BEIRUT: HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY

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Volumes 13 & 14 (2001-2002)

ARAM, 13-14 (2001-2002), 293-312

ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT: ON ROMANIZATION AND CULTURAL EXCHANGE

LIDEWIJDE DE JONG

In the summer of 1995 a Roman burialsite was excavated, located at present BEY 014.' The site was situated in the Kanthari-district, next to the Bursj el­mUff and located to the south-west of the ancient Roman city on the eastern slope of Ras Beyrouth-hill. This paper explores the primary findings and archi­tecture of this excavation in detail and analyzes specifically the social, religious and cultural context of the graves with respect to Romanization and cultural exchange in the region. Romanization is understood here as the (the process of exchange and) mixture of Roman and indigenous culture. 2

THE BURIALSITE: INTRODUCTION

The excavated area (BEY 014 at present) of BEY 022 sn2 measured 24m by 10 m. At the site 022 snl, to the west of sn2, only superficial research took place in 1995 (see Figure 1). The upper layers were heavily disturbed by recent build­ing activities and little stratigraphical data could be recovered. The Roman lay­ers contained four funerary structures with a minimum of 32 graves. They were part of a larger cemetery that extended at least towards the North and the West.

FUNERARY STRUCTURE I

The first funerary structure was rectangular, north-east/south-west oriented and measuring 11 .1 m x 7.3 m (see Figure 2). It was almost completely built with brown-grey, rectangular limestone blocks (33-70cm x 24-37cm x 20-39 cm). Sometimes grey mortar was also used. Some of the lower parts of the walls were cut out of the bedrock. The structure consisted of three parts : a room in the north-east, a platform-like construction in the middle and in the south-west an­other room.

The eastern and western edges of this funerary structure were not excavated. To the south it was boundlbordered by a wall with a thick layer of grey plaster

I It was excavated under the supervision of Hans Curvers, Barbara Stuart and Elie Karam. 2 This article is the extended version of the paper read at the conference Beirut: History and

Archaeology. My visit to the conference was made possible by the financial support of the Doctor Catharine van Tussenbroek Fonds.

294 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

(10-14 em thick) and another wall which was partly built up with limestone blocks and partly cut out in the bedrock. Between these two walls an unpaved path was running to a staircase in the West. These stairs were found to be up to two metres high and possibly led to a higher part of the cemetery that was not yet exposed. The room in the north-east (2.80 x 2.44 m) was only partly uncovered and had the remains of a white plasterfloor in the southwest comer. No burials were found here.

The square, platform-like construction in the middle was bonded with the northeastern room and measured 6.04 x 5.59 x 1. 13-1.60m. In the southwest comer of this platform an elevated construction was built (1.86 x 1.67 x 1.53 m, Figure 3) with a convex northeastern face and plastered stones. This construc­tion can be connected with wall 4 in the West and a similar elevated, but badly damaged, construction in the northwest corner of the platform. The stones of partly collapsed wall 4 had fallen on grave 7 and were decorated with paint and plaster-relief.3 Some of these stones also formed an arch-like construction. This construction is difficult to reconstruct, but the western part of the platform how­ever seemed to be a part of a richly decorated construction with one or more arched niches in wall 4. Burial 7 was probably also a part of this construction, because it had plastered coverslabs and a 3-cm ridge that continued on the el­evated part in southwest. It is possible that similar constructions existed in the northeastern and southeastern corner of the platform. In that case it would form a (decorated) room on top of the platform, enclosing the graves.

The platform itself contained seven graves with two compartments each. These were built with four courses of limestone blocks on the bedrock floor. The burial­compartments were originally sealed with five to seven flat, limestone coverslabs (40-96 x 37-48 x 8-22 em) that were placed on ledges of 8-10 cm, as illustrated on Figure 4. The slabs were found on every grave, but the complete cover was only preserved in the upper compartments of graves 6 and 7 and the lower com­partments of graves 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The upper coverslabs of grave 7 and 2 were plastered. The rectangular graves measured 218-240 x 60-69 x 61-78 cm for the upper compartments and 218-240 x 40-50 x 47-57 cm for the lower compart­ments. Two graves are north-east/south-west oriented (1 and 2) with the skulls in southwest direction, the others were north-west/south-east with the skulls in north­west direction. In grave 1 no articulated skeleton was found.4 The lower com­partment contained three disarticulated skeletons. One bronze coin was found inside one of the skulls (016).

