mw,.4

CHARACTER CONTRAST IN SPANISH AND BRAZILIAN

ROMANTIC DRAMA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

OF SELECTED WORKS

by

RICHARD TURPIN BROOKS, B.A., M.A

A DISSERTATION

IN

SPANISH

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Accepted

May 1978

"SffSyfj

hi.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Norwood H. Andrews, Jr.

for his direction of my dissertation and to the other mem­

bers of my committee. Dr. Edmundo Garcia Gir6n, Dr. Harley

D. Oberhelman, Dr. Robert J. Morris, and Dr. Wendell W.

Aycock. I also wish to express appreciation to Ms. Gloria

Lyerla, director of the Interlibrary Loan Department at

Texas Tech University Library, and to Dr. Laura Gutierrez

Witte, head librarian of the Nettie Lee Benson Latin Ameri­

can Collection at The University of Texas at Austin, for

their kind assistance with my research.

11

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i

INTRODUCTION

I. CHARACTER CONTRAST IN SPANISH ROMANTIC DRAMA . 1

La conjuracion de Venecia 1

Macias 2

Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino 4

El trovador 7

Los amantes de Teruel 9

II. CHARACTER CONTRAST IN BRAZILIAN ROMANTIC DRAMA H

Antonio Gon9alves Dias 11

Leonor de Mendon9a 11

Patkull 13

Boabdil 14

Indianist Drama 15

Cobe 16

A voz do page 16

Jose de Alencar, 0 Jesuita 18

CONCLUSION 20

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 21

111

INTRODUCTION

One of the most neglected genres in Brazilian lit­

erature is the Romantic drama. Critics have tended to

dismiss it—indeed, all of nineteenth-century theater in

Brazil—as lacking in real importance and worth. Ronald

de Carvalho, for example, says that, "Apesar da sua volu-

mosa aparencia, nunca teve a literatura teatral a impor-

tancia e a significac^ao da poesia e do romance, e mesmo da

critica e da hist(5ria, no Brasil." Similarly Decio Al­

meida Prado remarks, "Tivemos no pasado . . . obras tea-

trais de algum merito; mas nada que se possa comparar nem

de longe, em quantidade e qualidade ao nosso conto, romance

e poesia." The frequent critical negativism of this sori

is not justified. The corpus of Brazilian nineteenth-

century theater, to be sure, is not large, but it does

have merit and is deserving of fresh, positive critical

investigation and analysis.

My purpose here is to consider selected works from

the Romantic drama of Spain and Brazil from the standpoint

of character contrast. The Spanish plays chosen for con­

sideration have been selected from the lists of principal

Romantic plays presented in Madrid between the years 1834

and 18 60 found in Peers' History of the Romantic Movement

m Spam. The Brazilian plays, with the exception of A

voz do page, which presents interesting parallels to other

works both Spanish and Brazilian, and whose author, popular

in his lifetime because of his prose fiction, has recently

been rediscovered as an important Romantic poet, were

selected on the basis of Decio Almeida Prado's "A evolugao

da literatura dramatica." Through detailed analysis of

principal masculine figures in the plays, I shall show

that in Brazilian Romantic drama there appear types of

contrasting characters similar in many respects, although

not always identical in every way, to those found in the

Romantic dramas in Spain.

The Portuguese theater is deliberately omitted

from consideration. Certain Luso-Brazilian relations in 4

this context have already been treated by Colin Pierson.

While it is likely that a survey of character contrasts in

Portuguese and Brazilian Romantic drama would reveal some

of the same phenomena which I shall develop here in rela­

tion to works of Brazil and Spain, such an examination

would be material for another study.

The contrasting character types in Spanish Romantic

drama are fairly well known. With occasional slight

variations, in many of the Romantic dramas of Spain there

appears a certain "Romantic" hero type. This hero is

always a gallant young lover for whom passionate devotion

to a beloved is a principal motivation in life. He is

usually a mysterious person whose origins are unknown. Hi

is an outcast, rejected by "established" society. He is

an ill-starred figure, victim of a hostile fate, but a man

of superior accomplishments and virtues whose nobility of

character, boldness and generosity quickly win recognition

especially among the popular classes. Psychologically, he

is a sensitive soul (frequently a poet or troubador), who

is preoccupied with self, his own desires, emotions, and

sensations. He is a pessimistic and melancholy person but

also a recalcitrant who rebels against the oppression of

both society—not excluding politics—and destiny.

In contrast to the hero there emerge certain vil­

lains. Sometimes more than one may appear in a single

play. They tend to be associated with those forces of

society opposed to the hero's individualism. The villain

is nearly always a recognized aristocrat who scorns the

hero because of his lower social station. He is frequent­

ly a father, brother, or other male relative of the hero's

beloved who opposes his amorous aspirations, or he may be a

jealous rival or husband. He is sometimes an oppressive

authority who victimizes the hero or opposes him on socio­

political grounds.

Whatever his specific roles may be, the villain is

always a sinister figure whose traits are opposite those

of the hero. In contrast to the hero's true nobility of

character what is notable about the villain is his exces­

sive concern for the externalities of hereditary nobility.

Accordingly, he is overly sensitive about matters of honor,

social esteem, and purity of lineage. He is rigid in his

notions concerning the obligations of class. By tempera­

ment he is bitter, mocking, and choleric. In action (es­

pecially if he appears in the role of brother, rival, or

authority) he is often cruel, vindictive, devious, and

scheming. With rare exceptions, unlike the strong,

brave hero, he is weak and cowardly. Frequently indecis­

ive, he is rash when he does choose to act.

These contrasting character types in Spanish Rom­

antic drama are what will serve as a basis of comparison

in this study for the analysis of Brazilian Romantic

plays. I shall first consider the portrayal of heroes

and villains in Spanish dramas in order to illustrate in

detail, through specific application in particular plays,

the generalizations made above. Later I shall turn to

detailed consideration of selected Brazilian Romantic

dramas in order to show the extent to which the types of

contrasting characters present in the Spanish dramas are

present in the Brazilian ones as well. In doing so, I

shall also seek to demonstrate that the Brazilian drama­

tists are capable of developing personages who can stand

on their own with respect to those in the Spanish works.

Since the narrative line is of great importance

to an understanding of character development in Romantic

drama, the detailed analysis of plays will of necessity

involve examination of plot elements. In discussion of

the various characters within particular plays a reasonable

amount of repetition of scenes is inevitable. Often the

hero's traits and perspectives may be understood only by

one analysis of what happens in a given scene and the

villain's by another.

Although no specific comparative study of charac­

ters in Spanish and Brazilian plays exists, there is ample

critical literature concerning the Spanish Romantic hero

5 and Spanish Romantic drama in general. In the Brazilian

field, where even general works are far scarcer, literary

histories and histories of the theater are valuable, as

are some more detailed studies concerning the works of the 6

playwright Gon9alves Dias.

Concerning the Romantic hero in Spanish drama, des­

criptions of the type in terms similar to the ones which I

have given above are frequent in general histories of

Spanish literature and in more detailed studies of parti­

cular plays. Angel del Rio, for example, speaks of "los

perfiles del heroe romantico: misterioso, valiente, pesi-

mista, huerfano, enamorado y triste, victima de su destine

tragico."'^ Cesar Barja refers to "los heroes anonimos y

de misterio, aventureros desheredados del mundo, frailes,

libertines, trovadores. . . ."" E. Allison Peers outlines

essential aspects of this character in his remarks concern­

ing don Alvaro: "A more complete Romantic hero than don

Alvaro it would be difficult to find anywhere—noble, gal­

lant, generous, courageous, and mysterious, newly arrived

from the Indies with 'two negroes and much money. . . .'"

(Peers, History, I, 26 3). Norman J. Lamb speaks of the

Romantic hero as a tragic figure and as a misfit who can­

not adapt to changing circumstances. In writing about

Manrique in El trovador. Lamb describes the hero type

emphasizing the popular element: "The first scene of El

trovador . . . foreshadows the Romantic hero: troubadour

and soldier, of unknown but apparently humble origin,

having no coat of arms yet brave, gallant, and as we later

learn, ambitious."

Concerning the villains, much less critical litera­

ture is available. However, brief passages in a number of

works do shed light on important aspects of these charac­

ters. In discussing Larra's Macias and Garcia Gutierrez'

El rey monje, E. Allison Peers, for example, mentions the

types of the tyrannical father and the avenging brother

(History, I, 256, 293). He elaborates upon the latter

somewhat in his study of Don Alvaro where he describes the

brothers don Carlos and don Alfonso as "ministers of venge­

ance who live for vengeance only." Other enlightening

observations about Spanish Romantic villains may be found

in Nicholson B. Adams' The Romantic Dramas of Garcia

Gutierrez. Comparing don Nuno and Fernan Perez, the

amorous rivals of the heroes respectively in Garcia Guti^-

rez' El trovador and Larra's Macias, Adams has the follow­

ing to say:

Nuno and Fernan Perez are both hard, cruel men, "noble" by birth alone. . ^ . Fernan Perez' passion for Elvira is like that of Nuno for Leonor, and his desire for her is equally heedless of her own inclinations. Both men are entirely unscrupulous. (Adams, p. 72)

Adams then adds these further remarks concerning other vil­

lainous figures in the play:

Guillen, the brother of Leonor, corresponds closely with Nuno, the father of Elvira. They are much concerned with making matches which will help them politically, are much obsessed with their own "honor," and have lit­tle consideration for the wishes of the lady concerned. Both are tyrants in their own household. (p. 72)

Although it is not proposed here to examine in de­

tail all the antecedents of Romantic theater in Spain and

Brazil, it may be tentatively suggested that the similari­

ties found in character development may stem from the exis­

tence of common influences. In the works of Lord Byron

and of the French Romantics there are characters who show

notable similarities to the heroes and villains considered

here in relation to the theater of Spain and Brazil.

Chateaubriand's Rene, for example, is a melancholy person

who believes himself to be the victim of a capricious fate.

In Manfred, Lara, and Childe Harold, Byron develops a type

of hero who is mysterious, aristocratic in bearing, of

great self possession, intensely melancholy and attractive

though sinful. Victor Hugo's Hernani, the Spanish noble-

8

man turned bandit, has an aura of mystery and is a charac­

ter who is ill-starred and fatal. The elder Alexandre

Dumas' Antony is a passionate figure, a man of unknown

origins who is rejected by society in spite of his obvious

superiority, and a rebel who denounces society for its

hypocrisy. Sainte-Megrin in Dumas' Henri III et sa cour

is a handsome, gallant, and somewhat mysterious young

nobleman whose passionate love knows no bounds. He is

afflicted with a gentle Romantic sadness and in the end

becomes a victim of destiny. On the side of the villains,

the Due de Guise of Dumas' Henri III et sa cour and Colonel

d'Hervey of Antony are jealous husbands who are cruel and

vindictive, while don Gomez of Hernani is a jealous and

vengeful rival.

That Spanish playwrights were influenced by these

British and French writers or, at least, unconsciously im­

itated them in their works is well-established. John A.

Thompson, for example, speaks at length concerning the in­

fluence of Dumas in all aspects of Spanish Romantic plays

including characterization in his study, Alexandre Dumas 12

Pere and the Spanish Romantic Drama. Likewise in "Rivas

a critical Study," E. Allison Peers discusses the possible

influence of the Byronic heroes and of Antony on the Duque

de Rivas in his creation of don Alvaro (pp. 443-48, 458-

60) .

The influence of these writers on Brazilian drama

9

has been studies much less, although Aniionio Henriques Leal

and Ruggero Jacobbi discuss in a very general way the influ­

ence of French dramatists such as Dumas, Delavigne, and 13

Soulie on Gon9alves Dias. Jacobbi speaks in passing of

similarities between Aben-Hamet of Gon9alves Dias' Boabdil

and the Byronic hero (Goethe, Schiller, p. 66). Given the

prestige which Byron and the French writers enjoyed during

the Romantic period as a whole, however, it seems probable

that the Brazilians must have been influenced by them or

have imitated them in their works. Furthermore, the cir­

cumstance that Brazilian Romantic drama had its beginning

in 1838 with Antonio Jose ou o poeta e a Inquisiggo by Do-

mingos Jose Gongalves de Magalhaes, a long time expatriate

resident in Paris tends to suggest the importance of things

French in the Romantic theater of Brazil as does also the

circumstance that Gongalves Dias spent the years 18 38 to

184 5, when Romanticism was of great interest in Portugal,

as a student at Coimbra.

In conclusion, this comparison of carefully select­

ed Spanish and Brazilian Romantic dramas deals with an area

of comparative study heretofore neglected. Through demon­

strating the similarity in certain important aspects be­

tween relatively unknown and unstudied Brazilian works and

others of recognized merit from Spain, it also provides a

modern, critical re-evaluation of Brazilian Romantic drama

as an important literary genre, whose admittedly limited

1 •+. 14 quantity has no bearing whatsoever on its quality.

NOTES

Pequena hist<5ria da literatura basileira, 11th ed.

(Rio de Janeiro: F. Briguiet, 1938), p. 273.

2 ~

"A evolu9ao da literatura dramatica," in A

literatura no Brasil, ed. Afrinio Coutinho, Eugenic Gomes,

and Barreto Filho (Rio de Janeiro: Editorial Sul Americana,

1955), II, 280. Further references to this work will be

given parenthetically in the text by author's surname and

the short title, "A evolu9ao."

3A History of the Romantic Movement in Spain

(London: Cambridge University Press, 1940), I, 253-309.

Further references to this work will be given parenthetical­

ly in the text by author's surname and the short title.

History.

^"The Post-Romantic Drama in Portugal and Brazil,"

Diss. The City University of New York, 1974. Pierson's

emphasis is the thesis drama, although he examines aspects

of other Romantic plays as background.

^For the study of Spanish theater during the

Romantic period E. Allison Peers' History of the Romantic

Movement in Spain (2 vols. [London: Cambridge University

Press, 1940]) is indispensable. Other useful works in-

10

.•w

11

elude Enrique Pineyre's The Romantics of Spain (tr. E.

Allison Peers, Studies in Hispanic Literatures [Liverpool:

Institute of Hispanic Studies 19 35]; the original was

unavailable). Angel Valbuena y Prat's Historia del teatro

espanol (3 vols. [Barcelona: Editorial Noguer, 1956]),

and Lewis E. Brett's anthology of Nineteenth Century

Spanish Plays (The Modern Language Series [New York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1935]).

6 Histories of Brazilian literature which contain

information important for the study of nineteenth-century

theater include Manuel Bandeira's Brief History of Brazilian

Literature (tr. Ralph Edward Dimmick, Pensamiento de

America [Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union, 1958];

the original was unavailable), Antonio Candido's Formagao

da literatura brasileira (mementos decisivos) (2nd ed. 2

vols. [Rio de Janeiro: Livraria Martins Editora, n.d.]),

Claude L. Hulet's Brazilian Literature (2 vols. [Washington,

D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1974]), Silvio Romero's

Histtfria da literatura brasileira (5th ed., 5 vols. [Rio de

Janeiro: J. Olimpio, 1954]), and Antonio Scares Amora's

Historia da literatura brasileira (5th ed. [Sao Paulo:

Saraiva, 1965]). Jose Galante de Sousa's O teatro no

Brasil (2 vols. [Rio de Janeiro: Ministerio da Educa9ao

e Cultura, I960]), Sabato Magaldi's Panorama do teatro no

Brasil (Sao Paulo: Difusao Europeia do Livro, 1962),

Wilson Martins' long article, "0 teatro no Brasil," in

12 Hispania (46 [1963], 239-51), and Walter Rela's El teatro

brasileho (Buenos Aires: Centre Editor de America Latina,

1969) are also useful. Interesting studies concerning

Gon9alves Dias include Antdnio Henriques Leal's "Antonio

Gongalves Dias: noticia da sua vida e obras" in volume

three of Pantheon Maranhense (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional,

1874) and Ruggero Jacobbi's Goethe, Schiller, Gon9alves

Dias (Serie "Letras," 5 [Sao Paulo: Edi9oes da Faculdade

de Filosofia, 1958]).

7 Historia de la literatura espanola, edici6n revisada

(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963), II, 110.

Literatura espanola: libros y autores modernos

(Madrid: Sucesores de Rivadeneyra, 1924), p. 175.

^"Characterization in Some Early Romantic Dramas

of Garcia Gutierrez," in Liverpool Studies in Spanish

Literature, First Series: From Cadalso to Ruben Dario, ed.

E. Allison Peers (Liverpool: Institute of Hispanic Studies,

1940), pp. 126, 128, 130.

•^^"Rivas: a Critical Study," Revue Hispanique,

58 (1923), 414. Further references to this work will be

given parenthetically in the text by author's surname and

the short title, "Critical Study."

The Romantic Dramas of Garcia Gutierrez (New York:

Institute de las Espanas en los Estados Unidos, 1922), p.

72. Further references will be given parenthetically in

13 the text by author's surname and page number.

12 Alexandre Dumas P^re and the Spanish Romantic

Drama (Louisiana State University Press, 19 38).

13 ^

Antonio Henriques Leal, "Antonio Gon9alves Dias:

noticia da sua vida e obras," Pantheon Maranhense (Lisbon:

Imprensa Nacional, 1874), III, 328-29; Ruggero Jacobbi,

Goethe, Schiller, Goncjalves Dias, Serie "Letras," 5 (Sao

Paulo: Edigoes da Faculdade de Filosofia, 1958), pp. 63-64

Further references to these works will be given parentheti­

cally in my text by authors' surnames and the short titles,

"Gon9alves Dias" and Goethe, Schiller.

14 . . .

Orthography varies in existing editions of nine­

teenth-century Brazilian dramas. In quoting from these

works, I reproduce the material found in the texts which

were available to me without alteration even though this

procedure results in inconsistencies. The decision not to

modernize spelling was made because of the many changes

which have occurred in recent Brazilian history and also

because of a lack of modern, critical editions for a

number of the plays.

CHAPTER I

CHARACTER CONTRAST IN SELECTED

SPANISH ROMANTIC DRAMAS

In the introduction to this study, I delineated

in general terms some of the most usual characteristics

of heroes and villains in Spanish Romantic drama and

cited the opinion of recognized critics in support of my

statements. The purpose of the present chapter is to

examine in detail the portrayal of particular characters

in specific plays in order to show the extent to which

they illustrate these generalizations.

The plays selected for detailed consideration in­

clude (in the following order) Francisco Martinez de la

Rosa's La conjuracion de Venecia (1834), Jose Mariano de

Larra's Macias (18 34), Angel Saavedra, Duque de Rivas'

Don Alvaro o la fuerza de sino (1835) , Antonio Garcia

Gutierrez' El trovador (1836), and Eugenic Hartzenbusch's

Los amantes de Teruel (1837). These are works of recog­

nized merit which belong to the period of 1834 to 1837,

when Romanticism was at its height in Spain, and which

afford an interesting gallery of characters.

14

15

La conjuracion de Venecia

Francisco Martinez de la Rosa's five-act prose

play. La conjuracion de Venecia, was the first important

Spanish Romantic drama. Its premiere performance was at

the Teatro del Principe on April 22, 1834 (Peers, History,

I, 253). A historical drama which has as its background 2

an uprising in Venice in 1310, Martinez de la Rosa's play

treats the love of the conspirator Rugiero for the noble

Laura Morosini against the wishes of the latter's family.

The hero is Rugiero, and the villains are Laura's

uncle, Pedro Morosini, and her father, Juan Morosini. In

discussion of the play it is occasionally necessary to

treat some of the same scenes and details more than once in

order to illustrate more fully the traits and viewpoints of

the different characters.

Rugiero is the first Romantic hero in Spanish drama

(Peers, History, I, 255). Like other Spanish Romantic he­

roes later, he is a mysterious figure whose origins are un­

known. He appears initially under a humble guise, but

later it is revealed that he is really noble.

One first hears of Rugiero in an opening scene in

which the conspirators, who have assembled at the house of

the Genoese ambassador, talk about him. Although these

noblemen do not know much about him, they speak with great

interest as they repeat rumors which they have heard. From

their conversation the reader learns that Rugiero is a young

16

man, a mere soldier, an expatriate who loves his adopted 3

country, and an unfortunate lover.

As the play progresses, suspense builds concerning

the mystery which surrounds Rugiero's origins. It soon be­

comes apparent that Rugiero knows nothing of his own back­

ground. In Act Two, Scene Three he meets his beloved Laura,

to whom he is secretly married, in the Morosini family cem­

etery. While there he speaks of his orphanhood as he elab­

orates his misfortunes: "Solo, huerfano, sin amparo ni abri-

go . . . , sin saber a quienes debo el ser, ni siquiera la

tierra en donde naci , . . ipor qu6 me amas, Laura, por que

me amas?" (p. 276).

The question of Rugiero's origins is not finally re­

solved until the last act of the play. There, during his

trial for treason before the Tribunal of the Ten, Rugiero

is unable to answer questions concerning his parentage and

his native land. However, he does mention that he was a

captive of the Moors in Alexandria and that a cleric, who

ransomed him, tried to find out more about his background

and was able to ascertain that he was taken from his dying

mother during a naval battle off the coast of Candia (p. 2 39),

Judge Pedro Morosini, who was formerly governor of Candia,

is now able to recognize him as his long lost son.

Rugiero is also an outcast. He is rejected by Pedro

Morosini, who, as Laura's uncle and as judge of the Tribu­

nal of the Ten, is a representative of the "establishment."

17

Pedro Morosini cannot accept Rugiero because his marriage

to Laura was consummated without her father's consent and

because he is a rebel against the state.

One first learns of Rugiero's virtues and popularity

in terms of his patriotism. In the scene where the con­

spirators await his arrival at the first of the play, the

Genoese ambassador says that Rugiero cannot be late because

he has allowed himself to be detained by the diversions of

carnival time since he loves his country so well and is con­

cerned only with saving it (p. 252). Thiepolo, one of the

conspirators, is disposed to be indulgent toward Rugiero be­

cause he is unfortiinate, but his comrade, Dauro, says such

indulgence is unnecessary when it concerns Rugiero's com­

plying with a duty since, in the matter of fulfillment of

duty, "nadie en el mundo le lleva ventaja" (p. 252). Fi­

nally, a third conspirator, Marcos Querini, remarks upon

Rugiero's favorable reputation in the city: "Cabalmente

sus buenas prendas le han granjeado el afecto de todos, y

lejos de mirarsele en Venecia como extranjero sin mds rec-

omendacidn que su espada, se le considera con razdn como

uno de sus mejores hijos" (p. 252).

In the scene in the cemetery, perhaps the key scene

in the play, one first learns of Rugiero's generous nature

and his great moral and physical courage. Unlike Laura, he

is not afraid of being surrounded by the dead but bravely

tries to raise her spirits saying, "Desecha esos vanos

18

temores; a mi me parece a tu lado la mansion de los cielos"

(p. 273). They talk of his misfortunes, and Laura indi­

cates that the many stories which she has heard concerning

his bravery and compassion have done much to commend him

in her esteem:

Mira, Rugiero, con toda mi alma te lo digo: quiza no te amaria tanto si fueras feliz . . . Pero cuando oia ref-erir tus desgracias y escuchaba los elogios que de ti hacian, tu valor en los combates y tu clemencia con los vencidos . . . yo no se lo que sentia; pero antes de concocerte ya te amaba." (p. 277)

Later, Laura confesses to her father her secret mar­

riage, and, as she does so, she defends her husband's no­

ble character. Asked by her father who abused her innocence

and candor, she avoids a direct answer, replying as follows:

"NO, por cierto; el no empleo mas artes, mas seduccion que

sus virtudes . . . ; es pobre, desvalido; pero tiene un

alma tan noble.' No merece el rigor con que le ha tratado

la suerte" (p. 289) .

After revealing the name, she reiterates the defense,

stressing how all who know Rugiero love him and how even

Juan Morosini himself has praised Rugiero's virtues: "No

es culpa suya haber nacido tan desgraciado . . . ; pero

cuantos le conocen le aman; y a vos mismo os he oido repe-

tir sus elogios . . . ; Es tan honrado, tan compasivo, tiene

un corazon tan hermoso!" (p. 291).

