T_I

As a result, -Assistant Secretaly of War Hou'ard Peterson encoulaged large Private associa

tions such as the Rockeleller foundation, the Carncgie Endorvment fbr International Peace, the

Arnericirn Council lbr Education. the Social Sciences Research Council, the Associätiou ofAmerican Colleges, the Amer ican Federation of Labor and Inany others to parLiciPirte in the U S.

edticational nissiott in Austtia by providing "scholarships, training oPPortunities ibr specialists

and experts, lunds fot maintenance or tlansPortation, or any special project that is considered

appropriale for.this progran.r."'The objective was to overcome the "Nazi heritage" and (ierman.v's

and Austria! speciai isolatiotr; to establish cu]tural contacts; and to reviYe "visits ofGermans and

Austriaüs to the Uniled States'l$ The Acting Chief of the State DePartmellt's German Ausltian13ranch, Eugene N. Anderson, a tbr met Advisory Committee staff n-rember, noted ir'l a nelnoran

duln in April 1946 that the program lvas intended to be imPlenented in this democtatic manner

because a "too rigid program night dct'-eat its o\\'rl purposel'e

A confldential report by the Departntent of State specilicd the requirenlents candidates lläd

to nreet in order to qualily lbr a six to twelve nonth stay in the United States. Al1 candidates

shor-rld of course be carefirily selected rvith special interest being focused on individuals of otit-

standing plornise in the iields of education, religion, or Pubiic opinion: "Only such persons rvill

be selccted for this program as carl be expected 1o play Part in the revjval ofAustrian cultural life

and in Austrian democratic reconstrtlction. [...] Prelerence will be Siven to persons who have

demonstratecl their opposition to Nazism and their belief in democratic princiPlesl"0 This shilt

ilr U.S. reorientaliorl policy torvard a poiitical mjssion that $'as better linanced and increasingly

governed by the State L)epartmel]t lri]ned at achieving Iong-term intellectual-spirituai ren$r'al

and economic recovery and rvas in this respect not just a product of the Cold !!hrL'T he original idea for a postwar reeducation program for Germanl' (and subsequently also lbr

ALrstria), consisting of clenaziflcation through Ieeducation to Promote democratic behaviol and

including "inlernationirl fellox,shiP and exchange,"Lr dates back to a broad intellcctrtal discussiott

among An.rerican scholars and eclucators at coileges and universities that began in 1939/'10. The

threat of a total war ar'rd the suppression of tlee thought and individual fieedom in the Axis

countries, including a higlrly aggressive anti Americanisn, provoked an iltense debate on how

to defend democracy soon afier the beginning of World lVar IlIn the rvords of Nicholas Murray llutler, president of Columbia University' the delense of

democracy lvas a "problem of eclucation': "ll we lvould protecl democracy" he it'tsisted' "we mLlsL

learn to clefend it. We must also learn to advance il, and this defense and advance ntust conre inthe denrocratic rva,v, the dernocratic sPirit. That is why it is a problen ofeducation. ""

'fhe lhking of education and democracy trnd reflections on the ethical and moral roots ofAmericar societ)' soon evolved into a broad public debate and led to ptograms sucl.) irs "Educatiorl

lor Victory" and "Edlrcation in \^Iartinc"r' that $'ere overseen by the U.S. Waltime Col'[]1]ission

One important side elfect 01'thjs "identity negoliation" on the U S. dolrestic lront was the emerg

ing debate about holv to rvin the peace atier the end of \{bdd \\rar II by applying an aPProPriate

reeducation procedure to bring the "ntentall,v ill"Li Germans back into the lbld ofpeacefirl nations.

ln this ongoir.rg debirte, edtLcational considelations overlapped with sociological and psychi-

atric reilections on reeducatiolt, whereby the latter $'ere soon to be picked up by U.S military

seclet service agencies like the Office of \\rar Informatiolr (OWl) or Lhe Oftice of Strategic Ser

vices (OSS).Lr' lhe contributions to this intellectual discussion ranged from highly differenLiated

scholarl,v consideratior,s (K. Lervirl, L L. Kandel, G. N. Kefauver' \\{ X{ Kotschnig, Charlotte

llühler, Richard M. Brickner, O. H. lvlowrer Margaret Mead et al ) to harsh ideologicai con-

cepLs and punitive plans.r: lbe botton lirle, horvevel rvas a "well-thought out, thorougll Planof reeclucation. ol lcculturing" ' rvhich, alongsidc the Atnerican roLe tnodel that Postulated thc

zeitgeschichte 1 I 39. )ahrgang / 2012

relationship between democracy and education, emphasized the necessity of self-responsibility::iiri. *ulning ao., not neecl to bear the stigma of'education" because a job is to be done' ajob

; ";o|;,ü in the interest of Germany li coulcl be demonstrated there and experienced first

huna ti"t a"-o.."cy works better.' If strategically managed' such training on the 'job ofleaders

uni truirr"r, ofl.uders might well reach into every aspect of community Ieadership lt might helP

to set in motion a Process of self-reeducation "'t

With the inten;ification of the Col<t War, all reorientation programs after 1947148 were

intended to directly affect People's attitudes and beliefs The genuine humanistic and pacifist

ia"u, of S"n"tot I. w Fulbright' who intended "to erode the culturally rooted mistrust that sets

,r"tlo.r, uguinrt one anotherl"o became secondary to the main thrust of U.S anti-communism

with its eÄphasis on containment and psychological warfare "witn the passage of the Smith Vuttdt ett (United States lnformation an Educational

Exchunge Act, lobllc Law 402)' on January 27, 1948, the 80'h Congr-ess set in motion a program

that faäitated .tducational exchange _ not cultural penetration.",, And shortly after, the new

head of reorientation of OMGUS, iermun B. Wells, presented his concept for a "Development

of an Organization in the United States to SuPPort a Cultural Exchange Programi'"

Frarrl<'G. Wisner, Deputy to the Assistant Secretary for Occupied Areas in the DePartment

of State, responded to the Undersecretary of the Army that the measures envisioned in the

proposal found the State DePartment's approval and the exchange of persons program should

it-"r't pro-ptty. It is noteworihy that he observed that the exchange program should be seen as

un ini.gr"i purt of an extensive U S. reorientation endeavor implying already-existing Projects

ffo, inriu.r.", on the basis of the Fulbright Act and Smith-Mundt Act) The Project should "be

p."r"nt"d u, p"tt ofa g"neral program fJr all occr'tpied territories desiSned to advance the reedu-

cation and democratization of local populations"']a

Wisner, an expert in psychological warfare and already on the payroll ofthe Office for Policy

Cooriinuiion tcipcl i" ti,e ne,ily founded CIA' indicated quite clearly what the ultimately

"ty-r."it."f rationale of all future exchange programs would be: the primary purpose of

exchange programs was not to encourage ebullient exchanges of exPerience and opinions on a

-"n ur"uu'* üur ,o specifically influenc-e the populace as well as the leaders through the "supe-

riority of the IAmeriian] method' as Henry Ford II, president ofthe Ford Motor Company' Put

itinhis..freedomPlusoPPoltunity,,,5theory'AlthoughU.S,reorientationtalgetedallbranchesof society, the culiural et.hang" of persons, such as the "Visiting. Experts Program] aimed

.rpri.iari "

,tri,*;, *hich were".head_hunted,,by American authorities rather than recruited by

i"i'irg Jppfi.a a irte program of their own volition 16 It was hardly astounding that this t)?e of

,"l..tion pro,rok"d "riiical

com-ents from educators, who in public debate "cautioned averse to

using higher educatlon as a conscious device for the achievement of immediate political goals""

Iieolägicatly backed by the Truman Doctrine (March 1947)' the control and enforcement of

reeducatiän mätters after ihe Czechoslovak coup d'dtat of 1948 became a domain ofthe office for

lotJf Coorainu,ion and the Psychological Warfare Branch Based on,the premise of a possible

warwiththesovietUnionoritssatellites,initallyaltruisticideasof'tivilianexchange"transformed into deliberate weaPons of anti-communist Propaganda ln the western occuPation zones

oic"r-uny "nd

Austria - both key military areas - as well as in the other European countries'

the ideological objective was to ensure pro-western or pro-American attitudes and to eliminate

anv communist influence.'?3"',F; itt onward, the .Advisory commission on Education Exchange",' continuously

pniilrn"a Uoon.t, in which the id"ological component of cultural exchange was bluntly statedr

'Although hostilities cea

not be won by military 'coercion of men's mindsTherefore, trading or sel

cialists, teachers, and stu

critical thinkir.rg skills. tconstructiYely and with(

In a speech given to

President Truman expla

importance as "armed s

to a worldwide anti con

channels.ri At the outsel

task 1...1 is to present th(

unconvinced. [... ] We m

This worldwide camlof the total effort to me

the exponential growth {

in terms of dollars, was

1949 budget and first fucooperations the progr!

with philanthropic orga

National Bank, Nationa

US. Steel, Ford, Americ

Compared to broadr

equipment of U.S. Infor

small enterprise. DurinlStates on U.S. gmnts, an(

ans had visited the U.S.