3 There were traces of several motifs , some barely visible: floral motifs, eggs-and-darts, a re­clining person and rectangular motifs. The paint was in red, yellow, green and black. At the begin­ning of the excavation a stone with a plastered eagle holding a laurel wreath was uncovered, possi­bly this was also a part of the construction.

4 The skeletal remains of BEY 022 sn2 were in 1995 researched by Liesbeth Smit, a physical anthropologist of the University of Amsterdam.

L. DEJONG 295

Grave 3 contained the disarticulated remains of three individuals and frag­ments of three glass bottles that were found near the feet (only one was com­plete, 04). The lower compartment contained the remains of one individual (ar­ticulated) and another glass bottle (03). In grave 4 a skeleton of an infant was discovered in the upper compartment and three skeletons, of which one was articulated and two were pushed aside, in the lower part of the grave. The upper compartment of grave 5 contained the remains of nine to ten articulated skel­etons on top of each other and pushed aside. Three golden earrings were found alongside the skulls (06, 07, 08). The lower compartment contained the re­mains of one individual. In grave 6 one articulated skeleton was uncovered in the upper compartment and no human remains in the lower part. In grave 7 no human remains were excavated in the upper compartment. The lower compart­ment contained one articulated skeleton with a golden facemask (015) and a golden ring (014).

Grave 2 is exceptional because it had three compartments and the lower part was cut out of the bedrock. The upper compartment of this grave (240 x 82 x 39 cm) contained the remains of one individual (disarticulated), together with a golden necklace (013). The middle compartment (240 x 60 x 19 cm) possibly contained one disarticulated skeleton and in the lower compartment (240 x 50 x 47-48 cm) no human remains were excavated.

Next to the platform in the West was a room with more graves (4.86 x 2.86 m). It was only partly excavated and contained four rock-cut graves (8-11) measuring 176-144 x 64-44 cm Graves 10 and 11 were not excavated however, because of danger of collapse. The graves existed of two compartments, origi­nally sealed with flat covers labs that were in situ on the upper compartment of grave 8 and the lower compartments of 8 and 9. The graves were east-west oriented, which is slightly different than the rest of the structure. In grave 8 no human remains were found in the upper compartment and six in the lower one. Grave 9 also had an empty upper compartment and seven or eight individuals in the lower one. In one of the skulls two golden earrings were found (011 and 010).

FUNERARY STRUCTURE II

The second funerary structure of the burial site is located to the south of struc­ture I and has two phases. It was north-east/south-west oriented and the eastern border/edge was not uncovered.

In the youngest phase plasterfloor was laid in the North (8.20 x 2.3m, see Figure 5). To the south of this floor three sarcophagi (SI , S2, S3) were uncov­ered, facing each other placed on small walls/platforms. No articulated skeletons or gravegifts were found inside.

296 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

The older phase of funerary structure II was also oriented north-east/south­west and measured 4.65 by 4.02 m (see Figure 6). It was situated under the sarcophagi and contained eleven rock-cut graves (12-22). The surrounding walls in the West (wall 9) and South (wall 10) were cut out in the bedrock. Wall 11 in the North was partly built with limestone blocks and partly cut out in the bed­rock. The three walls had traces of plaster with red, green, yellow and light -pink paint, but no motifs could be distinguished.

The graves were north-west/south-east oriented. They were dug into the bed­rock, except for the northern part of graves 13 and 14, which was built with limestone blocks. The graves had one compartment each and were - as in funerary structure I - originally sealed by flat coverslabs. Most of these slabs were not found though; only the ones that were directly underneath the sarcophagi could be retrieved. These remaining slabs were possibly used for the construction of the walls under the sarcophagi. The contents of the graves were possibly looted, which can be illustrated by a shell pendant that was found in one of the graves, which can be dated back to the 11th century A.D.