In Act Four, Scene Five, just before the outbreak of

the rebellion, Rugiero's valor again becomes the subject of

19

comment as a disguised conspirator notes his absence from

the Plaza de San Marcos. Certainly he is not missing for

want of courage, the man suggests, because "El no es capaz

de esconderse a la hora del peligro" (p. 305).

Finally, more details concerning Rugiero's compas­

sion, generosity, and popularity with his soldiers are re­

vealed in the testimony given before the Tribunal of the

Ten. One of the witnesses there is Juan Rossi, whose life

Rugiero had earlier saved. Asked who entered Rugiero's

house, Rossi replies, "Sus soldados para bendecirle y los

infelices que socorria" (p. 317) .

Besides being a man of noble character, Rugiero is a

passionate lover. Passion in his case takes the form of

excessive devotion to his beloved and determination to over­

come great obstacles for her sake. He is resolved to obtain

recognition as a son-in-law so that he may enjoy Laura's

love freely and openly. In the cemetery, he tells Laura

about the conspiracy, and, casting rational considerations

aside, he declares that, when the fighting breaks out, he

will protect his enemy, Pedro Morosini:

Yo temi" . . . , <?como odia olvidarte? . . . , temi que en medio de la confusion intentase alguno vengar en tu tio la muerte de propios o de extranos . . . ;Es tan aborrecido! . . . Por eso me he encargado de cerrar con mis tropas las avenidas del Tribunal, y de velar en guar-da de los jueces . . . cQue tienes que temer? . .^. Yo estare a la vista de tu propia cas a; yo defendere a tu familia; yo tendre la satisfaccion de que me deban algo los que tienen tu misma sangre. . . . (p. 280)

Laura, who is aware of Rugiero's devotion, speaks of

20

it in Act Three, Scene One in conversation with her servant

and confidante, Matilde. Telling Matilde how she fainted

during the earlier scene in the graveyard when agents of

Pedro Morosini seized Rugiero, she reflects how great Rugi­

ero 's anguish must have been upon leaving her in such a

situation: "ICual seria su angustia, Dios mio, al dejarme

en tal situacion!" (p. 283). She says that she must tell

her father of her secret marriage in order to save Rugiero's

life because "I Mil veces hubiera ^1 derramado su sangre por

evitarme a mi el mas leve pesar . . . !" (p. 285) . Later

when she confesses to her father, she expresses concern be­

cause Rugiero has not written her, and when Juan Morosini

suggests that many causes could have prevented Rugiero from

complying with her wishes, she says that he does not know

Rugiero: "I Si le conocieses como yo! . . . ' El no tiene

mas anhelo, mas afan que su Laura" (p. 294).

Aside from his role as a passionate and faithful

lover, Rugiero's other principal part in the drama is as a

political rebel. He is an enthusiastic participant in the

plot against the Doge. "Los guerreros que siguen mis ban-

deras me demandan a cada instante la senal anhelada . . . , "

he tells the group assembled at the Genoese ambassador's

house (p. 256). When the ambassador proposes Marcos Querini

as a leader, Rugiero assures him that everyone is prepared

willingly to obey (p. 263). Even if fortune is hostile, he

adds, he, for one, prefers to die with the victims rather

21

than to triumph with the hangmen (p. 26 3) .

The enthusiasm which Rugiero shows in this early

scene for the rebellion is matched by the lack of repent­

ance which he displays when he testifies before the Tri­

bunal of the Ten. Even before he takes the stand, the sec­

retary informs the court that, in prison, he has refused to

give deposition and has gone on a hunger strike. Then, as

the young rebel speaks on his own behalf, he does not lie.

He maintains a scornful attitude toward those in authority.

Instead of confessing, in response to the persistent de­

mands of the second President, he simply states, "Si . . .

sabeis, la que . . . preguntais?" (p. 331). He protests

vehemently against the inhumanity of the judges, however,

when they refuse his last request to be permitted to speak

to his father: "<iY que ley hay en el mundo que prohiba a un

hijo abrazar a su padre? . . . Yo no os pido mas . . . ,

nada mas . . . recibir la benedicion de mi padre, y entregar

mi alma a Dios" (p. 334).

Although in La conjuracion de Venecia there is no

elaborately developed concept of fate, fortune, or destiny

4 such as there appears to be, for example, m Don Alvaro,

Rugiero, nevertheless, emerges as an unfortunate person.

Not only is he an ill-fated figure who suffers misfortunes

but also he is a fatal man who is unfortunate for others as

well, especially for his beloved.

Allusions to Rugiero's misfortunes are especially

22

common in the words of Laura. In Act Three, Scene One, when

Laura converses with Matilde, she attempts to justify her

plan to reveal her marriage in order to save Rugiero by ask­

ing, rhetorically, "cuando no tiene el infeliz ni padre ni

familia que tomen parte en su desgracia, que pregunten si­

quiera si vive , . . Ise. veria abandonado de su misma es-

posa?" (p. 286). Later, confessing to her father, Laura

describes her husband as being poor and destitute but of

noble soul and not meriting the rigor with which he has been

treated. Near the end of the confession scene, as Laura

describes events which took place in the cemetery, her em­

phasis on Rugiero's ill fortune reaches its greatest inten­

sity:

Desde antes que el viniese, ya me anunciaba mi corazon alguna desgracia . , . Llego al fin Rugiero, y procure animarme; el venia tambien triste; pero solo le dolia el verme afligida, y se desvivia el infeliz per pare-cer alegre . . . , Serian como las dos . . . , si, esa hora seria . . . , cuando empezo a levantarse un vien-to tan recie, que el panteon parecia estremecerse, y se apago" la lampara que yo habia celecado sobre un sepul-cro . . . .

Rugiero fue a encenderla; y yo iba a su lado, per no quedarme sola . . . , ?tenia un terror tan grandel . . . Mas apenas nes acercames al sepulcre, cuando se aparecieren de repente dos bultes altisimes, cubiertes con un ropaje negro, y sin hablar ni una palabra, se abalanzaren sobre el infeliz. . , . (p. 293)

Rugiero also speaks of his own misfortunes. When he

testifies before the Tribunal of the Ten, he says his par­

ents did not abandon him because they were net that cruel.

Then he adds, "lEs la unica desdicha de que me ha preservade

23

Dies I" (p. 329). Asked to confirm that he was once a cap­

tive, he replies that he was: ";LO fui en mi ninez . . . ,

para que no tuviera ni un solo dia feliz!" (p. 329). Later,

recounting what the cleric told him about his captivity and

how he was found on the ship where his mother died, he ex­

presses the wish that he too had died along with her: "Me

hallaron desangrandeme en el mismo sene de mi madre . . .

;Por que no tuve la dicha de merir con ellai" (p. 329).

With regard to his role as a fatal man, Rugiero shews

himself very much conscious of his being unfortunate for

Laura. He expresses awareness of this circumstance in the

cemetery when he asks, "cPer que me amas, Laura, per que

me amas?" (pp. 276-77) . It is even mere obvious when, as

he and Laura meet in one last embrace before he goes to his

execution, he asks her, "<iQue os ha hecho este infeliz?" (p.

335) .

Psychologically, Rugiero is pessimistic and melan­

choly. His melancholy can be seen in his frequent allusions

to his misfortunes during the course of his testimony before

the Tribunal of the Ten. A good example of his pessimism is

found in the previously cited passage in which he declares

that, even if fortune should be hostile to the conspiracy,

he would prefer to perish with the forces of liberty rather

than to triumph with their opponents. In response to that

observation, Dauro has occasion to remark upon the general­

ly pessimistic character of the hero: "< Por que has de pen-

24

sar siempre lo mas triste y funesto? No se trata de morir,

sino de veneer" (p. 263) .

In contrast to Rugiero, the principal villain in La

Conjuracion de Venecia is Pedro Morosini. He appears si­

multaneously in two roles—those of Laura's uncle and the

First President of the Tribunal of the Ten.

Pedro Morosini is a sinister figure who inspires

hatred and fear in others. The Tribunal of the Ten has a

reputation for cruelty, and according to Thiepolo it has

become worse since Morosini has been its leader (p. 254).

Rugiero plans to protect Morosini on the outbreak of the

conspiracy to gain his favor because he knows that the judge

is hated and than an attempt on his life is likely (p. 280).

When her uncle approaches at the end of Act Three, Scene

Two, Laura wishes to retire because he provokes in her a

feeling of revulsion: "Ya me voy . . . Que semblante tan

adusto que trae! No se por que al verle me ha dado un vuel-

CO el corazon" (p. 295).

Pedro Morosini is very much concerned with honor

and family reputation. Because these preoccupations are

so strong in him, Laura knows that whatever her father's

attitude may be concerning her secret marriage to the un­

known Rugiero, she cannot expect sympathy from her uncle.

In the cemetery she warns Rugiero accordingly:

Yo conozco su mucha bondad [la del padre] y el carifio que me tiene; hasta su vida daria por mi . . . ; pero temo que nos enganemos, Rugiero; vivimos en Venecia,

25 y mi padre anhela como el que mas el lustre de su familia . . , Quiza por si propio haria en favor nuestro el mayor sacrificio; pero temera el desaire de los otros nobles, el menoscabo de su influjo, las reconven(^iones de su hermano . . . Tu no conoces a este, y yo si; justo y virtuoso, pero mirando hasta la piedad como una fla-queza, trata a los demas hombres con la misma severidad que a si propio . . . No amo nunca, Rugiero; ccomo quieres que nos mire con indulgencia y lastima? (p. 278)

Later, Laura's fears are amply supported by the actions of

the uncle himself. When the latter, not yet knowing of the

secret marriage, discovers that it is his niece who has

been conversing with her lover in the cemetery, his reaction

is one of shock and anger: "Ilmprudente . . . , cuantas

l^grimas va a costarte tu loca pasidn!" (p. 282). Speaking

to Laura's father on the occasion when the latter pleads on

behalf of Rugiero, he criticizes his brother for having that

weak and condescending character which has contributed to the

ruin of his daughter (p. 29 8),

As a political authority, Pedro Morosini is scheming,

devious, cruel, totally unscrupulous. In his official ca­

pacity his principal concerns are to find out about Rugi­

ero 's involvement in the conspiracy and to have him ap­

prehended, tried, and condemned to death. To achieve these

objectives he is willing to use whatever means may be nec­

essary. He has spies follow the hero and report all his

movements. In order to apprehend the young conspirator,

Morosini and his agents interrupt his meeting with Laura

in the cemetery. In presiding over Rugiero's trial Moro­

sini asks leading questions and subjects witnesses to es­

pecially cruel tortures in order to get evidence of guilt.

26

Besides Pedro Morosini, the other villain in La con­

juracion de Venecia is Laura's father, Juan Morosini. Juan

Morosini has something in common with the tyrannical father

type to be considered later in Nuno Hernandez of Macias and

in the Marques de Calatrava in Don Alvaro. Even more no­

tably he anticipates a type which Hartzenbusch develops fur­

ther in don Pedro de Segura in Los amantes de Teruel. Like

Nuno Hernandez and the Marques de Calatrava, he shows great

preoccupation with honor and with the aristocratic standing

of his family. For this reason, Laura fears that he may

object to her marriage to Rugiero. Nevertheless, unlike

Nuno and the Marques, he is not intentionally cruel but

rather inclined toward affection for Laura and toward a

willingness to forgive. When he learns that Rugiero is

Laura's husband and that Rugiero has been encarcerated, he

pleads with his brother, Pedro, to be merciful toward him.

In Juan Morosini, as in don Pedro de Segura later, one sees

a type of character who is basically kind but who subordi­

nates his human inclinations to the demands of a social

code.

Macias

Mariano Jose de Larra's Macias is the second Roman­

tic drama in order of time and the first to be written en­

tirely in verse. It received its premiere performance at

the Teatro del Principe on September 2, 1834, slightly more

than four months after the opening of La conjuracion de

27 Venecia (Peers, History, I, 255-56). A historical drama

set in the fifteenth century, Larra's work treats the love

of the semi-legendary Galician troubador, Macias, for Elvira

Hernandez, a lady-in-waiting in the household of don Enrique

de Villena. Although Elvira's father, Nuno, opposes the

marriage, he is willing to allow Macias one year to return

from Alhama, where he is on an errand for don Enrique de

Villena, before giving Elvira to another. The action of the

play takes place after Macias returns to don Enrique's pal­

ace at Andujar, only hours after the expiration of the time

limit, to find Elvira already married to his rival, Fernan

Perez, and it proceeds gradually to a tragic conclusion as

the troubador's uncontrollable passion overcomes his reason.

Characterization in Macias is rather complicated

since there are three villains (Nuno, Fernan P^rez, and don

Enrique de Villena) who are set in opposition to the single

hero, Macias. Again, as in the case of La conjuracion de

Venecia, a certain amount of repetition of scenes and de­

tails is inevitable.

Larra's Macias has many of the characteristics which

soon will emerge as typical of the Spanish Romantic hero

type. The author pays less attention to creating an aura of

mystery about his hero than some other dramatists (the trou­

bador momentarily seems mysterious to the servants at the

palace of don Enrique de Villena, but his identity is soon

revealed). Macias, nevertheless, as will often become the

28

case, appears as a man of humble standing in relation to

his principal foils. He is an impoverished soldier and

poet, a mere knight in the retinue of don Enrique, with­

out pretension to high nobility,

Macias is an outcast. Although a knight, he is re­

jected by his overlord, don Enrique de Villena, because he

has refused to support a divorce which don Enrique has come

to find convenient in order to secure his appointment to

the Grand Mastership of Calatrava against the rival claims

of don Luis de Guzman. Not only has Macias opposed don En­

rique's divorce, but also he has supported the claims of

the Grand Master's estranged wife, dona Maria de Albornoz.

Although Macias is an outcast, like Rugiero and those

who will follow, he is a man of great virtues and abilities.

When he appears as an unidentified knight at the palace of

don Enrique de Villena, the latter's servants comment upon

his gallant appearance:

(Macias viene armado a uso del siglo XIV, todo de negro, penacho, y calada de visera. . . .)

Paje

;Buen talle y bella postura!

Rui

(;Cierto, es gallarda figural Bueno es que aqui no se queda.)

Elsewhere Elvira, defending her lover against charges of her

father that he is nothing more than a "mal trovador o simple

aventurero," speaks admiringly of Macias' bravery and abil-

29

ity as a soldier, of his skill in athletic competitions, and

of the virtues as a poet which win him respect among the

ladies:

Elvira

;ESO no! ^ Si no os place, nunca, nunca Me llamara su esposa, ni complida Vere jamas tan placida esperanza. Pero al menos sed justo: sus virtudes, Su ingenio,^su valor, sus altos hechos No desprecieis, senor: dd<Dnde estan muchos Que a Macias se igualen, o parezcan? De clima en clima, vos, de gente en gente Buscadlos que le imiten solamente. cSu ardimiento? cVos mismo no le visteis Ha un ano, poco mas, en Tordesillas Los premios del torneo arrebatando, Cuando el rey don Enrique el nacimiento Celebraba del principe? cCual otro Mas sortijas <2ogi6, corrio mas canas? cQuien supo mas bizarre en la carrera Hacer astillas la rebusta lanza? dQuien a sus botes resistio? cQuien tuve. El animese brute gobernando, Mas destreza o denaire? Pedro Nine, El mismo Pedro Nine vino al suelo, Del arzon arrancade, a su erabestida, Y la arena beso. <LPedisle hazanas? El Algarbe las diga, que aun las llora; Y el campo de Baeza, donde escritas Su espada las dejo con sangre mora. Y en fin, su ingenio, si el ingenio vale, Vos mas que yo le cenoceis; vos mismo Con el ibais tambien cuando Villena A Aragon le llevo, donde hizo alarde. En el dialecte lemosin, del suyo: Donde en los juegos merecio de Flora El premie y la corona, que a mis plantas Vino a efrecer despu^s. ;Cuantas cantigas De el cerren en la certe, que la afrenta De los ingenios son, y de las damas El centente y placer! lY ese es, decidme, Ese el mal trovador y aventurero, Ese el simple soldade? Padre mio. Si ese no es ser cumplide caballero. Si eso es ser villano, yo villano A los nobles mas nobles le prefiere. (pp. 264-65)

30

In addition to his handsome appearance, boldness,

soldierly skill, athletic ability, and poetic capacity,

Macias also displays great dignity and an admirable sense of

pride. Even though he is rejected by the upper class, he

feels that he is a superior person and dees not deserve the

oppression which he suffers. His dignity and pride are

especially apparent in the confrontation with don Enrique de

Villena, in which he challenges the latter te a duel. As

he delivers the challenge, Macias criticizes don Enrique's

vanity and asserts that his virtues are greater than these

of his overlord:

iPensais acase Que soy menos que vos? No, don Enrique. <i.En que justas famesas vuestro braze, 0 en que lid me vencid? Coged la lanza, Y cenmigo venid; presto ese ufano Orgulle abatire.

Si en vuestra cuna y en honeres vanos Tanto orgulle fundais, ese os ebliga A preceder mejer. Seis inhumane. Injuste seis cenmigo, don Enrique, Perque en la cumbre es veis; porque ese infando Peder gozais, con que oprimis vilmente. En vez de proteger al desdichade, A una debil mujer; vos valeroso Contra las bellas seis. I Mirad que lauros! Digalo vuestra esposa, que a una ciega Ambicion inmelais. dComo apiadaros Del grito del amor? Vos ni su noble Fuego entendeis, ni nunca habeis amade, Ni seis capaz de amor. Para etras almas De un temple mas sublime se guardaron

Esas grandes pasienes . . . (p. 284)

Elsewhere Macias' dignity and pride are apparent in his

refusal te accept don Enrique's arrangement for avoiding a duel with the villain, Fernan Perez:

cDesistir? 31 cY ^1 lo pudo presumir? <iY sangre en sus venas late? Si elvida, mal caballero. El campo que concedid. No me le ha de negar, no. El rey Enrique Tercere. Di mas: que aunque el mismo Rey El campo franco rehuse, Y de su alto peder use Para hollar su propia ley, Aun no esta salvo el cobarde; Pues que jure per mi espada. No quitarme la celada Hasta que, temprane o tarde, Le encuentre por fin, dequiera, Y en su pecho fementido Deje mi acero escendido, Vengande mi afrenta fiera. (iPiensa el marques per ventura Que soy yo la de Albornoz, Que eigo temblando su vez Y obedezco? TQue lecura! (p. 290)

Although he appears as a noble outcast, Macias' prin­

cipal role in the play is as a passionate lover. Passion in

Romantic drama implies intense and even reckless determina­

tion on the part of the lover to overcome obstacles which

separate him from the object of his affection as well as an

inclination en his part te lose sight of reason wherein his

love is concerned. Macias refuses to let social mores,

scheming villains, or even physical danger separate him from

Elvira. Rather than accept her loss, he strikes out with

rash boldness in the most drastic of actions. He manifests

this inclination toward extreme action in the event he

should be separated from his beloved even before he learns

of Elvira's marriage to Fernan Perez. Immediately after

his return te Andujar, while he and his squire Fortun are

32

waiting for don Enrique te emerge from the church, Macias

remarks that he would rather be stabbed than told of the

flightiness of women (p. 273). In view of this remark, it

is net surprising that, at the end of Act Two, he rushes at

Fernan Perez with drawn sword when the latter appears with

his bride or that he throws himself at don Enrique's feet

begging for vengeance when prevented from carrying out his

intent. Later, although a duel which don Enrique arranges

offers him an opportunity to avenge himself and te regain

his beloved, Macias is unwilling to wait. Throwing all

rational considerations aside, he bursts into Elvira's room

and, in a famous speech which exalts passion over social

convention, encites her to flee with him:

Rompe, aniquila Esos, que contrajiste, horribles lazes. Los amantes sen solos los esposos. Su laze es el amor: dCu^l hay m^s sante? Su temple el universe: donde quiera El Dios los eye que los ha juntado. Si en las ciudades no, si entre los hombres Ni fe, ni abrige, ni esperanza hallamos. Las fieras en los bosques una cueva Cederan al amor. £ Ellas acase No aman tambien? Huyames; I que otro asile Pretendes mas seguro que mis brazes? Los tuyos bastaranme, y si en la tierra Asile no encontrames, juntos ambos Meriremes de amor. £Quien mas dichose Que aquel que amande vive y muere amade? (p. 281)

Macias' extreme boldness on this occasion is matched only

by his challenging don Enrique to a duel when the overlord

criticizes him for disturbing the household of a vassal

33 (Act Three, Scene Six) and by his single-handedly attacking

Fernan P^rez and his four henchmen when they enter his pris­

on cell te kill him (Act Four, Scene Three).

As a lever, Macias is one mere ill-starred figure,

victim of a hostile fate. He pretests against his destiny

while in prison in Act Four, Scene Two. There he laments

having had the misfortune of being born with a passionate

nature:

;Ay de quien al mundo para amar nacid! ;Ay de aquel que amor tirane maltrata, Y que, aun^desdenado, jamas olviddl . . .

dPor que al nacer, cielo, en pecho amader, Tirane, me diste cerazdn de fuego? <iPer que das la sed, si emponzenas luego El mas envidiado supreme licor? Duelate, senera, mi acerbo dolor; Ven, torna a mis brazes, ven, hermosa Elvira: Aunque haya de ser, come antes, mentira Vuelveme, tirana, vuelveme tu amor, (p. 291)

Later Elvira comes te the prison to offer him freedom.

While the two of them are together, they hear Fernan P^rez

approaching with assassins, and Macias complains of his bad

luck: "iSuerte impia! / Jamas has desmentido tu espantesa /

tenacidad cenmigo" (p. 294).

In his last lamentations concerning his misfortunes

and his role as an ill-starred figure, Macias reveals a

tendency toward melancholy. In addition, he displays traits

of sensitivity, self-preoccupation, and pessimism.

Macias' sensitivity and self-preoccupation are es­

pecially evident in the development of his relationship with

Elvira in the scene in which he speaks with her in her

34 chambers (Act Three, Scene Four) and in the scenes which

take place in the prison cell (Act Four, Scenes Three

through Five). In both instances Macias displays great

sensitivity concerning his beloved's emotions toward him,

showing sudden, marked changes of attitude depending en

whether or not he believes her sentiments te be favorable,

but at the same time he also manifests such excessive con­

cern with his own passion that he fails to take into ac­

count important aspects of external reality. When he ap­

pears in her room, he accuses her of inconstancy. He begs

her to explain why she married, but remains so absorbed by

his own passion that he does net listen when she attempts

to do se. After Elvira confesses that she loves him, his

accusations of her infidelity cease in favor of pleas that

she flee with him, and he only resumes his original atti­

tude of recrimination when Elvira returns to defense of

her conjugal duty. Similarly, before Elvira arrives in

his prison cell, Macias laments her unfaithfulness, but

when she appears before him, his lamentations give way to

expressions of regret that he could ever have believed her

te be untrue.

Macias' pessimism reveals itself in a preoccupation

with death. For example, in Act Four, Scene One, he an­

ticipates death as he gives detailed instructions to his

squire Fortun:

No sabe ningun mortal El fin que le guarda el cielo.

35 A Rodriguez del Padrdn, Mi amige, mi espada lleva, Y deme la ultima prueba De su afecto; mi pasidn Le cuenta, y mi fin cruel: Di que la venganza mia. Mi honor a su braze fia. Tal confianza tenge en el. (p. 290)

The villains in Larra's play are Nuno Hernandez,

Fernan Perez and don Enrique de Villena. They appear in

roles typical of Spanish Romantic drama. Nuno Hernandez

is the father of Macias' beloved. Fernan Perez first

emerges as Macias' rival, later as husband of Elvira. Don

Enrique personifies a cruel and unscrupulous authority.

Nuno Hernandez is an ambitious social climber. Al­

though he is of humble origin and is a mere servant in den

Enrique de Villena's household, through the aid of Fernan

Perez he has received favors from the master and hopes to

receive more. Therefore, he must please Fernan Perez by

all means possible including the concession te the protege

of his daughter's hand in marriage.

Even though Nuno Hernandez is not a member of the

hereditary nobility, because of his social-climbing propen­

sities he has acquired most of their worst attitudes, for

example, their preoccupation with honor. He reveals this

in a reply which he gives Elvira in response to her sug­

gestion that he add another month to the one year time

period which he has allowed for Macias' return before giving

her in marriage to Fernan Perez. He asks whether, even if

36 Macias should return, Elvira really thinks that he could

honorably consent te her marrying him.

