Cluster analysis and MDS often showed similar groupings whereas

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used to determine the

correlation between environmental variables and faunal community

(CANOCO for windows v.4.5) (ter Braak and Smilauer, 2002).

Results and Discussion

Species Abundance and DistributionA total number of 25 species of foraminifer were encountered from 99

sediment samples collected at Kuantan. Miliammina fusca (2232-6416 3individuals/10 cm ), and Arenoparella mexicana (2720-8272

3individuals/10 cm ) were the dominate species at the Kuantan

101

mangrove habitat (Table 1). The subdominant species were; 3

Haplophragmoides wilberti (408-1448 individuals/10 cm ) and 3Trochammina hadai (40-2984 individuals/10 cm ). The density of

foraminifera in Kuantan mangrove was low compared to Kapar and

Matang which are the largest mangrove forest in Peninsular Malaysia

in West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The sampling location was the

main reason for the lower density of foraminifera in this mangrove

sites as compared to Kapar and matang as reported by Lokman, et. al.

(2008). The Matang mangrove alone covers 40,000 hectares (about 154

square miles). It is also a best example of a sustainably managed

mangrove forest. The diverse vegetation presence may influence

foraminiferal production by helping in maintaining the moisture levels

and mitigating the environmental variability experienced by

specimens during tidal fluctuations (Steinker and Butcher, 1981;

Duchemin, et. al., 2005; Berkley, et. al., 2007). The low abundance of

the foraminifera within Kuantan mangrove might be due to high

sedimentation rate of the environment and its effect in concentrating

foraminifera. According Carricker (1967), muddier sediment tends to

contain higher density of microfauna than sandier sediments. This is

because muddy sediment contains higher organic content (Hayward et

al., 1999). Comparatively among transects at Kuantan mangrove area,

transect 3 (5880 individuals) have lower abundance of foraminifera as

compared to transect 1 (18728 individuals) and 2 (18024 individuals).

Flooding frequency might be the reason as transect 3 falls in lower

estuary while transect 1 and 2 in upper estuarine areas. The runoff

and discharge of water might be inundated daily the transect 3

washing away surface benthic foraminifera.

Foraminifera species abundance and diversity indices at Kuantan

Diversity Index Transect-1 Transect-2 Transect-3

No. of species 4-14 4-13 3-8

Numerical abundance 408-2944 464-3136 424-696-3(ind 10 cm )

Margalef (d') 0.493-1.709 0.485-1.491 0.331-1.088

Shannon-Weaver (H') 1.241-1.893 0.8301-1.614 0.755-1.369

Evenness (J') 0.647-0.895 0.380-0.752 0.521-0.851

Table 1

Environmental Control over the Distribution of Foraminiferan Assemblages at the Kuantan Mangrove Ecosystem

Sediment CharacteristicsOverall the sediment texture in Kuantan mangrove could be classified

as silt loam as shown in Table 2. This is because the mean particle

size at Kuantan (Table 2) indicated that the sediments are

predominantly of silt loam in nature (silt: 70%, sand: 20%, clay: 10%)

However pH, salinity and total organic carbon did not vary much at

all sampling station. The pH was ranged between 5 and 8 where the

marsh edge or front mangrove showed high value of pH as compared

to back mangrove zone. There was less crab mound and burrows in

back mangrove as compared to front mangrove. Moreover, the low pH

was also due to high bacterial activity, poor quality of inorganic matter

and translocation of oxygen by mangrove trees (Alongi and Sasekumar,

1992; Lokman, et. al., 2008).

The salinity of the soil was fluctuated within the range of 21 to 30

between the marsh edge and back mangrove zone. The high salinity

(25-30 psu) persisted at the front mangrove zone which was due to

strong tidal influence while low salinity (21-24 psu) could be found at

back mangrove zone due to seepage.

Based on the faunal abundance (root-transformed data), the Kuantan

samples could be grouped into 16 associations at 50% similarity (Fig

2). The main association was Arenoparella mexicana / Miliammina

fusca / Haplophragmoides wilberti / Trochammina hadai. However, the

initial groupings of foraminifera based on the Bray-Curtis similarity

showed that Group I (Arenoparella mexicana, Miliammina fusca,

Haplophragmoides wilberti, Trochammina hadai) was the dominant


Sediment characteristics (Range) at Kuantan mangrove

Sampling pH Salinity Sand Silt Clay Total zones (psµ) (%) (%) (%) (%) Organic

carbon

Transect 1 8-Jun 21-30 2.87-32.45 58.59-75.38 0.48-36.54 19-21

Transect 2 8-May 25-30 8.24-18.67 63.19-74.76 12.35-22.92 19.5-21

Transect 3 8-Jun 22-30 10.19-26.87 49.25-72.76 2.94-40.32 19.92-21

Table 2

Species-Sample Association (=Groupings)