1960/61, another 144 A

visited the United States

Seeking additional fu

gram, Secretary of State

13, 1950, that outlined r

Educational Exchange p

sivd' in order to offset S

USSR now border on o1

to [the] foreign policytruth is essential ifthe I

Concomitant with tlentation programs that

hearted Americansl'Wiistration of the DepartrBut, peace has never be

than guns. [...] We neet

all, the whole free work

have made the free wor

zeitgeschichte 1 / 39Chtistian H. Stifter, Paradigms of U'S- Reorientation

'AlthoLrgh hostilities ceased in 1945, in a sense we are still at 1{ar a war o[ideas which can-

not be won by militar,v rveapons. Antifieeclom lbrces, advocating censotship, suppression, and

coercion of nens minds, are attacking lhe United States' motives, principles, and rvay of life."r"'lherefore, trading or sellilg icleasr thr-ough petsonal contact and "erchlnge ofprutessnr'. 'pe-cialists, teachers, and students" rvas to lead to subsequent benefits even with legard to developing

critical thinking skllls. Those "u,ho have returned and still criticize us do so with knorvledge,

.orrsrru. tively JnJ \^ rlhoul rJnco;.In a speech given to the Americar Newspaper Publishers Association on April 20, 1950,

President 'fruman explair-red that inlormation polic,v äom now on $'oulcl be of the same vitalin'lportance as "armed strength or economic aid."rr This "Campaign of Trulh'r' would irnountto a worldu'ide anti-communist propaganda crusade that encompassed all available media and

channels.r' Al the outset of the Korean Whr, f'rurnan explaincd the campaign as lbllou's: "Our

task l. . . I is to present thc lruth to the miilions of peopie who were uninlbrmcd or misin formed orunconvinced. [. ..1 \{'e rnust make ourselr'es heard round the world in a great carnpaign oftruth."J"

This rvorldlvicle campaign $.as "not onl,y a sharp step up in operatiorls but also a redirectionol the total eflort to meet the Soviel challengei'r; Secretar)' of State Dean Acheson emphirsized

the exponential grorvth ofexpenses by poiilting to lhe expanded 1951 program which, measured

in terms of dollars, was tq'o and a half times greatel than in 1950 and t'bur times the size of the

1949 budget and first lull yeirr ofoperations under Public Larv 402 not 1() nention nun'rerous

cooperations the program agenc.v lnlorrnalion and ldLrcational Exchange (USIE)r$ organized

with philanlhropic organizations (Rockefeller, Carnegie) and public enterprises such as Chase

National Bank, National City llanl<, E. R. Squibb International, Remington Rand Cooperation,U.S. Steel, Ford, American Express, Standard Oil and others.r'

Compared to broadcasting (VOA), films, leatlet production, book translation, magazines,

equipnent of U.S. Infbrnation Centers etc., the exchange of persons program was a relativelvsmall erlterprise. During 1950/51,916 lbreign students from 50 countries arrived in the UnitedStates oD U.S. grlrnts, and 65.1 American students departed Jbr 23 courltries.''r By 1955, 634 Austrians had visited the U.S. through the "lixchange of Persons Program,"rr and betrveen 1950/51 and

1960/61, another 1.14 Austrian Fulbright grantees ("visitirTg lecturers" and "research scholars")

visited the United Slates: 16 women and 128 nen.|Seeking additional funds lior] Congress fbr the Informatkrn and Educational Exchange Pro-

gram, Secretary of State I)ean AchesoD distrjbuted a conficlential memotandum on Septenber13, 1950, that otLtlined a nerv ideolog,v From norv on, the rvhole United States lntbrmation and

Educational Exchange program (USIE) rvas to be embedded in the overall "Psi,chological Ofien-sive" in order to offset Soviet propaganda. Achcson insisted that "... propaganda activities of the

USSR now border on open psychological rvarfäre against the Frce \\brld and are a major threatto lthel fbreign policy objectjves of the United States 1...1 a psychological oflensive based on

truth is esscntial if the United States is to succeed iü its foreign polic,y objectives."rl

Concomitant with the armarrent of NATC) carne a nilitarization of rhetotic in U.S. reori-entation programs that strcssed the "need t'br lthel armament of ideas" with "no place for halt--

hearted Amelicansl' WilsoD Compton, an oflicial in the U.S. International lnforrnation Adninistration ol the l)cpartment of State, observed: "\\rars have been rvon by atms and almalnents.ßut, peace has never been won that rval', 11e1 kgp1. | . .. ] In the long run, ideas are nore powerfitlthan guns. [... ] \{e need an arrnament ofideas as t'ruch as we ireetl an armament ofguns. Above

all, the ivhoie free world reeds a spiritual rearmament, a renerved allegiance to the ideals lvhichhave macle the free rvorld liee, n'hich are vital to keep it fieei'!

zeitgeschichte 1 / 39. Jahrgang / 2012

In a nationwide broadcast on December 23, 1953, Wilson Compton from the Department

of State stressed that the struggle for men's minds, the "crusade of ideas" is "not a .job but a

missiori'- a mission obviously already won in Vienna: "fwo weeks ago I visited our modest

Information center on a prominent corner in vienna. lt was crowded overcrowded. I saw two

young men who coul<lnt find a place to sit down using the wall as a'table'on which to copy

f.o-"ro-" well-thumbe<l magazines. During that day 3,851 persons used the United States

Information Center in Vienna. A few blocks distant, the Soviet Union has a large building

which houses the Soviet Union Information Service. Its library and exhibits are very attrac

tive in appearance. But there were fewer than 40 Persons in the library at that time Strangely'

the wide itreet in front of the Soviet Information Center was that day being taken over as a

convenient market for the sale of christmas trees, a curious Paradox. But the viennese always

have had a sense of humor."45

3. N on-interference instead of Reeducation:The Role of the U.S. Education Division at Austrian Universities

u.s. reorientation in Austria after worid war lI had several fields of intelest. According to

the Handbook for Military Government Austria (April 1945), the primary concern in the

realm of intellectual reeducation was in cultural and educational realms. Since the "Nazi Party

has established the same internal and external contlols which are exercised in Germany" in

Austria, the diagnosis of the problems in Austria was correspondingly seYere: "So comPlete

has been the Nazi permeation of education at all levels and in all fields that it is difficult to

say u'here Nazification leaves off and education beginsi''o Therefore, Postwar planning for

a äemocratic reorientation in Austria developed "in close connection with German affairs'

problems,"'7 although there were major differences between the general intent of occupation

between Austria and GermanY.

Furthermore, it was neyer the poticy of the united States Forces Austria (usFA) "to reform

Austrian education by proposing or enacting new legislation, creating new kinds of schools'

or other educational devices, setting up new schemes of administration and control which

are unfamiliar to Austrians or clearly out of line with recent (uP to 1938) Austrian thought in

educational matters.".,s This was especially true with regard to Austlian univelsities, which had

a tradition of autonomy and self-administration, "with the rectors and deans elected by the

faculties and only nominal control by the Ministry of Education:'"

As noted by Dieter Stiefel in his study on denazification in Austria, in I945 more than two-

thirds ofall Austrian university professors and lecturers had been affiliated with the NS regime

and were still intact simply because they remained in their positions at the universities and had

not been expelled by Austrian authorities. Either they started theil carliers after the Anschluss,

were beareri of Nazi ideology, or were listed as members ofthe NSDAP or its subsidiary organ

izations.'0 According to an OSS rePort, most of tlle remaining deans and tenured professors at

the University of Vienna had conservative reactionary backgrounds Furthermore' the dena-

zification of students carried out by the student union was inadequate and allowed ex-Nazis

to enroll. 5l Therefore, Postwar Austrian scholarship took place on an academic ground zero "one would therefore expect u.s. military occupation forces in Austlia to seriously attemPt

to encourage a complete make-over of Austrian academia and to shift it towards a more

clemocraticlodel, but the restoration ofthe Austrian university system took place without any

substantial direct influel

Division not only foilowdefend and protect the a

to be a hindrance to a tlDenazification as wel

priority. The Allied cortrian Universities discu

universities (mostly Poiltives in these gremia Pr(University of Vienna rei

Almost no efforts w

were expelled bY the A

Austrian authorities nc

ing in light of the fact t

Austrian universities a

Austrian scholars and tr

occupationi''6It appears that the U

ble and harmonious rel

with their Austrian cou

Ludwig Adamovich or I

criticism and point out

the formation of "autoc

A curious note abou

education thought abor

Samuel H. Williams, C

ary docto{ate by the U

Austian universities, l

a far less autocratic hi{

exert financial and PolHowever. Martin F

about the parochialisna secret internal reporl

is the bulwark of th

Minister Hurdes hirDr Hans Pernter, a 1

member of Parliamt

powerlul single ofür

controls university a

must be charged to l

The most Pronoundemic systerl came fi

Anderson who, after a

the first victim of thei

zeitgeschichte 1 / 3't0 Christion H. Stifter, Paradigms of U.S. Reorientotion

substaltial dircct influence by U.S. authorities. ln lict, the various heads oi the U.S. !,dLtcation

Division not onll lollo\\,ed a strjct rlon inlel-ference policy;ir they even went out oftheir rvay tcr

delend and protect the autonoml- of Austrian buleallcrircies thnt the State Depirrtment deemed

to be a hinclrirnce to a thorough deDazificatiorr.lDenazificatiou as lveLl as the appoilrtment oi university teachers was Dot seen as a matler oi

priorit). The r\llied Council and Lhe Quadripartite Sub-Comn.rittee on Denazification in Aus

trian Universilics discussetl evidence of the lingering intluence of Nazi ideolog,v at Austrianuniversities (mostl,y pointed out by lhe Soviet occupational authorities) but the U.S. represenLa

tives in lhese gremia predominantly took the side of the Austrian Nljnistr,v of Education or theUniversity ol Viennir regarcling all accusations.