Nuno Hernandez fits the type, se important in Span­

ish drama, especially in Romanticism, of the cruel and

tyrannical father who will net allow his daughter te marry

whom she pleases. He makes arrangements for Elvira's mar­

riage to Fernan Perez early in the morning on the very day

of the expiration of the time limit for Macias te return

and claim her. When she shows reluctance te accept this

marriage, he threatens her with the danger of incurring

Fernan Perez' disfavor and bids her to marry or suffer his

eternal curse (pp. 264-65).

Although Nuno Hernandez is important in the early

part of the play, Fernan Perez is the principal villain of

the piece. Fernan Perez is a noble by descent. He is a

squire and favorite of den Enrique de Villena. By charac­

ter, however, he is anything but noble. Instead he is

haughty, arrogant, cruel, unscrupulous, scheming, devious,

choleric, and vindictive. As a husband he is jealous. He

is vacillating and indecisive but rash when he chooses to

act. Although he beasts a lot, he is really a coward.

Fernan Perez' haughtiness, arrogance, and unscrupu-

leusness are evident from the beginning of the play. In

the very first scene, where he appears in Nuno's room to

refresh the father's memory concerning the time limit, he

reminds Nuno of his lowly station and of the favors which

, , 37

ne has received in the past and then advances various ar­

guments to show that a marriage between himself and Elvira

would redound te Nuiio' s advantage since he, Fernan Pdrez

de Vadille, as a protege of den Enrique, could do much to

advance Nuno's position in the master's household. He gees

on to tell his host that Macias, who is on an errand for

don Enrique te the Key Bearer of the Order of Calatrava,

is net likely to return seen since his return would require

an order from den Enrique, which he, as don Enrique's sec­

retary, is net likely to send. Furthermore, he passes on

to Nuno the rumor that Macias has married since he has been

away or, at least, is planning to marry—a rumor which the

reader later learns (in Act Two, Scene Three) to be an in­

vention of Fernan Perez himself.

Although in the early part of the play Fernan P^rez

appears principally as the unscrupulous seeker of the hand

of Elvira, in Acts Three and Four he emerges mainly as a

cruel avenger of offended marital honor who, nevertheless,

is indecisive and toe cowardly to confront his adversary

directly in a duel. When he and don Enrique enter Elvira's

room and find Macias there (Act Three, Scene Six), Fernin

Perez reacts with anger. He blurts out incoherent threats

and is only restrained by the intervention of don Enrique.

In spite of his bravado en this occasion, however, only a

few scenes later (Act Three, Scenes Eight and Nine) he

longs for his opponent's death without risk to himself.

38

Although don Enrique indicates an intention te seek an hon­

orable escape for his vassal, Fernan Perez makes it clear

that, if necessary, he will resort to treachery. While

Fernan Perez vacillates about what to de about Macias, his

wife comes in and, in Act Three, Scene Ten, pleads with him

to be allowed to enter a convent since she dees not really

love him, but Fernan Perez cruelly refuses and in a gesture

of ill-repressed anger places his hand en the hilt of his

dagger. When Elvira begs him te kill her, however, he will

not do se. Death, he says, would be a victory for her and

Macias. He will have revenge by keeping Elvira alive. Al­

though he later abandons the idea, for a time he entertains

the project of having Elvira appear before Macias and con­

fess her love for her husband.

In the final act, one sees the culmination of Fernan

Perez' extreme cruelty and preoccupation with honor. By

this time he has yielded completely to the desire to have

Macias killed by treacherous means and, accompanied by a

small group of servants, has entered the prison cell of

the ill-fated troubador to carry out his intent. Macias

is mortally wounded as he bravely attacks his assassins,

and the grief stricken Elvira, who is in the prison cell

at the time, stabs herself. Following these events, don

Enrique de Villena enters and is shocked te see the corpses.

When he asks Fernan Perez what has happened, the latter

gives the following ironic reply: "Me vendian. / Ya se lavd

en su sangre mi deshonra" (p. 296).

39

Don Enrique de Villena, although a lesser villain

than Fernan Perez, is nevertheless an important figure in

the play. He is a representative of a type of unscrupul­

ous authority found in much of Spanish and Brazilian Roman­

tic drama, who uses political power to satisfy personal

grievances. He bears a grudge against Macias because Macias

has opposed the divorce which he needs in order te sustain

his claim to the Grand Mastership of Calatrava. For this

reason and also because he has been influenced by Fernan

Perez, den Enrique seeks te use his power as Macias' over­

lord te prevent the troubador's marriage to Elvira. He

has sent Macias en an errand to the Key Bearer of Calatrava

and has forbidden him to return unless he should receive a

countermanding order. Net satisfied with this, however, he

explains to Fernan Perez in Act Two, Scene Three that he

has sent a directive te the Key Bearer ordering that Macias

be sent with Pedro Manrique te fight against the Moors at

Alhama. Furthermore, he has urged Manrique to place Macias

in one of the most perilous sectors of the battle. Should

the troubador survive, he would then have him sent as a

part of an embassy to the Grand Tamburlaine of Persia. In

the latter part of the play, after Macias has returned te

Andujar in disobedience te his overlord, and after he has

disturbed the household of Fernan Perez and has challenged

don Enrique to a duel, Villena becomes Macias' tormentor

40 who has him put in prison where he awaits the treachery of

Fernan P^rez.

In addition te his cruelty and unscrupulousness, den

Enrique de Villena displays the familiar wounded pride and

excessive preoccupation with the trappings of heredity

nobility. He is haughty, arrogant, vindictive, and hot­

headed. Although he is given to harsh rhetoric, he is real­

ly weak and cowardly. These traits are brought out in his

own speeches and also in the remarks of Macias. The speech

which don Enrique delivers te Fernan Perez in Act Two,

Scene Three where he explains his reasons for wanting venge­

ance against the troubador is particularly revealing:

Ese nunca, que aunque un tiempo Le quise bien, mal pagara Mi amistad, pues cuando quise Darle a el la delicada Comisidn de mi divorcio, Negandese a mi demanda Tratd de afear mi accidn, Come si en vez de mandarla A un inferior, de sus anes Yo loco me acensejara. Y queriendo yo obligarle Per ser dencel de mi casa, De dona Maria Albornoz, Mi mujer, temd la causa; Tanto que, a seguir en ella. Perdiera yo mi demanda, Pues supo presto manese Del Rey cautivar la gracia. ;Necie prefirid a mi amparo El ser campedn de las damas! Esta ofensa, Ivive Dies! Que no tenge de olvidarla. Y pues ne quiero en su sangre Manchar yo mi propia espada, Al menos de que muriera Centra los mores me helgara. Es insufrible su orgulle.

41 Y hasta su henradez me enfada, Pues ne ha menester mi estirpe Que venga ninguno a henrarla. Yo se tambien ser honrado Cuando conduce a mi fama. A su impetuse carcfcter, A su indemable pujanza Opondr^ el peder, y cierto No hacen sus servicios falta. Vos servis mejer. (p. 269)

Through phrases, such as "Necio prefirid a mi amparo / El

ser campeon de las damas" and "Esta ofensa, ivive Dios! /

Que no tenge de olvidarla," one perceives den Enrique's

cheler and through the detail concerning his unwillingness

to stain his sword with the bleed of a recalcitrant vassal

one sees his wounded pride and concern for the purity of

his escutcheon. Macias' challenge in Act Three, Scene

Six, cited previously (p. 29 above), is important in don

Enrique's portrayal, and merits repetition here:

Si en vuestra cuna y en honeres vanes Tanto orgulle fundais, eso es ebliga A preceder mejer. Seis inhumane. Injusto seis cenmigo, don Enrique, Perque en la cumbre os veis; perque ese infando Peder gozais, con que oprimis vilamente. En vez de proteger al desdichade, A una debil mujer; vos valeroso. Centra las bellas seis. IMirad que laurosI Digalo vuestra esposa, que a una ciega Ambicidn inmelais. cCdme apiadaros Del grito del amor? Vos ni su noble Fuego entendeis, ni nunca habeis amade, Ni seis capaz de amor. Para etras almas De un temple mas sublime se guardaron Esas grandes pasienes . . . (p. 284)

In this speech Macias indicates awareness of his vanity

and attentiveness to his lineage and honors. Furthermore,

he states that don Enrique is a coward who neglects his

42 duty of protection as an overlord and is content with

victories ever weak women.

A final aspect of the character of den Enrique de

Villena which is of interest concerns Larra's treatment of

the belief of the common people that he is in possession of

demonic powers. This popular belief is first brought to

the reader's attention when, in Act Two, Scene Two, the

Grand Master throws down the letter from the Key Bearer of

Calatrava in disgust because the writer has suggested that

den Enrique, as one possessed of such powers, will undoubt­

edly knew events subsequent to Macias' departure for Al­

hama, which is the latest news that he, as writer, is able

to relate. Later in that same scene don Enrique's scorn

for the opinion of the masses that learning which he has

is the result of his being in league with the devil begins

te turn into a wish that he really had the powers popularly

attributed te him. Den Enrique is a poet, and in Act Two,

Scene Six the theme of his association with the powers of

evil reappears when a page expresses the notion that his

poetic ability derives from magical sources. Larra's por­

trayal of the popular belief concerning den Enrique de

Villena's association with the powers of darkness amplifies

the sinister air typical of villains in Spanish Romantic

plays and is also of interest in the context of this stu­

dy since, as will be shewn later, the device of associat-

ting a villain with sinister forces also appears in some

Romantic dramas of Brazil, notably Gencalves Dias' Patkull.

43

Don Alvaro e la fuerza del sino

Although La conjuracion de Venecia and Macias repre­

sent the beginnings of Romantic drama in Spain, the work

which in many respects, is the paradigmatic Spanish Roman­

tic play is Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino by Angel Saave­

dra, later the Duque de Rivas. The premiere performance of

this well-known work took place in Madrid at the Teatro del

Principe on March 22, 1835, and according to a long-standing

tradition which Peers has subsequently refuted, it was a

stupendous success (History, I, 260-64). The work, which

is partially in prose and partially in verse, is a recast

version of an earlier all prose drama (now lest) which Rivas

wrote while he was an exile in France (Peers, "Critical

Study," p. 69).

Characterization in Don Alvaro is rather complicated

Many of the attitudes and traits of the principal masculine

characters are brought out in scenes of confrontation in

which the hero and each of the villains interact. Conse­

quently, in this play, even more than in the ones studied

previously, analysis of characters requires a certain repe­

tition of scenes in order adequately te illustrate the

viewpoints and attendant strengths and weaknesses of the

various personages.

In don Alvaro, pretaganist of the work, Rivas de­

velops a character who is generally considered te be the

44 Romantic hero par excellence of Spanish drama. Don Alvaro

has all the characteristics of heroes in the earlier plays

which one may regard as typically Romantic, but, whereas,

in these earlier figures these characteristics are devel­

oped unevenly, in don Alvaro they are the subject of an

elaborate development, and, with the possible exception of

his passion, they are greatly magnified.

Den Alvaro, like ether Romantic heroes, is a myste­

rious figure of unknown origins. The element of mystery

is brought out quite forcefully in the opening scene where

a group of characters (mostly popular figures) talk about

the hero at the aguaduche of Tio Pace near the Triana Bridge

in Seville. Although nobody knows anything about him ex­

cept that he is a rich indiane recently returned from Amer­

ica, they all listen eagerly as the proprietor of the

aguaduche repeats rumors which make him a pirate, the bas­

tard sen of a Spanish grandee and a Moorish princess, and

7 even an Inca.'

The sense of mystery which surrounds don Alvaro in

this early scene continues in the minds of the other char­

acters as he appears in various places under different

guises. For example, when he appears in the military in

Italy disguised as don Fadrique de los Herreres, captain of

the king's grenadiers, his companiens-in-arms wonder about

his background and speculate about stories which they have

heard which make him an Andalusian marquis (p. 104). Simil'

45

^^IY/ in the final act, when he emerges as the penitent

Padre Rafael in the Convente de los Angeles, the lay bro­

ther, Hermano Meliton, wonders about the circumstances of

his origin and hew he came to the convent: "Y come vine al

convente de un mode tan rare, y nadie le viene nunca a ver,

ni sabemes donde nacio" (p. 111>.

Den Alvaro's background is a mystery not only for

the characters but for the reader as well. In the next te

the last scene, during den Alvaro's combat with don Alfonso,

the reader learns all: den Alvaro is the son of a rebel­

lious Peruvian viceroy and an Inca princess; he was raised

among the Indians while his father and mother suffered pun­

ishment for attempting te establish an independent American

empire; he came te Spain to seek pardon for his parents.

However, through most of the play, the here's origins remain

a matter of conjecture with the reader learning a little

bit at a time through sometimes subtle allusions.

In Act One, Scene Eight, for example, where he has

come to abduct his beloved Leonor from the house of her

father, den Alvaro refers to the sun as protector of his

sovereign lineage while he urges his love to be more reso­

lute in the matter of their elopement:

En San Juan de Alfarache, preparade todo, con gran secrete, lo he dejado. El sacerdote en el altar espera; Dios nes bendecira desde su esfera; y cuando el nuevo sol en el Oriente,

46

protector de mi estirpe soberana, numen eterne en la regidn Indiana, la regia pempa de su trene estente, monarca de la luz, padre del dia, ye tu espose sere, tu, esposa mia. (p. 70)

In the confrontation in Act Four which precedes his duel

with Leonor's brother, den Carlos, he speaks of his high

nobility:

Yo es ofrezee, yo os jure que ne os arrepentireis cuando a conecer llegueis mi erigen excelse y pure. Al primer grande espanol no le cede en jerarquia; es mas alta mi hidalguia que el trene del mismo sol. (p. 102)

Finally, imprisoned for dueling, he laments that he

will die without having obtained freedom for his parents:

rDentre de breves heras, lejos de las mundanas afeccienes, vanas y enganaderas, ire de Dios al tribunal severe.' cY mis padres? . . . Mis padres desdichados aun yacen encerrados en la prisidn horrenda de un Castillo . . . Cuando con mis hazanas y preezas pensaba restaurar su nombre y brillo y rescatar sus miseras cabezas, no me esperaba mas suerte que, come criminal, infame muerte. (p. 107)

Because of the mystery which surrounds his origin,

don Alvaro is an outcast. The Marques de Calatrava, who

represents the Sevillian "establishment," rejects him as a

possible son-in-law because he apparently lacks the approp­

riate noble pedigree. In the aguaduche scene the canon

47 puts the matter quite plainly: "El case es sencillisimo.

Don Alvaro llego hace dos meses; nadie sabe quien es. Ha

pedido en casamiento a dona Leonor, y el Marques, no juz-

gandele buen partido para su hija, se la ha negado" (p. 64).

In spite of the mystery which surrounds his origins

and in spite of his rejection by the Marques de Calatrava,

den Alvaro is a man of noble character and great abilities.

He is extremely generous, honorable, and brave. Like Maci­

as in Larra's play, he is a capable soldier and a skillfull

athlete. He has outstanding strength of character and, in

general, is the incarnation of those qualities which, in the

Romantic view, make a man. Furthermore, he is a popular

figure, well-liked especially among the humbler classes and

widely respected—even celebrated--fer his virtues and capa­

bilities .

Den Alvaro's virtues and popularity are brought te

the reader's attention in various ways. The conversation

of the popular figures at the aguaduche is important, as

are the words of other characters in the military scenes in

Acts Three and Four and the words of Hermano Meliton and

the Padre Guardian in the scenes at the Convente de los

Angeles at the beginning of Act Five. In addition, don

Alvaro's speeches and actions during his confrontations

with the Marque's de Calatrava and with the latter's sens,

don Carlos and don Alfonso, contribute much to the por­

trayal of these qualities.

48

At the aguaduche the reader learns of the hero's

great virtues and abilities even before den Alvaro appears

as the popular characters there speak admiringly of him.

Preciosilla mentions that he is the best bullfighter in

Spain and that, because of his dignified bearing, he is

worthy of being the husband of an empress (p. 6 3). The

majo emphasizes his bravery:

Es verdad que es todo un hombre, muy dure con el ganado y muy echado adelante. . . . lY vaya un hombre valiente1 Cuando en la Alameda Vieja le salieren aquella noche los siete hombres mas duros que tiene Sevilla, metid mane y me los acorrald a todos centra las tapias del picadero. (p. 63)

The officer stresses his gentlemanly bearing:

Y que mas podia apetecer su senoria que el ver casada a su hija . . . con um hombre riquisimo, y cuyos medales estan pregonando que es un caballero? . . . Y en el des-afie que tuve con el capitan de artilleria se pertd come un caballero. (p. 63)

Moreover, Preciosilla and Tie Pace are very much impressed

by den Alvaro's generosity. Preciosilla mentions his hav­

ing given her "una enza de ore como el sol de mediodia,"

and Tie Pace mentions his having given him "una peseta

columnaria" (p. 63).

Den Alvaro's dignified background, mentioned by Pre­

ciosilla, is made amply apparent in the following scene

where don Alvaro makes his dramatic entrance:

Empieza a anochecer, y se va obscureciendo el teatro. Don Alvaro sale embozado en una capa de seda, con un gran sombrero bianco, betines y espuelas; cruza lenta-mente la escena mirando con dignidad y melancolia a tod­os lades, y se var por el puente. Todos le observan en gran silencio. (p. 65)

49 While he is in the army in Italy under his assumed

identity, den Alvaro demonstrates his great generosity and

bravery by saving the life of don Carlos, who is also there

in disguise and is beset by seven men following a quarrel

over a card game. Don Carlos is appreciative:

Mil gracias es doy, senor; sin vuestro heroico valor de cierto estaba perdide; y ne fuera maravilla: eran siete contra mi, y cuando grite, me vi en tierra ya una rodilla. (p. 91)

Den Carlos asks den Alvaro's name, and when the latter re­

veals that he is don Fadrique de los Herreres, captain of

the king's grenadiers, don Carlos expresses great surprise

and enthusiasm to think that he has been saved by one who

is known throughout the army for his great bravery and sol­

dierly skill:

(Con grande admiracion y entusiasmo.) Seis . . . grande dicha es la mia! del ejercite espanol la gloria, el radiante sol de la hispana valentia?

Desde que llegue a Italia, solo^elogiares y prez de Espana llamares per dendeguiera escuche. Y de espanol tan valiente anhelaba la amistad. (p. 92)

When the call for battle sounds, don Carles says he will

remain at don Fadrique's side where he may observe and

admire him as a model:

50 Ye tambien, y a vuestro lado asistire en la pelea, donde os admire y es vea como a mi ejemple y dechado. (p. 93)

In the battle don Fadrique is wounded, and as den

Felix de Avedane (i.e. den Carlos) rushes to his aid, the

soldiers all wish that God will spare his life since he is

the best man in the army: "Dies nes le conserve, que es la

flor del ejercite" (p. 94). After the battle, when don Al­

varo is brought into his lodging en a stretcher, don Carlos

expresses admiration. Calling don Alvaro his "amige excel-

so, " he begs the surgeon te de everything in his power to

save him and promises him an ample reward. The surgeon,

however, dees net need a reward to save the life of one so

valiant as don Fadrique:

Le agradezco: para cumplir con mi eficio ne necesito de cebe que en salvar a este valiente, interes muy grande tenge. (p. 94)

Don Alvaro's virtues are further extolled when he is

imprisoned for having violated the law against dueling be­

cause of his involvement in the combat with don Carles. As

a lieutenant watches the hero being taken prisoner, he cannot

imagine what is happening: "Pero, senor, dque sera este?

dPreso el militar mas valiente del ejercite?" (p. 104). An

exception, he says, should be made for one so worthy: "Ser^

una atrocidad. Debe haber una excepcidn a favor de oficial

tan valiente y benemerito" (p. 104). The captain who serves

51

as don Alvaro's jailer regrets his duty:

Come la mayor desgracia juzgo, amige y cempanere, el estar hey de servicie para ser alcaide vuestro. (p. 105)

Officers and generals plead with the king te pardon their

champion, and when their pleas go unheeded, the captain

fears a rebellion.

During all this time don Alvaro continues to comport

himself in a noble and dignified manner. He expresses re­

gret at having killed den Carles, whom he respected for his

virtues:

Yo lo amaba . . . lAh, cual me aprieta el cerazdn una mane de hierre ardiente! La fuerza me falta . . . I Oh Dios! I Que bizarre, con que noble gentileza entre un diluvie de balas se arrojd, viendome en tierra, a salvarme de la muerte! iCon cuante afan y terneza pasd las neches y dias sentade a mi cabecera! (pp. 105-106)

The duel, he says, however, was an affair of honor which

could net be avoided:

Era un digno caballero de pensamientos muy altos. Retdme con razdn harta, y ye tambien le he matado con razdn. Si, si aun viviera, fueramos de nuevo al campo, el a procurar mi muerte, ye a esferzarme por matarlo. 0 el o yo solo en el mundo. Pere imposible en el ambos. (p. 106)

52 He begs the jailer te do his duty, saying that sentinels

are unnecessary since he has given his word of honor. He

urges that the law be carried out, and he dees net want to

be made an exception.

In the early scenes in Act Five, at the Convente de

los Angeles, den Alvaro, under the guise of Padre Rafael,

appears as the ideal monk, beloved of the poor te whom the

monastery dispenses charity, and respected by his superior,

the Padre Guardian. When the comic Hermano Meliton be­

comes irritated with the poor, who greedily clamor for mere,

these humble folk throw in his face the greater patience and

humility of Padre Rafael. When Hermano Meliton complains

to the Padre Guardian concerning the preference of the poor

for Padre Rafael, the superior tells the lay brother te be

humble and net te resent their preferring Padre Rafael who

is a servant of God whom all should imitate: "Y, hermano

Meliton, tenga mas humilidad y no se efenda cuando prefie-

ran al Padre Rafael, que es un sierve de Dies a quien todos

debemes imitar" (p. Ill).

The scenes in which den Alvaro confronts the Marques

de Calatrava when the latter finds him in Leonor's room at

the time of the attempted abduction (Act One, Scene Eight)

and the scenes leading up te the duels with don Carlos and

don Alfonso (Act Four, Scene One and Act Five, Scene Six)

amply demonstrate don Alvaro's great dignity and nobility

of character. On these occasions one sees the protagonist's

53 willingness to be conciliatory and reasonable in the face

of his adversaries' arrogance and vindictiveness, a rational

quality which is totally lacking in Larra's Macias. The

episodes also reveal den Alvaro te be in possession of that

admirable pride which is such an important characteristic

of the Spanish Romantic hero.

In the confrontation with the Marques, when the

angry father bursts into the room accusing both the here

and his beloved of wrongdoing, den Alvaro proclaims the

innecense of Leonor and, on bended knee, offers te accept

all the blame as his own: "Vuestra hija es inecente . . .

Yo soy el unico culpado . . . Atravesadme el pecho" (p. 72).

The Marques' interpretation of his suppliant attitude as

a sign of low standing, however, causes don Alvaro proudly

te rise and defend his own worth: "ISenor Marques! . . .

ISenor Marques!" (p. 72). When the Marques orders his ser­

vants to attack, the young man retains his dignity and

lets it be known that he will net tolerate any less of

respect: "(Con dignidad) Desgraciado del que me pierde el

respete" (p. 72). Before the fatal accident occurs, don

Alvaro indicates willingness to die but insists that he

must die at the hands of the Marques: "lAy de vuestres

criades si se mueven! Vos solo teneis el derecho para

atravesarme el cerazdn" (p. 73).

