“DOES THE MALINCHISMO EFFECT

REALLY EXIST

IN THE MEXICAN CONSUMER?”

“DOES THE MALINCHISMO EFFECT REALLY EXISTIN THE MEXICAN CONSUMER?”

byMargarita Heredia Soto

Doctoral Research Proposal

Doctorate Study in Social Sciences, Economics andBusiness

Johannes Kepler Universität, Linz, O.Ö

October, 2008

margarita.heredia@udlap.mx+52 (222) 229 20 00 Ext. 4272

ABSTRACT

Globalization has brought numerous changes in the marketing

of consumer’s goods (Ahmed & D’Astous, 1993). Nowadays,

consumers in worldwide markets are exposed to and are

selecting from a wider range of foreign brands more than

ever before. (Klein, Ettenson & Morris, 1998) For this

reason, businessmen have enhanced the urgency of research on

the impact of Country of Origin Image in cross-national

consumer behavior (Pisharodi & Parameswaran, 1992).

Despite the numerous articles that have been published since

the mid 60’s about Country of Origin Effect (COO),

(Nagashima, 1970, 1977; Erickson, 1984; Papadopoulos,

Heslop, Graby & Avlonitis, 1987; Ettenson, Wagner & Gaeth,

1988; Johanson, Heimbach & McLachlan, 1989; Chao &

Rajendran, 1993; Ahmed & D’Astous, 1993; Han, 1998; Darling

& Puetz, 2002) there are only a few which have measured the

consumers’ buying preferences for local products.

Furthermore, the vast majority of these investigations have

been focused on developed countries (Nagashima, 1970;

Bannister & Saunders, 1977; Ettenson et al, 1988; Levin,

Jasper, Mittelstaedt & Gaeth 1993; Han, 1994; Olson &

Graeff, 1994; Lantz & Loeb, 1996), and those that have

studied this preference in developing countries do not

include Latin America in their studies. (Gaedeke, 1973;

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Ulgado, Lean, Mitchel & Liu, 1994; Zhang, 1996; Bhuian,

1997; Zain & Yasin, 1997; Kaynak & Kara, 2002)

The aim of this study is to contribute in filling this

literature gap addressing a new approach, the “malinchismo

effect”, which is defined by Gerson (2004, p.35) as “To

dislike one’s own and preferring the other – giving one self

to the foreigner and abandoning and betraying one’s own“.

This effect concerns to the country of origin topic since

the malinchismo is the inverse meaning of consumer

ethnocentricity. According to Kucukemiroglu (1999, p. 471)

“consumer ethnocentrism represents the beliefs held by

consumers about the appropriateness, indeed morality, of

purchasing foreign-made products. Ethnocentrism may be

interpreted as that purchasing imports is wrong, not only

because it is unpatriotic, but also because it is

detrimental to the economy and results in the loss of jobs

in industries threatened by imports”.

Whether the objective of determining if the malinchismo

effect exists or not in the Mexican consumer, this research

pretends to measure Mexicans consumption preferences through

an experimental design, where Mexican consumers have the

option to choose between local and foreign products of Latin

American origin. It is important to mention that in this

region there are different levels of underdevelopment and

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because of this, is probable that the intensity of the

malinchismo effect could vary. This is, greater

underdevelopment provokes lower malinchismo.

This research will be useful to the science community

because it will contribute to determine some of the elements

that cause “malinchismo” consumer behavior. The results of

this investigation could also be helpful to local producers

because they may use the data to improve marketing of their

products, trying to satisfy local consumer preferences.