Alrnost no effbrts were undcrtaken to bring back those Austlian acadenic 6nigrds, whorvete expelled b,v the Austrofascist and the Nazi rcgimes in 193,1 and 1938, neither b,v the

Austrian authorities nor the U.S. Education llivision.:' lhis onission is all tl.re more strik-ing in light ofthe fact thal lhe U.S. Educirtion Division ]rad declared it a priorit.v to assisl the

Auslrian universities and the Ministly of -Eclucaliolt "in establishing comrnunicatior $'ithAustrian scholals and tcirchers u'ho rn'ere forced to leave the countr,v during Lhe perJod of Nazi

occupationl'ir'It appears that the U.S. oiTicers in charge ofeducational policy pret-erred to cultivate amica

ble and harmonious relationships - one is tempted to say "typically Austrian'in this context -\\,ith their Austrian counlerparts irt universitY and governmental levels (tbr exampie, u,ith l)eanLudwig Adarr.rovich or Sefttlonscüef fDirector General] Otto Skrbensky) rather than to lesort tocriticism and pojnt oLlt "unconrfbltnble truths'l and these kinds ofrelationships coDlrjbuted tothe lbnnation of "autochthonous parochiaLisn"': lvithin Austrian acadetnta.

A curious notc aboLrt how otficers ofthe United States Forces Austria responsibie for highereducation thoughl about the Austrian universit)r s,ystem is to be tbund in an inte ral repo.t by

Samuel H. Willians, ChieI oi the llducation Division. ;' Williarns, rvho rvas al'arded an honoL

ary doctorirte bv the University of \rienna, cherishecl the efficier.rcy and economic planning at

Austrian unive[sities, the respectful interactions anlong universitl personnel, and n]oreovera iar-less autocratic hierarchy lvhen comparecl to Arrelicali colleges, rvhete presidents rvouldexert financial and political pressure averse to academic lreedom.it

Horveve4 Nlartin i-l llerz, Politicirl Officer of the U.S. Legation Vienna, had no illusionsabout the parochialisn of the Ausuian i\linistry of Education. "This ministr)'l' Herz stated jn

a secrel internal report,

is the bulwark ol the Cartellverbanr.l la conservative union of Catholic fraternities] since

Nlinister l-lur.des himself is an Alter Herr fC\r meirber]. Actively cooperating with him is

Dr. Hans Pernter, a Ibrmcr N{inister ofEducation under Dollfuss and Schr.rschnigg, preserrt

menrber of Parliament and chiei oi"cultural irlläirs' of the People'.s Party. Perhaps the nlostpo$,erlil single olhcial, horvevet is Sektionschel- l)r. C)tto Skrbcnsb', a CV n.reniber $4rcr

controls urliversity appointinents. Part, at least, ofthe appalling decline ofAust|ian learningmLLst be charged to the naLLolvly conservative orientatior oftliese personalities.r'0

The most pronounccd criticism leveled against narrorc mindedness in the Austrian irca-

demic systern came from observers ancl U.S. exchange experts from abroad like Eugene N.

Anclerson rvho, atjel a visit in 1949, reported that "the Gernran arld Austrian academicians are

tlie first victinl ol their own intellectual trailring."u]

zeitgeschichte 1 /39. Jahrgang /2012 11

4. Exchange of Persons Program and the Attitudeof the USACA Education Division

After announcing the establishment ofan "interchange ofpersons ptogram" on March 31' 1947'

the Reorientatio; Branch ofthe CAD as weil as the corresponding civilian agency in the Depart-

ment of State, the German-Austrian Branch (with Acting Chief Henry ) Kellermann) received

many requests by Private Aust an individuals interested in studying in the United States 6':

In cooperatlon'with educational and phllanthropic institutions in the United States such

as Haverfärd college in pennsylvania,6r the National student Association, the lnstitute of Inter

national Education in New York, or the Guggenheim Foundation, which sponsored triPs to the

U.S,, Austrian students established first contacts with Columbia University,6{ Stanford Univer-

sity,65 and MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) 84 Austrian students enrolled for the

summer term of 1947.66 All students and scholars had to be approved byboth the DePartment of

State and the Department ofthe Army.67

However, cooPeration between Washington and the US Education Division in Austria

proved to be difficult. In SePtember 1947, the Civil Affairs Division at the DePartment ofState

pointe<l out that it had not yet received any proposal for exchange candidates under the auspices

of,h" "Vlri ing Experts Piogram for Austria."6s Thomas E Benner,6' who suceeded William

FeatherstoneTo as Chief of the US. Education Division in Austria in lanuary 1946' made an

attempt to develop more activities in the realm of cultural exchange His efforts revealed both

the mindset of some of the U.S. authorities responsible on site as well as a very special tlpe of

collaboration with the Austrian Ministry of Education

when Benner intended to reactivate contact with the'Austrian UniYersity League" in view

of the upcoming cultural exchange programs, he sent a proposal to William Featherstone' who

,"u, "lro

for-"r-presldent of thai "ieague." However, Featherstone was neither convinced pre

viously, nor at that time, that this would make any sense ln his reply to Benner' he stated in a

rather casual argumentative manner: "Perhaps by the time you receive this' the Moscow crowd

will have decidä on something regarding to Austda and you will be making plans to wind uP

your work there. The indications are not too favorable at present, but I still hope for the best l;till think that Austrians would get along better if we all went home and allowed them to work

out their own problemsi'7'

Then Benner took the initiative by contacting the Association for the Advancement of Sci-

ence at the Smithsonian Institute in Washington in 1947: "At my request a committee ofAustrian

scholarshaspreparedtheenclosedlistofthemostprominent,activescholarsinAustriaatthepresent time. 1...] In addition it seems to me most desirable that contacts between American

and Austrian scholars be restored, as rapidly as possible in the interest both of scholarship and

of assisting in the <lemocratic reo entation of Austrian education which was liberated two years

ago from tle Nazi regime."7'? Perhaps as a reaction to the riots at the UniYersity ofVienna during

tÄe first student government elections in November 1946, which were Provoked by Nazi agita-

tion at student m-eetings,Tr Benner came up with the idea of compiling an 'Austrian Who's Whol'

He suggested that Dean Adamovich prepare a list of"leading scholars" to foster contacts between

AustriÄ and U.S. scholars for the duration of occupation This list was to include scholars' edu-

cational leaders, adists, librarians, learned societies, libraries and institutions Ta

Approved by the U.S. Education Division, the final list designated 47 Austdan scholars for

the exchange of p...on, program, including eight already retired-professors Ts Among them

*"r" r..,,"r"-i indivi<luals with histories ofvarying degrees ofNazi collaboration such as Leopold

Schönbauer,;6 Hans Plani

Arzt,8' Alfred Verdross D

during the Austrofascist rAll appointments for €

the Austrian Ministry ofU.S. non-inteference in I

For instance, in Iuly l

General) Skbensky, one

heard that a certain Maxthe past year: "For some

Austria, and it was nevel

an Austrian school. Hadcontacted the Ministry f(extension ofhis visa untilEducation gives its appror

Mahler and Arnold Schc

origin, who managed to ,

at the New School for So,

in Pittsburgh.as

This kind of collaborato a controversy shortly al

of persons program for 1

dents to the United State

Allied Council Austria" (lappointed an exchange-cr

such as the Chief ofthe Iaccordance with the menvalue of sending to the L

wide influence on their rr

But the head of the Ialarmed when an initialdates. The American Leg

USACA had referred to trassment to all concernel

iatory solution that woulsimultaneously expressin

those cases. At any rate, trejection of well-klown 1

cussed by the Austrian as

community has accepted

may produce more than :

ln order to determineAustrian experts visitingCivil Affairs Division at

policy ofthe U.S. authorir

Socialist backgrounds w(

zeitgeschichte 1 i 39.Christian H. Stifter, Porodigms of U.S. Reorientotion

Schönbaueq:6 Hans Planitz,-: lhssilo Antoine,-r Ernst Schönbauer,.', Richard N4eisteLN,r LeopoldArzt,'' Allred Verdross l)rol3bergsr and last but not least Ludrvig Adarlovich hintself, r,vhoduring the Austrofascist regime had occupied high positions.sr