In the scene leading up to the combat with den Car­

los, den Alvaro shows the same type of calm dignity evident

54

in the confrontation with the Marques. Don Alvaro's atti­

tude on this occasion stands in marked contrast te the an­

ger of don Carlos. When don Carles, challenging den Al­

varo, demands that he tremble, den Alvaro calmly states

that he trembles before ne man: "No se temblar . . . Ser-

prendido, si me teneis . . . " (p. 100). After attempting

unsuccessfully te convince don Carlos that the sheeting of

his father was an accident, don Alvaro tries to insinuate

te the Calatrava brother his own true nobility:

dTemeis que vuestro valor se disminuya y se asombre si halla en su centrarie un hombre

de nobleza y pundonor? (p. 101)

When don Carles scorns the idea of his nobility and honor,

although don Alvaro is disturbed, he, nevertheless, main­

tains an attitude of calm. After all, if don Carlos really

knew the truth concerning his origin, his attitude would be

different, and den Alvaro is net going te be excited te an­

ger by unfounded injuries. Rather than becoming angry, he

attempts te placate the furor of his opponent and pleads in

favor of his own innocence: Ye a vuestro padre ne heri: le hirid solo su destine. Y yo a aquel angel divine, ni seduje, ni perdi. Ambos nes estan mirando desde el cielo; mi inocencia ven, esa ciega demencia que es agita cendenando. (p. 101)

Only den Carles' insistence on cruel vengeance against

Leonor is capable of causing him to yield te the irrational

55

impulses of his passionate nature. When den Carles says

that he intends to kill Leonor, den Alvaro must fight to

save his beloved.

The calm dignity which den Alvaro shews en this oc­

casion is also very apparent in his comportment in the

scene where Leonor's ether brother, don Alfonso enters the

convent to challenge Padre Rafael. When don Alfonso deliv­

ers the challenge and demands vengeance, don Alvaro calmly

tries to dissuade him. He says that he, in the past, has

been a victim of passion, so he understands, but he begs

den Alfonso to consider his present circumstances and to

let him seek the mercy of God in peace:

(Con gran calma, pero sin orgulle.)

Entiende, joven, entiende, sin que escucharos me pasme, perque he vivide en el mundo y apurado sus afanes. De los vanos pensamientos que en este punte en vos arden, tambien el juguete he side; quiera el Seiier perdenarme. victima de mis pasienes, conozco todo el alcance de su influjo, y cempadezco al mortal a quien combaten. Mas ya sus berrascas mire, come el naufrage que sale por un milagro a la erilla, y jamas torna a embarcarse. Este sayal que me viste, esta celda miserable, este yermo, adonde acase Dios por vuestro bien os trae, desenganos os presentan para calmares bastantes; y mas os respenden mudos que pueden labies mortales. Aqui de mis muchas culpas, que sen lay de mi! harto grandes.

56 pido a Dios misericordia; que la consiga dejadme. (p. 114)

Although don Alfonso tries to provoke him by insulting him,

don Alvaro refuses te be moved. Begging den Alfonso once

more te respect his condition, he says as a gentleman his

duty was to avenge injuries, but new as a man of God it is

to forgive:

Los insultes y amenazas que vuestres labies prenuncian, ne tienen para cenmigo peder ni fuerza ninguna. Antes, come caballero, supe vengar las injurias; hey, humilde religiose, darles perddn y disculpa. Pues veis cual es ya mi estado, y, si seis sagaz, la lucha que cenmigo estoy sufriende, templad vuestra sana injusta. Respetad este vestido, cempadeced mis angustias, y perdonad genereso ofensas que estan en duda. (p. 115)

After mention of Leonor provokes momentary re-kindling of

den Alvaro's former passion, giving rise to doubts concern­

ing the sincerity of his renunciation of the world, don

Alvaro even kneels before den Alfonso te suggest that he

is indeed sincere. When don Alfonso interprets the kneel­

ing as a sign of baseness and speaks of a stain on his es­

cutcheon den Alvaro proudly protests, "Mi escudo es come

el sol limpio, / come el sol" (p. 116). Afterwards, hew-

ever, he quickly regains his self-possession. Even the

Calatrava brother's allusion te his mestizo condition fails

57 to arouse his anger beyond the possibility of restraint.

He abandons reason and yields to the desire for vengeance

only when den Alfonso resorts te the extreme of slapping

him in the face.

Beside being of noble character and great abilities,

don Alvaro is a lover. His role as one scarcely merits ex­

tensive treatment since it is obvious in the superficial

elements of the plot. Because he loves Leonor so much, den

Alvaro feels that he must abduct her when the Marques re­

fuses to give his consent to their marriage. In Italy he

seeks death because he believes that Leonor was killed in

the melee which followed the shooting of the Marques, and

life without her dees not seem worthwhile te him. When

don Carlos reveals that Leonor is still alive, don Alvaro

momentarily entertains the hope that he and don Carles might

become friends and go together te find her (p. 10 2), but

that hope is quickly destroyed by the implacable vindict­

iveness of den Carles. Similarly, when don Alvaro learns

from den Alfonso that his parents have been pardoned, he

temporarily forgets his irrevocable vows as a monk, and he

briefly hopes that Leonor can be sought out, and all can be

repaired.

Don Alvaro's leve is a passionate one, although less

so than Macias'. I have already shewn how he abandons

reason and decides to seek vengeance against don Carlos when

den Carlos announces his intent to kill Leonor (see p. 54

58 above). There are many other examples of his passion. It

is clear in his expression of high hope en arriving at Leo­

nor 's room for the abduction:

IAngel consolader del alma mia! . . . <LVan ya los santos cielos a dar corona eterna a mis desveles? . . . Me ahega la alegria . . . cEstamos abrazados para no vernes nunca separados? . . . Antes, antes la muerte, que de ti separame y que perderte. (p. 70)

It is also evident in his frenzied remarks in the scene of

confrontation with den Alfonso when the latter chances te

mention his sister:

I Mi Leonor I Ah! No sin henra un religiose es le jura. I Leonor . . . ay I la que absorbia toda mi existencia junta! (En delirio.) La que en mi pecho por siempre ^ . . por siempre, si, si . . . que aun dura . . . una pasidn . . . Y que, cvive? <i Sabeis vos neticias suyas? . . . Decid que me ama y matadme. (p. 115)

It appears near the end of the play in don Alvaro's surprise

on learning that a holy person dwelling in isolation in a

cave near the Convente de los Angeles is really Leonor ("Es

un espectro! . . . Imogen aderada . . . I Leonor! i Leonor1"

[p. 120]), and it is present in his stunned reaction after

the dying don Alfonso kills Leonor in order te defend his

honor: "Aun respira . . . , adn palpita aquel cerazdn todo

mio . . . Angel de mi vida . . . vive, vive; yo te adore

. . . I Te hall^, per fin . . . si, te halle muerta! (p. 120)

59

Closely related to his love is don Alvaro's sensi­

tivity and preoccupation with self. Like Macias, he tends

in his relationship with his beloved te undergo drastic

changes of attitude depending on whether he believes she is

favorable toward him or net. Furthermore, again like

Macias, he is apt te become so absorbed in his love that he

loses sight of external reality. His tendency toward

sudden shifts of attitude is especially evident in the

scene where he comes te abduct Leonor. As has been pointed

out earlier (see p. 58 above), he enters her room on that

occasion with great hope:

iAngel consolader del alma mia . . . <LVan ya los santos cielos a dar corona eterna a mis desveles? . . . Me ahega la alegria . . . (p. 70)

However, when Leonor hesitates concerning the elopement and

suggests that they wait until the morrow, don Alvaro begins

te despair and accuses his beloved of being unfaithful:

Destrezade tenge el cerazdn . . . jDdnde esta, ddnde, vuestro amor, vuestro firme juramento? Mal con vuestra palabra correspende tanta irresolucidn en tal memento. Tan subita mudanza. . . . (p. 71)

Nevertheless, after Leonor later changes her mind and sug­

gests that they flee, don Alvaro's attitude again becomes

one of tenderness: "IMi encante! ;Mi tesero!" (p. 71).

The tendency of the hero to become so absorbed in his love

that he loses sight of external reality is obvious in his

sudden desire, upon learning that Leonor is still alive

60

during the confrontation with don Carlos, te go in friend­

ship with his challenger te seek her out and also in his

sudden wish, on finding out about his parents' pardon dur­

ing the confrontation with den Alfonso, te find Leonor and

then te act as if nothing had happened. In this first in-j>

stance don Alvaro loses sight of the fact that he is facing

an implacable assailant, and in the second instance he for­

gets net only his hostile adversary but also the fact that

he has taken holy orders.

Net surprisingly, den Alvaro is an ill-fated figure,

He believes himself the victim of an inexorable force which

thwarts his will and impels his actions. The importance

of fate in the life of the protagonist is suggested in the

title. Den Alvaro o la fuerza del sine. In the opening

scene at the aguaduche Preciosilla predicts his ill-fated

nature. She has told his fortune, she says, and if the

lines of the palm speak truth, it is not good (p. 63). In

later scenes den Alvaro attributes te fate, fortune, or

destiny his late arrival for Leenor's abduction (p. 70),

his accidental murder of the Marques de Calatrava (p. 101),

and his killing of den Carles (pp. 105-106).

Most of all, don Alvaro's role as an ill-starred

figure is revealed in a famous soliloquy which he delivers

while a soldier in Italy seeking death in battle. It

opens with some general reflections concerning what a ter­

rible place the world is for the ill-starred:

61 I Que carga tan insufrible

es el ambiente vital, para el mezquine mortal que^nace en signe terrible! I Que eternidad tan horrible la^breve vida! I Este mundo, que calaboze profundo para el hombre desdichade, a quien mira el cielo airado con su cene furibunde! (p. 89)

Becoming mere autobiographical, don Alvaro then protests

against destiny for extending most the lives of these who,

like himself, are unfortunate, while allowing these who are

happy only a brief existence:

Parece, si, que a medida que es mas dura y mas amarga, mas extiende, mas alarga el destine nuestra vida. Si nos esta concedida sdle para padecer, y debe muy breve ser la del feliz, como en pena de que su objete no llena, Jterrible cosa es nacer! Al que tranquile, gezoso

vive entre aplauses y honeres, y de inecentes amores apura el caliz sabroso, cuando es mas fuerte y brioso, la muerte sus dichas huella sus Venturas atrepella; y yo que infelice soy, yo que buscandola voy, ne puedo encontrar con ella. (pp. 89-90)

After referring to unfortunate circumstances in his back­

ground in America, he says that destiny may have allowed

him one single happy day (the day he thought he was going

to marry Leonor) only for the purpose of making him mere

aware of the horror which is usual:

62 Entonces risueno un dia, uno sdle, nada m^s, me die el destine; quizes con intencidn mas impia. Asi en la carcel sembria mete una luz el saydn, con la tirana intencidn de que un punte el preso vea el horror que lo redea en su espantesa mansion, (p. 90)

These gloomy reflections ultimately lead him te contemplate

suicide:

Si el mundo colma de honeres al que mata a su enemige, el que le lleva censige Ipor que ne puede? (p. 91)

Although reference te den Alvaro's ill-starred na­

ture are superficially obvious, there has been much debate g

among the critics concerning Rivas' meaning. Much of

this discussion has centered en the question whether don

Alvaro has free will. It has been suggested that if one

accepts don Alvaro's protestations in the soliloquy in Act

Three against destiny which will net let him die, one can-

net explain his suicide at the end of the play (Peers,

"Critical Study," p. 392). Although the matter probably

9 cannot be resolved, from the standpoint of characteriza­tion what is important is net that den Alvaro's life is

really governed by an inexorable force but rather, as Funes

. . 10 suggests, that he believes it is. He may, in a real

sense, have free will and be exercising it in the Italian

scenes by bravely and skillfully warding off the blows of

his assailants and in the final scene by desperately hurling

63 himself over the cliff, but he may, nevertheless, believe

that his suffering in life is the result of cosmic force's

persecuting him. Failure always to profess the orthodox

doctrine of free will dees not necessarily deny the sinceri­

ty of the Christian sentiments which he dees occasionally

express (as, for example, in the scenes where he is suf­

fering imprisonment as a result of the duel with don Carles)

since inconsistency is normal in human psychology and rigid

adherence te doctrine under all circumstances is, no doubt,

rare in the most faithful of believers.

Don Alvaro, like the heroes in several of the other

plays being considered in this study, appears both as an

ill-starred figure who suffers and a fatal character who is

unfortunate for others. Don Alvaro is absolutely fatal

for all the Calatravas, killing the entire male line.

Furthermore, the chance circumstance of his coming te the

monastery near which Leonor has taken refuge is fatal for

her.

Den Alvaro is aware that he is unfortunate for

Leonor, and he expresses his regret while he is in prison

in Veletri. News of her brother's death, he suggests en

that occasion, will only make worse her suffering, already

severe, because of the killing of her father:

1LeonorI Leonor! Si existes, desdichada, I eh, que golpe te espera cuando la nueva fiera te llegue adonde vives retirada, de que la misma mane, la mane lay triste! Imia

64 que te privet de padre y de alegria, acaba de privarte de un hermano! (p. 107)

Consideration of don Alvaro's role as an ill-starred

figure leads naturally to mention of his pessimism, melan­

choly, and rebellion against the cosmic order. All these

traits are brought out most forcefully in that long solil­

oquy in Act Three, Scene Three. Don Alvaro there sadly ex­

presses belief that life is se depressing that he wishes to

die, but he is pessimistic concerning the possibility of

death. The forces of the universe seem to be perpetuating

his life in order to prolong his suffering. Don Alvaro,

however, does not accept this situation without pretest.

The soliloquy is a pretest against the forces which he be­

lieves, at this point in time, to be the cause of his op­

pression.

Don Alvaro's rebellion against cosmic force is al­

so apparent in the satanism of the final scenes. After

finally allowing himself te be provoked into accepting don

Alfonso's challenge, he proclaims, "El infierno me cen-

funda" (p. 116). When don Alfonso announces his intention

to reveal what he has learned while in America concerning

his origins, the here accuses don Alfonso of being an

"hombre, fantasma o demenio / que ha tomado humana carne /

para hundirme en los infiernos . . . " (p. 118). Although

he hesitates to approach the hermitage where Leonor is con­

cealed, since to de so is forbidden under penalty of excom-

65 munication, he finally decides to go ahead since he has

broken all bonds anyway (p. 119). At the very end, as he

hurls himself over the cliff, he utters words of suicidal

despair: "IInfierno, abre tu boca y tragame! Hundase el

cielo, perezca la raza humana; exterminie, destruccicJn!"

(p. 120). In these scenes den Alvare's rebellion against

the cosmic order seems te be directed against God. Al­

though the friars' chanting of "I Miserciordial" in the very

last line of the play would seem to suggest that Rivas

meant te give the work a Christian interpretation, never­

theless, such a final interpretation for the play as a

whole would not seem te exclude the protagonist's feeling

blasphemous sentiments at a time of great despair.

As contrast to the well-developed Romantic here in

Don Alvaro, Rivas portrays some equally well-developed

villains. They, of course, are the Marques de Calatrava

and his two sens, don Alfonso and don Carlos.

The Marques is a vain aristocrat who, although im­

poverished, is preoccupied with the purity of his escutch­

eon. Like Nuno in Larra's Macias, he represents the type

of tyrannical father who seeks to impose his will on his

daughter without any regard for her feelings. He has re­

fused te allow Leonor te marry den Alvaro. Te separate

her from him, he has taken her away from Seville to his

country estate in the Aljarafe, and when he receives word

from the canon that don Alvaro is going to attempt to ab-

66

duct his daughter, he is ready and waiting with armed ser­

vants .

Don Carlos and don Alfonso represent the vengeful

brother type common in se much of Golden Age and Romantic

Spanish drama (Peers, "Critical Study," pp. 414-15). Con­

cerned with honor, they have as their principal goal to

make don Alvaro pay for crimes which they believe him te

have committed—the murder of their father and the seduction

of their sister. They also seek to kill Leonor.

Te realize their goals the Calatrava brothers are

totally without scruples and willing te go to any length.

Den Carles has traveled extensively and has gene to Italy

under an assumed name and identity in order to find his

victim. When he begins te suspect that den Fadrique de

los Herreres is really den Alvaro (in Act Three, Scene

Eight), he considers opening a bundle of den Alvare's pri­

vate papers, even though he has given his word not te de

so, and only refrains because he happens to discover Lee­

nor's picture without having to open anything. Don Alfon­

so has traveled over much of the world in pursuit of the

here, even going to America, and in the last act, he rashly

enters a monastery and provokes a duel with a monk.

All three villains are sinister figures who inspire

dislike and fear. The characters at the aguaduche, for

example, shew scorn for the Marques de Calatrava. Precio­

silla calls him a "vejete ruin," and the officer says he de-

67 serves a beating (p. 6 3). The military men in the Italian

scenes are disdainful of don Carles and welcome news of his

death in the duel:

Oficial 1°

Me alegre, que era un betarate.

Oficial 2^

Un insultante.

Oficiales 1° y 4°

Era un charlatan, un fanfarrdn. (p. 104)

Leonor expresses fear of her brothers when she seeks refuge

near the Convente de los Angeles:

Padre Guardian

No, nada tema. La Virgen de los Angeles os cubre Con su manto, sera vuestra defensa el angel del Senor.

Dona Leonor

Mas mis hermanos . . . (p. 85)

On the arrival of den Alfonso at the convent in the last

act Hermano Melitdn expresses fear, and even the hero him­

self, who usually is undaunted, is frightened as well:

Hermano Melitdn

Padre, aqui es busca un matdn, (Entra) que muy ternejal parece.

Den Alvaro (Receloso)

6Quien, hermano? . . . dA mi? . . .<iSu nombre?

68

Den Alvaro

Entre al memento quien sea.

Hermano Melitdn

Ne es pecader contrite. Se quedara tamaiiito (Aparte)

al instante que lo vea. (Vase) (p. 113)

In addition te being sinister figures who inspire

reactions of dislike and fear, all three villains are haugh­

ty, arrogant, overbearing, scornful, rash, and choleric.

These qualities, along with the preoccupation with honor

of all the villains and the extreme vindictiveness of the

brothers are brought out in the scenes of confrontation

with den Alvaro.

In Act One, Scene Eight the Marques, rashly assuming

a seduction to have taken place and his honor to have been

offended, furiously bursts into Leenor's room shouting,

"iVil seductor.' . . . IHija infame!" (p. 72). In response

te Leenor's cries of "IPadre!!! iPadre!!!" he emphatical­

ly states, "Ne soy tu padre," and then commands, "Aparta

. . . Y tu vil avenedizo" (p. 72). Don Alvare's suppliant

attitude when he defends Leonor's innocence en bended knee

only provokes the scorn of the Marques who interprets it as

a sign of the hero's lew condition: "Tu actitud suplicante

manifesta le bajo de tu cendicidn" (p. 72). He is unwill­

ing te meet den Alvaro face to face as an equal but arro­

gantly orders the servants to throw themselves en him: "Ea,

69

echaos sobre ese infame, sujetadle, atadle . . . " (p. 72).

Even in death the eld aristocrat continues to disdain the

daughter whom he believes to have dishonored the family

name. After the shooting, he commands his servants te re­

move him where he cannot hear his daughter's cries, and

as he expires her, he curses her (p. 73) .

In the scene in which he challenges den Alvaro te a

duel (Act Four, Scene One) don Carlos assumes an angry, men­

acing attitude as he orders den Alvaro te tremble before

him:

Don Carles de Vargas soy, que por vuestro crimen es de Calatrava marques: temblad, que ante vos estoy. (p. 100)

He spurns don Alvare's suggestion that the stars have

brought them together to repair the consequences of an

unfortunate accident, and he refuses to take any interest

in the secret of don Alvare's lineage. Neither is he in­

terested in the proposal which don Alvaro makes, on learn­

ing that Leonor is still alive, that the two of them go

together in friendship te find her. Instead he insists on

restoring his honor by inflicting cruel vengeance upon both

don Alvaro and Leonor as well:

(iEstais, den Alvaro, loco? cQue es lo que pensar esais? lQu6 preyectos abrig^is? cMe teneis a mi en tan poco? Ruge entre los dos un mar de sangre . . . <LYo al matador de mi padre y de mi honor

70 pudiera hermano llamar? iOh afrenta! Aunque fuerais rey. Ni la infame ha de vivir. Ne, tras de vos va a morir, que es de mi venganza ley. Si a mi vos no me matais, al punte la buscare, y la misma espada que con vuestra sangre tinais, en su cerazdn . . . (p. 102)

Anger, scorn, vindictiveness, and preoccupation with

honor similar to that of don Carlos are also evident in den

Alfonso in the scene where he enters the convent te provoke

den Alvaro to a duel (Act Five, Scene Six) . At the begin­

ning of that scene don Alfonso assumes a menacing attitude

as he asks Padre Rafael if he remembers don Alvaro, el indi­

ane. When den Alvaro refuses his challenge, don Alfonso

insults him suggesting that he is a hypocrite and a coward:

cDejares? . . . cQuien? . . . cYo dejaros sin ver vuestra sangre impura vertida por esta espada que arde en mi mane desnuda? Pues esta celda, el desierte, ese saye, esa capucha, ni a un vil hipdcrita guardan ni a un infame escudan. (p. 114)

At one point, while don Alvaro is begging don Alfon­

so te calm his anger and to respect his condition as a

monk, he refers to den Alfonso as hermano. This word caus­

es don Alfonso to think of his sister and provokes an angry

outburst: "Una / sola hermana me dejasteis / perdida y sin

henra . . . ieh furia!" (p. 115) Later when don Alvaro

kneels protesting the sincerity of his repentance, don Al­

fonso scornfully remarks that his gesture shows his base-

71 ness and the stain upon his escutcheon:

Un caballero no hace tal infamia nunca. Quien seis bien clare publica vuestra actitud, y la inmunda mancha que hay en vuestro escudo. (p. 115)

When even reference te his mestizo status is insufficient

permanently to break the hero's dignified restraint, don

Alfonso is beside himself with rage. Furiously reiterating

charges of cowardice, he asserts that he will get his venge­

ance even if don Alvaro dees net defend himself and slaps

den Alvaro in the face:

(Furioso)

cTe burlas de mf, inicue? Pues cobarde combatir cenmigo excusas, no excusaras mi venganza. Me basta la afrenta tuya: tema. (p. 116)

Although the evil characters in Don Alvaro display

anger, scorn, vindictiveness, cruelty, unscrupulousness,

and excessive preoccupation with honor, don Carlos, at

least, at times shews some more positive qualities. Unlike

Fernan Perez and don Enrique de Villena, for example, he is

not cowardly but brave. He is also capable of noble bear­

ing, courtesy, and gratitude, as is evident in the Italian

scenes. When don Alvaro saves his life from the seven

lower-ranking officers who quarrel with him over the card

game, don Carlos expresses his thanks:

72 Mi gratitud sepa, pues, a qui^n la vida he debido, perque el ser agradecido la ebligacidn mayor es para el hombre bien nacido. (p. 92)

Don Alvaro then remarks upon don Carlos' bravery and upon

his noble bearing and courtesy:

Y segun es he encontrado centra tantes combatiende bizarramente, comprendo que sereis muy buen soldade. Y la gran cortesania que en vuestro trato mostrais, dice a voces que gozais de aventaja hidalguia. (p. 92)

Later don Carlos again displays his boldness in Act Three,

Scene Six when he rescues don Alvaro during the battle.

El trovador

Antonio Garcia Gutierrez' El Trovador, a five-act

play in prose and verse, received its first performance

at the Teatro del Principe on March 1, 1836 (Peers, His­

tory, I, 271). Set against the historical background of

the struggle between Ferdinand I of Castile and the Count

of Urgel for the crown of Arag<Dn in 1410 (Adams, pp. 66-

6 7), it concerns the love of the troubador Manrigue for

Leonor de Sese against the wishes of the latter's brother,

don Guillen, and the opposition of the rival, don Nuno,

Count of Luna. As in the case of the dramas studied

previously, discussion of characters in El trovador will

occasionally require multiple treatment of scenes and

73

details in order to illustrate mere fully the different

traits and points of view of the hero and the villains.

Garcia Gutierrez' here, Manrique, is a mysterious

figure. He is really don Juan, sen of the elder Count of

Luna and brother of don Nuno, whom the gypsy Azucena stole

from the paternal house while he was an infant, but neither

he nor anyone else (except Azucena, who chooses te conceal

the matter) is aware of his true identity. Manrique him­

self thinks that he is the gypsy's sen, and the other

characters, who believe don Juan to be dead, regard him as

nothing more than a simple troubador and a soldier in the

forces of the Count of Urgel.