That is, if Mexican consumers are malinchistas, local producers

could minimize the “made in” label or vice versa. In order

to achieve objective, a branding strategy could be developed

to position Mexican products in a positive place in local

consumers’ mind.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

From the 50's to the beginning of the 70's, Mexico

experienced an era of economic protectionism, also known as

Stabilization Development Period, which was characterized by

a protection of local industries from competition by foreign

companies, isolating them and closing borders to imported

products (El Colegio de México, 1996). Producing for a

captive market, the national industries benefited from the

3

protectionism by the state as they did not have to be

concerned to invest in technologies that could have improved

their Mexican products; resulting in low quality goods at

high prices. (Galeón Hispanista, 2004) When the borders were

opened, the country experienced an increase in exports and

in foreign direct investment. Creation of new companies,

greater availability of goods and services, better prices

and transfer of modern technologies with efficient

production processes were the benefits of this commercial

opening. (Rodal, et al., 2005)

Globalization is part of the capitalist interdependence

evolution, in which an accelerated growth of international

economic activity is observed - commerce, finances,

investments, even over the production - that trespasses

regional borders and nations politically defined. The

globalization is expressed in a movement increase of goods

and services. (Bolivar, 2003) According to the World Bank

(2002), globalization has three stages. The first one

embraces from 1870 to 1914 and was characterized by great

migratory movements. The second one goes from 1950 to 1980

and it was focused in the commercial integration of the

United States of America, Europe and Japan. The third stage

from 1980 until now is distinguished by the decision of some

developing countries to improve its investment environments

and to be open to foreign trade.

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During the first half of the 90’s the global commerce

expansion created great expectations about economic

development, prosperity and democracy, because it was

considered as the process that could take those benefits

indifferently in all the regions of the world. (Censi, 2003)

Saghafi and Puig (1997) said that Agreements in North

America, Europe and the Pacific have created internal

tariff-free environments and have reduced or eliminated the

non-tariff barriers for trade of manufactured products

within their respective regions. Countries have become aware

of the need for developing core competences, not only at

product and supplier levels, but at the country level as

well.

Mexican commercial opening started in the mid 80’s and had a

great impetus in the 90’s when Mexico was a signatory

partner of the Free Trade Agreement with the United States

and Canada (NAFTA-North American Free Trade Agreement) which

propelled Mexico’s economic integration into the global

economy. Mexico, like several other Latin American

countries, is undergoing a transformation from a rigid

political and economic system to more democratic (and less

corrupt) politics and free markets. (Witkowsky, 1998) This

new era offered Mexican consumers access to products from

5

developed countries which exposed them to better and cheaper

made products, previously not available to them. As a result

Mexicans began to prefer foreign products over national

ones. People who displayed such a preference are called

“malinchista”. This is a Mexican word meaning: “Attitude from

one who shows affection for foreign products with contempt

towards their own” (Diccionario de la Lengua Española,

2007). It could be said that a “malinchista” person is the

opposite of an ethnocentric consumer, this term is defined

as “Those who prefer domestic goods because they believe the

products from their own country are the best” (Klein, et

al., 1998) The expression of “malinchismo” comes from the

history about the conquest of Mexico by Hernan Cortez who

was aided by an Indian (native) woman by the name of

Malintzin - the Malinche - who served Cortez as a guide and

interpreter. Thanks to her, the conquerors were able to

establish alliances and pacts to obtain the aid of other

towns against the Mexica Empire. According to scholars of

Mexican mythology, the Malinche symbolizes treason, lies and

manipulation of women. (Proceso, 2003) Therefore, people

that prefer someone or something of foreign origin are

labeled as “malinchistas”.

1.2 Problem definition and hypotheses

In recent years, there has been a great deal of research

exploring the concepts of country of origin and consumer

6

ethnocentrism, although little has been done in emerging

markets, specifically, Latin American countries. According

to Hulland, Todino and Lecrew (cited in Aulakh, Kotabe &

Teegen, 2000) consumers in developing countries perceive

foreign made products - from both industrialized and

developing countries - to be of superior quality and are

willing to pay a price premium over domestically made

products.

