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Aquatic Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 1039 – 1046

2214-241X © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015doi: 10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.131

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES, COASTAL AND OCEAN ENGINEERING (ICWRCOE 2015)

Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones in Deep Midland Aquifers along Bharathapuzha River Basin, Kerala using

Geophysical Methods Yousef Ali H.a, C.P.Prijub*, N.B.Narasimha Prasadb

aDepartment of Marine Geology and Geophysics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Lakeside Campus, Cochin 682 016, India bGroundwater Division, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode 673 571, India

Abstract

The occurrence and movement of groundwater especially in fractured bedrock aquifers in a given area is governed by many factors viz., topography, lithology, geological structures, fracture density, aperture and connectivity, secondary porosity. The study is an attempt to delineate groundwater potential zones in deep midland aquifers along the Bharathapuzha river basin, Kerala, India. The study area (~ 840 km2) is part of the Bharathapuzha river basin (10 40 -10 50 N latitude and 76 05 -76 30 E longitude), is mainly underlain by massive Charnockite/Charnockite gneiss type of rock formation. Vertical Electrical Sounding data collected from 66 locations was interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively to obtain layered resistivity parameters and potential fractured zones in the deep aquifer. Thematic maps of drainage, geology, geomorphology, slope and lineaments were prepared using toposheets and IRS P6 LISS III imagery. Slope map shows steeper slopes in the southern and northeastern part of the study area. Dendritic to sub-dendritic drainage pattern is dominant in the area, is often controlled by lineaments and fault zones. Qualitative interpretation of vertical electrical sounding (VES) data shows multi-layered profiles in most of the locations (> 4 resistivity layers). Out of 66 VES curves, 24 nos. are 5 layered, 23 nos. are 6 layered, 17 are 7 layered and 2 are 4 layered. Resistivity of first layer varied from 11.9 Ωm (VES-37) to 8089 Ωm (VES-3) and thickness varied from 0.78 m (VES-37) to 4.79 m (VES-64). Resistivity of second layer varied from 35.3 Ωm (VES-3) to 11382 Ωm (VES-11) and thickness varied from 0.364 m (VES-11) to 11.3 m (VES-59). Bore wells of moderate to high yield tapping the deep aquifer zones are mainly located along lineament intersections. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015.

Keywords: Groundwater prospect mapping; Geomorphology; Vertical electrical sounding; Bharathapuzha River basin; Kerala

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91-495-2351858; fax: +91-495-2351808

E-mail address:cppriju@gmail.com

© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015

1040 H. Yousef Ali et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 1039 – 1046

1. Introduction

In general, the occurrence and movement of groundwater, especially in fractured bedrock aquifers, in a given area is governed by factors such as topography, lithology, geological structures, geomorphology, slope, drainage pattern and climatic conditions. The sustainability and yield of the wells are mainly controlled by fracture density, aperture and connectivity, secondary porosity, hydraulic properties and the interrelationships among these factors (Greenbaum, 1992; Mukherjee, 1996; Roy, 1996; Srinivasa Rao et al, 2000; Vijith, 2000; Jyoti Sarup et al, 2011). As a result, the groundwater potential varies from place to place, sometimes within a few meters and even within the same geological formation (Imran Dar et al, 2010). In hard rock terrain availability of groundwater is limited and is essentially confined to fractured and weathered zones. There are several methods employed for delineating groundwater potential zones such as geological, hydrological, geophysical and remote sensing techniques. Integration of various data and thematic maps, such as terrain features derived from remote sensing images, hydrogeomorphical details, depth to groundwater table and geophysical resistivity sounding data help in generation of groundwater potential zone maps which when supplemented with geophysical data i.e. VES data in GIS environment, facilitates effective evaluation of groundwater potential zones (Singh et al., 1997; Yadav et al., 2007). Vertical electrical resistivity method can provide depth of occurrence of groundwater zone, thickness of the aquifer system and the probable location for well sites (Srivastava and Bhattacharya, 2006; Israil et al., 2006). Lineaments and its intersections reflect rock structures through which water can percolate and travel up to several kilometers within. To predict ground control problems in underground structures (Kane et al., 1996), lineament is strongly related to discontinuities such as joints, faults, and folds. For these reasons, lineament was used for structural analysis, analysis of the relationship with lithology, and assessment of groundwater productivity. Integrated studies using remote sensing, GIS and VES approaches has been applied successfully for delineation of ground water potential zones by various researchers (Srinivasa Rao et al., 2000; Wilson et al., 2005; Israil et al., 2006; Srivastava and Bhattacharya, 2006; Kukillaya, 2007; Semere and Woldai, 2007; Mondal et al, 2008; Hyun et al., 2011; Balakrishna et al., 2014; Venkateswaran et al., 2014; Sahebrao, 2014).