Because of his unknown and apparently humble sta­

tion Manrique is an outcast rejected by don Nuno and don

Guillen, aristocratic figures who represent the "estab­

lishment." Don Nuno shews his belief that Manrique is

totally beneath his dignity where he refuses te accept

the here's challenge to a duel:

Piense que atrevido y necio anduvisteis en retar a quien debeos contestar tan sdle con el desprecio. cQue hay de cemun en los dos? Hablais al Conde de Luna, hidalgo de pobre cuna.H

Den Guillen cannot understand why his sister scorns a man of

74 the standing of don Nuno in favor of a simple troubador.

Poco estim^is, Leonor, el brillo de vuestra cuna, mene speciando al de Luna per un simple trovador. IQue visteis, hermana, en el para tratarle impia? <iNo supera en bizarria al mis apuesto dencel? A caballe, en el torneo, no admirasteis su pujanza?

A los betes de su lanza . . . (pp. 8-10)

Manrique is also an outcast for political reasons.

As an officer of the rebellious Count of Urgel, he stands

in opposition te den Nuno and den Guillen who are high-

ranking officials en the side of King Ferdinand. On several

occasions the latter two disdain him as a traitor. In Act

One, Scene One, for example, don Nuno is shocked to find a

partisan of the Count of Urgel in his palace, the Aljaferia:

^Cuando a la ley seis infiel, y cuando prescripto estais, asi en palacio es entrais, partidarie del de Urgel? (p. 21)

At the end of Act Three don Guillen spots Manrique fleeing

from Zaragosa with Leonor and cries out, "Traider!" (p. 60),

and at the beginning of Act Four, he expresses regret to

don Nuno that Manrique has escaped from his clutches:

I El traider! IQue se escapara la noche que en Zaragoza entre el rumor de las armas, la arrancd del claustro! (p. 64)

In spite of his mysterious background and his posi­

tion as an outcast, Manrique is noble in character and is

a man of great virtues and abilities. He is gallant, o7

aristocratic bearing, generous, and extremely brave. He

has great dignity and admirable pride.

One first hears of Manrique in the opening scene of

the play where the servants of the Count of Luna speak.

These servants comment with interest upon his gallant ap­

pearance, noble bearing, and great bravery, and they seem

te be aware of his pride as they mention his daring to

court Leonor de Sese:

Ferrando

lAtreverse a galantear a una de las primeras damas de su jAlteza! IUn hombre sin solar! digo, que sepamos.

Jimene

No negareis, sin embargo, que es un caballero valiente y galan.

Guzman

si, ese si . . . pero en cuante a lo demas . . . Y luego, cquien es el? (iDdnde esta el escudo de sus armas? (pp. 6-7)

The admirable traits of the here which are brought

out in this first scene are later given fuller development

as the drama progresses. Many details throughout the play

demonstrate Manrique's bravery. In Act One, Scene Five,

even though he is a man of lower rank and a member of the

rebellious forces of the Count of Urgel, Manrique dares to

enter the Aljaferia palace and to challenge den Nuno to a

duel. Early in Act Two the messenger, den Lope, who has

come to tell don Nuno about the rebels' having entered

76 Zaragoza, mentions that he is not surprised that Manrique

IS at their head since he is the most daring and, conse­

quently, the most suitable as a leader (p. 35). Manrique

is willing to undertake the highly risky enterprise of ab­

ducting Leonor from the convent in Zaragoza, and as he and

his beloved escape amidst the confusion of battle, he brave­

ly defends her against both den Nuno and don Guilldn. In

Act Four Manrique sets out in the midst of battle te res­

cue Azucena from prison, and at the end of the play, when

don Nuno and don Guillen break into his prison cell, he has

the fortitude te deliver himself over voluntarily to his

tormentors.

Not only Manrique's bravery but also his dignity

and admirable pride are developed in the scene in which he

challenges don Nuno to a duel. In that scene, when don

Nuno first refuses Manrique's challenge, arrogantly remind­

ing the troubador, "Hablais al Conde de Luna / hidalgo de

pobre cuna," Manrique proudly responds alluding to his

having won a sword from his antagonist on the previous oc­

casion when he defeated him in a fight outside Leenor's

window: "dVos . . . vos cobarde llam^is / al que es duene

de esta espada?" (p. 24).

Manrique's pride and dignity are also apparent in

his conversation with Azucena at the beginning of Act Three.

In that conversation he shews noble ambition as he mentions

hew he left his supposed mother at an early age to follow

77

don Diego de Hare and as he reflects on his desire te have

a name:

Mil veces, dentro^de mi cerazdn, os le confiese, he de-seado que no fueseis mi madre, ne porque no os quiera con toda el alma, sino perque ambicieno un nombre, un nombre que me falta. Mil veces digo para mf: "Si ye fuese un Lanuza, un Urrea" . . . (p. 48).

At the same time, however, he also shews awareness of his

true nobility of character and his physical and spiritual

superiority ever the recognized aristocrats: "dQud me im-

porta un nombre? Mi cerazdn es tan grande come el de un

rey . . . cQue noble ha doblade nunca mi braze? (p. 48).

In addition te being a man of great virtues and

abilities, Manrique is also a passionate lover. For Man­

rique leve is a principal motivation in life and death is

preferable te separation from his beloved or less of her

affection. He expresses the belief that death is prefer­

able te less of his beloved's affection, for example, when

he talks te Leonor at the Aljaferia palace in Act One,

Scene Four after having seen her the night before with don

Nuno. After first accusing Leonor of unfaithfulness, he

becomes convinced that she approached don Nuno as a result

of a mistake. Asked near the end of this conversation if

he doubts Leenor's love, he says that he does not because

he could not doubt her love and still live:

No, ya no dude. Ni asi pudiera vivir; me amas, ces verdad? Lo cree, perque creerte desee para amarte y existir. (p. 18)

Manrique's belief that death is also preferable \o

separation from Leonor becomes apparent when he faces sit­

uations of great danger. m such circumstances what he

fears is not the threat to his own life but the possibility

of losing Leonor. For instance, when the two levers are

fleeing from Zaragoza at the end of Act Three, Leonor is

afraid, but Manrique asks what does it matter so long as

he does net lose her:

Leonor

cAd6nde me llevas? Sueltame, per Dios . , . £ No ves que te pierdes?

Manrique

dQue me importa, si ne te pierde a ti? (p, 59)

The common Romantic belief in togetherness after death would

seem to influence the troubador's attitude at this moment.

Similarly, in Act Four, when he is relying on weak defenses

at the fortress of Castellar, Manrique fears defeat net for

his own sake but for Leenor's:

Tiemblo perderte; numeresa hueste del rey usurpador viene a sitiarnes, y este Castillo es debil con el extreme; nada temo per mi, mas por ti temo. (p. 76)

Manrique's passion, like that of Macias, is a rebel­

lious one. In loving Leonor, he defies social hierarchy

and social convention. He is a humble soldier and trouba­

dor who believes himself te be the son of a gypsy, and he

is in the service of a count who is in arms against the

crown, yet he dares to love a noble lady who has formerly

79 held a high position in the service of the queen. Even

Leenor's entering a convent dees net thwart Manrique's pas­

sion. Instead he follows her, pleads with her to flee in

spite of her vows, and convinces her that she swore eternal

faithfulness to him before she made her false commitments

to God.

Besides being a lever, Manrique is also unfortunate

and ill-starred. References te his misfortunes are fre­

quent both in his own words and in i±.ese of Leonor. In

Act Two, Scene Seven, for example, Manrique comes te the

convent looking for Leonor and hoping to arrive before she

has had a chance to complete her vows. When he fails to

find her (because she is in the chapel at that moment tak­

ing holy orders), he becomes convinced that he is toe late

and complains of his bad luck:

Ya para^mi ne hay consuelo iPer que me die vida el cielo si ha de ser tan infeliz? (p. 40)

In Act Four, at Castellar, Leonor expresses the thought that

by having united her destiny "to that of Manrique through

her criminal passion, his ill-fortune became hers:

cCual es mi suerte? lOh Dios! cPor que tus aras ilusa abandone? La paz dichosa, que alii bajo las bdvedas sembrias feliz gezaba tu perjura esposa . . . Esposa ye de Dios? No puede serie; jamas, nunca le fui . . . tenge un amante que me adera sin fin, y yo le adore, que no puedo olvidar sdle un instante. Y con eternes vinculos el crimen a su suerte me unid . . . nude funesto.

80 nudo de maldicidn que alia en su trene enejado maldice un Dies terrible, (p. 72)

At the beginning of the final act Leonor hears Manrique

cursing his let from his prison cell and, like don Alvaro,

lamenting that he cannot die, even though he wishes to de

se:

Despacie viene la muerte que esta sorda a mi clamar; para quien morir desea, despacie viene, per Dios. (p. 86)

As in the case of other heroes studied se far, Man­

rique ' s misfortune is inseparable from his love. By loving

Leonor, Manrique provokes the jealousy of don Nuno. In his

laments in the prison cell at the beginning of Act Five

Manrique makes clear his awareness that love is the cause

of his downfall:

No llores si a saber llegas que me matan per traider, que el amarte es mi delito, y en el amar no hay balden. I Ay! Adios, Leonor,

Leonor. (p. 86)

Shortly afterwards, a soliloquy of don Nuno's confirms that

Manrique's assessment of the situation is correct. Expres­

sing determination to get revenge against Leonor by killing

her lover, don Nuno predicts that, just as love of Leonor

was unfortunate for him, it will also be disastrous for

Manrique:

Leonor, al fin en tu amante tu desden voy a vengar. Al fin en su sangre impura

81 a saciar voy mi rencer; tambien ye puede, Leonor, gozarme en tu desventura. Fatal tu hermosura ha side para mi, pere fatal tambien sera a mi rival, a ese rival tan querido. (p. 90)

Not only is Manrique ill-fated, but, like Rugiero,

Macias, and don Alvaro, he is a fatal man who causes suf­

fering for others as well. Manrique's victims are his be­

loved Leonor and his supposed mother Azucena. Leonor suf­

fers because of love for Manrique. Because she does not

want to marry den Nuno, Leonor is first forced into a con­

vent against her will and later, after fleeing with the

troubador, is made te live in constant fear of den Nuno's

vengeance. Her leve for Manrique finally is the cause of

her suicide. Azucena suffers because of maternal love for

Manrique. She falls into the clutches of don Nuno because

she is spotted by some soldiers while she is looking for

her son.

Manrique, like the other heroes, is aware of his

role as a fatal figure. He expresses regret for the mis­

fortunes which his love has caused Leonor just before he

departs to rescue Azucena from prison:

i Leonor! Que desgraciada en amarme has side! iPer qud, infeliz, mis amores escuchaste? cY no me aborreces? (p. 79)

While in the prison in the last act, he laments being the

82 cause of death of the one he presumes te be his mother:

Azucena

Y van a matarme . . .

Manrique

ch mataros? lY per que? IPorque seis mi madre, y ye soy la causa de vuestra muerte! IMadre mia, perddn! (p. 101)

Psychologically, Manrique is a sensitive soul pre­

occupied with self. As in the case of Macias and of don

Alvaro, this sensitivity and preoccupation with his own emo­

tions manifests itself in a tendency toward sudden changes

of attitude toward his beloved depending en whether he

believes her to be favorably disposed toward him at a par­

ticular moment.

In Act One, Scene Four, where he talks te Leonor at

the Aljaferia palace after having seen her the night before

with den Nuno, for example, Manrique comes in angrily accus­

ing her of having been unfaithful:

Harto tiempo me enganaron. Demasiade te crei mientras tierna me halagabas y perfida me enganabas. IQue necio, que necio fui! Pero no, no impunemente gozaras de tu traicidn; ye partire el cerazdn de ese rival inselente. I Tus lagrimas! lYo creer pudiera, Leonor, en ellas cuando con tiernas palabras a otro halagabas ayer? dNo te vi yo mismo? I di! (p. 17)

However, when Leonor convinces him that she approached don

• - T T ^ - — •

83 Nuno by mistake, he vehemently denies that he could ever

hate her:

Leonor

dNo te soy aborrecida?

Manrique

cTu, Leonor? dPues por qui^n asi en Zaragoza entrara, por quidn la muerte arrostrara sino per ti, por mi bien? IAborrecerte! dQui^n pudo aberrecerte, Leonor? (p. 18)

Much the same pattern is repeated in the scene where

Manrique comes te abduct Leonor from the convent. In that

scene, which resembles the abortive abduction in Don Alvaro,

Manrique enters with high hope:

Vengo a salvarte, a quebrantar osade los grilles que te oprimen, a estrecharte en mi sene, de amor enajenade <iEs verdad, Leonor? Dime si es cierto que te estrecho en mis brazes, que respiras para celmar hermosa mi esperanza, y que extasiada de placer me miras. (p. 52)

However, when Leonor begs te be left at peace with her vows

to God, his hope gives way to disappointment:

I Este aguardaba yo! Cuando creia que mas que nunca enamerada y tierna me esperabas ansiosa, Iasi te encuentre, sorda a mi ruego y a mis halagos fria! Y dtiemblas, di, de abandenar las aras donde tu pure afecto y tu hermosura sacrificaste a Dies? . . . I Pues que! . . . cNe fueras antes cenmigo que con Dios perjura? si; en una noche . . . (p. 54)

Nevertheless, when Leonor finally confesses that she loves

him, Manrique reacts with joy: 84

IEncante celestial! Tanta ventura puedo apenas creer. (p. 55)

He can now pity her and regrets having been unjust:

Ese llanto, Leonor, ne me lo ecultes; deja que ansioso en mi delirio gece un memento de amor; injuste he side, injuste para ti . . . vuelve tus ejes, y mirame risuena y sin enejes. iEs verdad que en el mundo no hay delicia para ti sin mi amor? (p. 56)

Finally, some similar shifts in attitude en Man­

rique ' s part are evident in Act Five, Scene Seven where

Leonor enters his prison cell. Having taken a slew poison,

she has premised don Nuno to be his in order te obtain Man­

rique' s release, and in this scene she has come to tell

Manrique of his freedom. At first the troubador harshly

accuses her of having sold herself to his rival:

ITu a implorar per mi perddn del tirane a los pies fuiste! Quiza tambien le vendiste mi amor y tu cerazdn. Ne quiero la libertad a tanto costa cemprada.

Leonor

Tu vida . . .

Manrique

cQue importa? nada . . . quitamela, per piedad; clava en mi pecho un punal antes que verte perjura, llena de amor y ternura en los brazes de un rival, (p. 104)

Later, however, when he learns of the poison, he regrets

having been ungrateful:

I Un veneno! . . . dY es verdad? Y yo ingrate la ofendi cuando muriendo per mi . . . I Un veneno! . . . (p. 107)

Besides being a sensitive soul preoccupied with

self, Manrique is pessimistic and melancholy. His pessimism

is especially notable in those scenes which take place at

the fortress of Castellar (Act Four, Scenes Six through

Eight). While he is at Castellar, Manrique seems te foresee

the unfortunate end which awaits both him and Leonor. At

one point, for example, he tells Leonor about a disturbing

dream which he had in which he saw her struck by lightning

and torn from him. His pessimism is also apparent in the

passage quoted previously (see p. 79 above) in which, for

Leenor's sake, he expresses fear of defeat en finding him­

self in a weak fortress surrounded by a powerful host.

Manrique's melancholy is evident in his numerous allusions

te his misfortunes and to his role as a fatal man. It is

also apparent in certain passages in Act Five. At the be­

ginning of the act, for example, Leonor hears Manrique's

typically Romantic suicidal lament that death comes slowly

for one who wishes to die. Later Manrique expresses sad

thoughts when he believes Leonor te have betrayed him in

order to win confessions from don Nuno. Life, he reflects,

is nothing but suffering:

TLa vida! Es algo la vida? Un doble martirio, un yuge . . . (p. 10 4)

There is no more love, he says, and no more virtues (p. 106).

86 The villains in El trovador are den Guillen, Leenor's

brother, and don Nuno, Manrique's rival. Don Nuno, besides

being a rival in love to Manrique, is also, it will be re­

called, a political authority. As Justicia de Aragdn, he

is charged with opposing the rebellious forces of the Count

of Urgel, of which Manrique is a part.

Both of the villains are aristocrats who scorn the

here because of his apparently humble social station. They

are haughty, arrogant, and overbearing. They are cruel ty­

rants who unscrupulously seek to manipulate people for their

own purposes without any concern for the feelings of others.

Above all they are vindictive figures who react with anger

to everything which gives them the least displeasure and

who seek bloody vengeance against these whom they believe

to have offended them.

Don Guillen is a vain hidalgo who is excessively

preoccupied with honor and the purity of his lineage:

No, no sesiega el que asi^de su prosapia ve el blason envilecido . . . Honrado naci en mi casa, y a la tumba de mis padres bajara mi honor sin mancha. (p. 62)

Like Nuiio Hernandez in Macias, he is very much concerned

with social position. Disdaining Manrique as one beneath

his dignity, he seeks to marry his sister te don Nuno be­

cause of the latter's exalted standing as stated previously:

87 Poco estimais, Leonor, el brillo de vuestra cuna, menespreciando al de Luna por un simple trovador. (pp. 9-10)

Te bring about the marriage he has given his word without

consulting his sister, and when Leonor objects to this ty­

rannical exercise of power, he gives her the choice of

either accepting don Nuno or entering a convent.

While in the early part of the play don Guillen be­

haves rather like representatives of the tyrannical father

type, such as Nuno Hernandez in Macias or the Marques de

Calatrava in Don Alvaro, as he attempts to use his position

as Leenor's guardian to prevent her marriage to Manrique

and to bring about her marriage te den Nuno, in the latter

part of the drama, after Leonor escapes from the convent

with Manrique, he appears mere as a representative of the

vindictive brother type, such as don Carles and don Alfonso

in Rivas' play, as he seeks to get revenge both against his

sister and against the troubador. Don Guillen's thirst for

vengeance is extreme as is obvious when he announces his in­

tention to defend his honor in Act Four, Scene One when he

comes te tell den NuHo that Manrique and Leonor have taken

refuge at Castellar:

No sabeis cual lo desee, per lavar la terpe mancha que esta perfida ha estampade en el blason de mis armas. Alii con su seductor . . . no quiero pensarle . . . linfamia inaudita! Y esta alii . . • ey yo ne voy a arrancarla.

88 con el cerazdn villano, el terpe amor que le abrasa? (p. 62)

As far as Leonor is concerned, he intends to seek her out

and to kill her for the offense which her illicit relation­

ship with Manrique represents. In Act Five, Scene Three,

he angrily announces this intention to den Nuno:

Yo mismo nada de su suerte s^; pere encontrarla sabr^ aunque la oculte el abismo. Entonces su terpe amor lavar^ con sangre impura . . . Sdle asi el honor se cura, y es muy sagrade el honor, (p. 89)

When, on this occasion, don Nuno objects that he is going

toe far, den Guilldn's reply is, "Mi ilustre cuna" (p. 90).

Although don Guillen is of interest as an evil-deer,

the mere fully developed villain is den Nuno. Den Nuno

shows the same tendency toward single-minded pursuit of

goals which is se evident in den Guillen in his first seek­

ing to marry Leonor te the count and in his later seeking

to avenge his honor. Den Nuno also, like don Guilldn, ex­

periences a change in his objectives following the flight

of the troubador with Leonor at the end of Act Three.

In the first part of the play den Nuno seeks to com­

pel Leonor te be his although she does net love him. Te

achieve his end, he is willing to use any means however

cruel and unscrupulous. In the past, one learns, he has

tried te abduct Leonor but was interrupted by the arrival

8 9 of Manrique. When he discovers that Leonor is going to

enter a convent, he decides to drag her away by force:

Pues bien, la arrebatare a los pies del mismo altar; I si ella no me quiere amar, yo a amarme la ebligare! (pp. 30-31)

He orders his servant Guzman to carry out the deed. G u z m ^

is to use his sword, if necessary, even in the church (p.

34) . Like Fernan Perez and Enrique de Villena, don Nuno

shows willingness to use his official position te further

his personal ends as he tells Guzman not to worry about the

consequences of his act since he, den Nuno, has recently

been appointed Justicia de Aragdn (p. 33) .

In the latter part of the play, after Leonor flees

with Manrique, den Nuno becomes a scorned lover who, out

of a sense of jealousy, seeks vengeance against his suc­

cessful rival and is willing to use whatever means may be

necessary to attain his end. Don Nuno's desire for venge­

ance against Manrique as a rival in love is compounded by

his wish te punish the latter as a political traitor and,

after he hears that the troubador is the son of Azucena, by

his aim to avenge the crime of the mother on the sen.

Don Nuno's vindictiveness—as well as his cheler--

is especially evident in Act Five. By this time, Manrique

is a prisoner in don Nuno's dungeon and is awaiting death.

In the third scene of the act den Guillen comes in to re­

port te don Nuno on the status of the prisoner. When don

90

Guillen says that Manrique is ready to die, don Nurte angri­

ly insists en his immediate punishment:

No quiere que se dilate el suplicie ni un memento; cada instante es un tormente que mi impaciencia cembate. (p. 88)

He does not want to wait to get authority for the execution

from the king, who is away in Valencia, but, remarking on

his certainty that the monarch would approve, he arrogantly

asserts that in the absence of the king he is sovereign in

Aragdn:

Ye se que la aprobar^. Para aterrar la traicidn puso en mi mane la ley . . . mientras aqui ne est^ el Rey ye soy el Rey de Aragdn. (p. 89)

After don Guillen leaves, don Nuno expresses his

jealousy of Manrique in a long soliloquy, part of which

merits citation here:

Harto la suerte envidie de un rival afortunade; harto tiempo despreciade su ventura contemple. (p. 91)

Then, following the entrance of the messenger, den Lope,

he reveals his vindictiveness against Azucena. He asks den

Lope about la bruja, and when don Lope says that Azucena is

in prison with Manrique, he declares that she must die too

—by burning (p. 9 2).

In the fifth scene of Act Five Leonor comes in to

plead with don Nuno concerning Manrique. When she asks him

9 1

to show pity on her and te favor his rival, don Nu£o reacts

with extreme anger:

cA eso viniste, ingrata, a implorar por un rival? I Por un rival! Ilnsenata! Mal conoces al de Artal. No; cuando en mis manes vee la venganza apetecida, cuando su sangre desee . . . Imposible . . . (p. 95)

Only when Leonor says she loves him and has never hated him

does don Nuno begin to shew willingness te consider freeing

the troubador.

Finally, den Nuiio' s vindictivenss and irascibility

are amply apparent in Act Five, Scene Eight when he and don

Guillen enter Manrique's prison cell. Leonor has just ex­

pired as a result of having taken the poison, and seeing

her dead arouses don Nuno's anger. Forgetting the pardon

which he has previously offered, he insists that Manrique

be beheaded immediately. Regarding Azucena, he cruelly de­

mands that she be forced te witness the execution of her sen

(p. 113). The gypsy woman's last vengeance in revealing

the truth about the identity of Manrigue produces a violent

reaction en the part of den Nuno as he pushes the old woman

to the floor with fury.

Besides showing qualities of arrogance, cheler, and

especially vindictiveness, don Nuno, like Fernan Perez in

Macias, also reveals himself to be a coward. His coward­

ice is especially evident where Manrique challenges him to

ytiw-r

92

a duel in Act One, Scene Five. On that occasion, he tries

to avoid having te fight Manrique saying that it is beneath

his dignity te enter into combat with one of such low sta­

tion. Even after Manrique angers him sufficiently te make

him willing te fight, he still manages te postpone the duel

by arguing with his opponent about whether they should

fight indoors or outdoors.