group in Kuantan mangrove (Fig. 2.) The species and sample

groupings were the same for this study area. The occurence of

Miliammina fusca in mangrove sediment was common and widely

distributed in low saline zone (Murray,1991).The Miliammina fusca

was the most widespread foraminiferan species in brackish

environments both in New Zealand and around the rest of the world

(Murray, 1991; Hayward & Hollis, 1994; Scott et al., 1996).However

the dominance of Arenoparella mexicana and Haplophragmoides

wilberti indicated that the sampling zone was highest in the mangrove

area (de Rijk, 1995). Arenoparella Mexicana, Haplophragmoides spp

also generally inhabited the vegetated marsh (Williams, 1994; Collins

et al., 1995; Goldstein et al., 1995; de Rijk and Troelstra, 1997; Ozarko

et al., 1997; Hayward et al., 1999; Hippensteel et al., 2002; Edwards et

al., 2004; Barbosa et al., 2005; Horton et al., 2005; Woodroffe et al.,

2005). However, the occurence of Trochammina hadai was common in

Japanese estuaries. It was introduced into in the 1980s into San

Francisco Bay, California, where the occurrence of this species is now

in abundance.

Species groupings based on the Bray-Curtis similarity at Kuantan mangrove

Fig. 2



Canonical Correspondence Analysis (Species- Environmental Biplot) showing the Correlation between Environmental Variables (AA: Avicennia alba; RA: Rhizophora apiculata; BG: Bruguiera gymnorrhiza; BP: Bruguiera

parviflora; SC: Sonneratia caseolaris; EA: Eucalyptus apiculata; XG: Xylocarpus granatum; BS: Bruguiera sexangula ) and Foraminiferal Species in Kuantan Sediments (Genus names: Q: Quinqueloculina; T: Trochammina;

Tro: Trochammina; A: Ammotium; Am: Arenoparella mexicana; S: Siphotrochammina; Tip: Tiphotrocha; Mcf: Miliammina cf; Tex: Textularia;

As: Ammoastuta; Tri: Triloculina; H: Haplophragmoides)

Fig. 3

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (Fig. 3) was conducted in order to

determine the variability in the environmental parameters (i.e.,

sediment texture- sand, silt and clay, total organic carbon-TOC, pH,

salinity, elevation and vegetation) which was influenced the

distribution of benthic foraminifera in study area. The lengths of the

environmental variable arrows indicated their relative importance in

explaining the variance in the foraminiferal data. Moreover, the arrow

orientation represented the approximate correlation to the ordination

axes as well as to other environmental variables. As stated by ter

Braak (1986), every direction of the arrow representing each one of the

variables. The species points can be projected on to this direction or

axis which indicated approximately its position along the

environmental variable. From the three figures, it can be concluded

that the environmental parameter showed certain degree of influence

towards the sample faunal and association of foraminifera species.

According Walton (1964), the most important parameters which

influence the density of foraminifera are the rate of accumulation of

sediment, rate of production and accumulation of tests, and rate of

removal and/or destruction of deposited tests. According to Murray

(1991), the occurrence of foraminifera depends on the species itself.

Some species as Ammonia prefers muddy sand, whereas Bolivina and

Bulimina prefers mud to fine sand and Nonion mud and silt sediment.

Therefore, the sediment characteristics seem to be the most significant

parameter controlling the foraminifera distribution pattern in

mangrove swamps (Scott and Medioli, 1986; Lokman, et. al., 2008). In

this study, almost all environmental parameters showed important role

in distributing the foraminifera. The main environmental parameters

which influence the distribution and density of foraminifera at

Kuantan mangrove is the sediment characteristic such as sand, silt,

clay and TOC.

AcknowledgementsAuthors are very thankful to the all staffs and lecturers at INOS for

their kind help during the sampling and laboratory works. Special

thanks are due to Dr. Anil Chatterji, Research Fellow for his valuable

comments.

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Journal of Coastal EnvironmentVol. 2, No. 1, 2011

C o n t e n t s

Cover page - Coral reefs as the richest marine ecosystem.Source : 070905123839-large.jpg; sciencedaily.com

Threats to Biodiversity in Coastal Environment 1S.Z. Qasim

The Lakshadweep: Islands of Ecological Fragility, 9Environmental Sensitivity and Anthropogenic VulnerabilityP.S.B.R. James

Oil Pollution and its Impact on Fisheries 27P. Muhamed Ashraf and B. Meenakumari

Impact of Mining Activities on Land and Water Areas of Goa 43Shaikh Muhammad Parvez Al-Usmani

Deep Water Horizon : Lessons for the Future 55Usha Dar

Ecosystem Conservation and Management: 65The Concept of Large Marine EcosystemKishore Kumar

Effect of Probiotics on Growth Performance 79of Juvenile Brown Marbled GrouperMithun Sukumaran, Pradeep Padmaja Jayaprasad, Thekkeparambil Chandrabose Srijaya, Anuar Hassan, Mohammad Effendy Abdul Wahid, Zainudin Bachok and Anil Chatterji

Environmental Control over the Distribution of Foraminiferan 97

Assemblages at the Kuantan Mangrove Ecosystem

Mohd. Lokman Husain, Sulong Ibrahim,

Zainuddin Bachok and Ravindran Chandran

Ecosystem Conservation and Management: The Concept of Large Marine Ecosystem

Documents

Transcript of Ecosystem Conservation and Management: The Concept of Large Marine Ecosystem