It is thought that Mexican consumers are characterized by

preferring foreign products over nationals (malinchismo),

mainly when those products come from developed countries

like United States, Germany, Japan, etc., but few studies

have been made to corroborate this belief. (Bailey &

Gutiérrez, 1997; Heredia & Solano, 2002) Moran and Abbot

(cited in Bailey & Gutiérrez, 1997) sustain that while

Mexican ethnocentrism centers around a “strong belief in the

nation’s and region’s cultural and moral superiority”, yet

national inferiority is assumed in economic, technological,

education, and production issues. According to Castaingts

(1995), Mexican products need publicity to be sold, opposite

to foreign products which are easily sold only because they

come from the outside. On the other hand, it is not exactly

identified if Mexicans also prefer foreign products that

come from other developing countries that sustain similar or

smaller economic development than Mexico. It is important to

7

cover this research gap because the commercial relation

between Mexico and Latin America is increasing. In addition,

one of Mexico’s Development Plan 2007-2012 objective is to

raise the commercial relations with the foreign, especially

with South America. (Presidencia de la República, 2007)

Because of that reason this investigation will try to

identify through an experimental design the presence of

malinchismo (to prefer the foreign over the local) in Mexican

consumer’s purchase decision regarding the imports from

other Latin American countries.

H1: Mexican products are rejected by Mexican consumers when

they have the possibility to choose other product with

similar characteristics made in other Latin American

country.

In this way, it is essential to recognize that Latin

American countries have different levels of development.

The World Bank (2007) publishes a fact sheet of the world

development indicators where, Argentina, Chile Costa Rica,

México, Panama, Uruguay and Venezuela are considered as

Upper Middle Income Development Level. The rest of the

Latin American countries are rated as Low Middle Income

Development Level. It could be supposed that Mexican

8

consumers’ malinchismo intensity could be affected by the

countries development level.

H.1.a Mexican consumers’ malinchismo level is

greater when products come from Latin American

countries that sustain similar development level

as Mexico.

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Figure 1.1 Research model

Source: Own elaboration (2007)

RESEARCH DESIGN

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Products’ Country of origin

Foreign(From other

Latin American Countries)

Q.1

Malinchismo in commercial terms

(To reject local products and prefer products from the

foreign)

The myth: the treason of an indigenous woman who helped the conquerors to establish alliances and pacts to obtain the aid of other towns against the Mexica Empire.

Globalization: Brought to Mexico a wider range of foreign products, many of them from developed countries which exposed the Mexican consumer to better quality and cheaper products, previously not available to them.

Mexicans’ purchase decision

Ethnocentrism

Is the opposite

of

Upper-Middle income level

Lower-Middle income level

Local(Mexican)

Different Country

Development level

Q.1.a

-+

Empirical research on the attitudes of consumers in

developing countries towards foreign products, and

associated marketing practices, is somewhat limited. The

marketplaces in these developing countries have been

inundated by a large number of foreign brands covering every

conceivable product categories; consequently, it is

imperative to examine how consumers in these developing

countries perceive foreign products and corresponding

marketing practices. (Bhuian, 1997)

Wang and Chen, (2004) sustain that consumers will be less

influenced by ethnocentrism when considering a product

imported from a higher origin country because of the

association between their judgment of the merchandise and

the positive image of the country-of-origin. In developing

countries, consumers typically perceive foreign products,

particular those made in higher developed origin countries,

as being of higher quality than domestic products. But, what

is the image that consumers from developing countries have

about foreign products that are made in other developing

countries? The present research will be useful to answer

this question.

To reach the study objectives, an exploratory and an

experimental design were developed. The first was applied

in order to obtain relevant information to develop the

11

experiment. Furthermore, an exit questionnaire will be

applied to complement the information obtained in the

experiment.

3.1 The exploratory research

An exploratory research provides general information about a

topic that is not well understood by the investigator. This

type of research follows a format that is less structured

and more flexible than a descriptive research.