In Kerala, there are number of studies related to groundwater prospects in hard rock regions. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has carried out a systematic hydrological survey on various issues in different physiographic regions of Kerala. Kukillaya (2007) has carried out a study on hydraulic properties of fractured rock aquifers in Thrissur district, Kerala for water level responses. Vijith (2007) has prepared a groundwater prospect map of hard rock terrain in Kottayam district, Kerala using integrated remote sensing and GIS approach. The study is an attempt to delineate groundwater potential zones in deep midland aquifers along the Bharathapuzha river basin, Kerala, India. It also aims to understand the lineament pattern and fracture geometry of hard rock aquifers. The study area (~ 840 km2) is part of the Bharathapuzha river basin (10 40 -10 50 N latitude and 76 05 -76 30 E longitude), is mainly underlain by massive Charnockite/Charnockite gneiss type of rock formation. The major part study area is covered by Bharathapuzha River Basin and a small part of the area cover by Keecheri River Basin. The study area covers about 840 km2 in Palakkad and Trissur Districts in Central Kerala region (Fig.1).

2. Methodology

Vertical Electrical Sounding data collected using CRM 20 Aquameter from 66 locations was interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively to obtain layered resistivity parameters and to delineate potential fractured zones in the deep aquifer. Thematic maps of drainage, geology, geomorphology, slope and lineaments were prepared using toposheets and IRS P6 LISS III imageries. The preparation of geomorphological based on the IRS P6 LISS III FCC images. Morphometric analysis for the drainage basin was also carried out in ArcGIS. The IRS FCC image enhanced using image processing software ENVI 4.7. The apparent resistivity and AB/2 values were plotted on double-log sheet in IPI2Win software (Moscow State University). The layered resistivity model obtained in IPI2Win was used to interpret different resistivity layers. The apparent resistivity ( ), thickness (h), depth to layer interface (d) were obtained from the layered resistivity model. The digital elevation model (DEM) and slope map of the study area was prepared based on SRTM data using spatial analyst tool in ArcGIS. The bore well locations were plotted on the lineament map prepared from satellite imageries and topographic maps.

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a

b

Fig. 1. Study area showing (a) Geology; (b) Hydrogeology

3. Results and Discussion

The results obtained on various aspects viz. lithology, geomorphology/landuse, lineaments, drainage, slope and geophysical properties are discussed below.

3.1. Lithology

Major part of the study area is underlain by Precambrian metamorphic rocks like charnockites, hornblende-biotite gneiss and in some part represented by quarto-feldspathic gneiss, biotite-hornblende gneiss with schist, quartz syenite and pink granite. Charnockites, pyroxene granulites and associated migmatites occupy a major part of the basin (Fig.1). Acidic rocks like granulite pyroxene, norite and basic rocks like gabbro, dolerite are intruded at many places. Pegmatite and quartz veins constitute acid intrusives while gabbro and dolerite are basic intrusives. A prominent dolerite dyke about 42 km length, having a trend NNW-SSE direction is traceable in the southwest part of the area. Laterite is predominant in the western parts in Ottapalam area. The Laterite thickness is more in the western part (20 to 50 m). Periyar formation is fluvial formation, seen in northwestern side of the study area. The river alluvium is seen along the sides/banks of the river and valley fills are seen all along the midland areas in the valley portion. The aquifer system in the study area can be broadly divided into hard rock aquifers, the laterite aquifers and valley fills/alluvium (Fig. 1). The hard rock and laterite aquifers constitute major aquifer system of the study area. Groundwater occur under phreatic, semi confined to confined conditions in the weathered and fractured portions of the crystalline formations and occur semi-confined and confined condition in deep seated fractured and

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sedimentary formations. The weathered crystalline rocks form potential aquifers in the hardrock areas and its thickness ranges from 4.5 m to 21.0 meters. The fractures encountered in the area are 18 to 150 mbgl and the transmissivity is 5 to 150 and specific yield is 1-4 (CGWB, 2012). The laterites form highly potential aquifers along topographic lows and valleys. Depth of dug wells in these formations ranges from 5 to 25.62 m. In general ground water occurs under water table condition along the river courses, intermontane and valleys.

