ECON 240 - Economic Development of Third World Countries

Economic Development with insight tothe Amish communityThe factors impacting the development of third world countries in reflection with the Amish way of living Prerna Tarika Diwaker

Dr. Lindy Backeus

Econ 240 Integrative paper

About 4,892 words

5/4/2012

Diwaker2

Economic Development with insight to the Amish community

Introduction

The term ‘Development’ has often been used to depict a

progressive change from a worse situation to a better situation.

Our readings; primarily dealing with authors like Aro Klamer, Tom

Sine, Donald N. Mc.Closkey, Gustavo Esteva, Richard Peet and many

others; primarily deal with the different aspects of Economic

Development. My integrated paper aims to focus on three factors

impacting the development of third world countries (namely

population growth, agriculture and food production) in reflection

with the Amish way of living. I also give insight on the reality

of the distinguishing between developed and under-developed

countries, Chrematistics and Oikonomia and biblical view on the

destructive development prevalent. Finally, I hope to conclude

with a hope to achieve development in a more productive way by

taking into consideration adapting a few values of the Amish way

of life.

What exactly is development?

Diwaker3

Many great philosophers and economists have often misinterpreted

Development as “material progress” of a nation. While some of our

readings focused on the “desperate need of reinvention of the

prescribed ideologies of Development” others focused on the

Environmental repercussions related with Development. H. W Arndt

also confirms this notion by stating that “Material progress was

the expression almost invariably used by mainstream economist

from Adam Smith until World War II when they referred to what we

would now call the economic development of the West during those

two centuries.”1

However, I personally don’t agree with the ideology that

Development is only material progress from a worse situation to a

better situation. My question is; although a country has been

branded as one of the pioneers of technology by the World Bank,

yet it has many hungry and homeless people on its streets. Can

this country be classified as a developed country? I was happy to

find my answer in a reading which stated that “The country that

is more developed industrially only shows, to the less developed

1 H. W. Arndt, Economic Development : A Semantic History, Australian National University, (p. 457)

Diwaker4

the image of its own future.”2 Karl Marx described the essence of

development in its true senses; where in his later writings

dealing with the conclusion phase of the Second Congress of

Communist International 1920, he clearly distinguished between

the “oppressor” and the “oppressed” and the “advanced” and

“backward” countries.

Mahatma Gandhi, the father of my nation – India, once said,

“Economics that hurt the moral well-being of an individual or a

nation are immoral and therefore sinful”. In my opinion, an

Economy ought to be left alone to develop by itself. It is

similar to that of a human (Esteva might agree if it is compared

to an animal or pant in this case) and the intransitive process

of nature cannot be forced on to it. It has to be transitively

offered resources and then left alone to let the process take its

own course of action. I would also like to add that economic

development is not something of transitive nature wherein the

government can induce progress; it is of an intransitive nature,

similar to the development of a child, wherein the process of

development should take its own course of time.

2 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Works in Three Volumes (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1969), 2:87.

Diwaker5

The difference - Chrematistics and Oikonomia

Aristotle once made a very important distinction between

chrematistics and Oikonomia. Oikonomia is the root word from

which “Economics” is derived from. Chrematistics can be defined

as that branch of political economy that is related to the

manipulation of property and wealth. In contrast, Oikonomia is

the management of the household so as to increase its use value

to all members of the household over the long run. In the modern

age, the usage of the discipline of economics is much closer to

chrematistics rather than to Oikonomia. Oikonomia differs from

chrematistics by it pertaining to the long-run view, it considers

costs and benefits collectively and it focuses on the abstract

change of value and its drive towards unlimited accumulation.

Since time immemorial, many economists have been trying to

distinguish “economic development” from “economic growth”. Arndt;

in his article; suggests that the best way to achieve this is to

“breathe into "development" some of the Hegelian connotations

that had got lost on the way.”3 The Hegelian connotations in the

3 H.W. Arndt, Economic Development : A Semantic History, National Australian University, (p. 466)

Diwaker6

Doctrine of development state that the first and most wide-

reaching consideration of the process of spirit, God, or the

idea, reveals to us the truth that the idea must be studied (1)

in itself; this is the subject of logic or metaphysics; (2) out

of itself, in nature; this is the subject of the philosophy

of nature; and (3) in and for itself, as mind; this is the

subject of the philosophy of mind (Geistesphilosophie).