In addition to being a coward, don Nuno, like Fer­

nan P^rez, displays a tendency te be indecisive yet rash

when he finally makes up his mind. When Manrique challeng­

es him te the duel, he vacillates about whether to accept,

but when he does decide te fight, he rashly insists on un­

sheathing his sword immediately there in the palace. He

also shows hesitation in Act Four, Scene Three when the sol­

diers bring Azucena to him and want te knew what to do with

her. On that occasion he first tries te ignore the pleas

of the servant Jimene, who urges him to seize Azucena be­

cause he recognizes her te be the one who stele the child

away from the house of the elder Count of Luna, then he

becomes convinced that Jimene is right and orders Azucena

tied. Later, in Act Five, Scene Four, he even displays

momentary vacillation concerning his vengeance against Man­

rique:

I Ah! perdonarle quisiera . . . no soy tan perverse ye. Pero es mi rival . . . no, no . . . es necesario que muera. (p. 91)

1 pw"

93 Los amantes de Teruel

Eugenie Hartzenbusch's well-known drama, Los amantes

de Teruel, which received its first performance on January

19, 1837, at the Teatro del Principe (Peers, History, I,

278), is based on a famous legend concerning a pair of

star-crossed lovers of the Middle Ages, Diego de Marsilla 12

and Isabel de Segura. Again, as in the case of the plays

treated previously, seme repetition of scenes and details

is necessary in the analysis of characters.

Hartzenbusch's Marsilla is mysterious, though less

se than other Romantic heroes such as Rugiero or don Alvaro.

In the opening scenes of the play the Moorish queen, Zulima,

wonders about the true identity of Marsilla, who has been

taken captive in the Valencia prison of her husband, the

Emir, under the pseudonym of Ramiro. However, all the un­

certainty about who he is quickly disappears in Act One,

Scene Three where he gives a lengthy account of his back­

ground te the queen who appears disguised as Zoraida, daugh­

ter of the traitor, Mervan.

Even though he is less mysterious than ether Span­

ish Romantic heroes, Marsilla, typically, appears as a man

whose circumstances are humble relative to those of his chief

foils and as an outcast who is rejected therefor. Marsilla

is poor, whereas, den Pedro de Segura, father of his beloved

Isabel, is rich. Because den Pedro is wealthy, he has been

disposed te reject Marsilla as a suitor for his daughter's

94 hand and to prefer her marriage to Marsilla's rival, don

Rodrigo de Azagra, who is a man of great means. Only

somewhat reluctantly has he agreed te allow Marsilla six

years and a week te accumulate wealth before giving Isabel

to Azagra.

Marsilla is also a man of great virtues and abili­

ties. Despite his poverty, he is noble in character, pure

in heart, extremely generous, and very brave. Net only

dees he possess great moral qualities, but also he possess­

es great physical prowess. He likewise receives recog­

nition for these qualities from others.

Marsilla's admirable characteristics are already a

subject of comment in the early scenes of the play. In

Act One, Scene One, for example, Zulima tells the jailer

Adel how she was moved to take pity on the captive Marsilla

because of his nobility and valor:

Es noble, es valiente; en una mazmerra iba a perecer de enfermedad y de pena, de frio, de hambre y de sed: yo le doy la libertad, riquezas, mi mane: quien rehusa estos denes?

Similarly, Ozmin, the faithful servant and adviser of the

Emir, alludes to Marsilla's nobility of character in Act

One, Scene Two as he praises Marsilla for attempting te

help his master:

[E]se noble aragenes hoy el Salvador sera de Valencia y de su Rey. (p. 127)

95

Later, further details which show Marsilla's desir­

able character traits, great physical prowess, and capacity

for inspiring feelings of admiration and sympathy in ethers

are brought out in the scene in which Zulima speaks te him

while disguised as Zoraida. In that scene Marsilla shows

himself to be grateful to the sultana and te the supposed

Zoraida for giving him his freedom:

Defienda prdvido el cielo y premie con altos denes los piadosos corazones que dan al triste consuelo. Tendra Zulima, tendras tu siempre un cautivo en mi: hermoso es el bien per si, pero en una hermosa mas. (p. 129)

Nevertheless, he maintains his honesty when he refuses te

repay the queen's generosity by corresponding her love:

Ni en desgracia ni en ventura cupe en mi lengua dele: este cerazdn es sdle para Isabel de Segura. (p. 131)

In the scene with Zoraida he also makes some impor­

tant revelations concerning his past. He won a reputation

as a warrior, he says, because of his spirited conduct in

the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (p. 130). While in France

he generously saved the life of an Albigensian who later re­

warded him by making him his heir (p. 130). More recently

while in prison in Valencia, in a feat of superhuman streng­

th, he broke down the iron bars of his dungeon and began te

wander about freely through the subterranean passageways of

the castle. While he was wandering about in this fashion.

96

he heard Mervln and others planning an uprising and gener­

ously decided to warn the Emir by writing a note in bleed.

In his note, Marsilla premised to help the Emir mil­

itarily. Later the reader sees him carrying out that pre­

mise as he spiritedly enters into combat against the Emir's

enemies:

lArma anhelada! IMi diestra te empufia ya! Ella al triunfo te encamina Rayo fu§ de Palestina,

raye en Valencia serl. (pp. 133-34)

As a result of his brave participation in the strug­

gle against the conspiracy of Mervdn, Marsilla wins the res­

pect of the Emir and his men. The Emir rewards him with

his freedom and a large sum of money. Later, as he enters

Isabel's window on his last unfortunate night, he is able

to reflect nostalgically on the days of his recuperation

following the battle: Siete dias hace hey; i que venturoso era en aquel salon! \ Sangre manaba de mi herida, es verdad! Pero agelpados alrededer de mi lujesa cama, la tierna historia de mi amor eian, los guerreros, el pueblo y el monarca; y entre piadeso llanto y benediciones, "Tuya sera Isabel", juntos clamaban subditos y Senor. (p. 161)

Before the outbreak of the conspiracy against the

Emir, the question arises concerning what should be dene

with Zulima, The Emir's adviser, Ozmin, thinks she

ought to be punished. However, Marsilla's innate generos­

ity causes him te argue for her pardon (p. 133).

97

Near the end of the play, after he fails te get

back te Teruel before Isabel's marriage to don Rodrigo de

Azagra, Marsilla goes mad, but even in his madness, he con­

tinues to display bravery. In Act Four, Scene One, for

example, his father, don Martin, tells Isabel's father, den

Pedro, that he should warn his son-in-law te watch out for

Marsilla since he has ample boldness for vengeance:

Decid al dichose duene de esta casa y de Isabel, que mire en estos mementos per su vida; que mi hijo va, loco de sentimiento y de furor, en su busca per Teruel; y Ivive el cielo que, deliente come esta, valor le sobra al mancebo para vengar! . . . Perdonadme. (p. 157)

Diego de Marsilla is a passionate lover for whom

dedication to a beloved is the principal motivation in

life. He has striven boldly against great obstacles te

attain fulfillment of his leve. By sheer force of passion

he has convinced Isabel's father to allow him the six year

and one week delay before giving his daughter's hand in mar­

riage te den Rodrigo de Azagra (p. 130). During the period

of that delay he has sought to build up his fortune in order

to overcome the objections of Isabel's family to his pov­

erty. In his efforts te increase his fortune he has trav­

eled throughout much of the Mediterranean world and has

J 4= 4-0 r•F Trainr He has become a captive performed numerous feats or vaior. ne iia.o

98 of pirates and has suffered imprisonment at the hands of

the Moors. He has defied the queen Zulima, who has fallen

in love with him, and has fought bravely in the Emir's ar­

my in order to obtain a ransom.

When, in spite of his efforts, Marsilla nevertheless

loses Isabel, his passion becomes a rebellious one, like

Macias ' , which knows no bounds but instead defies all notions

of social convention, moral law, and ordinary prudence.

Immediately after don Martin confirms the unfortunate news

concerning Isabel's marriage (in Act Three, Scene Ten),

Marsilla declares that he new considers all ties broken and

that he ne longer cares about virtue or about his relation­

ship te his fellow humans. All he wants is crime and

vengeance. Even though his father warns him, he has no

intention te respect the sanctity of don Rodrigo's marriage,

nor does it concern him that his rival is powerful and has

many friends and relatives. Instead of listening to rea­

son, Marsilla proceeds defiantly te seek out don Rodrigo and

to challenge him to a duel, and after wounding the rival

seriously, he breaks into Isabel's room (Act Four, Scene

Six) and threatens te carry her off by force.

Although Marsilla bravely or defiantly confronts

most obstacles to his love, he is unable to deal with the

failure of Isabel te return his passion. This inability of

his is abundantly clear at the end of the play. During his

last meeting with Isabel, in Act Four, Scene Six, he tells

99 her how he has wounded don Rodrigo de Azagra in a duel and

how the latter has threatened to get revenge by revealing

letters which shew the involvement of her mother, dona

Margarita, in a dishonorable relationship with the aging

libertine, den Roger de Lizana, When Isabel reacts to

this news by declaring that she hates him, Marsilla can

bear no more:

I Gran Dies! Ella le dice. Con furor me lo dije: ne me engana. Ya no hay amor alii. I Mortal veneno su boca me arrojd, que al fondo pasa de mi sene infeliz, y una por una rompe, rompe, me rompe las entranas! Yo con ella, per ella, para ella vivi . . . Sin ella, sin su amor, me falta. aire que respirar . . . i Era amor suyo el aire que mi pecho respiraba! Me le negd, me le quite: me ahogo, no s^ vivir. (p. 164)

After striving so hard for se many years for the sake of

Isabel's love and after suffering se many humiliating re­

verses, Marsilla finds the thought that Isabel dees not

really love him intolerable, and he is physically and emo­

tionally unequipped to go en living.

As a lever Marsilla is ill-starred. This aspect

of his character is brought out especially in Act Three,

Scene Eleven where his father, don Martin, brings him the

unfortunate news that Isabel has married don Rodrigo. As

he confirms the certainty of the tragic news with his

tears, don Martin speaks of Marsilla as one branded by

misfortune from birth:

100 Respdndante las lagrimas que vierto. Hijo del alma, a quien su hierre ardiente la desgracia al nacer marcd en la frente, tu triste padre, que per verte vive, con dolor en sus brazes te recibe. (p. 154)

He rails at cruel fate for having caused Zulima to announce

his son's death just at the time vespers was ringing mark­

ing the expiration of the time which don Pedro de Segura

set for Isabel's marriage:

Martin

ISuerte cruel! Cuando el fatal senide de la campana termine ponia . . .

Marsilla

IEsa tigre anuncid la muerte mia! (pp. 154-55)

Suggesting that the will eg God has shaped events for Mar­

silla, he attempts te console his son by saying that he

still has parents who will lament his sad destiny:

I Eran esposos ya! Tu bien perdiste . . . Dies le ha querido asi . . . Pero aun te quedan padres que lloren tu destine triste. (p. 155)

Like virtually all of his peers, Marsilla is a fatal

man who causes others te suffer. This aspect of his char­

acter is brought out very clearly in the remarks which Is­

abel makes after she learns that he has fought the duel with

den Redrio de Azagra and that the latter has threatened to

reveal the letters concerning her mother's dishonor in order

te get vengeance: "ITu me has perdide!: / La desventura

sigue tus pisadas" (p. 164). These words indicate reali­

zation on Isabel's part that Marsilla's crazed passion has

101

led him te take actions which could be the undoing of both

herself and her family.

Psychologically, Marsilla shows sensitivity and

self-preoccupation through a tendency toward sudden shifts

in attitude in his relationship with his beloved depending

en whether or not he believes her to be favorably disposed

towards him at a particular moment. This tendency of his

is apparent especially in the scene where he speaks te Isa­

bel in her room near the end of the play (Act Four, Scene

Six). In that scene he assumes a harsh attitude as he

insists that Isabel tell him why she did not comply with

the vow which she made to him on his departure either te be

his or to be God's, but when Isabel tearfully expresses be­

lief in her guilt, Marsilla softens because he sees in her

tears a sign of love. As he asks her te rise from the

kneeling position which she has assumed, he says that it is

he who should be begging forgiveness of her:

fdolo mio, no; yo si que debe poner mis labies en tus huellas. Alza. No es de arrepentimiento el Hero triste que esos luceros fulgides empana: este llanto es de amor, ye le conozco; de amor censtante, sin deblez, sin tacha, ferviente, abrasador, igual al mio. (p. 163)

Isabel then confesses that she loves him, but she orders

him te leave, and her order te leave causes Marsilla again

to assume an attitude of harshness as he criticizes her

cruelty:

102 I Cruel! dTemiste que ventura tanta me matase a tus pies, si su dulzura con venenosa hiel ne iba mezclada? cCdmo esas dos ideas enemigas de destierro y de amor hiciste hermanas? (p. 163)

Nevertheless, he seems to take pity on her when she begs

that he be generous, and he agrees to leave provided that

she will give him one last kiss. However, when she seems

te take pity en her husband after he tells her about having

wounded him in the duel, he resumes his accusations:

IPerfida! Ite afliges? Si lo llego a pensar, cquien le librara? (p. 164)

His fierceness of attitude continues as he threatens to re­

move her from the room by force and only gives way when her

expression of hatred following the revelation concerning

den Rodrigo's proposed vengeance produces in him stunned

desperation.

Besides shewing sensitivity and self-preoccupation,

in his less of hope following Isabel's marriage, Marsilla

also displays melancholy. He expresses weariness with life

as he enters Isabel's window at the beginning of Act Four,

Scene Six. There he displays nostalgic longing as he con­

trasts present anguish with the high hope, noted in part

earlier, he felt at the beginning of the week:

Jardin . . . una ventana . . . y ella luego. Jardin abierto halle y halle ventana; cmas ddnde est^ Isabel? Dies de clemencia, detened mi razdn, que se me escapa; detenedme la vida, que parace que de luchar con el dolor se cansa.

10 3 Siete dias hace hey, jque venturoso era en aquel salon! lSangre manaba de mi herida, es verdad! Pero agelpados alrededer de mi lujesa cama, la tierna historia de mi amor eian los guerreros, el pueblo y el monarca; y entre piadeso llanto y bendicienes, •Tuya sera Isabel", juntos clamaban subditos y Senor. Hey ne me efende mi herida, rayos en mi diestra lanza el damasquino acero . . . No le traigo . . . lY hace un memento que con dos me hallaba! Salvo en Teruel y venceder, iqud angustia viene a ser ^sta que me rinde el alma, cuando acabada la cruel ausencia, voy a ver a Isabel? (p. 161)

Sadly he tells Isabel how it is as though happiness slipped

beyond his reach:

Ya lo se. Llegue tarde. Vi la dicha, tendi las manes, y veld al tocarla. (p. 161)

Most of all his melancholy is obvious in that last despair­

ing speech cited earlier:

Yo con ella, por ella, para ella vivi . . . Sin ella, sin su amor, me falta aire que respirar . . . I Era amor suya el aire que me pecho respiraba! Me le nego, me le quite: me ahogo, ne se vivir. (p. 164)

Of the masculine characters in Los amantes de Teruel

the principal villain is the rival, don Rodrigo de Azarga.

Den Rodrigo is a vain nobleman. Like other rivals, he is

intensely jealous. Because of his jealousy, he is deter­

mined to use any means however unscrupulous to win Isabel

and te separate her from Marsilla:

En mi celoso furor cabe hasta lo que denigre

104 mi calidad y honor. Amo con ira de tigre . . . porque es muy grande mi amor. (p. 150)

During the six years and one week period, while Marsilla

has been away, he has stationed guards around Isabel's

house and has intercepted letters te her lover (p. 150).

In order to prevent the mother, dona Margarita, from oppos­

ing his marriage to Isabel, he threatens te reveal letters

showing her involvement in the dishonorable relationship

with den Roger de Lizana (p. 143). Although he can

scarecely be held responsible for the machinations of Zuli­

ma, who uses every device imaginable to prevent Marsilla's

marriage to Isabel, it is obvious that he finds them con­

venient, and from remarks of den Martin in Act Four, Scene

One, it becomes clear that he has rewarded her by helping

her te escape from a mob which threatens her life (p. 156) .

Don Rodrigo, moreover, is vindictive. He has long

harbored the intent te kill Marsilla if he should return

before the expiration of the time limit. He speaks of

this intention in Act Two, Scene Eight while talking te

dona Margarita:

Mal haria en aparecer ni antes ni despues de mis^bodas. El prometio renunciar a Isabel si no se enriquecia en seis anes; pero ye nada he prometido. Si vuelve, uno de los dos ha de quedar solo junto a Isabel. La mane que pretendemos ambos no se compra con ore: se gana con hierre, se paga con sangre. (p. 14 3)

Later, although he claims te have repented, he puts the

matter more fiercely when he tells Isabel that until recent-

105

ly he was determined that if Marsilla should return, he

would kill him and then drag her to the altar without clean­

ing his sword (p. 151).

Even though he is extremely jealous of Marsilla and

is determined te marry Isabel, don Rodrigo dees not manifest

real love for the young lady. Instead he seeks the marriage

for reasons of honor and external appearance. In Act Two,

Scene Eight he insists on the marriage as a matter of honor

when talking to dona Margarita: "Ese empene es ptiblico;

hace muchos anes que dura, y se ha convertido para mi en

case de honor. Es imposible que yo desista. Ne opongais

a lo que ne podr^is impedir" (p. 143). In a later scene

he becomes more emphatic when he speaks te Isabel. There he

says that he does not care if Isabel goes on loving Marsilla

in fact provided that she will let him be her husband in

name:

Pues bien, amad, Isabel, y decidlo sin reparo; que con ese amor tan fiel, aunque a mi me cueste care, nunca me hallareis cruel. Mas si ese afecto amoroso, cuya expresidn ne limito, mantener os es ferzese, ye, mi bien, yo necesito el nombre de vuestro espose. Ne mas que el nombre, y concluyo de desear y pedir; tedas mis dichas incluye en la dicha de decir: "Me tienen por duene suyo." (p. 150)

If Isabel will let him be her husband in name, he adds, it

dees net matter to him if she occupies a separate bed, if

^^w

106 she stays in Teruel while he goes te Zaragosa, or even if

she brings her parents to live with her (p. 150). However,

he insists that the marriage is necessary for both of them

in order to avoid scandal:

Es ya el case de manera que el infausto desposorio viene a ser obligaterie para ambos: le demas fuera dar escandalo noterie. (p. 151)

Finally, like other villains in Spanish Romantic

dramas, such as den Nuno and Fernan Perez, don Rodrigo is

a coward. Don Rodrigo's cowardice is strongly suggested

in dialogue between him and Isabel in Act Three, Scene Two

where he beasts that because of his love he has abandoned

his former determination to kill Marsilla if he should re­

turn before the expiration of the time limit. On this oc­

casion Isabel responds to his boasting by saying "IVos si

que triunfais asi / de esta debil mujer!" (p. 151). The

ironic response of Isabel here, which comes in close jux­

taposition te rash statements of Azagra concerning how un­

til recently he was determined to take fierce vengeance

against Marsilla should he return, seems te suggest that

don Rodrigo is withdrawing the threats against Marsilla,

not out of love, but out of a lack of courage. Lacking

courage—the courage to triumph ever a brave hero like Mar­

silla—the remark seems to suggest, he is content with a

victory over a weak woman.

107

Isabel's words in this instance appear te be pro­

phetic. Later don Rodrigo enters somewhat reluctantly into

the duel with Marsilla, and after he is severely wounded,

rather than either accepting defeat or courageously attempt­

ing to kill Marsilla with one last blow, he contents himself

with a coward's victory over Isabel by threatening to reveal

the letters damaging te the reputation of her mother, dona

Margarita.

Besides den Rodrigo, the other villain in Los aman­

tes de Teruel is Isabel's father, den Pedro de Segura. Den

Pedro is rigid in his adherence to the code of honor, and,

as a consequence, he often acts in a cruel manner. Be­

cause he has premised Isabel to don Rodrigo, he intends to

make her marry against her will unless Marsilla returns

before the expiration of the time limit with sufficient

wealth. Similarly, insistence upon rigid adherence to

plighted word also causes him te assume a cruel attitude

toward Marsilla's father, don Martin. In the past he has

challenged don Martin to a duel because the latter has

insulted him. Subsequently, he has come to regret having

challenged den Martin, but he feels honor bound to carry

out the duel because he has given his word.

At heart, however, den Pedro is really generous.

He shows affection for his daughter, and he does everything

possible within the cede of honor to allow her to realize

108 her love. By giving Marsilla a period of six years and a

week in which to build up his fortune, he is allowing him

ample time te accumulate the necessary wealth. (One must

remember that the play takes place at the time of the

Recenquest when riches could literally be amassed overnight

through military action and that Marsilla is a capable war­

rior.) In time den Pedro comes to regret the promise which

he has made to den Rodrigo, and while on a visit te the

nearby town of Menzdn, he has sought death at the hands of

don Roger de Lizana in order te release Isabel from the ob­

ligation (p. 136). Toward the end of the play he even

turns rigid insistence on plighted word into an act of gen­

erosity as he makes the restless Azagra wait until the ex­

act moment of expiration at the time limit just in case

Marsilla might return at the last minute (p. 151) . Simi­

larly, in the matter of the duel with den Martin, he wel­

comes the news that his wife, deiia Margarita, has nursed

den Martin back to health during a recent illness because

of the opportunity which this circumstance affords him to

bring about an honorable annulment of the fight.

In portraying don Pedro, Hartzenbusch gives fur­

ther development to a variant of the usual villain type

which has been present in Spanish Romantic drama since La

conjuracion de Venecia: the kind person who unfortunately

subordinates his human inclinations to the demands of a

rigid social code. In La conjuracidn de Venecia, it will

•T«r

109 be recalled, Juan Morosini inspires fear in Laura because of

his uncompromising sense of family honor, yet he is moved by

paternal love te plead with his brother te have mercy en

Laura's lover, Rugiero.

Summary

In conclusion, in this chapter I have analyzed the

portrayal of principal masculine characters in selected

Spanish Romantic dramas in order to show the extent to

which general patterns emerge. The plays chosen for con­

sideration—La conjuracidn de Venecia, Macias, Don Alvaro o

la fuerza del sino. El trovador, and Los amantes de Teruel

—are works of literary merit generally held te be repre­

sentative of the Romantic theater.

In each of these plays there appears a single hero

who is set in contrast to one or more villains. The hero

is always a lever who is passionate in that he has great

determination to overcome obstacles which separate him

from his beloved and in that he tends te lose sight of rea­

son insofar as his leve is concerned. He is a mysterious

person. He is an outcast rejected by established society

and an ill-starred figure, both ill-fated and fatal, but a

man whose superior accomplishments and virtues win recog­

nition especially among the popular classes. Psychologi­

cally, he is a sensitive soul, who is preoccupied with

self, his own desires, emotions, and sensations. He is

pessimistic and melancholy and also rebellious against both

sue. ;•-«"'

110 society—not excluding politics—and destiny. In short,

the hero in each of these works conforms in general to the

Romantic hero type which I have outlined in my introduction

and which has been the subject of comment of various crit­

ics (see pp. 2, 3, 5 and 6).

Patterns also become apparent with respect to the

villain. The villain tends te be associated with the

forces of society opposed to the hero's individualism. He

is usually a vain aristocrat who is excessively preoccupied

with honor, social esteem, and purity of lineage. He may

be a father, brother, or other male relative of the hero's

beloved who opposes the here's amorous aspirations, or he

may be a jealous husband or rival. In addition, he is

often an unscrupulous authority who victimizes the hero or

opposes him on socio-political grounds. Whatever his roles

may be, however, he is usually cruel, choleric, scheming,

and devious. Though given to rash boasting, he is apt to

be weak and cowardly in action.

Within the general patterns, of course, variations

do appear. Macias, for example, is extremely passionate,

abandoning reason from the start, while don Alvaro is calm

and rational until pressed to the limit by his implacable

adversaries. Rugiero and don Alvaro are very mysterious

while Macias and Marsilla are much less so. Among the

evil characters, don Carles of Den Alvaro combines usual

traits of anger, vindictiveness, and excessive preoccupat-

Ill

ion with honor with other qualities such as bravery, cour­

tesy, and noble bearing which are rare in villains, and

Juan Morosini in La conjuracion de Venecia and den Pedro in

Los amantes de Teruel are really generous but are forced te

act as villains because of their commitment te a harsh

social cede. These variations, however, are largely dif­

ferences in detail or differences in degree, and as such

they do net destroy the validity of the generalizations.

NOTES

Besides the dramas examined here, others might also

be considered. A few titles would include Manuel Breton de

los Herreres' Don Fernando el emplazado and plays by Jose

Zorrilla such as El zapatero y el rey (Segunda parte),

Traider incenfese y martir, and of course, the famous Don

Juan Tenorio. However, those chosen are entirely repre­

sentative.