Ail appoir, tments for exchange of leaders, teachers, and scholars had to be approved first b),the Austriän lvlinistr). of Ilducation. The muLual goodrvill that had been created in part due toU.S. non interference itl Austrian ar:ademia matters led to sonte\,vhat utlconventional bargaining.

l:-or instancc, in luly 1948 Sarnuel Williams wrote to the Austrian Mirtsfe,.ldlr,if (DirectorGeneral) Skrbenskl', one of the executive oflicers in the Ministry of Educatiou, that he had justheard that a certain l\1ax Grafhad been teaching at the HochschLrle for Musik in Vienna duringthe past yezrr: "for some reason or other this DjvisioD was not infornted of Graf's entry intoAustriir, and il lvas nevel called upon to approve the employment of an American citizen inan Austrian school. Had the matter been brought to lny attention, I should have inrtediatelycontacted the N{inistry tbr an opiuion before making any decision. Graf has now asked for anextension ofhis visa untii tlre end ofDecenber, and \\'e wjll not extend it unless the Ä4inistry ofLlducation gives its approval."3r In fact, the American Nlax Gral who was acquainted with GustavMahler and Arnold Schönberg, rvas a highly respected Viennese born musicologist of fewishorigin, who managed to emigrate to the United States in 1938, u,here he subsequently lecturedat the New School for Social Research in New York and at the Carnegie Institute of lechnologyin Pittsburgh.sl

This kind of collaboration belween the U.S. Education L)jvision and Austrian authorities ledto a controversy shortly afier the release ofa State Department directive concerning the exchangeofpersons prograiu for Austria. lhe 1950/51 lruclget provided fbr the visit of 150 Austria]r students to tlle United States. ln May 1949, the director and deputy director. of the "United StatesAllied Council Austria'(USACA) considered this program ofgreat importance irnd immediatelvappointed an exchange committee \,\'ith Deputy I)irector \,Vhiting as chairman along \\,ith other.s,such as tl.re Chiefofthe Ilciucation Division. ll.re U.S. Legation in Vienna declared its "completeaccordance 1\'ith the utemorandum in its entphasis upon the importance ofreorieutation and thelalue of sending to the United States persons n'hose promise and lields of activity will give thervide inlluence on their reLultr to Austrial'Nr'

But the heacl of the An.rericzrn Legation in Vienna as r,vell as the director of USACA u,erealarmed when an initial list $,as circulated that again named eminently problematic candiclates. The American l-egatiorr in Vienna infbrrned the Departnent of State that the Director ofUSACA had referrcd lo tr,vo candidates "$'here ciearances have become nlatters of great embar-rassmenl to all concer nedl' In gauging the situation, the American Legation proposed a conciliatory solution that lvould take the idiosyncrasies of the Austrian situation into account, lvhilesimultaneously cxpressing concern about the possible consequences of making concessions inthose cases. At any rate, thc Austrian Legation stated that it seented to be obvious "that the [ha]rejection ofwell-knowrl per.sorls 1{hose plans for visiting the United States have been vridley dis-cussed blr the Austrian associates may be productive ofconsiderable threat. [...] lf, bonever. theconrnlunity has accepted the individual despite some infbrtunate past connections, his rejectionnlay produce mole than Dtomentary en1birrrassment."r:

ln order to clctermine the "policy relative to a problem rvhich has arisen in cot.ulection withALLstrian experts visiting U.S.," Lhe U.S. Legatiol't in Vienna asked the Departn]ent ofState and theCivil Aftäirs Divisiolt at the Wa1 Deparhent for'guidance" since the "previousl,y determined"policv oftlre U.S. authorities ir Auslria stressed "tltat individuals with any semblance ofNationalSocialist backgrounds u'oulci not be considcred."'*

zeitgeschichte 1 139. Jahrgang /2012 13

As disclosed by the rePort ofthe Austrian Legation' the two individuals mentioned above fell

into this very category. A.cordittg to a äiC'"poit on" ot tt.t" two exchange candidates applied for

NSDAP party membership in f s+0 unJ*u' "'dtitted

in 1941 "with Membership No 9'030 000:'

Iurthermore, he was a suPporting-rn"rnbt' of the SS for two months in 1938 (Membership

No. 1,400.000).3'""H;;;..,,;" canditlate "for whom considerable Pressure is beingörought to bear by inter-

estedusFAstaffsections"ndArrrtrl"nagencieslasthelepoltfurthernoted'wasgrantedapre5idential amnesty in lune t'l+' i; theiourse of Austrian denalilicdlion proceedings "a' a

les. implicaled Per\on. "'Since n" *u' fu'aonta by the Au'trian Pre'ident Theodor Körner' thit

rlrnnamedtindiridua] rvn'tuffy t"'ro""J to former Posilion as head ola medi'rl clinic in the

lil'l:'*'Jü;;::: ;';;;;t,,;. ;"s deemed to be "highlv recommended" bv the ornciais

;il;üö ;a"*il or"iti"t, tn" Surgeon of the united states Forces Austria' the Austrian

Ministrv of Education u, *"ll u' "uy lnu'iy influential Austrian,medical circles and individualsl"'*lliä:

ärö."-"ä "" tit' aätt""'issue' the American Legation as well as the u S Educa-

tion lit idon iäpficitly took a position that reflected both the convenience of the Austrian way

^f.nninswirhrheDaslandtf'"nustrionpropen\ityloarguein'trictlylegallermcthatnolonl),-;äJ",;;';|.;';J'-r"r"iil'n 'r'tpptp'iai"'

nomine"' but also pleaded for exception' evetr

for ..leftist, candidates, t',"r.Uy "quli.g ikrem with Nazis as^risks:

iAlthough subject obYiously

;;ilr;;; ."t"g;ty pr"uio",ly d"tetmäetl to be ineligible for particiPation in visiting exPerts

;;;;, ;,;;;;; i"-"-uti"'t tt'ni''nder Austrian iaw which the us has recognized' he has

been reslored lo fuii slalus in local profe'sional circles through his amnesty Question arise'

whether passive ParticiPation in J"rionul Socialist organizations -should

still be construed as a

barrier to inclusion in prolect at+. iie program Corimittee. [...] believes that, although basic

decision is in order' consideration might wetl-be given in,indrvidual,cases for inclusion ofpersons

with National Soclafirt o, f"tti't Uullg'o*a' fito can be counted uPon to rePresent their field

or Drotession adequately I Ji'""' ä: '"ä;;ää"iä,la i- P Irvin from the civil Affairs Division in washington as to how

the American authorities in Vienna were handling these cases was critical: "Purely by way of

advice, after checking with other interested officelwe give Program Committee the following

to consider: [ .] The German program' which is much larger in size than Austian program'

has never vet includ"d p""on tho""u' member ofNSDAP' iegardless ofwhether or not he was

*i:t;"J,i; ä;ä. t l Publicitv attendant to visiting Experts Program is a considera

ä"n.j;;;'il;;;,'6" o'"'Lor'"a one unsavorv case receiving wide publicitv in u s might

conceivably jeopardize appropriations for entire P;gram l l Doctors are in specially sensitive

position due to Pres"n." ot 'uU'tunlid "tt-Ut" "to"g""

aottors in this country CAD has found

that refugee doctorc in f<""'u', tot ln'tance' protesteä when-German doctor (who was no Nazi)

*1, "rrrg"t"Jrrt*"

,.-potutity uy l"ftit H"uttn p"opt"' under-visiting ExPerts Progran""

Due to the lack of sources it *nÄ'tunut"ty was not possible to reconstrucL how the whole

matter was finally s.ttt.a ffo*"ut', ii i''fui' ti u"ttrn"-tn"t the. U s officials on site followed the

"."i,1,n.d' oftheir suo"rio, uutttorlti", in Washington by withdrawing the nominations ofobjec-

,ä#ä.";;,;;;;irol" ,-rr"ltr,. u* ,Lis hardly"weu-thought-out and urtimaterv embarrassing

*"t "iit*äfttg .tftural and intellctual reorientation by the U S Education Division in Austria

;;l ;y ;; -";, "" isolated case There are a wide numüer of similar incidents'en and the course

of action the U.S' Education uivisio,' ro..'ti.'ely took in Austria Suggests that non-interference

was the paradigm fo. u.s ottup"tton to""' itt itt*ti" tutfttr than the exception' especially with

."gu.ä ,ä ,lt. tä,h", dubious reconstruction of Austrian academia'

Christian H. Stifter, Potodigms of lJ'S Reorientotion

5. Conclusion

The U.S. reorientation plans

simply products of the Coldentirely unaffected by the "br

crimes of the Nazi Regime.