The classification of the developed and the underdeveloped

How do we come about to classifying things as underdeveloped and

developed? Gustavo Esteva offers insight into this problem of

mine by stating that “In order for someone to conceive the

possibility of escaping from a particular condition, it is

necessary first to feel that one has fallen into that condition.

For those who make up two-thirds of the world’s population today,

to think of development – any kind of development – requires

first the perception of themselves as underdeveloped, with the

whole burden of connotations that this carries”4. The statement

“development describes a process through which the potentialities

4 Gustavo Esteva, Development, (p. 7)

Diwaker7

of an object or organism are released until it reaches its

natural and complete full-fledged form”5 according to me,

represents the real ideology behind development and what it

should represent. Throughout the chapter, it is evident that

dictums proposing the evident difference between economic growth

and development; like that of Lewis’ dictum which stated that

“first it should be noted that our subject matter is growth, and

not distribution”; only reiterate the fact that our correlation

of economic growth with development is far from being right.

Until and unless we get our basics and base right, it is doubtful

that any country is going to achieve “Development” in its true

senses.

In their book For the Common Good, Cobb & Daly also address

this line of reasoning. Their statements of how the GNP is not

the ultimate measurement of development of an economy. Although

the GNP can be used to determine as to where an individual would

find the best method as to satisfy his personal motives of where

he can increase his standard of living, it does not silo down

5 Gustavo Esteva, Development, (p. 8)

Diwaker8

countries into “healthy” and “unhealthy” economies. Esteva also

states that –

“The problem of underdeveloped countries is not just growth,

but development… Development is growth plus change, [it

added]. Change, in turn, is social and cultural as well as

economic, and qualitative as well as quantitative… The key

concept must be improved quality of people’s life.”6

Thus, this clearly states as to how we should approach the idea

of Development not only in materialistic terms but also in

qualitative terms.

I also agree with the statement of Cobb & Daly’s in their

book For the Common Good which states that “the tendency to

forget that GNP measures only some aspects of welfare and to

treat it as a general index of national well-being is a typical

instance of the fallacy of misplaced concreteness.”7 In my opinion

of the Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness, I believe that indeed

this is something which we as a community cannot altogether avoid

it but we can try as much as to reduce it. To reduce the

abstraction and to probably broaden the horizon by which the

6 United Nations, The UN Development Decade: Proposals for Action, New York: UN, 1962.7 Cobb & Daly, For the Common Good, Massachusetts: Boston, (p.63)

Diwaker9

authorities think would take a long time and a big change of

attitude. Since “instinctive conviction” is often connected with

the mathematical sophistication of things rather than what really

is going on, the government often comes a point wherein they

realize that the models which they apply for controlling and

regulating the economy do not really deliver the expected

results. This is aptly described in the book as “any pretense of

applying precise formulae is a sham and a waste of time”8 I

believe that this rightly describes the outlook to which

Governments should be approaching development. The degree of

abstraction away from reality is what we need to watch out for.

The Net National Welfare is one such outlook to things. Instead

of looking at the growth of GNP of the nation, the government

should look at factors like the decrease in the numbers of

homeless people, decrease in the rate of deaths in the country

etc to gauge the development of that country.

Agriculture and world food production

8 Cobb & Daly, For the Common Good, Massachusetts : Boston, (p. 31)

Diwaker10

Agriculture has popularly been defined as the ‘backbone of an

economy’. In today’s scenario it could be defined as the balance

between modern science & technology and traditional farming

practices to procure maximum yield. Roland Bunch, in his book Two

Ears of Corn: Chapter 7 – Limit the Technology, talks about the various

methods that could probably be used by the heads of villages to

help increase the production of crop by simultaneously limiting

the technology. If development is looked as the growth of a

community, it would obviously be primarily concerned with a self-

sufficient production of food. This is because a healthy

community is a self-sufficient community. A community’s

dependence on other communities for its survival is not a good

sign, especially in matters pertaining to production of food.

Without food survival becomes very difficult. I agree when Cobb

and Daly state that “Hence, how and where food is grown is

foundational to an economics for community9”.

Although, India is regarded as an upcoming Information

Technology and Software Programming giant, it is primarily an

9 Cobb & Daly, For the Common Good: Chapter 14 - Agriculture. (p.268)

Diwaker11

Agrarian economy with 60% of its GDP from its primary sector.