The graves measured 210-186 x 76-44 x 73-44 cm. Graves 12, 13 and l7 contained no human remains, in the other graves the disarticulated remains of one (grave 15), two (graves 16, 20 and 21), three (graves 18 and 19 and six (grave 14) individuals were exposed. In grave 12 four lead envelopes (two were in good condition, 021-022) and a bone pin (024) were unearthed, the other graves yielded no gravegoods.

Grave 22 was an exception because it had the length of two graves (402 x 56-48 x 53 cm) and was still covered by two -almost intact- courses of coverslabs. The upper course had some re-used stones and can perhaps be connected with the construction of the youngest phase of the structure. This long grave was probably divided into two or three graves by small separation walls. The bones of six individuals were pushed to the middle of the grave. A golden earring (012) and two glass bottles (one was complete, 05) were recovered from this grave. The bedrock floor at the two ends was raised to form a stone pillow. This was also found in the northern end of grave 16.

FUNERARY STRUCTURE III

The third funerary structure is located to the south of complex II and was only partially excavated. It was differently orientated than the other two structures: south-east/north-west (see Figure 7). The eastern and northern borders were not found. Four rock-cut graves were uncovered here (23 -26), all with one compart­ment. The surrounding walls were also cut out in bedrock and seem carved in a stair-shape.

Only a few coverslabs of the burials were found, some of which were re-used stones. Grave 23 (195-185 x 50-40 x 20 cm) contained a terracotta sarcophagus

L. DEJONG 297

(54) and some human remains. Grave 24 (170 x 38 x 27 cm) and grave 26 (114 x 44 cm) contained no human remains. In grave 25 (170 x 50 x 50 cm) the remains of two individuals were uncovered.

FUNERARY5TRUCTUREIV

There were only pictures available of this fUllerary structure when the research as presented in this paper was conducted. It contained at least three graves that were built with limestone blocks of a different type than the other burials (acces­sible from the side, as many graves in Tyre). Unfortunately these three burials cannot be discussed in detail here.

THE OBJECTS5

Three unguentaria were recovered from the graves, probably at the feet of the deceased.6 The candlestick bottles (04 and 05) can be dated in the 2nd to begin­ning of the 3rd century A.D (length 16-15.5 cm, 0 rim 5.4-3,8 cm, 0 base 7.8-5.6 cm, thickness 0,7-0,8 cm). The bottle with the rounded body (03, length 14,2,0 rim 3,7 cm, 0 base 4 cm, thickness 0,07-0,46 cm) can be dated in the 2nd and 3rd century A.D. (see Figure 8). Similar unguentaria come from graves in Samaria and Caesarea.7

The simple, round earrings 06, 07, 08 and 012 (0: 1.6-1.2, thickness: 0.3-0.1 cm, see Figure 8) are well known from a number of graves in the Roman Near East, such as in Tyre and Alia (Jordan).8 The round earrings with shell pendants 010 and 011 (2,4 x 1,4 x 0,2 cm, see Figure 8) were also found in Tyre, Samaria and in Amathus and are dated between the 2nd and 4th century A.D.9

The other type of round earring 09 had a rectangular setting with a green stone (14,5 x 11,5 x 0,1 cm), for which no direct comparisons were found. The simple chain-necklace 013 and the golden facemask 015 (12.9 x 12.3 cm, see Figure 8) yielded similar results. lO

The large, golden ring (2.6 x 1.6 cm, 014, see Figure 8) has a stone of black, white and red layers, possibly onyx. Several comparisons can be found in the Near East, but also in Italy and Great Britain from the 1 st and 2nd century A.D. J I

5 Only the objects from good context (i.e. from the graves) will be discussed below. 6 The dating of the glass is based on the preliminary report made in 1995 by Yvette Sableronnes

on the glass of this burialsite. 7 Hayes 1975; Mazar 1992,106; Crowfoot 1957, pA09. 8 Ibrahim and Gordon 1987, p.18; Ch€hab 1986. 9 Ch€hab 1986; Crowfoot 1957; Pfeiler 1970, p. 74. 10 Several golden facemasks were found in the Levant from Roman times, but most of them

without good context or dating. See also Curtis 1995, pp. 226-231 and Seyrig 1952. II Higgins 1962, pp. 189-190; Rahmani 1976, p. 83; Gup and Spender 1983, p. 115.