In fact, the original reori

the U.S. starting in 1941, wh

postwar Germany and Aust

ment" $'as conceived to prev

develop a democratic mindsr

Axis countries.While U.S. reorientation p

cation to anti-communist pr

War tensiolls - U.S. authorit

tion that entailed gnduallyall National Socialist, reacti

manifestations in all educati

Adhering to a policy ofthe propagandistic "struggle

material benefits. One of th€

the unintended bolstering c

academia and the Austrian

chialism in the Austrian int(

Endnotes

I Reinhold Wagnl€itner Coca Col

l4.eliklieg (Urien: \trlag für G(

ganaa det atnerikafüsche Besat

Alfred Hiller Arrrlt/.dr,rctc M(Atnericanization, Westernizatiot

tion Publishers 2004)j losef Lei(

Östcfteich, 1914 t9,17. 2 Bde.,

Östefteich. Tra,ßdtlantische'Fit,2 l. P Munson, Col., General Sta

Harverford College. Pennsylvar

Micrafilm-Collectio Co gressia

tiot'al Refotnt Miüofilm Collect

3 lhe Comrittee was iistalled irheaded by Assistant secretary c

4 See Henry I. Kellermann, C lt,r

between the U ited States and (

U-S. Departmert ofState 1978)

5 "Longe Range Poljcy Statemen

bv the State War Na\ry Coordi

C.llectiön. I ^'223.6 SWNCC 269ls, quoted after a

State Publication 3556, 1950), !

zeitgeschichte 1 / 39. )al14

5. Conclusion

'll're tr.S. rcorientirlion plans as lr"ell as the exchange ofpersons plogranr with ALlstria \rere notsimply proclucts ol thc Colcl Wür ancl the prevailing antj comnunist consenslrs; ilor were theventirel,v unaffectecl b.v the "break ol civilizatioir" (Dar Diner) caused by the rutirless brutalitv andcrimes of the Nazi llegime.

In lact, the original reoricDlaljol] coDcepts daled back to iutemal peacekeeping debates inthe U.S. starting in 19.11, rvhen Americans lirst deliberated allout a democratlc reorlentatiolr ilrpostwar Gern]any irnd Arstria. A broad reorientatioi prograrn aimirlg at a'llentirl disarnarnent" nas conceivecl to plevent an),recLrlrence ofr:rcist thought and rnilitalv aggression, to helpdevelop a democr atic rrrinclset, irnd to establisir self-sufficient dernocratic beha\-ior in the fonnelA\is co!Ll]tries.

While U.S. reoricnLation policy eventlrallv shifted its emphasis liom leeducation and denazilication to anti-communist propagandir b,r- i9'17 - concommitant \\,ith the intensification of Cold\\iar tensioirs U.S. irullrorities in Austria pracliced a "solt" approach towilrd Austriiu reedlrcation that entailed gradualll disregarding the initially ambitious objective of tirlly eladicatingall National Socialist, reactionar)', and anti-dernocrirtic terdcncies ir1 Austr-ia, including theitnränifestirtions in all cducirtional aIrd acadcrric ilistilutions.

Adhering to a policv of strict non iirtert'erence, U.S. authorities in Austria decided to wirithe propagandistic "struggle tbr Austrian ininds" ir,v extending t'iiendlv support ancl providingnraterial benelits. One of the nrosl negative effects of this "arlicable," laissez faire paladigm was

the unintended bolsteriDg of the "olcl" restorati\.e or even reactionary tendencies in Alrstrianacirdemia ancl lhc ALrstr-ian univer-sity svstenl rvhjch, in turü, cor]triblrted to long lasting parochialism in the Austrian jntellectual iaDdscape."l

End notes

11'rrlll'! (\\icn: \'crlag tilr (;cselLs.haliskritik l99l), 170 passim. Scc iurthcr: Olircr R:rthkoib, Polilij.lr /Jr?l,r

ADntn0 i:.tjo]t, Ilrvdt;:,rrjrrr o/,.lerr/i,r. cd\. (;ill1rd Bi\.hol iDCt ADI(,r PeLnkr (Ne\! Bruns!ick, \l: TrrDsr.tiür Publislrcrs l00lJi loscl Lcidcntiost, ,ic .r rr.,-lk.r, i iJ.lr. 3.s, r:L, r.qsn d tltt üttd dct tstlirit d$ paljtis.ht L.tbtrls 'jÖstcttcrh. tin,\dtli tt:.hc Fuhiungt..'hnu: aufd.n G.bict( dcr Er.ichung." (l n ns b m.k: StLrd ie nle ag,l0ll).F-. P NlunsoD. Col., Clererrl St.rtl Corps, ll\ecutire to the r\ssrstaüt Secretnrl CrI \\Iar to Gilbert f. n'hite, Presi.lent,

t. n.l, , tJ. ,1 r ', 1,.rrrr \. ,\

heided b) Ass,slaDt Se.,clrrr ol Stare tir Public ,ind Cultu'al l.telation!,]\rchibald Nl.l-eisb.

l)tttr.en tht U]littd StLrlts n]ln (;.tr1latt, i 9.1-5 l95l (\\lshnlgi(Jl1 D.(1.: Bureau ol l..lli.aLlonrl lncl Cultural Alfrirs,U.S. L)cpartrncnr ot Strrc 1978), 22.''Longe ltrnge PoLicI StatemcDt tor GerDran ltr gdu.ation (a. S\\'r*CC -]69i b. SUr\CC 169/.i/D)l lXlcnror.rndunrbl the St.rte N.rr \r\l Coordrniting Subconnnittee lbr Europe, Appendix ß, 45) Ltlucdtio nl Relömt ntictttjlt)taiUc.tDr. I A 12l.S\fN(l(l :69/5, qtrotcd.tli.r (;.t,tn,f 1917 /919. ecl. \'elnrr Hr\Lings (llssid,! (\\'dshiDgt(r il.C.: Iletrrlnrent oiSt.tc Publi.ati(xl i5Sar. 1,150), 5,+ l

on zeitgeschichte 1 /39. Jahrgang /2012

'fs

t,

ß

rrt

€d

i)

1e

le

c'rg

ia

se

ce

th

t5

t7 HowardC. Peterson, Assistant Secretary of war to Rockefeller Foundation (andothers),26 June 1947, 1-2, quoled in

Educatio al Reform Micrct'iln-Callectian' 1'A 34'

iil.jl'"-.Anderson,DepartmentofstateLADol'Memorandum'toLeverjchandsPeier(forHilLdring)'sAPril1"i.. '. q'.r.4 n r,lu,aLionat Felorn U:'tatitma alb t'aa l \ 36

l0 'lnterchanqe of Persons betwe€n tbe Unrtei Stnies and Austrial' Confidential Release for Publication' Department

'" .f i;";".";i;; t!rr, i-2, q*,"a n iducatnnat net'arn MiüoJi1m cottectioll.' .2:A

233: see rurther: christian

H. stiftea Ä strlqgte t'ot Austriatl ^i'a*;-'i"ti"n""Sit'"ten' E;tuicktung.wld Wänderunl Lts'amerikanischer

Rpotielrtierlnss,Ko zepte und dercn ,*pir*"rir"r"ri, tgql i955. Daryestellt an Fdllbeispielen des akademisch

"r,r",,utu*,'*uar*,tad,' i' O!r'r'Pi" Di* Unv \\'en)01I -02 pi*r'1

11 Archibald Mac]-eish, + )ulv rras' I-ongeinang" lofny f"t C*rn* n"" dl'at\oi" 3' Educational ReJorn MiÜaJiln'

Collection, I'A 223

12 lcraysonN Kefauver], "Proposal for the Reconstruction ofEducation in the A-{is Countries'l School dnd Society 58'

6 Nov. 1943,180

t, ö'""i ":inla".gress

on Education for Democrac)'l' sc'dol a'dso'ietl50' 28 oct l93e 80

t4 Educational Policies Co,ntni"ion, Not'onut Saucation issociation of the United Statesand the American Association

";;il;;i;;;i;h,,",*"'rt'"suppo'to1:ii'ationi wartime (washjngton D c:Educational Policies commission'

,, l3i?"*_. *, ,n* ,he mass of rhe German peopre today are mentally ill. wh) should thev not be in? lhere wi

be memories to stalk the n"ir:fr, gfl*t' *'"i'"'" "'l u' "pp"*a' "'o'i"

oi slaughtmed women and children I" l

unsoeakable. memories to sicken the toughest rNndl Quoted rn Nes' york Trn'r Editorial 2T luli 1941

,.;::i;i:ä#;ätäa."^*""a'"rä""ver):rheP5)chrairkco-nceptuaLizatronorRe-educationrorGermanv"- i" ifl" Ü"',"a St"* auring worid war lll' Ge rman History t4' (311996)' 297 -324

.