3.2. Geomorphology/Land-use

The geomorphologic units of the basin can be divided into structural hills, denudational hills, pediment zones, moderately dissected plateaus, channel bars, water bodies, and valley fills. Among these, valley fills and flood plains are very good locations for groundwater targeting. The highest elevated area is 444 m above mean sea level. In the study area, north eastern and southern sides are covered by structural hills. Structural hill in the north-eastern side is having in an arcuate shape. Around 146 sq km area is covered with this landform. The structural hills in the area are criss-crossed by several lineaments and lineament intersections. The shallow aquifer in the structural hill area has moderate to poor groundwater prospect. Denudational hills are seen in the northern, southern and south eastern side of the study area. It covers about 84 km2 of the total study area. The area is covered with mixed type forest and has moderate to low slope resulting in moderate run off. It is shallow and well drained. There are several fractures and lineaments seen in this landform feature. Groundwater potential in this morphologic feature is moderate to poor. Pediplain covers an area about 440 km2. The region is covered with moderate number of lineaments. Groundwater prospect in these landforms are low to moderate. Less dissected plateaus are seen on south-eastern side of the area. It covers an area about 36 km2. Dissected nature of the plateau accelerates more run off so it falls under the category of moderate groundwater potential zone. Valley fills occupies narrow to large patches in the entire study area with an aerial extent about 111 km2. Groundwater prospects are good in these areas. Their yield depends on the thickness of the fill and structure. Dug wells, dug-cum-bore wells and bore wells are feasible in these areas. Valley fills are observed to be highly potential zones for groundwater extraction. River channel deposits (sand) prominently seen along the river course-Bharathapuzha from the central part (Ottapalam area) to extreme western region with an area of about 14 km2.

3.3. Lineaments and faults

Lineament mapping was done on the basis of changes in topographic slopes, relief patterns, crest type, drainage type and image characteristics. Several faults and lineaments are seen in the study area. Considering the occurrence of groundwater, the lineaments in pediment zone and valley fills are considered to be very significant than along structural hills and residual hills with high drainage density with higher slope. There could be high surface run off in these areas. The major lineaments in the study area have a trend of NNW-SSE to NW-S-E and E-W direction (Fig. 3). The NNW-SSE lineaments fall along the major tributary-Gayathripuzha and the E-W lineaments along the main stream of the Bharathapuzha River. There are many minor lineaments in the study area, also trending in the NW-SE and N-S directions. Most of the lineaments in the area found to be along the drainages. The faults identified in the area generally trending in E-W to NW-SE direction.

3.4. Drainage

The study area mainly comprises two river basins, Bharathapuzha river basin and Keecheri river basin. The area covered by each basin 700 sq km and 140 sq km respectively. The overall drainage patterns of the rivers are controlled by the deformation structures in the basement rocks. The drainage pattern of the river in the study area is dendritic type. Drainage basin with high drainage density indicates that a large proportion of the precipitation goes as surface runoff. On the other hand, a low drainage density indicates the most rainfall infiltrates the ground and few channels are required to carry the runoff. It indicates moderate to high surface runoff occur in the study area. Groundwater potential is poor in some of the areas due to high surface run off. Drainage density is higher in the south western side of the river basin. Lesser drainage density observed in the central part of the basin and the area has moderate to good groundwater potential. Overall more drainage density noted in western part of the study area than in the eastern side. Groundwater potential is low to poor in western side and moderate to good in eastern side of

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the river basin (Fig. 3a).

Fig. 2. Lineament map with VES locations

3.5. Slope

In the study area slope is classified on degree basis as 0-1, 1-3, 3- 5, 5-10, > 10 designed as Level nearly level, Very gently sloping, Gently sloping, Moderately sloping and Very steeply sloping (Fig. 3b). Bharathapuzha river channel in the study area is very gently sloping. Most of the study area belongs to very steeply sloping category. The slope is more, more run off will occur and this will reduce the infiltration thus reduces the groundwater potential. As infiltration is inversely related to slope, a gentle slope promotes an appreciable groundwater infiltration. In the study area, majority of the area occupies slope category of 0-5 and is favourable while considering the groundwater potential. Hence areas having low slope can be considered as sites for groundwater recharge.

a b

Fig. 3. Drainage (a) and Slope (b) map of the study area

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3.6. Geophysical Investigation

In the present study 66 VES’es are interpreted qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative interpretation of VES data shows multi-layered resistivity profiles for most of the locations (more than four layers). Out of 66 VES curves 24 nos. are 5 layer type, 23 nos. are 6 layer type, 17 nos. are 7 layer type and 2 nos. are 4 layer type curve (Fig. 4).

Fig.4. Typical resistivity curves (VES-3,7,19,31,47,50,58 & 60) and interpreted layered resistivity model

The Resistivity of first layer varies from 11.9 Ωm (VES-37, Varavur) to 8089 Ωm (VES-3, Thiruvilwamala). Thickness of the first layer varies from 0.78 m (VES-37, Varavur) to 4.79 m (VES- 64, Ongallur). Resistivity of second layer varies from 35.3 Ωm (VES-3, Thiruvilwamala) to 11382 Ωm (VES-11, Vallathol Nagar). The thickness of the second layer varies from 0.364 m (VES-11, Vallathol Nagar) to 11.3 m (VES-59, Pattambi).