298 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

The bone pin 024 measured 5.5 x 0.6 x 0.4 cm and had an oval headlknob. Similar clothing-pins came for example from a 2nd to 3rd century grave in Samaria. 12 A bronze coin was found inside a skull in one of the graves, 016 (0 2.7 cm, thickness: 0.3 cm, 12 g) was minted in Rome at the time of Trajan, 110-113 A.D.!3 Two complete lead envelopes came from grave 12 (021, 022). These envelopes or tablets usually had curses and prayers inscribed and were found at several places in the Levant and abroad. Curse tablets are quite often found in graves that are close to a hippodrome, possibly in order to curse the racers and their horses on the racetrack. 14 The examples from the Kanthari burialsite (12,6 x 6,8 x 4.6 and 9.6 x 8 x 3.7-4.3 cm, see Figure 8) are not inves­tigated yet. Fragments of at least twenty oillamps and two complete lamps where also found at the Kanthari burialsite.

Four sarcophagi were uncovered at the burialsite. The largest one (S3) was made of white marble (212 x 82 x 82 cm, see Figure 9). The lid was shaped in the form of a shallow gable with four acroteria. The sarcophagus had a rough, unpolished surface and an unfinished/abstract decoration scheme with guirlandes and a tabula ansata. The back was undecorated. Such types of marble, semi­manufactured sarcophagi were imported from Turkey and this particular type probably originated from Proconnesus. Similar sarcophagi were used at the cem­etery of Tyre, where they were dated in the middle of the 2nd to the first half of the 3rd century A.D.15 Two sarcophagi were made of light-brown limestone and produced locally (S 1, S2, see Figure 9). They were finely carved and imitations of the imported ones. Sarcophagus 1 (210-198 x 55-43 x 62-50 cm) was deco­rated with guirlandes, two bull- and four ram-heads, ribbons, rosettes and an unused tabula ansata. The back was undecorated. Sarcophagus 2 (208-196 x 66-54 x 62-50 cm) had the lid in the form of a shallow gable with four acroteria preserved. The coffin was decorated in a similar way as SI, but with winged Gorgonheads instead of rosettes. Similar examples are known from all over the Near East, but these are difficult to date correctly. 16 The same goes for the fourth sarcophagus (S4) that was made of yellow terracotta and badly damaged (l00 x 42 x 34 cm). It had some traces of red paint on the outside surface; the lid was

12 Crowfoot 1957. 13 The dating of this coin is based on the preliminary report made in 1995 on the coins by Paul

Belien in 1995. 14 Examples from the Levant come from the Late Roman centre of Berytus, a well in Caesarea

and from Tyre. Other tablets come from North-African burials in Hadrumetum (Sou sse, third c. A.D.) and Carthage. According to Florent Heintz the tablets were buried in a grave of a person who had a untimely and violent death and whose ghost was roaming in the neighbourhood of the grave. These ghosts could perform the task inscribed on the tablet. This could be an indication that the hippodrome of Beirut was in proximity of the burialsite at Kanthari . Heintz 1998. pp. 337-342.

15 Ward-Perkins 1969. 16 Koch and Sichtermann 1982. pp. 562-563; Ward-Perkins 1969.

L. DEJONG 299

not found. Similar sarcophagi are known from all over the Levant (such as Emesa, Tyre and other burials in Beirut). 17

THE ARCHITECTURE

The burial site contained separate funerary structures with the burials clus­tered inside. The structures seemed to be enclosed by walls and were possibly constructed alongside pathways. These type of funerary enclosures, especially the built-up platform of structure I, only has direct parallels in the Near East with the contemporary cemetary of Tyre, where numerous examples of this kind of grave-architecture can be seen. IS The type also doesn't have a known (or pub­lished) predecessor in the Near East, although the use of sarcophagi in the open air existed in the Hellenistic period. Possibly it is a (North-)Levantine shape that was created in Roman times. It could have been inspired by Roman burial-archi­tecture, since the habit of constructing funerary enclosures with graves inside and pathways alongside the structures is a Roman tradition, for example visible in Rome and Ostia.19 These Roman funerary enclosures however contained a large mausoleum or funerary houses and no platforms or rock-cut graves as we see in Kanthari and Tyre.