17 Seer Ernst Bungensta t' U*u'i"nung 'u' i"-okratie? Re'-education Politik in Bildunlsy.e\c.n lcr l& .Zunc

t'.4s.:?'

(cutersloh: Bertetsmann universirärsverlag, r970),21 passim; see further; stifter,'A strtrP'gle for Austrian mrnds''

r. i'ol''llii'1r,,*0." "Prefacel' tuchard M Br ickner' Is Germanv I ctrable? (Philadephia New Yorkr lB Lippincott

aonrD.rn!, 19'll), l8

't i:,;i;-'r ine 'pe. a ' a'e or cermarr" rrblr' ootno" Quarc4l T rq4r) c66

20 L willjam FuLbrisht l1e69l, q,'"t'd i' ;:i;; c"i**"ig' -s*'"g th" world 3s othss se it: l' william Fülbrisht'

'" i";.;;";i;fi_:";;;e., ";; Ä. q*" f.. p" acet Fulbritu at rtfly. tustia Ameica Educatianal Exchanse tesq

2000, eds. Lonnie lohnsot *a I(-'t *ttgL"t fv*nna' A-ustrian-American Educational Commission' [2000])' 9

2r seel Robert E. Elder, rn" u4"r-^tio, ä|iie. The Ltnited states I t'atmation Age qr an.l American Foreign Palicf

(New York: Syracuse University Press 1968)' 36

22 International Educational Exchange. unä .siut",; eauiro.y commission and The Program of the DePartment of

State, "Department of State PubLication 3313"' In temational Int'atmation and Cuttu l Series 3'(M^rch 195I)' 3

23 .Howland H. Sargant to rfenry I relermann' 27 September li48' "Mr' wisneri Memo Regarding German Reorien

tation and the Occupation Sutural Assist-antiecretair,v' Box l' Record GrouP (RG) 59' National Archives' washington

D.C., (further quoted as: NARA II)'

2,1 Frank G. wisner' DePuty to the Assistant SecretaqT for Occupied Areas to William H Draper' Under Secretaryofthe

A.-. rq Feh,,r',r\ I94g'l t'du,a'ionat Relorr' M'"ot;141't otl" t on 2 \'45-

,r ;:;lt' ;;;' i ";;'t.r""'u.''i'.1 :"."a,"'onrur Peace dr.j rreedom ) Ru rt's Bo\12ö NARArr'

!; ;'ijil;ilili.".ia ,.r,-'a,, ärii,p ire b7 Co.option: Gernan American Exchdnse Programs as Cutturat

Diplor ,kcy,1945 1961. (PhD diss', Harvard Universitv 1999)' 138

1l ilit;]"]'t- ^ "-",

.i.h. rhe Djptamdcy of rdeas. u.s. forcisn poticy antl cukural rctations i e38- r e50 (cnmbridsei

Cambridge Universitv P*s", rss rl, r:; ;t; ';gu'a to tn'-poiiti.rui -a military context of U s occupation Policy

in Austria see oliver Ratr.r"rt, w"'r'l'gi" "1i ri' bn Us G;a!3',a&tpalit'k

.und ostefteich t9s3'I963 Mit Exknsen

zu ClA'WaIlenl(gen1, NA'O '**u'i'''

Ne'ttat'tatsaebauc (Vienu': Bohtau' l9q7)' and: Christian H Stiftet ilie

wiederaut'tüstltng Österrcichs Die genei;e nenilitarkienfug det westlichen Besatzungszonen 1915-1955 (Innsbruck:

Studienverlag' 1997)

29 This committee followed the already existing 'Commission for International Educational Reconstruction' of the

Americrn Council on Education

30Trndineldeas$,iththeworld'lnternationalEducationalandTechnicälExclrange.ReportoftheUnitedstatesAdvi,o-,, immr*ion on rl-e LduLalronal l\'h'rpe tl Mrr'\'q4q l

3r See: Laura A. tselmo,t", s"u,'s r/,. A;;;;; i"l ii ,-p"t""a" "nd the cot.l wat (Phitadelphia: universitv of

pennsvlvanja Press' 2008), 15 Passim'

32 rb\d.,24.33 Ricirard L. Breckea "Truth as,

Srt€rre 278 (November l95l),34 Truth Campaign. Counteract

3s See: David F. Krugler, flrd Vo'r

of Missouri Press, 2000), 96 9:

36 "Telling Americas Story abroa

nent oJ State Publimtian 407s.

37 Launching the Canpäign ofTlnternational Information and

Infornatian and Cultural Serie.

38 "Telling Americai Story abroai

39 "Launching the Campaign ofl40 Ihid. r8

4l Wagnleitner Coca Colonisdtto,,tr2 König, FrrtSescrt.lle. About

Progräm in Austria.43 Department ofState. "Psycbol(

44 "Crusade of ldeas [Address bStarel", Depattnent oJ State Pu

45 "Progress in the War ofldeas []Administration, DepfftmentoP blication 4858. International

46 Hatdbook for Militatl Govern

47 History ofthe United States El{

Hisioricnl File, Box 30, Folder,18 Supreme H$dquarters Allied

book, Draft, July 1944,9, RG 2

49 Unired Srates Allied Commissi

cal File, Box 3l/2s1, NARA IL50 See Dieter Stiefel, E rlrdzfizielsl Records of the Army Staff Ar

194s, I, RG 319 fEntry 851, Bc

52 Friedrich Stadler "Österreich r

Umgang mit dem Natiofiakozjü

dles S)'tnPosiutl 5. 6. Iuni 20A:

53 "Please be assured ihnt the Edr

tures at the Universjty without

[... ]l' USACA, Education DiviUniversity of Vienna Arcbives

s4 Chiel Civil Affarrs Division, vRG 165, Box 322, NARA ll.

s5 See: Christian Fleck, "Rückkeh

Vertlu ft L Emigratia und ErVolk 1987), 182 2l3i further:

Iizierung und Nicht-Rückkehr

Unis-scienceexile.pdf (30 Dec.

56 Thomas F.. Benner l0 March I

sity of Illinojs ArchiYes, Thom57 See Christian fleck, Autocht

nationalsozialistischen Herrscl(l/1996),67 passim.

58 SamuelH. Williams { 189:l-l9r

Williams led nany scientific e

to 1932 he led Amazons and (

Pittsburgh and honorary mem

zeitgeschichte 1 / 39. JaChristian H. Stifter, Paradigms of U S' Reorientation

16

!nll..1

ighl,

t-i{)

nl

5.,t,

;Itis?l

Lgt(n'

ln rl

ridge:

Idri

Ttian

rl Ibid.. .11.

S.l.r.c 2tS (No!curbcr 1951), Lll lruthCanlpaign.Countu'ra.tirropaganddl'lTrt,HdrrCorrtr',N.r,s-l-3,2;luli 195(1,1.

(n Ilissouri Pr.ss, 1000), 96 97.

"ßnt afStatc PlLbltüt | t 1075. htttük llk lltla tkxiD| tlnd Alrnil Stric-\ J.1. Xlarch 19i1,2

l;'l.aLrnchingtheCrnrp'rignolTrulh.FirstPhase.SjxthselniannualReportoftheSe.rctrnolStrtctoCongrcssonthcInternätionrl Inlo.nratioD aDd llducari(rrrl lxchange Prcg.an1: D.pdrtnßnt oi St,tt PubL atiotL 1375. hterntltjaünllnlt xtio" n,d (:ultü lSrrirJ19, Jul! I tol)e.enrbcr ll 1950, L

rs lcllxrg Ancri.a! story.rbroäd; 2

39 Launch,ng the {lirmtajgn ol Iiuthl r\ppcndir, 60.

l0 IbiLL.. 18.

ll $'.tgnlciln.r, (ir..r airo,r;- rmr, 195.

{: König, trliligc-r.lri.lt.. About dlirt} studcnts.rnd somc threc to llre s.hoolLc.r.hers r fc.rr dD(nled the fulbrightl'jrogram in r\ustria.

.11 DepartlnentolState,'PsvchologicalOttensiYe Contidentialll l3 Scptc|rbcr 1950, 1,ltc 59, Bo\ l;, NARA li.ll üusade (,1 Ideds IAddress bl \Vilsor Colnptoll. U.S. internalionni Inlbrlnation

^dlrlinistration. I)epartncnt ol

Starcl l Dq"rr,,.,r ., Slnl! Pubhartn,t ,696 I t|t dt(,al hfü1üatia n d Cuitur.lL Serk\ )5, September i952, 6.