The purposes of this investigation were: 1) to identify

which products Mexican consumers easily relate with a Latin

American country. 2) To recognize product attributes or

marketing practices that Mexicans associate with Latin

American countries. 3) To know which are the main

information sources that are more responsible for the

associations that students sustain, and 4) to find variables

that influence Mexican consumers’ product preferences.

To accomplish these objectives, a questionnaire was

designed. A stratified-probabilistic sample of 423 students

from six different universities from the city of Puebla

participated in the study. 405 of the questionnaires were

useful and 20 additional questionnaires were eliminated

because were answered by non Mexican people. Because of

these reason 385 questionnaires were analyzed.

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Participants answered each issue with the first thought that

came to their mind. Because the collected information is

nominal, the statistical measure used was the mode. It

indicates the most frequently occurring or repetitive value

in an array of range of data. In this particular case, the

mode indicated the country, the product or the activity most

frequently mentioned.

After analyzing the results, it could be concluded that the

products that are easily related with a specific Latin

American country are: wine, coffee, meat and beach sandals.

Argentina, Brazil and Chile are the Latin American countries

that have major presence in Mexican students’ mind. On the

other hand, Mexico is mentioned in almost all the

categories, perhaps because students do not have a clear

idea about the products that are produced in other Latin

American countries.

Mexican students linked almost every product attribute with

Mexico and contradictions could even be found; for example,

Mexico was related with high quality and also with low

quality products. It was associated with imitative products

and recognized brand products. This situation was presented

perhaps because Latin American countries are not strongly

13

positioned in Mexicans’ mind. Nevertheless, Argentina and

Brazil also had several mentions.

Results indicated that 60.5% of the sample considers

television as their main information source about Latin

American countries, 19.5% pointed out magazines and

newspapers. The rest of the respondents use other type of

information sources.

It was difficult to find a pattern that indicates a direct

association product-country. The vast majority of the

respondents did not answer this question. The exceptions to

this observation were Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba and

Mexico. In the case of Colombia 176 students related this

country with coffee. 129 of the respondents associated

Argentina with meat. 142 of the respondents related Cuba

with tobacco products. Brazil is positioned in Mexicans’

mind because of soccer and sports, 117 students gave any of

those answers. Mexico is related with petroleum by 65

respondents and is also associated with tequila by 63

students.

According to the obtained results, the attributes that

consumers take in account when they have to select a product

are quality and price. Durability, guaranty and reliability

are also related with quality. In contrast, country of

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origin was also considered but only by 23 respondents, but

is important to mention that the “made in label” is an

extrinsic cue that is unconsciously taken into account by

Mexican consumers. (Heredia & Solano, 2002).

3.2 The experiment

Information on consumer likes and dislikes, preferences, and

requirements for acceptability can be obtained using a

Sensory Analysis Technique oriented to the consumer. The

recommended method is the Affective Test that can be divided

into Preference Tests in which the task is to arrange the

products tested in order of preference, Acceptance Tests in

which the assignment is to rate the product or products on a

scale of acceptability, and Attribute Diagnostics in which

the objective is to rank or rate the principal attributes

which determine a product’s preference or acceptance. As

well, Hedonic Tests are often used to measure preference or

acceptance indirectly. (Meilgaard, Civille & Carr, 1991;

Watts et. al, 1989)

The primary purpose of Affective Tests is to assess the

personal response (preference and/or acceptance) by current

or potential customers of a product, a product idea, or

specific product characteristics. From a project

perspective, the reasons for conducting consumer tests

usually fall into one of the following categories: product

15

maintenance, product improvement or optimization,

development of new products, or assessment of market

potential. (Meilgaard, Civille & Carr, 1991) In the

particular case of this research, its main purpose is to

measure the Mexicans’ product preference regarding the

country of origin cue and then improve the marketing

strategy for Mexicans products in order to increase their

sales in their own country. Since the main objective of

this investigation is to know the Mexicans’ product

preference when they have the option to choose between a

local and a foreign product from other Latin American

country, an affective sensorial analysis based in a

preference test is used. Consequently, Mexican consumers’

product preference is the dependent variable and products’

cues such as quality, brand and country of origin are the

independent variables.