Since no research has been conducted on the typology and chronology of the grave-architecture in the Northern Levant, date indications of the funerary struc­tures can only be found among the gravegoods and sarcophagi. The glass and jewellery from funerary structure I (the platform) indicate a date at the end of the 2nd and middle of the 3rd century (100/150-215/250 A.D.). The ring (014) and the coin (016) can be dated earlier, at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D. They both could have been used for a long period of time however, before they ended in the grave. An indication for this long use is the worn surface of the coin.

The two earrings from the graves in the western room (8-11) can only be roughly dated between the 2nd and 4th century A.D. The sarcophagi of funerary structure II can be dated between 125 and 250 A.D., which is to some extent correspondent with graves 1-7 of funerary structure I.

The older phase of funerary structure II yielded only a few objects (an earring 012, a glass bottle 022 and a pin 024) whicht indicate dates somewhere in the 2nd and the 3rd century (depending on the date of the later phase, between 75/

17 Toynbee 1971, p. 49. Many examples were also found in the southern Levant from 250-350 AD, Aviam and Stern 1997, p. 19.

18 In Tyre the funerary enclosures are also combined with sarcophagi as in funerary structure II. The simple rock-cut graves from structure I (8-11), structure IT (12-22) and III (23-26) were visible in Tyre also within the funerary enclosures, but are also excavated on its own in the whole Near East. Ceasarea: Mazar 1992, pp. 105-107; Jerusalem: Rahmani 1976, pp. 77-88 and Emesa: Seyrig 1952, pp. 204.

19 See for example Toynbee 1971, pp. 91-92 and H. von Hesberg, P. Zanker (eds.), Rbmischen Graberstrassen. Selbstdarstellung, Status, Standard, MUnchen (1987).

300 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

100 and 125/150 A.D.). The third funerary structure yielded no gravegifts or other datable goods.

SOCIAL CONTEXT

In order to complete the picture of the owners/users of the burialsite and the community these people belonged to and to reconstruct the way the graves were used over a period of time, some remarks should be made about the social and religious context of the remains of the burialsite.

At least 65 individuals were identified in the three funerary structures. The graves were all inhumation-graves and the articulated bodies were found on their backs, fully extended with the arms alongside the body or flexed. Children and adults, females and males were found mixed - there was no separation apparent according to either gender or age.

A lot of graves were re-used for burials several times, whereby two to nine individuals were buried in a single compartment. In some of these cases it was clearly visible that the bones of an older burial were pushed aside to make room for a new deposition. This was only possible when the body had almost or com­pletely decayed. In other instances the bodies were probably superimposed on older skeletons. This could have been done simultaneously, however with more than two bodies this was impossible because the compartments were only 78 to 61 cm high. With closed lid these compartments couldn't comprise a lot of not yet decomposed bodies.2o

Four other graves were never used for burial although they were still sealed by coverslabs. Remarkable is grave 6 were the upper compartment was used and the lower compartment was empty. An indication that the funerary structures were used over a long period of time comes from funerary structure I, were the decorated walls and niche-construction had incorporated grave 7. This shows that the construction was built after grave 7 was used for burial.

The graves 8-11 from the western room were slightly differently orientated to the rest of the structure. Perhaps these graves were older and cut out before structure I was built, only to be incorporated later on.

The construction of the niche and the elaborate decoration of the walls in structure I and II indicate that a lot of energy was spent on building the burial area. In combination with the golden jewelry from the graves this suggests that the owners and users of funerary structure I and II were quite prosperous and affluent. The same could be concluded of the youngest phase of structure II with the sarcophagus imported all the way from Turkey. The clustering of graves in the funerary structures as found at the Kanthari burialsite suggests that the struc-

20 A third option is that the bodies were decomposed elsewhere and later placed in the grave (secondary burial). There are no sources about this practice in the Near East in this period however.