,\dmrnrstration, l)epartrnent oi Stale, broadcast to a Nrtiorr üidc au.iicn.c Dc.crDbcr 23 19521'l Dtpa tn.)tL t)lSlnttI'ubikattn,1E5E. hto natla,nl htfalnntla, ll,rl Crlll!/dl Sc/icJ -10, 195-1, .1.

t6 Hd 'lboük 1.r,\,hlirrry (;orü,t c,ti Aunrir, Afril I915.chap. 12.L

1; His or) otthc L-nitc.l Strtcs Elcmcnt. Allicd (lo n)issh11Austrir.lrorrilsOrigintoliDe.eDrberl9ll,i;,RG2a,Hisrorical filc, Uon 30, Foldcr 25 t, NAItA IL

{S Supreme Ileadqual1ers Allied Expeditionlrr ]orccs, G'5 Division (SH,{El:/C-5/P(iS/l:$d/558/ I ), Austri.rn Hrnclbook, Draft, luly r9{.1, 9, ItC toO, O\IGUS ECIi, ßox 93, Nr\1t \ Il

l9 tinit..t Stalcs Allrrd CoDrnissior lor Austria l liskr \.. PnrJ II. V l l}1 io End of l9l:, l35, RG 160, LlS^Crt liistori.'rl l'ilc, Box -ll/-151, NARA ll.

50 Sce L)ietcr Stielil, f'rhtl.ifizicrary nt Osttrrcl., (\'icnnr LuftD.rvcrl.rg, 1981, Lt lal Re.orLLs olthe Arnr\' Stai]. ,\rm! lntelligen.e Do.umenr File, lD 0203388, LISS, UrashrngtD D.C., 16 Scftcnrbcr

19.15, I, R(l llr.) llirLr! lJ5l, ßo\ ll19,170/ll/10/6, \{ll,\ ll.52 l:ricclrich Stitdlcr, Oslcrrci.h urd.t.r N.Itjoralsozialismus die Fdgrn lür.trs rnlellektLrelle l.ebenl'rn Örtr'rreicls

'rlc-r 51,/,rpo-rnrlr -t 6 /rrri"l0r-1, cd. I ricclrich Strdl.r (\'ic r.r Spring.r, 200.1), t5 p.rssin1.

turesrrtheLirversitri!itholrtlirstcontelrjngN'ith\.oLr.r\sloukno$,ourpolic]'jsstrictl,voneolnonirtertercnccI II USA(jA, f.du..rLior Dnislor AI'O t7;, U.S. Arnr): Srnruel Il. WillidDrs !o Protessor Dr. Duda,2l luL) 19.18, I

Univcrsitl ol Vicnna Ar.hi\'.s (Ui\\{), Dckrnals.rlrtcl, Irhil. l:.tliult:ir, l;-11 1958/59.

:1 Chret, Crvrl r\tiirs Di\'rsioD, Nar t)€partmcrt \\'ashirgton: Rcoricntrtion ofAustrii| L;nivcrsitics, 9 April 19,+;, l,R(l i65. Ilor:1.12. N.\R^ Il.

ürs science€\rle Idl (-10 I)ec. 2011).

sityotllllnrisÄrchl\cs, Ihonrrs l.l. Bcni.r Pxt).rs l9l0 1979, Aanrixn trh(enals.lle.. Serie\ No. I0/l/2i.5; See Chrisli.rn Lleck, ;\uto.hthonc Pro\ inzialisicfuürg ürn'crsit:it und \\'i\s.!rschrilspolitik d.r.h denr },Ir.L. der

(li 1996).67 passinr.

58 S.Inuel H.\!illianrslili9l 1968)rlrsarodogisl qbirstLrdredattheUniversit)olßerlinrndatUnNersitlollreslaLr.riltil))s lccl mrnl s.i.i1lill. .\f.diti(rr, e.g. to the Jungles ol l}ilish Gurned, \ren€7uela or \\:est hclir. Fronr 1925

to l9-ll hc L!.d ADrazons rnct Orinoko cripcclirions. llcLwecn 192.2 rucl 19.12, he \t'.rs rull p|oi$\(, lr Lhe tjni!ersit\

zeitgeschichte 1 /39. Jahrgang /2012 17

I.rnenn Societl' t)f Lando' From 1947 to 19 50 Wiliiams served as Chief of the U S' E ducation Division in Austrjr"

re(.\firrcr, A s;ugSte lor Au t'in"nndr? 18o n 'Dc6r'

s9 Sanuel H. Willianls, Ctrierlaucation uivision"'-io-t""r' tq'tu"A"u'nn anct American Educationl8' RG 260' Edu

-- cation Divisjon, Box s/Folder 12 l7l18/5/s/3 4l' NARA II'

6a Undetstanditlg Atlstria the eolit;cat xEoris 'tri t'"lv'n

"7 u*tn r' Herz' Politi&l officet aJ thc US Legation in

* i,'i,i"iiltjtnnt. d. Reinhold wagnleitner lsrlzt'urg' woLig'ng i\eusebaüer v€das le8'l)' s72-73

6l Eugene N. Aiderson, "r}'" H"'-lt;* '"lfl) ä"''"'" *a 'n'uto" Unrver\rtie\l quoted ini Wagnleitner' Co'd

., ::';1'.'f:ili"tl';,"", coroner, chier Reorientation Branch ro Henry l. Keuernann. A.tins chiel cerman Austrian

e.mch. office oftnform"r.. ""a ga*"i"""it-.r.""g" toEl,l.p"u*enr ofstate,30 oct 1947 1'RG260'NARA

II, tn lducatio al ReJom Micrttjlm'Colle't'ion 2'A 330

63 F. ir. luunson, Col , G*.'"f Staff C-p"' ä*tt"u* to tnt o*Ota* *cretary of War.to Gilbert F White President'

"' il;;;;;;;..1r.8.' tennsvh mra e Äpri1 le+7 ' :n Etlucdtiondt Ret'orm Microfitn cottection 2 A 208

6:r i auriiLrce Duesan, Director, ut"ntt" o"Ili*I1"ttt""l Education' to the Civil AFfarrs Division' War Department'

october 21, 1947, concerning the admiü;;'of:ä"'"'i' t'o *f"awa at ColumSia Universit]" studying lndo'

lrania Comparative Ljnguistics' RG 260' NARA lI' in Etiucational Ret'atm Microfilm Collection 2'A 33o'

Äc r'^tr.c A sDrasens, Assistant to rh" rr".ii".i,-ü"'a.a u'jversity, to civil Affairs Division, war Departnent' ls

" ip,ii". iI","",.,r,",,1:.l::ii:ii;.1,I:.llil,iijil';.ii.1".1,11i,.,"u,,,,.,,..,"o,os)ro,eisn5,u

" ::"J,"1-liJ5'"''"li]äil;lililliiili:';;;;.'^'v '!os, '' nc zuo' ruARA II' in Edrca'io',r Reitn Microritn'

Callection,2 ,\'44267 In SeDtember three students came to the US by SWNCC 26918: Manfred Mautner.Markbof to study economics at

',;::"ffiä;il;l;;".,\{,cvr"*,""r".oonir,l.,to,tuaya..t.,.urengineeringatthecäliforniarnstituteofrechnotosyi rvalter

.lbman t. *"0, n"-arrit.rl'ä '".i"r-r.-* " t-*'r.r<i collge/rennsvlvania Henry I Keller-

n'ann, e..tlng CI',ei C"""* ^**n' t'""ir' O*t'i"" JO*'O*a O'eas' Ofhce ofinformation and EducarionaL

Frchanee. to Cot. Ed!.ar o^t-' ""*'

i-ni'i,'olorientalon sranch ceo' DePartnent ofrhe Armv' 25 September

,tit"ti, o" r"o ni* tl t du(att')4at Rc!o'n t\|n'oJlnr otl..tion 2 A t.06

68 C. R. Snrith, Admiri.,*t"" o'U*' t'oo"it "pi'*ol'

t*t ' CotGENUSA vienna Austria' RG 260' NARA II'

'ü Etluütional ReJorm Microt'ilm'Collection 2 A''3t5

6e Thomas Benrer ( I8e'- t"'1, "**"' 'iü'*iJ' a"a p*!1

"r tr'' College oi Education ät Universitv of lllinois

70 william BUandl Fcatherstone (1900 t"ll' "

p'ä"e"g* ** from 1912 io i93s'served as ä Director at the Board of

Education in Los Ansele" t tntt n" Ir..liläi"-ü"ä*s -on'g' * colunrbi" un'iversitv' where he became an full

Drofessor in 1939 From 1*t to t*t ' o"aift"rsi"* worked as a änsultant for.the New York City Board of Educätion

äiläi;;., i;;r,'n" *.* * ^,*i"Il,

i..."i".y ",,r,. s.r,o,a oF Militarycovernment in virginä and sub-

seouentlv was recomnlc"O"o '" "" '0"ä':i'""'"tl ""

tf" "t"ff 'rceneral

Mark Clark See: Hollis L Cas"'el1'

"niiltiam e. leatherston.' 1e00-l9sl'l;:;;;; oltese Record sz (sltgst)' sl2-514i further: Stiftet"'A struggle Jör