2 / Narcise Alense Cortes, "El teatro espanol en el

siglo XIX," in Historia general de las literaturas hispan-

icas, ed. Gillermo Dias Plaja (Barcelona: Editorial Barna,

1957), IV (pt. 2), 271.

• La conjuracidn de Venecia, in Martinez de la Rosa

obras dramaticas, ed. Jean Sarrailh, 2nd ed. (Madrid:

Espasa-Calpe, 1947), p. 252. Further references te this

work will be to this edition, chosen for reasons of acces­

sibility and scholarly format, and will be given parenthet­

ically by page number in the text.

The element of fatality in Den Alvaro is a much de­

bated matter even though it appears superficially to play a

very important role. For further discussion of this point,

see pp. 60-63 below and, especially, notes 8 and 9.

112

113

5 .- . Macias, m Obras de don Mariano Jose de Larra

(Figaro), Biblieteca de Autores Espaiioles, vol. 129 (Madrid

Atlas, 1960), p. 271. Further references to this play

will be te the version found in this well-known and readily

accessible series and will be given parenthetically by page

number in the text.

6 The critic, Robert G. Sanchez, touches upon some

of these aspects of Romantic passion in his article, "Be­

tween Macias and don Juan: Spanish Romantic Drama and the

Mythology of Leve," in Hispanic Review, 44 (Winter 1976),

27-44.

7

Don Alvaro o la fuerza del sino, in Nineteenth

Century Spanish Plays, ed. Lewis E. Brett, The Century Mod­

ern Language Series (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,

1935), p. 64. I use the well-known Brett anthology wher­

ever possible in my study of Spanish Romantic plays. 'It

forms the basis of my examination net only of Don Alvaro

but also of Hartzenbusch's Los amantes de Teruel. Further

references to both of these works will be to the versions

found in Brett and will be given parenthetically by page

number in the text.

8

Various arguments have been advanced concerning

Rivas' meaning. Nicomedes Pastor Diaz (Biografia de don

Angel Saavedra, Biblieteca de Autores Espaneles, vol. 272

[Madrid: Atlas, 1969], p. 222) contends that Don Alvaro

wpr

develops a concept of fate similar to that of Greek tragedy.

He likens don Alvaro to Oedipus in Sophocles' play. Manuel

Canete ("El Duque de Rivas," In Autores dramatices y joyas

del teatro espanol del siglo XIX, ed. Pedro Novo y Colson

[Madrid: Imprenta de Fertanet, 1881], I, 16-18) adopts

the traditional Catholic position maintaining that Rivas

portrays the workings of Providence. According to Canete,

the play shews den Alvaro being punished for the sin of

seeking te marry Leonor without her father's consent.

Manuel Garcia Blanco (Historia de la literatura espanola

en el siglo XIX, 3rd ed. iMadrid: Saenz de Jiibera Hermanos,

Editeres, 1909], I, 147-49) suggests that there is fatality

in Don Alvaro but that the inexorable force is not fatality

in the Greek sense but represents instead a popular Spanish

concept. More recently Gabriel Beussagol (Angel de Saav­

edra, Due de Rivas: sa vie, son oeuvre poetique, Biblie-

theque Meridienale, 2e Serie, vol. 23 [Toulouse: Imprime-

rie et Librairie Eduoard Privat, Libraire de 1'Universite,

1926], pp. 361-64) has argued that there is no concept of

fatality in the play on a philosophical level, although

Rivas does make use of a vague concept of fate, fortune,

destiny, or Providence as a poetic accessory. Richard A.

Cardwell ("Don Alvaro or the Cosmic Force of Injustice,"

Studies in Romanticism, 12 [1973], 559-73 identifies sine

with cosmic injustice and stresses the central importance

in the play of the image in don Alvare's soliloquy in Act

115 Three, Scene Three of the sudden light in the prison cell.

W. T. Pattison (The Secret of don Alvaro," Symposium, 21

[1967], 67-81) argues that den Alvare's tragedy is a result

of his ultimate inability ever to be accepted by the Cala­

travas because of his mestizo condition and his subconscious

recognition of this fact, which prevents him from revealing

his origins.

9 E. Allison Peers, reviewing the various arguments

concerning fatality in Den Alvaro in the article "Rivas:

a Critical Study" (pp. 379-408), concludes that there is

much in Don Alvaro which is ambiguous and that the question

of fatality can probably never be fully resolved. Peers

suggests that Rivas probably intended to be portraying a

superhuman hero who is crushed by an inexorable force (mere

likely chance in a medieval sense than the fatality of

Greek tragedy) but that he allowed himself to be diverted

from his purpose for the sake of creating melodramatic

effect.

Enrique Funes, Den Alvaro O la fuerza del sine:

estudio critico (Cadiz: Manuel Alvarez, 1899), p. 93.

El trovador: drama caballeresce en cinco jornadas,

ed. Paul Patrick Rogers (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1926).

My study of Garcia Gutierrez' drama is based on this readily

accessible edition. Further references will be given

parenthetically by page number in the text.

116 12

Enrique Pineyro, The Romantics of Spain, tr. E.

Allison Peers, Studies Hispanic Literature (Liverpool:

Institute of Hispanic Studies, 1935), p. 85.

13

Full discussion of all the evil characters in Los

amantes de Teruel would, of course, require treatment of

the villainess, Zulima, who displays typical qualities of

devieusness, vindictiveness, and bad temper. However, she

is omitted from consideration because this study, by defi­

nition, is limited te masculine characters and te figures

in Spanish Romantic drama who have counterparts in Romantic

plays of Brazil.

CHAPTER II

CHARACTER CONTRAST IN SELECTED

BRAZILIAN ROMANTIC DRAMAS

In spite of the fact that Spain and Brazil are

separated by an ocean and by linguistic and cultural differ­

ences. Romantic dramas of the two nations display important

similarities in their portrayal of principal masculine

characters. In dramas of both nations there emerges a

Romantic hero who is a passionate lover, an outcast, often

of mysterious origins, a rebel, and a sensitive, pessimistic,

and melancholy person. As villains, in contrast to this

here, there are tyrannical fathers and jealous and vindic­

tive husbands and rivals who, at the same time frequently

fill the role of cruel and unscrupulous authorities. Al­

though vengeful brothers de not play so great a part in

Brazilian Romantic drama as they do in seme of the Romantic

dramas of Spain, there is passing reference te figures of

this type in at least one play even though they are not

fully developed as characters.

The present chapter examines the portrayal of

heroes and villains in selected Brazilian Romantic dramas

in order to shew the extent of their similarity te char-

117

118

acters m the Spanish plays studied previously. It con­

centrates on detailed analysis of the plays themselves

rather than upon investigation of reasons for the similari­

ties in terms of historical circumstances or literary

influence. In the selection of plays I have attempted te

include works representative of major authors and of various

currents within Romantic drama. Consideration is given

three dramas by Gon9alves Dias based on themes from

European history, two Indianist dramas by Joaquim Manuel

Macedo and Bernardo Guimaraes, and a late Romantic drama by

Jos4 de Alencar which finds its inspiration in the colonial

past of Brazil.

As in the case of the Spanish plays, analysis of

characters frequently requires consideration of narrative

elements. Again it is often necessary to repeat scenes

and details mere than once for a given work in order te

shew the different traits and perspectives of the heroes

and the villains.

Antonio Gon9alves Dias

Although Antonio Gon9alves Dias is best remembered

as a poet, especially as a poet of the Indian and of

nature, he also wrote theater. His work as a playwright

includes four original dramas, Patkull, Beatriz Cenci,

Leonor de Mendon9a, and Boabdil. All of these are based

en European history, and all portray characters who act

119

and think as Europeans, even though some, as in the case of

Boabdil, are nominally Moors. Leonor de Mendonga, Patkull,

and Boabdil are of special interest for their portrayal of

characters similar in seme important respects te—and

dissimilar in others from—those found in the Romantic drama

of Spain.

Leonor de Mendon^a

Leonor de Mendon9a is Gon9alves Dias' best known

drama. It was written in 1846 and published in the Arquive

teatral (Henriques Leal, "Gen9alves Dias," p. 90). Although

objections of Jeae Caetano, the actor who dominated the stage

in Rio de Janeiro prevented its performance in the capital

(Jacobbi, "Goethe, Schiller," p. 41), it did receive a per­

formance in Maranhae and was the only one of Gon9alves Dias'

dramas to be presented during the poet's own lifetime.

The drama is set in Vila Vigosa in Portugal in 1512.

Its subject is the unjust execution of Leonor de Mendonga,

wife of Dem Jaime, Duke of Bragan9a, because she is suspect­

ed of having had an adulterous relationship with Antonio

Alcoforade, a young man of Vila Vigosa who, at the time, is

about te become a knight in the Duke's retinue.

Gongalves Dias' Alcoforade displays interesting

similarities te the heroes of Spanish Romantic drama. Like

Larra's Macias and Hartzenbusch's Marsilla, he is of humble

standing in relation to his principal foils. Nevertheless,

120 he displays outstanding attributes. He is a gallant young

man whom the Duchess' servant Paula describes te her mis­

tress as "aquele belo mancebo que todas as manhas passa por

defronte de vesso balcao mentade em um formoso ginete mur-

zelo, que ele parece sofrear nao com esforgo mas so per f6r9a 2

de sua gentileza." He bravely saves the Duchess' life when

she is attacked by a wild bear while en a hunt, and he gen­

erously upholds her innocence when Dem Jaime surprises the

two of them during a nocturnal meeting in her room. He is

honorable and will not violate a secret nor act contrary to

the premise which he has made to Leonor to avoid armed con­

frontation with Dem Jaime. Likewise he is sensitive about

the feelings of ethers. Not only is he sensitive to the

suffering of Leonor ("Na minha seledade houve um mancebo

que se cempadeceu de mim, talvez perque adivinhou es sofrim-

entes que eu curtia silenciosa . . . ," the Duchess tells

the confessor who comes te administer last rites [p. 731]),

but also he displays great sensitivity to the grief which

his death is likely to cause his father and sister: "Nao

sabeis quantas vitimas cairao cemigo na sepultura! . . .

Minha irma se enleuquecera! . . . Meu pai . . . oh! eu vos

jure que sera um desengano terrivel para o bom do velho o

feretre que amanha Ihe for enlutar a habitagae . . ." (p. 727) .

In addition to his qualities of bravery, generosity,

honor, integrity, and sensitivity, Alcoforade displays an

121 admirable pride and sense of his own worth. He reveals his

pride especially in two confrontations with the Duke. The

first occurs when he comes te the palace to receive Dem Jai­

me ' s thanks for saving the Duchess' life and has the misfor­

tune te arrive just as Dem Jaime begins to suffer from one

of his frequent choleric outbursts. On that occasion,

Alcoforade replies to Dem Jaime's severe questioning, "0 que

quereis?", by simply asking, "Serei acase algum mendigo?",

and when Dem Jaime persists in his scornful attitude, he

objects te being treated in such a manner in the presence of

the Duchess (p. 705). The ether confrontation occurs when

Alcoforade emerges from hiding after the Duke forcibly

enters Leenor's room in search of the supposedly adulterous

couple. In this latter instance Alcoforade shows his

pride when he responds te the Duke's charges that he is a

coward by reminding him of his bravery that morning against

the bear. He also displays it in his denial of the Duke's

accusations that he is guilty of deceiving ethers with ap­

pearances of nobility and innocence, begging in a servile

fashion, bribing servants, and seducing the Duchess (p.

726) .

Because of his qualities Alcoforade receives re­

spect from ethers. He is a young man, it is true, and has

net fulfilled his potential. Nevertheless, ethers recog­

nize his achievements and perceive great possibilities for

him in the future. The Duchess' servant, Paula, speaks

122

admiringly of him en several occasions. In Act One,

Scene Two, for example, she enthusiastically expresses

belief that, once he becomes a knight, he will earn a

great name for himself:

Ainda nao cinge espada de cavalheire, mas . . .

Mas quando ele a heuver cingido . . . vereis . . . vereis que neme tera o Sr. Alcoforade! Ha de ser alguma ceisa assim come Hermigues, e Traga-Moures, ou Leonardo, O Cavaleire Namorado. (p. 69 5)

Later, after Alcoforade saves the Duchess' life, she asks

her mistress if she is net right in predicting that Alco­

forade will one day become a great warrior: "Nao e com

razae que vos digo que o mancebo, em quem ainda nao pudes-

tes descobrir partes de cavaleire, sera em algum tempo

guerreire de nomeada?" (p. 702). The elder Alcoforade

expresses confidence that his son will comport himself as

nobly in North Africa, where he is being sent on military

assignment, as he has in protecting the Duchess: "Sim,

mancebo; seis nebre, nobre com a nobreza da terra, e nobre

com a nobreza de alma que e a melhor de todas, porque di-

reitamente nes vem de Senher. Cemprazo-me em pensar que

sereis sempre digno de vesso neme e que os vesses feites

terae sempre e cunho da acao que hoje praticastes—ardimente

e dedicacae" (p. 713). Even Dem Jaime in the early part of

the play sees Alcoforade as having great potential: "E um

gentil mancebo o senher Alcoforade. Nos premetemos ao seu

velho pai fazer dele um brioso cavaleire, e por Sao Tiage

nao nos falta vontade de cumprirmos com a nessa promessa" (p

^w^

123 699). When the Duchess mentions that Alcoforade has asked

for a dangerous assignment in Africa, he speaks with enthu­

siasm concerning the young man's spirit: "Bem, muito bem.

Apraz-nos sabe-lo desse acorde, que e de um anime genereso

revelar tal ardimente em tie verde juventude!" (p. 699).

Alcoforade, like the heroes in Spanish Romantic

drama, is a dedicated lever. He repeatedly expresses a

desire to serve the Duchess as well as willingness to die

for her, even igneminiously if necessary. He is less than

enthusiastic about being sent to North Africa because that

will mean separation from his beloved, but he welcomes the

opportunity te perform deeds which will elevate him in her

esteem.

Alcoforade's passionate love, like that of Macias

in Larra's drama and that of Manrique in El trovador is a

rebellious one. By loving the Duchess, he puts himself

in conflict with social hierarchy and social norms. Net

only does he love a married woman, but also he dares to

love a woman whose social standing is much greater than

his own. Because of the extramarital nature of his love

for the Duchess, he becomes an outcast who is pursued by

the Duke and his henchmen like a hunted animal.

Alcoforade is ill-starred. In the prologue te

Leonor de Mendonga Gongalves Dias describes his characters

as being the victims of a fatality which arises from social

circumstances rather than supernatural force (pp. 6 86-87),

SW* "

124 and this type of fatality seems particularly applicable to

Alcoforade. During the nocturnal interview in Act Three, 3

Quadro Four, Scene One, Alcoforade laments that there is

an unbridgeable gap between himself and the Duchess arising

out of the difference in their social condition: "Pels em

verdade vos digo, senhora, que eu tenhe muitas vezes amal-

digoado a minha estrela que me fez nascer tao baixe quando

a serte vos colocou tao sobranceira aes outros, que o meu

neme, per mui famigerade que venha a ser, jamais nao pedera

ser equiparado ao vesso" (p. 722). In this speech he attri­

butes to his unlucky star and to chance (a serte) misfortunes

traceable to the social caste sytem of a particular time

and place,

Alcoforade is also fatal. By daring to love the

Duchess he contributes to her downfall. Aware of the role

he is playing in her ruin, he expresses regret as Dem Jaime

and an armed band approach the room where he and the Duchess

have been having their nocturnal meeting. Alluding to a

cord placed in the window as a sign to him, he remarks to

the Duchess, "Certaram a corda! E fui eu quem vos lancei

neste abismo!" (p. 723). Later, confronting the Duke,

Alcoforade blames himself for having involves Leonor in

his own ruin and then being unable te defend her:

Assim e, Sr. Duque; eu sou um cevarde, um false, um infame, nao pelo que dissestes, mas porque envolvi na minha ruina uma criatura inecente come os anjos; por­que, depois de a ter obrigade a descer ao fundo da minha igneminia, nio a pude defender das vessas afrontas, nem dos deestes que Ihe assacastes, cousas que nao eram para dizer: por isso merefo a morte. (p. 726)

125 Alcoforado's worries about the consequences which his death

may have for his family (see p. above) also suggests his

role as a fatal figure.

Not only does Alcoforade resemble the Spanish Roman­

tic hero in being a man of humble origin but noble charact­

er, a dedicated lever, an ill-starred figure, and a rebel­

lious outcast, but also he displays seme of the same psyche-

logicial traits. Like Spanish Romantic heroes, he shows

tendencies toward self-preoccupation and melancholy. His

proclivity to be preoccupied with his own ideas and emotions

is evident in Act Three, Quadro Three, Scene One where he is

se concerned with fears and anxieties related to his meeting

with his beloved that he fails te reply te questions of his

brother, Manuel, regarding his health. It is also apparent

in remarks which he makes te Leonor at the beginning of

their nocturnal meeting in which he speaks of his boldness

in requesting te see her: "[E] eu vo-lo confessarei, pasmei

do meu desmarcade arrojo em ve-la pedir [a entrevista], e

admirei-me da vessa muita bondade em ma concederdes, quando

me pederieis ter feite expulsar da vessa presenga come um

louco, e de feito eu o era; perem, certe que, se me

negasseis esta graca, eu me haveria per mui desgragado, por

mui digno de lastima e compaixae" (p. 721) .

Alcoforado's inclination toward melancholy can be

seen in the tendency which he shows throughout the play

toward thoughts concerning his own death. Sometimes these

•p^s*"

126 thoughts take the form of mere allusions to the possibility

of death while, en other occasions, they take the form of

suicidal wishes or fears concerning the likelihood of

death. In his first audience with the Duchess, for exam­

ple, Alcoforade expresses willingness te die igneminiously

for her sake at the hands of a hangman or of traitors (p.

697). Before setting out for the nocturnal interview with

the Duchess, he shows fear that he will die (pp. 710-12).

During the interview itself he speaks of presentiments

which he has had since childhood that he would net live long

(p. 722), and when the Duke approaches he wishes to commit

suicide by hurling himself from the Duchess' window (p.

723) .

Although Alcoforade has many of the traits of a

Romantic hero of the Spanish type, he is not the leading

character of the play as a whole. Instead he is a central

figure in a leve subplot. As Nancy Swigger points out,

the mere important element in Leonor de Mendonga is net the

love story but rather the treatment of the themes of sub­

jugation of women and of societal responsibility for fate

and circumstance.^ Gon9alves Dias portrays the Duchess,

Leonor, as a heroine confined by her condition as a woman,

and he portrays Dem Jaime as a man who reacts violently to

restrictions placed en him as a result of his noble rank.

Meanwhile he relegates Alcoforade to a position of second­

ary importance except in the context of his affection for

Leonor.

127 Gongalves Dias' treatment of Alcoforade in Leonor de

Mendonga points te an important difference between the Span­

ish Romantic dramas and some of the Brazilian ones. In

major Spanish Romantic plays the character of the Romantic

hero type is usually cast in the leading role, but in some

Brazilian ones he appears as a true hero only in the context

of a leve subplot. Otherwise, from the standpoint of the

play as a whole, he is a figure of secondary importance.

Besides Alcoforade, as I shall demonstrate later, other

characters who illustrate this generalization include Aben-

Hamet of Gongalves Dias' Boabdil and Est^vae of Jos^ de

Alencar's O Jesuita.

Alcoforado's chief foil in Leonor de Mendonga is

Dem Jaime, the Duke of Braganga. Dem Jaime displays many

of the characteristics of villains in Spanish Romantic

dramas. He is a proud nobleman, nephew of a king and son

of a duchess. He is often vain and arrogant. By temper­

ament he is hot-headed and is subject to occasional severe

outbursts of anger, such as the one he suffers in Act One,

Scene Four, where he smashes a glass of water which the

Duchess' servant Paula gives him because it reminds him of

the poison which he was earlier forced to drink, or the

one which he suffers in Act One, Quadro Two, Scene One when

Alcoforade comes te receive his thanks for saving the Duch­

ess' life.

128

Dem Jaime, like Fernan Perez in Larra's Macias, is

a jealous husband bent upon vengeance against those who

have offended his marital honor. Following the revelation

of his faithful servant, Fernae, in Act Two, Scene Eight

that the Duchess and Alcoforade are dishonoring him, Dem

Jaime calls for bloody revenge: "Sangue! . . . Sangue! . .

Sangue!" (p. 720). Then, te effectuate his purpose, he

develops and carries out the unscrupulous plan to surround

the courtyard outside Leenor's window with armed men and

te interrupt the lovers in their nocturnal meeting. After­

ward he is totally scornful of Alcoforade, whom he regards

as a traitor and a coward, and he is unmoved by the Duchess'

defense of herself and by pleas on behalf of her innocence

by Alcoforade and by the confessor. Lope Garcia.

Although Dem Jaime has much in common with the vil­

lains of Spanish Romantic dramas, he differs from them in

that he is much mere fully developed psychologically. In­

stead of being totally wicked as are the majority of the

Spanish villains, he also has some traits of a mere positive

character. Leonor speaks of his great bravery and urbanity

in Act One, Quadro One, Scene Two, and in spite of his vio­

lence in the end, Dem Jaime sometimes displays moments of

tenderness toward the Duchess. He apologizes for having

taken her on the hunt during which she suffered the accident

which nearly cost her her life (p. 703), and in a later

scene, after speaking of his own melancholy temperament, he

129 offers to send her away to protect her from himself and his

imagination: "Partireis, duquesa; jovem, nobre e formosa,

nao 4 com um homem come eu que deveis passar a vida. Ir-

eis para a cempanhia de minha mae, que tamb^m 6 vessa, per

ella fOstes educada" (p. 705).

Even Dem Jaime's less desirable traits are thorough­

ly explained se that the reader understands and, to seme

extent, sympathizes. His frequent choleric outbursts stem

from melancholy threughts about the execution of his father,

the poisoning of a brother, and the near poisoning of him­

self:

Sim, compadecei-vos, porque eu sou mais infeliz que mau. Apenas me levantei de bergo, que ao inves de meu pai vi um cadafalse por cima da minha cabega; apenas ne exilio, femes envenenados, eu a meu irmae: ^le mor-reu, e eu continuei a arrastar a minha vida s6bre a ter­ra. Despejade vielentamente de quante ha ne mundo de mais preciese e care, continuadamente centrariado nas minhas inclinagoes as mais intimas, as mais santas: ainda hoje! hoje, que sou homem, duque, pederoso e res-peitade, como dizem, sofro de ter nascido nebre ao inv^s de ter nascido vilae, de ser senher, ao inves de ser vassale, de ser livre ao inv6s de ser escravo! (p. 704)

He is able te escape these thoughts when he is leading a

simple life in close communion with nature, but the demands

of his duchy prevent him from doing this very often:

0 Duque

. . . Esta neite nao sei que negros pensamentos me ator-mentaram. A morte lastimosa de meu pai, a minha infan-cia desvalida, o meu envenenamento, o meu exilio por terras estranhas eram eventos dolorissimos que, sem cessar, me passavam per diante dos olhos roubando-me e sene . . . e a razae, creio eu . . .

A Duquesa

130

E nao vos distraistes com e passeio desta manha?

0 Duque

Sim. A corrida afanada, o tresfolgar dos cavalos e a aragem fresca do romper dalva tiveram fargas para me chamar k realidade em poucos instantes. Respirei pre-fundamente o ar purissimo dos campos, vi e sol bordar o horizonte com uma franja de purpura, derramar pelo ceu alvacentes listdes de fogo vivissime e destacar dos montes, come uma coluna de incense, a neblina pegajosa que ali se balangava come um penacho de guerreire em dia de batalha. Vi a natureza serrir-se em reder de mim; e eu extasiei-me de a sentir tao fundamente, e fui feliz! (p. 700)

His jealous determination to murder Leonor is explained be­

cause he was forced te marry her when his true vocation was

te become a cleric:

A Duquesa

0 rei seu tie, a rainha sua avd, a duquesa sua mae, todos e contransgeram a celebrar este casamento bem contra a sua vontade. Ele o nao queria, a ponto de tentar eva-dir-se disfargado. Reputa-me a causa de haver §le men-tide a sua vocagae, e ainda me nao pdde perdoar. (p. 694)

As a result of his more complex psychological devel­

opment, Dem Jaime emerges in a position of much greater

prominence in the play as a whole than is typical of vil­

lains in Spanish Romantic dramas. The forces which make

Dem Jaime what he is are mostly societal in nature, rather

than preconditioned responses te a given code of conduct.