Despite Sen pointing out in his text that “Not only is there no

real decline in world food production per head, but also the

largest per capita increases have come in China, India and the

rest of Asia10”, other prominent economists point out that there

is clearly an alarming upward trend in the possibility of a world

food production crisis. We need to make note that the rise in

world food production has taken place despite the declining trend

in world food prices in real terms. This entails a decline of

economic incentives to produce more food in many areas of

commercial food production.

Nevertheless, world food output has continued to grow ahead

of the growth in population. It is shocking to note that because

like other economic activities, commercial production of food is

influenced by the interplay of the markets and prices; the world

food production is being kept in check by the lack of demand and

falling food prices. This ultimately reflects the appalling

poverty prevalent around the world. In light of this, Cobb and

10 Sen, Amartya. Population, Food and Freedom. (p. 205)

Diwaker12

Daly advocate that “The region, like the nation, should aim at

relative self-sufficiency. If it can meet its own specific needs,

then it can trade to its own advantage with other countries. It

can maintain itself as a viable community.11” They further imply

that this would result in reduced dependence on market prices of

commodities, interest rates on loans and also that the total

economy would be more stable if its units were more independent

and its supply lines shorter.

In their book Economics of Development, Perkins, Radelet &

Lindauer also state that “Farmers in developing countries must

produce enough to feed themselves as well as the urban

population. Hence, as the population rises the productivity of

the farmers must also rise. If productivity does not rise, the

terms of trade will sharply turn against the industrial sector,

cut into profits and eventually bring growth to a halt.12” This

brings us to the problem we face today – the ever increasing

trend of population growth and the decreasing world food

11 Cobb & Daly. For the Common Good: Chapter 14 – Agriculture. (p. 269) 12 Perkins, Radelet & Lindauer. Economics of Development: Chapter 16 – Agriculture. (p.609)

Diwaker13

production crisis that was mentioned earlier. Statistics

mentioned in the Population, Food & Freedom text by Amartya Sen state

that “The number of people on earth grew by about 923 million in

1980-1990’s alone and that increase was close enough to the size

of the total population of the entire world in the Malthusian

era!13” It is understood that if this magnitude of growth were to

continue then the earth would be tremendously crowded by the end

of the twentieth century with the threat of the food production

crisis looming large (if not already prevalent!). Degradation of

the world environment, income inequality and the potential for

conflict exist today because of over-consumption and over-

population.

Population

Population explosion is one of the major factors behind the

adverse situation of agriculture and food production in today’s

world. The issue of the growth in human population around the

world affects all people through its impact on the economy and

environment. There being many solutions to this highly divisive

13 Sen, Amartya. Population, Food & Freedom. (p. 210)

Diwaker14

subject of the need to control population growth, economists

favor a coercive solution to this problem; like the ones that are

practically implemented in China today. While Sen talks about the

acceptability of coercion in this issue and the results of

population growth (positive or negative) with the implementing of

these coercive measures; Cobb and Daly talks about the “The

transferable birth quota plan” which “proposes that scale and

distribution of the rights to bear children be determined by the

community at large, but that these rights then be traded in the

free market14.” This brilliant theory, of an arrangement to

ensure that there are no unwanted births, works around a system

wherein 10 birth issuing rights certificates would be required

for the legitimate birth of one child. These rights are also

freely transferable by sale or gift.

Cobb and Daly say that “A further and most important effect

would be to raise the probability of a child’s being born to a

couple that wants and can afford the responsibility of nurturing

a new human being. From the point of view of the child, this is

14 Cobb & Daly. For the Common Good: Chapter 12 – Population. (p. 244)

Diwaker15

certainly an advantage and also, the child’s welfare is at

issue!15” The divisibility of the certificates into tenths

permits a gradual change over China’s one-child policy – the

Chinese policy implied the absence of brothers, sisters, cousins,

uncles and aunts. Also, the certificate scheme did not involve

buying and selling of children, but only the right to reproduce.