The sample is composed of 120 participants, 50% women and

50% men – according to ANUIES Mexican student population

constitution – (ANUIES, 2004). Because of the large size

of the sample and because of the difficulty to find people

willing to participate in an experiment, students from

Universidad de las Americas Puebla (UDLAP) were invited as

panelists. Furthermore, as UDLAP is a private university in

which the majority of its students have a high income level,

is probably that UDLAP’s students provide more informed

16

answers. According to the exploratory research, in most of

the cases, lower income students have less knowledge about

the products that come from Latin America.

The only requirement to participate in the experiment is

that students have purchased or have used, at least once,

the product categories subjects of test. Following Watts

et. al. (1989) recommendation, consumer panelists should not

be trained, but should be users of the product.

The selected products for the experiment were coffee, wine,

canned palmettos, mouth wash, plastic containers and body

soap. In Mexico several products of these categories made

in different Latin American countries can be found. Coffee

and wine were selected because they were the products that

Mexican students related with a specific country. In

contrast, mouth wash and canned palmettos had not been

mentioned. It is important to compare these two cases two

know if product’s country of origin positioning affects the

selection. Plastic containers and soap were selected as

“distracters”.

Following the exploratory research results, the Latin

American countries that have more presence in Mexican

student’s mind are: Argentina, Brazil and Chile. Because of

this reason, they were included as products’ countries of

17

origin in this experiment. In addition, according to

Secretaría de Economía de México (2007), Brazil, Chile and

Argentina are the three Latin American countries that export

more products to Mexico. Additional countries of origin

were included in the experiment in order to test Hypotheses

1.a of the investigation: Mexican consumers’ malinchismo

level is greater when products come from Latin American

countries that sustain similar development level as Mexico.

According to The World Bank Development Indicators 2007,

Mexico, Argentina, Chile and Costa Rica are considered Upper

Middle Income level; in contrast, Brazil, Colombia and

Guatemala are classified as Lower Middle Income.

The participants were exposed to six different product

categories: coffee, red wine, canned palmettos, mouth wash,

body soap and plastic containers. Every product category

contained three products. At least one of them was Mexican

and the others from two different Latin American countries.

The selected objects had similar features such as

presentation and net content. Price is the only variable

that was controlled. To avoid panelists guessing the purpose

of the study, plastic containers and body soap were selected

as distracter products because their countries of origin are

not exclusively from Latin America on one side, or every

product is manufactured in the same country on the other.

18

The products were shown to the panelists in their original

market presentation. A ranking test was used because it

allows samples to be ordered according to acceptability or

preference. To avoid panelists finding the main objective

of the test (to know the consumer’s product preference

regarding the product’ country of origin) each panelist

ranked every product category four times:

- According to his preference to buy the product

- According to his brand preference

- According to his country of origin preference

- According to his perceived quality preference

These attributes were selected because the exploratory

research results indicated that quality, price and brand are

the attributes that consumers consider most frequently when

they want to buy a product. Panelists did not have to

evaluate the price because every product category remained

the same price among products. To avoid tendencies; the

order of presentation was balanced and each sample appeared

in a given position an equal number of times.

As Meilgaard, Civille & Carr (1991) state, the primary

function of sensory testing is to conduct valid and reliable

tests, so the following control procedures were taken:

1. Product controls: It is refers to the way products are

numbered, coded, and presented. Expectation errors can

19

occur when panelists are given too much information about

the nature of the experiment or the types of samples before

tests are conducted. If the panelists expect to find certain

differences among the samples, they will try to find these

differences, to avoid those errors, participants only got

the information they need to perform their task. In

addition, “distracter products” were included in the

experiment. On the other hand, the way products are

positioned or ordered for evaluation can also influence

panelists’ judgments, to avoid tendencies; the order of

presentation was balanced and each product appeared in a

given position an equal number of times; in addition, the

products subjected to evaluation did not indicate any

previous order because they were presented together (grouped

in circle).