L. DEJONG 301

tures were used by members of one family or one professional group, although no inscriptions were discovered to support this conclusion. The frequent re-use of the graves could have been done by strangers (to the buried) but also by their own family or group.21 Such families or particular groups made use ofthe funerary structures for many years, whereby the graves were used and possibly re-used and the funerary structure itself was modified.

RELIGIOUS CONTEXT

Besides social context, the religious factor should also be considered. This is problematic however, since little is known about the practices concerning death and burial in this period. For Rome some information was gathered (years ago) by Toynbee, but there has been little research for the Near Eastern religion and rituals concerning death and buriaJ.22 There is also little information about the use and interpretation of specific Roman symbols and rituals by the indigenous people. The burialsite at Kanthari could offer some clues about the rituals at the time.

There were several areas in the funerary structures that were suitable for the performance of rituals, such as sacrificial ceremonies. For example the eastern room of structure I, on top of the platform and on the plasterfoor near the sar­cophagi.

On top of the rock-cut graves of structure II a small altar was uncovered, but unfortunately not in situ. This altar could have been used to perform such rituals. Some oillamps were found in the fill near the graves, these were perhaps used for a nightly ritual.23

One coin was discovered inside the skull of a buried person. This coin was used to pay Charon in the afterlife and shows that at least parts of the Greek religion had been established in Beirut at the time, more specifically the notion of life after death and the fact that the deceased had to cross the river Styx to arrive in the afterworld.

ROMAN BURIALS IN BERYTUS

To the reconstruction that was made of Roman Beirut in the 1940s which is supplemented and changed by the more recent excavations, the location of the burialspace of the city can now be added. The inhabitants of Berytus buried their

2 1 For this practice in Italy see von Hesberg 1992, p. 15. 22 Toynbee 1971 , pp. 34-38. 23 Nightly rituals were traditionally part of the mourning process according to Walker 1985,

pp.9-11.

302 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

death on the slopes of the Ashrafieh and Ras Beyrouth hills, to the south of the Roman city, at least between the 1st and the 4th century AD.24

The burialspace was located outside the citywalls or city-borders, as were all cemeteries in this period. It was also customary to create the burialsites near or alongside the exit routes of a city, which is clearly visible at the cemetery of Tyre. Possibly this was also the case with the burialsites of Berytus.

ROMANIZA TION AND CULTURAL CONTEXT

Finally some comments should be made about the development of burialpractices in the Near East and the way the presence of Roman rule has influenced these practices (the cultural factor). This includes the direct influence of Roman culture and the mixture of Roman and indigenous culture (Romanization), but also the continuation of older traditions, non-Roman for­eign influences and the rejection of Roman culture by the indigenous people.

The ideas and theories of scholars studying other provinces of the Roman Empire concerning the cultural response to Roman rule have rapidly changed over the last twenty years, which cannot be said about similar studies of the Near East. The old model of Romanization in those provinces, which was often based on the dominance of one culture over another, has been changed and translated into a model of cultural exchange between Roman and indigenous peoples. For the Roman provinces in Northern Europe we see a de-emphasis on the domi­nant-Roman 'civilised' perspective.25 On the other hand, in Greece a more im­portant role for the Roman culture has been suggested.26

For the Near East, and therefore also Lebanon and Beirut, the focus has usu­ally been on the influences of the Greek culture and the Hellenistic tradition and almost never on the cultural exchange between indigenous and Roman tradi­tionsY Roman Beirut must have attracted a lot of Romans and other foreigners since it was a veteran colony and also because of the presence of the interna­tionallaw-school. Therefore it will prove to be very interesting to analyse this cultural interaction that took place between the Romans, other foreigners and the Beirutis.

When this cultural context is investigated at the burialsite at Kanthari, it be­comes clear from the previous account that there is no conclusive evidence for

24 Apart from the funerary structures at Kanthari, several other Roman burials (underground tombs) were found in Beirut earlier this century, for example in Ashrafieh, Ras Beyrouth and on the land of Sursock. They can possibly be dated in the 3rd and 4rth century A.D. The recent excava­tions added more burials, some of which belong to the same burialsite as BEY 022. See also Mouterde 1929, pp. 241-249; Lauffray 1977, p. 161.