Cobb and Daly also offer other ways to control the

population growth, like preventing the birth of children to young

adolescent mothers by providing Sex Education, greater

empowerment opportunities for the women, family planning services

and Medicaid funding made accessible for abortions. They also

suggest that older people should have the right to die on their

own terms. In other words they propagate the idea of making

Euthanasia a choice. These policies offered by Daly and Cobb are

as non-coercive as possible since they advocate life of those for

as long as they need and also prevent unwanted births. But,

although Amartya Sen does advocate the idea of empowering women

through education, giving them more freedom and better job

opportunities for them to help in controlling the population

15 Cobb & Daly. For the Common Good: Chapter 12 – Population. (p. 245)

Diwaker16

growth; he writes about how Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

being Utilitarians looked at the idea of coercion in the light of

the “greater good”.

Development in light of a sustainable approach

Sustainable development is another aspect which is given a lot of

importance in relation with the global scenario today. With the

depletion in the earth’s resources, there is an increasing need

to figure out alternative sources of energy and methods to

preserve the resources for the future generations to come. The

idea of the Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare which covers

qualitative aspects like that of Natural Resource Depletion,

Environmental Damage etc is something that I really liked in the

Cobb & Daly book.

Moreover, Tom Sine’s article about the uncertain future of

development also stresses that “Every indicator seems to suggest

that the final two decades of the 20th century are going to be

filled with dramatic changes that will have its greatest impact

on the planetary poor.”16 The article talks about how combined

economic & population growth will seriously threaten the carrying16 Tom Sine, Evangelicals and Development, (p.81)

Diwaker17

capacity of our finite planet through massive pollution of air

and water, how the pressures of the environmental system will

contribute to a double digit inflation world-wide and how

technology transfers by MNC's alter the job structure in many

poor countries. It suggests that, as remedies to fight these

threats, we anticipate new areas of human deprivation and crisis

before they occur, use resources available to satisfy needs and

anticipate alternate plan of actions, draft a biblical theory of

development that will help us respond passionately & aggressively

to all the challenges and (most importantly) redefine

“Development” economically, spiritually, culturally, physically

and multi-nationally.

Quoting Tom Sine, I agree with the fact that -

“The growing conservatism of the west, the double digit

inflation and the erosion of the discretionary income among

contributors in western nations are likely to combine to

reduce the amount of money available for development. If

Christian organizations don’t design international systems

Diwaker18

of co-operation, we are likely to see a decade of increasing

competition for a shrinking financial resource”17.

The Biblical Perspective on development

In our attempt to find answers to this destructive development,

we need to note that the challenge of assessing the world’s

socioeconomic predicament s not a new one. It would be only

foolish to ignore the fact that the Christian church has been

wrestling with this assessment of socioeconomic life throughout

the ages. The New Testament states that in order to be a radical

Christian we need to sacrifice all our materialistic possessions

including monetary possessions for the poor and not accept

anything but the bare necessities of life. The New Testament

advices that we be content with just enough possessions to be

able to thrive. The basic assessment of economic life, according

to the church of reformation, was neither negation nor

sanctification but vocation. Moreover, the goal of economic life

was not Christian solidarity but the realization of human self-

interest.

17 Tom Sine, Evangelicals and Development, (p.87)

Diwaker19

It is also crucial to note that the basic difficulty lies in the

fact that the direction of modern society is in need of a

religious direction and this is clear when we observe the effect

of the biblical laws that Goudzward stresses upon in his text of

Our Gods have Failed Us. A Christian must know that such a fundamental

problem of destructive development does not originate from a

wrong societal structure but from the hearts of the men who

fashioned that structure. Talking about transformation in his

article From Development to Transformation, Bragg says that

“transformation is a process of taking what is and turning it

into what it could and should be18.” We understand from this that

transformation and development are different although interlinked

with each other. Transformation is that part of god’s continuing

action to restore all of his creation to its rightful purposes

and relationships.

Today’s ‘developed’ and modernized world needs transformation to

free itself from its materialistic condition marked by broken

relationships, violence, economic subjugation and devastation of

18 Bragg, Wayne G. ‘From Development to Transformation’ in The Church in Response toHuman Need.

Diwaker20

nature; whereas the ‘underdeveloped’ world needs transformation

from the subhuman condition of poverty, premature death, hunger,

exposure, oppression, disease and fear. The gospel guides that we

develop in a sustainable way wherein we provide adequate life-

sustaining goods and services to the members of the society, aim

for a qualitative trend of change, favor a kind of development

for the masses, redress unjust relationships and practices, seek

self-reliance of the masses and liberate the masses from unjust

international and national powers. In other words, the

transformation that the Bible calls us forth to do is a

transformation of both individual and social structures that

allows us to move towards increasing harmony with God, with our

fellow brothers, with the environment and with ourselves.