2. Panel controls: It refers to the procedure of choosing

the panelists. The experiment requires careful selection of

subjects based on demographic criteria which define the

population of interest. In this investigation, only

university students (50% women, 50% men) that have bought at

least once each of the product categories subjected of

evaluation participated in the experiment.

3. Test administrators: The administrators are required to

be both trained and experienced in the specific type of

20

test. In addition to familiarity with the test design, test

administrators received a detailed set of instructions for

the handling of questionnaires, subjects and samples.

The results of a ranking test can be checked for significant

differences with a 95% of confidence by using tables

prepared by Christensen, Ogden, Dunn & Egget (2006)

The ranking method is rapid and allows the testing of

several samples at once. It consists in summing the answers

given by all the judges in each sample, these rank totals

are compared with the values given in the ranking tables.

The values depend on the number of samples and the number of

judges of the experiment. Ranking tables present values in

pairs, each pair represent the lowest and the highest

insignificant rank sum. If one or more ranks sums are lower

than the upper left value of the block or higher than the

upper right value in the block, statistical significant

differences among samples is detected with a 95% of

confidence

3.3 The exit questionnaire

To complement the information obtained in the experiment, a

questionnaire was applied to the same panelists once they

had finished the experiment. The main objective of this

questionnaire was to obtain data about the degree of Mexican

21

consumers’ ethnocentrism (the inverse concept of

malinchismo).

Shimp and Sharma (1987) conducted the first empirical

research on consumer ethnocentrism by creating and testing

the CETSCALE (Consumer Ethnocentrism Tendencies Scale). This

questionnaire consists of 17 items scored on a 7 point

Likert type format, where 1 means totally disagree and 7

means totally agree. Furthermore, Shimp and Sharma

developed a short 10 item version using 5 place response

format. It internal consistency estimates of reliability

ranged from .94 to .96 and it is considered unidimensional.

The CETSCALE measures a "tendency" rather than an "attitude"

since it refers to the consumer’s feeling toward foreign

products in general rather than toward a specific object

(Witkowsky, 1998). CETSCALE has been used in several

previous investigations (Chakraborty, Allred & Bristol,

1996; Levin, Jasper & Gaeth; 1996; Moon, 1996; Klein,

Ettenson & Morris; 1998; Witkowski, 1998; Kucukemiroglu,

1999; Kaynak & Kara, 2002; Moon, 2004; Wang & Chen, 2004).

But it was barely used in Latin America. A high mean

CETSCALE score corresponds to a high ethnocentrism degree.

Because this research pretends to measure malinchismo degree,

a low mean score corresponds to a high malinchismo degree. It

is important to mention that this scale was used by Bailey

and Gutierrez (1997) to evaluate if malinchismo influences

22

Mexican consumers' purchase behavior regarding value added

agricultural products. The countries of origin of these

products were Mexico and United States. Other important

difference is that they used a 7 point Likert scale instead

of the 5 point Likert scale proposed by Shimp and Sharma

when the short version of the Ethnocentrism Scale is used.

In this study, the short CETSCALE version was adapted to the

Mexican context and translated into Spanish. Factor

analysis was performed on the 10 items to identify

unreliable variables with SPSS software 13th version. All

items presented a factor loading of 0.552 and higher, this

indicates that none of the items had to be excluded. A

Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.825 assessed the reliability of

the questionnaire.

LIMITATIONS

This study has some limitations that have to be considered:

A student sample was used and the research was completed

only in Puebla, the fourth largest city in Mexico (INEGI,

2005) because of these reasons, the research’s result could

be only generalized to Puebla’s students.

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