,, flüiljff#ä111.:.l3ne, reachers conege, corumbla unive,siry, ro-rhomds E. B€nner, u s. civuian chier' Education

O'.'.'"" ,' \4ar'n l047 z RC 2o0 Fd-u'rrio" nrv''ron ßnr 1 lordera NqR'A ll

72 rhomas E. Benner, U S Ci'ili"" Chiet:;;;';;o; Division' to F R Nloü1ton' Am€ric^n Association for the Advance

ment of science, smitho"o" ln***", *"rni.*i"", ü1r". t*t, I, RG 260, Edü.atjon Division, Bo{ l/Folder 9'

_ |i)äli*, ""r",

...wir währen sch$,arz weiss_rott, Ns.provokationen bei den öH wahlen 1e46 und ihre Konse-

nttenzei', zet$schrchte 3s Luarclleprii lo r r )' s7 87; Stifter "A sJlll8gle t'ot Austrian minds?"'s27 passir)]'

zl ihomas E Bemrer, us ci''l''" ch''i;il';i* o'"i"""' t' wt "'ä ieathentone reachers college' Columbia'

' - ,a i"fr.t"." tt'tZ, 1, RG 260, Edücatjon Division' Box l/Folder 9' NARA Il'

,, ü:;'iäi'".;;:;;';:.;;;";A'";;;;;;;;;;iui"ion' 'o p' n unut'on' Am€ri'an Association ror the Advance

ment of Scien.e, Smitho"*" t"n*'' iÄni"gt ""' ti U"" "t'' '

3' RG 260' Educätion Division' Box l/Folder 9'

^ )"iH,i\.n.*,*, '|r888

rcor' \L-seon dno N'/r'vmprrhrTcr Head or rher'sur8k3r ( linic in \ rerrn" d.,'d rfrer

" ,il'Ä.,j ",

,i" " "",.*.

n',g--. "1"

;,, "

-.,, "",,*-

i',..p,,"r,. *" lns-'d .A'a'. Die McdrTinr'c\e Falulrar \or

1945 bis 1955: Provinzialt""tt"g "O"' O!1"t'f*' ""

dle westlicie wissenscha fi?.:' Zukunft mit Ahlasten Die Unhersitöt

l'!le' I945 Üir 1955, €ds M-*'" tu""a'"*' ä"""i Heiss' and Oliver Rathkolb (Innsbruck: Studienverlag' 2005)' 76

77 Häns Planitz (1882 res4), """"^"

i;ö; ;;""'- t'i''- teto Dean at the universitv of cologne ln le'll he

accePted I call to the Un**tn, "tut"'"" *n"" r'' irl""iaa

" po'itio"

"s a Professor for "Deutsches' Bürgerliches

rrnd Handelsrecht:'

78 ftssiio Anroine (1895 1980),

bruck, Austria. See Ingrid AriDas tseispiel des Anatonische

79 Ernst Schönbauer (1886-196{

Economics at the Universiq' o

ofthe Army St.rfl- Arny lntell319 lEntry 8s], Box 1329,270

80 Richard Meister (1881-1964),

lology.8l Leopold Arzt (1883 l9ss), D

vcrsity of Viennai ciose frien(dismissed in the corrse ofÄnr

82 Allied Verdross-Droßber8 (18

nade a career after 1938. Se€

Gefüge der Wiener Völkerrec

Wi e n et R e c h t s ij i s s u s chaftli ch \

Manz, 2010), forthcoming.83 Ludwig Adamovich (1890-19

served as dean ofthe Vienna lr

On l6 February 1938 hewas a

Chr istlich. Ständi sch Autoritär.

Staat srat es, lluntleskultltnteschischen Widerstandes, 1991)

8,1 Schreiben Samuel H. William!try ofEducation, 20 luly 1948

85 See lntetnatioMl Biagnphicdlences, and Litentwe, ed.Hetb

86 The Foreign Service ofthe Un

Persons Program for Ausiria,87 lhe Foreign Servjce ofthe Un

Persons Program aor Austria,

88 Col. Curtin CSOCI, to ChielCallectio ,2 A 698.

89 rbid.90 Ibid.91 tbid.92 Ibid.93 Chas. S. lohnson, Col. GSC Ex

2 A 818,2.94 See Stifter "A st/rggleJor,{rt95 See for example Christian Fle.

durch Ex Österreicher Lrnd dirGesetzes: Österreichisch€ Hoc

Christian H. Stifter, Paradigms of lJ'5' Reorientotion zeitgeschichte 1 / 39. Ja

18

Lt.

h

rl

ull

9.

;S l.rssilo Äntoite {lS9: 1930), s\rrt.ologjst, mcnrt)cr ol the NSD,Ui, rirll proi€$t, |r th. !ni\crsit} .hnr( in tnnr

L).r! il.iipicl .1.\ ^f,rtonris.hcn

Lrstitut., 7.,1.{Ls(fu.1rlr Jl il)...rrber 2001J, 35!.

li.otr)rnr.s.]t the L:nilcrslt] ol \.idnnlirom1933n)I915:anOSSrcportju.lgcdhinrnsan.fcl.ur\.trilSeeIte.ods()1 lhcArinrSrrlf,\ün\llrtclli.scri.rl)o.nnr€ntlrilc,lD0l0ll8ij,llSS,\\ashirrgt(nrD.Ct6Scprclrrl)rrlr.)t5.t,ti(j.rl') []-ntrr 8il, Bo\ 1i29, 270/ll/30/6, NÄRA IL

lol{,g1

3l l.('o|ol.l Är/t (18E3 19i5l,Dernol lhc l-i.Lrltl ol i\l.cii.rne and L)clnol t])e l. DerDrnrologi..rl (llinr. ,rr thc Uui

(lismissc.l in tLc.ourse olr\rJ.rlu-r-r, h. ras reirstatcd soor iLfr.r8l '\lfred \i'rdross-Droltl)cr! (1E90 1980), Irrolcssor oilntcrnatlonal Litr\'. wxs receptilc för the Nr/i legal.on..pr,ürl

r))rd. r.xter.riicL i9-18. Sct Jangcn ßLrs.h, AllrcLt \'.rdross Ein r\l.Irr .Les \{idcrspruchs? l-rit l. \.erdross inl

i\1.rn7, 1010), Iör Lh.oDrirgli lLrdf ig '\dtrnnvi.h l1lJ90 1955), la(rcr, bcerme tr Proti.ssor al the l-rrrtrersi$ ol \;icnnä in 19t.1 iln(l ln 1935/-lar

ser led as dean of thc yiennr lar sclrool. Ilctrrccrr l9.l I nnd 1933 hc \!as n rneDber ol the Ausrl1) liscisr srlre .oun.i1.Onl6licbrLrxrvl93Shc\v.Isap|orntedi\1nrls1cr.)lllrsLrcejrtheS.huschrliggC,rbinetsccc.rrru.L.lln.lerLeltur.cl,

.hischer \\'idcrstx.dcs, I991l, 13.

tn ol Ectu.rtior,lil Juh l9'13. l. R(; 260, Educarion Llili\iur, ßor ],/Fotct.r 9, NARA il

.,r.11, d,,,/l;/rrrler., ed IlerbcrtA.Str:Lossrnd\\eflrcrRät.r(Ilunrchertrl:K(;.S.rur\:erhc, l95-t)..tLt.86 I'he ForeignScr\i.eolllreUrited Strtc\ o1 Arneric.r,\m€ricrnl.eldtjof,\rienDa,roStärrDe|.ntrrenr: Eri.hrns. ol

Irersonr I'ro.ernnr lor Austrii. I9 i\'J!! I9.19, ltrll.dtk,ürl l/iJö.]/, i\liodilDj (t/tl1tto,r, 2 ,t 69S, 2.S: Ihcl:(rrig.Serlj.cofthr.UIiLe(LSl,tesof]\rD.ri.r.AnrericaDl-egrrio .\Jicnnr,toSrareDcfr.rrrrncl1rr It\.h,rnse ol

Pcrnins Iirosrlrr jor {uitrir. 19.\lry19l9, Iill.,rriol,r/ Rr/,, r'i ,}Ir( ,?lir, (lolld.//o',2 r\ 69S, L.

(l,t?,tt',,r. I ;\ 69s

ll9 Il)id.!0 Il)i.l9L lbicl.9l lLr .

2 A 8 tS. I9.1 S.c Stiltcr, .l jrllq!/r /cr.,l|it,ri,r,ri,i6i,' -12,1 6l l.

dut.hLr Oslcrr.i.her urddielord lirndrLron l OZ(; l l (1120001. 129 l7;r 'l ho|ns Kinrir, Drr LnrsrchLrng.ilcsGesetzcs: (lstcrrci.Lis.he Ihchs.hLrlpolirik in Lten t950cr lahrc|l OZa;2.t (l/t0t:), tirrrh.onin{.

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