Personal Reaction

There is a need for individuals to wake up and take notice of

that fact that the time to act is now and unless we cease this

moment for all its worth, we could find ourselves stuck

perennially in a state of ruin. "What we are doing to the forests

of the world is but a mirror reflection of what we are doing to

Diwaker21

ourselves and to one another” said Mahatma Gandhi; the Father of

my Nation – India; emphasizing on the fact that we need to watch

and reflect what repercussions our actions (even if they are in

the name of “development”) have on the environment around us. The

following section on the way of life of the Amish community

residing in Lancaster, PA breathe the kind of life what we would

see in the light of “developed” – having real wealth in terms of

religion, faith, family and just enough wealth to thrive.

Development the right way – the Amish way of life

The families, farmers and craftsmen of the Amish community follow

a deeply religious, family-centered lifestyle that has maintained

this tradition through a simple way of life that has not adopted

the mainstream culture, yet has adapted in many necessary ways

throughout the last 300 years. Forgoing "outside world" luxuries,

Amish who live in small towns and farmlands present a fascinating

and authentic horse-and-buggy contrast to the hustle and bustle

of the 21st century. There is no single governing body for the

entire Old Order Amish population; rather, each church district

decides for itself what it will and will not accept. However, all

Diwaker22

districts base their regulations on a literal interpretation of

the Bible and an unwritten set of rules called the ‘Ordnung’ and

the population as a whole stresses humility, family, community

and separation from the modern world.

Tradition and culture

The Amish believe that community harmony is threatened by secular

values such as individualism and pride, which permeate the modern

world. Humility is the hallmark of Amish beliefs. Mild and modest

personalities are esteemed, while patience and yielding to others

are considered the marks of maturity. Obedience, conformity to

goals and community activities are encouraged. Thus, the Amish

curb interaction with outsiders and insulate themselves from

modern technology and mass media. They also prohibit habits that

feed individualism and greed, as displayed through their plain

dress style and prohibition of personal photographs. Personal

Bible study and devotions are discouraged because individual

interpretations may challenge traditional doctrine. To preserve

the Amish identity and maintain spiritual harmony, members are

encouraged to surrender their personal aspirations for the sake

Diwaker23

of community purity. These ideals are maintained by keeping all

work, play, worship, commerce and friendship within the Amish

orbit.

Population

The family is the most important social unit among the Amish.

Those with seven to ten children are not uncommon. This high

birth rate feeds the growth of the community of Amish, as does

the fact that four out of five children choose to become baptized

and remain in the church. Jobs, friendships and business

opportunities provide incentives to stay. Health care practices

vary considerably across Amish communities and from family to

family.

Amish and Technology

Although the Amish resist cultural influences, they are willing

to strike compromises with the modern world, tapping its benefits

while still preserving the Amish identity. They are willing to

use modern technology to live, work and communicate - as long as

they do not disrupt family and community stability. According to

the Amish, "progress" is not assumed to mean "something better in

Diwaker24

terms of wealth." Hence, the Amish do not fully accept the modern

conveniences that their non-Amish neighbors take for granted. It

is acceptable within Amish communities to use some limited forms

of electricity (such as battery power for the lights on their

buggies), and some machinery (such as tractors without rubber

tires). However, most elements from mainstream society - such as

electricity generated by public power lines, TVs, computers and

modern tractors - are considered to be tempting elements from an

"outside world" that could lead the Amish away from their close-

knit community or weaken the family structure. But they do use

telephones for their means of communication for business

purposes. The technology should not be an intrusion into the

home, but rather serve the social purposes and goals of the

group. With that in mind, the Amish often re-purpose the

technology, in a sense, to align with their community beliefs.

Education

The Amish build and maintain their own church-funded, one-room

schoolhouses, where children study a curriculum that emphasizes

basic skills - reading, writing, spelling, geography and

Diwaker25

practical math, plus both English and German. Each school houses

an average of 30 students, which are within walking distance of

their homes. Teachers are typically single Amish women who are

chosen by a local school board of parents for their academic

ability and commitment to religious values and Amish views.