25 See for example Webster 1996; Philpott 1991. 26 See for example Alcock 1993. 27 Different approaches are used for research at Palmyra and the Hauran.

L. DEJONG 303

apparent cultural influences. The assembly of gravegoods of this burialsite (coins, glass and personal decoration) is very common for this period in the Near East and seem to be a continuation of older, Hellenistic traditions. The same counts for the lead envelopes. (The use of facemasks could be a Levantine tradition.) One could say that the funerary enclosures in general have some links with road­side cemeteries in Italy, but as pointed out above, the evidence is meagre. In Beirut we see next to the burials from Kanthari many other graves, mainly un­derground tombs that are the most common b,urialtype in the Near East.

This little evidence indicates that there was a strong continuation of older, indigenous culture with some possible minor Roman influences, but it is diffi­cult to trace the cultural exchange. This is on one hand due to the scarcity of information about the graves in the Near East (especially Lebanon and Syria). On the other hand it is due to the scarcity of comparative material from the Hellenistic period and from the stylistic and functional analyses of Roman and other foreign influences in categories such as gravegoods, decoration of sar­cophagi, wallpainting in tombs and rituals that were performed.

Therefore one can look forward to forthcoming publications of the other graves of Roman and Hellenistic Beirut, but also of the recently excavated burials else­where in Lebanon, as in Saida and Kamid el-Loz. Such projects might shed more light on the issues of Romanization and cultural exchange in the Near East, forc­ing one to reconsider all too static theories of Hellenistic tradition and influ­ences.

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304 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

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pp.77-88. H. Seyrig, "Antiquites Syriennes. Antiquites de la necropole d 'Emese I", Syria 29 (1952),

pp. 12-24. J. M. C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World, (London, 1971). S. Walker, Memorials to the Roman dead, (London, 1985). J. B. Ward-Perkins, "The Imported Sarcophagi of Roman Tyre", BMusBeyrouth 22 (1969),

pp. 109-145. J. Webster, "Roman imperialism and the post-imperial age", in: J. Webster, N. Cooper

(eds.), Roman imperialism: post-colonial perspectives, (Leicester, 1996).

Atiqot: ANWR II:

Bar BS: BMusBeyrouth: IRA:

Jerusalem Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt. Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung Bar British Series Bulletin du Musee de Beyrouth (Beirut) Journal of Roman Archaeology (Ann Arbor)

Funerary structure I

BEY 022 sn2

BEY 022 snl

Funerary structure IV "",'\

'\ '. ,,' \ \ ,," \ ,

L. DEJONG

o ---N - -

\ " ,_ tbree graves \ \ ,/'

, , y

Fig. 1. BEY 022 snl and BEY 022 sn2.

305

500 em

......I

306

.'

ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

o

Fig. 2. Funerary structure 1.

250 an .......!

L. DEJONG 307

Fig. 3. The elevated construction and wall 4 on the right, photo by H. Curvers.

--- - coverslab

---- --- - - Upper compartment

Lower compartment

bedrock

Fig. 4. Section of grave 5 (sketch).

308 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

----N

Fig. 5. Funerary structure II, youngest phase.

L. DEJONG

-----N

o !

Fig. 6. Funerary structure II, oldest phase.

309

2S0CM !

310 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTlCES IN BEIRUT

-----N

o ,

Fig. 7. Funerary structure III.

250 em ,

L. DEJONG

03 015

05

~9 Y t {Q 010

014 .- -- 021

Fig. 8. Objects of the Kanthari burial-site: glass unguentaria 03 and 05 (I: 2); golden earrings 07 and 010 (1: 1); golden facemask 015 (1: 2) ;

golden ring 014 (1: 1) and lead envelope 021 (1: 2).

311

312 ASPECTS OF ROMAN BURIALPRACTICES IN BEIRUT

Fig. 9. Sarcophagus 2 (top) and sarcophagus 3 (1: 20).