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Resistivity of the third layer varies from 10.2 Ωm (VES-19, Erumapetty) to 4737 Ωm (VES-3, Thiruvilwamala). Thickness of the third layer varies from 0.793 m (VES-34, Varavur) to 50.7 m (VES-26, Varavur). Analysis of the four layer curves shows that, potential fracture zones found in this type of resistivity profile. The first layer is top soil and second layer is saturated shallow aquifer, the third layer is basement rock and fourth is the fracture zone. In the five layer curves (VES-3,5,6,15,42,44,47,51,58,60) first layer is top soil, the second layer is saturated soil, third layer is massive rock and the forth layer is fracture zone followed by massive rock without fractures. Another five layer curves (VES-24,33,41,48,56,59) shows that the first layer is top soil, the second layer is dry zone followed by the saturated third layer, the fourth layer is a fractured zone and below that massive rock. Mostly in five layer cases, the fracture zone occurs as the fourth layer. In the six layer cases (VES-1,4,7,8,9,12,13,14,29,35,52,61,62,65) the first layer is top soil, the second layer is dry unsaturated zone, the third layer is saturated, fourth layer is massive rock followed by fracture zone as the fifth layer and massive rock below. In the seven layer case VES-2,20,22,26,43 the shallow saturated zone is occurs as third layer. The fracture zone occurs as sixth layer. The above analysis shows that fracture zone occurs in various depths in different type of resistivity profile. The areas where apparent resistivities are low in the fourth, fifth and sixth layers have high groundwater potential. It is also noted that most of the VES’es near the lineament intersections has very good groundwater potential zones (Fig. 2).

4. Conclusion

The study is an attempt to delineate groundwater potential zones in hard rock aquifers along the midland part of Bhrathapuzha river basin. It also focused on mapping various landforms units and to identify the major and minor lineaments in the area using remote sensing and geophysical methods. The study area is mainly underlain by Charnockite/Charnockite gneiss type formations. This rock type is generally massive and does not store or transmit considerable quantity of water except there are any fractures or joints in it. Geomorphological map reveals that there are several landforms in the study area; mainly structural hills, denudational hills, pediplain, less dissected plateau, channel bar, water bodies and valley fill. Among these, valley fills have the maximum groundwater potential. Most of the lineaments along the valley fills are good potential zones at shallow and deeper depths. Slope map shows that steeper slopes in the southern and north eastern part of the study area. Drainage pattern of the basin is influenced by infiltration properties of soil; more is the drainage density lesser the infiltration. Interpretation of VES data gives the details of the underlain fracture zone and thickness of the potential fractured layers. Qualitative interpretation of VES data shows multi-layered resistivity profiles for most of the locations (more than four layers). Out of 66 VES curves 24 are 5 layer type, 23 are 6 layer type, 17 are 7 layer type and 2 are 4 layer type curve. Resistivity of first layer varies from 11.9 Ωm (VES-37, Varavur) to 8089 Ωm (VES-3, Thiruvilwamala). Thickness of the first layer varies from 0.78 m (VES-37, Varavur) to 4.79 m (VES-64, Ongallur). Resistivity of second layer varies from 35.3 Ωm (VES-3, Thiruvilwamala) to 11382 Ωm (VES-11, Vallathol Nagar). The thickness of the second layer varies from 0.364 m (VES-11, Vallathol Nagar) to 11.3 m (VES-59, Pattambi). Analysis of the four layer curve shows that, potential fracture zones occur in this type of resistivity profile. The first layer is top soil and second layer is saturated shallow aquifer, the third layer is basement rock and fourth is the fracture zone. Mostly in five layer cases, the fracture zone occurs as the fourth layer. In the six layer case, the first layer is top soil, the second layer is dry unsaturated zone, the third layer is saturated, and fourth layer is massive rock followed by fracture zone in the fifth layer. In the seven layer case, the shallow saturated zone occurs as third layer. The fracture zone occurs as sixth layer. The above analysis show that fracture zone occurs in various depths in different type of resistivity profile. The areas where apparent resistivity are low in the fourth, fifth and sixth layers have high groundwater potential. VES locations show that most of the VES’es near the lineament intersections has very good groundwater potential. It is can be concluded that the potential aquifers in the area are mainly the fracture zones, faults, joints and weathered column and it is under confined to semi-confined condition.

Acknowledgements

Authors thank Executive Director, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM) for the permission and extending support for publishing this work. One of the authors (CPP) thanks KRWSA-Jalanidhi for the VES data collected by him as a Hydrogeologist in the project. YAH thank State Ground Water Department, Kerala for sharing some VES data collected from Thrissur and Palakkad district.

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