Formal Amish education only lasts through the eighth grade. There

is no option to attend modern public school, nor a higher

education institution. The Amish believe that either of these

options would pull children away from their community's families

and church traditions, threatening their values with

individualism, competition, rational thinking and secularism.

Labor and Work

On an Amish farm, an individual's work and responsibilities

directly affect the family. Each person is less an individual and

more a member of the family, with responsibilities that

contribute. A "paycheck" comes daily in the form of food,

clothing, shelter and affection. Men usually work on the farm,

with women helping from time to time, if needed. Men are also

mainly in charge of financial matters, while women do the

Diwaker26

cooking, washing, cleaning, etc. Men and women accept these roles

as given to them by God, with the mindset being that women are

not inferior to men, but subordinate.

Industry

A large number of the Amish earn a living in non-farming

occupations. In the transition from ploughing to profits, the

Amish community has been forced into business in order to

preserve their horse farming. Amish shops sell everything from

quilts to gazebos dot the countryside. They produce an amazing

variety of products and services. Woodworking trades comprise the

largest cluster of enterprises - furniture building, cabinet

making and storage barn and gazebo construction, as well as more

general woodworking activity. Smaller wood products, such as

doghouses, birdhouses, cupolas, picnic tables, and lawn furniture

also flow from Amish shops.

Conclusion

The case study on the Amish community has helped us practically

understand as to how they live their lives developing without any

measure of the growth, gaining education in true meaning and

Diwaker27

preserving family values and unity. Although, many would argue

that the Amish way of life is applicable to only small

communities, we would never know if it isn’t applicable unless we

tried to implement their practices in our daily lives. We need to

find that common ground wherein we can find the right balance

between technology and preserving our values in life.

In conclusion I would like to say that; with personal experience

and coming from a Developing economy; I regard the value and

morals associated with sustainability more in comparison to the

actual phenomenon of Development that is taking place in my

country. It pains me to see that with the advancing in technology

and lifestyle of the people there is an increasing deterioration

in the family & moral values and social & environmental

responsibility that the people used to have. These drastic

changes set my mind thinking of whether these are the changes

that actually mirror what development is all about. As per my

perspective, this is the consensus which we need to reach to

determine in the phenomenon of development. Moreover, no matter

whether the idea of how population growth needs to be controlled

is a controversial issue (with respect to the idea of abortion),

Diwaker28

it nevertheless needs to be put into effect with immediacy.

Continued growth at the world’s rate of increase 1.2 percent

would bring the population to over 12 billion by 2050 and 24

billion by 2100. Hence, there is no time better like the present

to act and help curtail population explosion. This is the first

step which we can take as a community to save ourselves from the

prophesized food production crisis.

References

Amish at Lancaster County. Retrieved fromhttp://www.padutchcountry.com/towns-and-heritage/amish-country/amish-education-and-work.asp

Arndt, H.W, Economic Development: A Semantic History. EconomicDevelopment and Cultural Change 29(3): 457-466.

Bragg, Wayne G. ‘From Development to Transformation’ in The Churchin Response to Human Need.

Bunch, Roland. Two Ears of Corn : Chapter 7- Limit the Technology. Two Earsof Corn. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: World Neighbors. Pp. 82-96.

Daly, Herman. E., & Cobb, John. For the Common Good,Massachusetts: Boston.

Esteva, Gustavo. (1993.) Development. The Development Dictionary- AGuide to Knowledge as Power. Wolfgang Sachs, editor. London: ZedBooks, Ltd. Pp. 6-25.

Goudzwaard, Bob. ‘Our Gods have Failed Us’ in Aid for theOverdeveloped West – chapter 2 (pp. 9-21)

Diwaker29

Peet, Richard. & Hartwick, Elaine. Theories of Development.

Perkins, Dwight H., Radelet, Steven. & Lindauer, David A.Economics of Development, New York: NY.

Sen, Amartya. Population, Food and Freedom. Development as Freedom.New York: Anchor Books. Pp. 204-226.

Sine, Tom. Evangelicals and Development. Evangelicals and DevelopmentTowards a Theology of Social Change. Ronald J. Sider, Editor.Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Pp 71-86.

United Nations, The UN Development Decade: Proposals for Action, New York:UN