His father was condemned by the king, and he and his broth­

er suffered during the banishment which followed (p. 699).

The duchy whose obligations weigh heavily en his tempera­

ment was the creation of a particular society at a parti-

-'-WT'

131

cular time. Because of the more thorough explanation

which Gongalves Dias gives of his behavior, Dem Jaime tran­

scends his role as a villain and becomes a principal vehicle

for the expression of the central theme of societal respon­

sibility for human destiny.

The matters in contrast between Dem Jaime and the

Spanish villains whom I have considered in this study are

significant because they seem te point te some fundamental

differences in Gongalves Dias' way of conceiving evil char­

acters . Gon9alves Dias' villains tend te be mere fully

developed psychologically. They have positive traits as

well as negative ones, and their behavior is explained in

relation te their circumstances or in relation te under­

standable psychological principles. Some of them, more­

over, have a role in the total structure of the play which

far exceeds that of the evil characters in the Spanish

dramas. Besides just being villains in a love plot, they

emerge as instruments through which the playwright attempts

to communicate a larger meaning. Later I shall discuss

the applicability of these generalizations to ether plays

of Gongalves Dias in the sections devoted te Patkull and

Boabdil.

While Dem Jaime is the only villain in Leonor de

Mendonga who appears on stage and who is fully develoed

as a character, there is a brief reference in the words of

Leonor in Act Three, Quadro Five, Scene Seven to a pair of

132

vindictive brothers which reminds one of don Carles and don

Alfonso in Don Alvaro. In this passage the Duchess, who

has been condemned te death but is clinging te every last

hope, suggests that her husband might reconsider the terri­

ble sentence when he thinks about the vengeance which her

brother, the Marques de Cazaga, and her brother-in-law, the

Conde de Urenha, might wreak upon him:

0 Duque

Levantai-vos, Sra. Duquesa: o meu prepdsito e irrevega-vel.

A Duquesa

Muda-lo-eis, senher; muda-le-eis quando aventardes que mofina que eu seu, e que embaragos a minha morte vos pede acarretar. O conde de Urenha, meu cunhado, e o Marques de Cazaga, meu irmae, virao reptar-vos para e duele, apelando da vessa sentenga para o juizo de Deus. (p. 734) .

These figures, who are merely mentioned in passing in the

words of the Duchess, are the only vengeful brothers found

in any of the Brazilian dramas under consideration for this

study.

Patkull

While Leonor de Mendonga is Gongalves Dias' best

known theatrical work, the one in which characters most

closely resembling the heroes and villains of the Spanish

Romantic dramas appear is probably Patkull. An apprentice

5 play, written while Gongalves Dias was a student at Coimbra,

Patkull was never published nor produced during the author's

lifetime (Magaldi, Panorama, pp. 67-68). It was first pub-

133 lished in Henriques Leal's edition of the Obras postumas in

1868 (Jacobbi, Goethe, Schiller, p. 46).

Patkull, like Gon9alves Dias' other dramas, finds

its inspiration in European history. Johan Reinhold von

Patkul (1660-1707), Governor of Livonia under the Swedish

king Charles XI, was sent by his countrymen te Stockholm te

defend their rights (Jacobbi, Goethe, Schiller, pp. 54-55).

His resistance te the new king Charles XII caused him to be

considered a rebel and to be condemned te death in 1694.

He fled, however, to western Europe where he became involved

in political activity against the Swedish king. In 1699

he gained an audience with King Augustus II of Poland (who

was also the Elector of Saxony) during which he interested

the king in a Saxon-Russian alliance against Sweden. Named

by Augustus as envoy to Russia, Patkul then led negotiations

that resulted in the Saxen-Pelish-Russian-Danish coalition

which started the Great Northern War against Sweden in 1700.

Patkul entered the Russian diplomatic and military service

in 1703 and thereafter tried unsuccessfully te bring Prussia

into the war. In 1706, after angering the Saxons, who re­

garded his attempt to effect a rapproachment between Charles

XII and the Czar following Augustus' renunciation of the

throne of Poland as contrary to their interests, he was

imprisoned, and the following year Augustus delivered him

over to the Swedes, who tortured him to death for his

desertion and treason.

134 Gongalves Dias concentrates en the last phase of

Patkul's life—his participation in the Russian diplomatic

service, his imprisonment, and his death. The play devel-

ops a love triangle involving Patkull, the Duchess of

Mecklenberg, Namry Remhor, and Patkull's treacherous friend,

Paikel. There are five acts with a division of the third

act into two quadros which have different settings and sep­

arately numbered scenes. The first two acts and the first

quadro of the third act are set in a room in Namry's palace;

the second quadro of the third act takes place at the palace

of King Augustus of Poland; and the last two acts take

place in a prison at Casemir.

In the play there are important points of similarity

between Patkull and the Romantic hero of the type developed

in Spanish drama. Patkull is a mysterious figure. While

the reader learns that he is of noble origin and has once 7 . . .

enjoyed great wealth, little specific information is given

concerning his background. Furthermore, Patkull himself

has but slight memories of his origins. Bern in a prison

of parents who were suffering persecution at the hands of

Charles XII, he became an orphan at an early age, and all

he can remember concerning his elders is a vague impression

of seeing them worn by the cares of their long punishment: Um dia, quando me entendi, estava n'um legar escuro e frio; era uma prisae de Estado; era funda a prisae, a terra lodesa e encharcada, e alguns mdlhes de palha. Bem alta estava uma fresta, por onde enfiava um raio bace de sol de inverne. Ao meu lade uma mulher que seria bella em outros tempos, perem que eu via descorada

135 e miseravel com as faces fundas, e e cabelle enchevalhade e solte. Al$m, um homem—alto—magre—pallido—com es olhos vacilantes e lusentes, e cabelle em desordem e bragos cruzados. Seu roste mettia mede; as vezes uma contracgae nervosa Ihe abalava e corpe inteiro, entae seus cabellos se errigavam, e cahiam pouce depois come arveres que e vente curva a seu bem grade; e os dentes rangiam e batiam com forga como n'um acceso de febre. Era horrivel vel-o assim, e comtudo tirante disso o dirias um espectro. Esse homem doide era meu pai, essa mulher morta, minha mae e nada mais sei delles. (pp. 287-88)

Like the heroes of Spanish Romantic drama, Patkull

emerges principally in the roles of rebel and lover. Re­

calling the situation of Rugiero in Martinez de la Rosa's

La conjuracion de Venecia, his rebellion is political in

nature. In the past, before the beginning of the play, he

has spent much time resisting the tyranny of Charles XII (p.

279) . This resistance, which arose out of patriotic devo­

tion te the Livenian people and also out of a desire to

avenge his father, was realized at the sacrifice of great

wealth and of a brilliant future which might have been his.

Later, at the instigation of Paikel, he is moved once mere

te take up political activity, and it eventually costs him

his life.

However great Patkull's dedication to revolutionary

causes may be, his love for Namry is even greater. Out of

devotion te her, he abandons his political activity for a

time, and afterwards he is reluctant to take it up again.

Throughout the play Patkull often expresses his

love in poetic terms. In Act One, Scene Two, for example,

he searches for a comparison adequate te convey his feel­

ings :

. . ^ 136 [E]u te amo come neste mundo se pode amar, como se ama a uma cousa pura e bella, come se ama uma flor encantadora, como se ama o azul de um c^o e de um lage, como se ama o sol e as estrallas—como se ama um instrumento, que se escuta no silencio da neite—come se ama o perfume e a harmonia, Assim ^ que te amo—mais de que posse dizer, mais de que te posse explicar—mais do que pode exprimir um pensamento, que § teu. (p. 283)

Namry, for Patkull, is a typical consoling angel of

Romanticism. When he is confidant of her love, he is hope­

ful, and when he is unsure of it, he despairs. Patkull' s

vacillation between hope and despair is especially evident

in Acts Four and Five where he is in prison. In Act Four,

Scene One he soliloquizes. In his soliloquy he begins te

think of death, but he questions how it is possible for him

to die when he feels such love (p. 362). He wishes he

could be reunited with his beloved momentarily in this life

and then for all eternity in the life to come:

Namry—meu—amor—minha alma—meu anjo tao pure e tao belle, se na terra existem anjos—quem me dera ver-te come sempre—formosa e pensativa—como um anjo na terra se lembra de melhor patria. Namry—Oh! podesse eu quebrar estes ferros—e ir d'aqui langar-me nos teus bragos—Namry—podesse eu ver-te uma vez sequer, uma vez nesta vida e na outra a eternidade. (pp. 36 2-6 3)

Later the servant Wolf comes bringing false news that Namry

has been unfaithful. On receiving this information, Pat­

kull loses the will te live. He does not understand hew

Namry can have betrayed him ("Namry—bella estrella—pharol

tao meigo de esperangas—belle anjo de luz —tambem tu me

podeste trair—Namry?!" [p. 382]), and he wishes only to die

Toward the close of Act Five, after Patkull has been con­

demned to death, Namry herself appears by surprise in the

137 prison cell te tell him of the falsity of the rumors which

have been spread against her. Her arrival there gives Pat­

kull new hope and makes it possible for him te face death

with greater courage: "Namry-vive feliz e venturosa—que

eu morro—morre com saudades tuas—e serei feliz se depois

da morte acudirem lembrangas do passado per saber que me

choravas depois de morte—per ter viste que cheravas a minha

morte" (p. 392).

Patkull is also a man of outstanding qualities

whom others greatly admire. He is a wise counselor who is

respected by kings for his veracity and conscientiousness,

a capable soldier who is feared by his enemies for his

strength and indomitable will, and a devoted patriot who

is adored by his countrymen for his willingness te sacri­

fice himself:

E um homem patriota e nobre. Os reis se calaram na sua presenga per que a sua voz era de verdade e consciencia. Seus inimigos e temeram na guerra, porque o seu brago era de ferro e sua vontade inflexivel.—Os seus cempat-riotas e aderam por que sacrificou per elles seus bens, que um rei invejaria, e o seu future, que promettia ser tao brilhante. E ne exilio, na pebreza immerecida, ne meie de quante aviltamento Ihe podia arremessar a Suecia, sempre se euvie a sua voz que chamava (DS seus patricios a liberdade, mais forte que a destruigae de reines e monarchias—do que e barulhe das armas de Carlos XII— Pedro I e do rei Augusto. (p. 279)

Patkull, moreover, is very generous. Not only dees he

sacrifice himself for the sake of the Livenian people, but

also he has benefited particular individuals. Namry's

father has rewarded him with his daughter's hand because

Patkull has many times saved his life in battle (p. 279).

13.8 Wolf appreciates him because Patkull has taken pity en him

after having found him as an orphan living under undesirable

conditions with his uncle, the jailer.

Patkull, like the Spanish Romantic hero, is an ill-

starred figure, victim of a hostile fate. His whole life

is a series of misfortunes: He was born in a prison; Namry

fails to return his leve; Paikel betrays him; Namry's maid.

Bertha, victimizes him by sending Wolf to the prison with

the false news concerning Namry's unfaithfulness. Sugges­

tions concerning Patkull's unfortunate destiny first appear

in the final scene of Act One. There Patkull resists Pai­

kel ' s proposal that he resimie his political activity because

he fears that doing se will involve him in "cousas de mae

agoure" (p. 295). When he departs after yielding to Paik­

el ' s persuasion, he gees out into a stormy night fearing a

diaster (p. 30 2). Later the matter becomes more explicit

in Act Four, Scene Four where Paikel comes to his prison cell

to offer to exchange places with him. Opposing Paikel's

plan because he does not want to live since he believes

that Namry does net love him, Patkull suggests that Paikel,

with all his treachery, may be a mere instrument of a hos­

tile destiny which is torturing him: "Cumpriu-se o nosso fa­

de.—Nao tens culpa talvez foste instrumento e nao causa do

que me esta preparade—seja come for—bem ves que nao te

culpe--nae te crimino--nada te pe90—perem vai-te e se

feliz—se o puderes" (p. 377). Finally, near the end of

the play where he speaks to the priest (Act Five, Scene

-* HW '

139

Two), Patkull indicates realization that his life has been

nothing but a series of calamities and undeceptiens:

Oh! sim, porque nao? um pai nao se esquece de seu filho—e de mais tenhe eu soffride para impetrar o seu perdae—soffri muito talvez, porque de tude me esqueci para me lembrar sd da gloria e de amor.—Oh' meu padre que se a vida ^ fonte de venturas, nao o foi para mim— que sd achei tropegos e calamidades.—E hoje, quando me lan90 na historia de passado—nao encentro um quadro feliz em toda a existencia—que nao tenha o acre do desengano.—Busquei o amor e a gloria.—E o amor trahiu-me e ennegreceu os ultimos instantes da vida que a glo­ria me faz perder no cadafalse e na vergenha. (p. 388)

Besides resembling the Spanish Romantic here type

by being a mysterious person, a lover, a rebel, a man of

outstanding qualities and an ill-fated figure, Patkull also

displays psychological traits frequently found in the heroes

of Spanish Romantic drama such as sensitivity, pride, and a

tendency toward pessimism and melancholy. His sensitivity

manifests itself in an intense awareness of his own suffer­

ing which is apparent especially in the prison scenes. In

his long soliloquy in Act Four, Scene One, for example, he

pretests his sadness and loneliness:

Come e triste uma prisae—come este silencio e cheio de paver e de tristeza.—Aqui estou—eu, sd eu sepultade —eu, sem vida quando carecia tanto d'alguem que me fallase, de alguem que eu escutasse a cada instante— de alguem que me enchesse o coracae de secego e de harmonias. —Nada, nada sinte em torne de mim mais do que o silencio, come o de um cemiterie, que me gela o sangue nas veias . . . (p. 361)

Later, after Wolf tells him that Namry and Paikel have be­

trayed him, he asks rhetorically what he has done to des­

erve such torment ("Que mal fiz a esta gente para que assim

me martyrisem" [p. 370]), and when Paikel offers to ex-

140

change places with him, he resists saying, "Nao—Paikell,—

para que viver—estou cangado de luctar, cangado de soffrer

—cangado de quante me serria" (p. 377). Patkull's

sensitivity also manifests itself in a responsiveness to

the feelings of others. Like the Spanish Romantic heroes,

he is very sensitive te the emotions of his beloved. In

Act One, Scene Two, for example, he enters Namry's house

happy, but becomes sad on seeing that Namry is disconsolate

(p. 282). He likewise is sensitive te the feelings of the

jailer, Saltz, and his servant. Wolf. He tries to console

Saltz when the latter speaks of the sadness of his vocation

(p. 364) , and in the final act he apologizes to Wolf for

having become angry with him when he brought the news

concerning Namry's unfaithfulness (p. 393).

Patkull's pride (which is portrayed so that it ap­

pears te be an admirable quality) is evident especially in

scenes where he speaks te Paikel alone. For example, one

sees it in Act One, Scene Five where he complains to Paikel

that he was falsely accused of seeking glory in the leader­

ship of the Livenian cause by people who did not understand

the sacrifice he was making (p. 296). It is likewise ap­

parent in Act Four, Scene Four in his resistance to Paikel's

plan to free him from imprisonment on the grounds that he

dees not want to have te call one who betrayed him a noble

and honorable man (pp. 373-74).

One sees Patkull's pessimism and melancholy above

all m his expression of suicidal longings in Act Five,

Scene Two. In that scene he echoes don Alvaro as he tells

a priest who has come to administer last rites to him be­

fore his execution, "Em bem! que eu ja desesperava de mer-

rer" (p. 387) .

Just as Patkull manifests many of the characteris­

tics of the heroes in Spanish Romantic drama, his rival,

Paikel, displays many of the characteristics typical of the

villains. Like a number of the Spanish villains, for ex­

ample, he is a sinister figure. His sinister nature is

brought out through his association with the forces of evil.

Although he is a nobleman, he has abandoned the exercise of

arms to devote himself te the diabolical art of alchemy,

and because of his devotion to alchemy Namry's father has

refused to allow his daughter te marry him.

Besides having a generally sinister character,

Paikel is also scheming and devious. Like den Nuno in El

trovador, he is an unsuccessful lover who uses unscrupulous

means to effect the ruin of his rival. In Act One he gains

entry to Namry's house on the pretext that he has some im­

portant news to convey te Patkull (p. 371). Then te pre­

vent Patkull from interfering with his pursuit of Namry's

affections he appeals te Patkull's patriotism persuading

him to leave on the almost certainly fatal mission on be­

half of the fatherland. Although he feigns reluctance when

Patkull entrusts to him the protection of Namry during his

142 absence, he is really eager to accept. After Patkull

leaves, he uses the lie that he has an important message

from Patkull in order te overcome Namry's scruples when

she tries to avoid him by pretending illness (p. 306).

Like a number of Spanish villains, Paikel is very

scornful. He mocks his victims and frequently allows

himself the satisfaction of outright laughter. At differ­

ent times and in varying degrees Patkull, Bertha, and Namry

all become objects of his disdain.

At the end of Act One Paikel expresses scorn for

Patkull in subtle form by maintaining a frivolous attitude

which stands in contrast te the seriousness which Patkull

displays at that moment as he prepares te depart for Livonia.

After lightly resisting Patkull's request that he serve as

protector to Namry, Paikel dismisses the matter with a

simple "Fice" (p. 301). Then, as Patkull sets out, with

an air of mock triumph, he gleefully repeats, "E eu fice"

(p. 302).

If Paikel's scorn for Patkull is implicit, his scorn

for Bertha is much more blunt. Bertha is really a noble

lady who was forced into servitude after Paikel dishonored

and abandoned her. In Act Two, Scene Three when Bertha

complains te him about his past misdeeds, Paikel first pre­

tends to regret what he has dene, saying that he still loves

her. However, when Bertha says that she too still loves

him, he remarks that she is hard te deceive and bursts out

143

laughing. Later Namry tries to get Paikel to make repar­

ations by marrying Bertha, but Paikel scornfully states

that he does not ewe Bertha anything because her family is

net noble (p. 340). Accusing Bertha of having grossly in­

sulted him, he asserts that if she should have a male rela­

tive who should dare to defend her, he would kill him, and

he adds, ironically, that were it net villainy, he would

kill Bertha as well:

Bem e sei.—Mas eu nao amo a essa mulher. Inda ha pouce me veio ella injuriar face a face—chamou-me nemes de despreze e de injuria, que eu me envergenharia de OS repetir. Tivesse ella um parente, que cingisse uma espada—e a esta hora ella nao teria este parente. Nao fosse vilania assassinal-a—a esta hora nao terias mais amiga. (pp. 340-41)

In the scene in which Namry tries to get Paikel to

repair the honor of her maid, in addition to expressing

scorn for Bertha, Paikel also expresses scorn for Namry.

In the past Namry has loved Paikel, but new she threatens

te withdraw her affection unless Paikel fulfills his obli­

gation te Bertha. Nevertheless, in a climactic moment,

she says that if Paikel will indeed save Bertha's honor,

she will forget everything in order te remember him as one

worthy of being loved. Paikel, however, merely mocks her

words as he bursts into laughter:

Namry

Talvez!! Bem—sera mais uma divida, Paikel—que eu te nao poderei pagar. Salva a henra de Bertha—eu me esquecerei de tude.

144 Paikel (a rir-se)

Esquecer-te-has de tude?! como es generosa . . . . (p. 343)

In spite of his vanity and scorn of others, Paikel,

like some of the Spanish villains, is really a coward.

Namry speaks of his cowardice at the first of the play.

She mentions that, after her father refused Paikel her hand,

Paikel remained quiet. At first she attributed his silence

to generosity, but, subsequently, she has come to credit it

to fear: "[J]ulguei entae generesidade o que agora me vem

em duvida de cobardia" (p. 280). Bertha also alludes te

his cowardice. Complaining of his having dishonored and

abandoned her, she says it is cowardly for a man to abandon

a woman after having humiliated her: "Dir-te-hei mais,

Paikel: . . . quem emprega manhas e artificios para enganar

a uma mulher—e um embusteiro:—e quem depois de a ter

humilhado a abandona, sem se Ihe dar de seu future e um

cobarde—um infame" (p. 318).

Although Paikel resembles the villains of the Span­

ish Romantic dramas in many important respects, he differs

from them in that he is more fully developed psychologi­

cally. In Paikel, as in Dem Jaime of Leonor de Mendonga,

one sees an example of a villain of Gongalves Dias who is

not altogether depraved but who also have some redeeming

traits. While, in the main, he is despicable, Paikel has

a capacity for remorse, which in the end leads him to re­

pent.

145 Paikel's capacity for remorse is apparent in subtle

form as early as Act Two, Scene One. In a speech at the

opening of that scene, even though he rationalizes, Paikel

indicates awareness that, by sending Patkull away on the

mission en behalf of the Livonians, he is doing something

wrong: "Abusar assim da confianza de um amige, da sua

cordialidade e franqueza, 4 uma infamia.—Mas por que me ro-

bou elle e coracae de Namry—por que se veio interp6r no meu

caminho?" (p. 30 5). Later he seems to imply an attitude

of regret as he speaks to the servant Wolf of Patkull's

being a man worthy of respect: "Tens razae. Wolf, ama-o

muito e nao teras de que te arrepender. Elle 6 um amige

que nao atraicoa, e seu amige, sua palavra 6 santa e pura.

Tu es novo. Wolf, na tua idade ainda ha reconhecimente para

um serrise, e amor para e mime, que nos mestram" (p. 307).

Paikel's final repentance comes after Namry tells

him that she ne longer loves him when he refuses te repair

the wrong dene te Bertha. It motivates him, of course, te

seek te take Patkull's place in the prison. When Paikel

enters the prison cell for this purpose, Patkull expresses

misgivings concerning his sincerity, but Paikel prevails

upon his friend with a great sense of urgency to save him­

self from imprisonment and death:

Per Dees—nSo nos demoremos com vagares imprudentes— Patkull-fui culpado—fui criminese—fui vil—fui infame --fui mae amige—o que tu quizeres.—Mas salve-te por amor della—Patkull—e por amor de mim mesmo.—Nao me acreditarias agora por mais que t'o eu dissesse.--Mas salva-te—salva-te per amor dessa nessa amizade tao an-

146 tiga—tao extrema—tao sincera—salva-te—Patkull—e um dia teras piedade do teu pobre amige que comprou bem care o extravio de um memento.—salva-te. (p. 375)

The intensity of Paikel's pleas on this occasion leave the

reader little ground for doubt that his desire to right past

wrongs is genuine.

Boabdil

Another work by Gencalves Dias which is of interest

from the standpoint of comparison to Spanish Romantic drama

is his last play, Boabdil. Written in 1850 (Jacobbi,

Goethe, Schiller, p. 6 3), but neither published nor per­

formed during the author's lifetime (Magaldi, Panorama, pp.

67-6 8), Boabdil is a historical drama concerned with events

leading up te the downfall of the Moorish kingdom of Granada

in 1492.

As Nancy Swigger points out, Boabdil basically has

two plots ("Gon5:alves Dias' Dramas," p. 125). One concerns

the power struggle between the last Moorish king, Boabdil,

and his mother, Ayxa, who thinks he should restrain the love

he bears his queen and devote himself more fully te war

against the Christians. The other concerns a love triangle

involving the king, his queen, Zorayma, and the Abencerraje

chief, Ibrahim, who appears throughout most of the play un­

der the guise of the unknown soldier, Aben-Hamet.

Aben-Hamet has many of the traits of a Romantic

hero on the Spanish model. He is a mysterious figure.

He is really the noble Ibrahim, who has returned to Granada

147

in disguise after having been believed dead. However, ex­

cept for his old friend, Alhamur, and later the queen,

Zorayma, none of the other characters knew who he is. As

far as these others characters are concerned, he is just a

simple warrior without aristocratic background. Only near

the end of the play do they recognize his true identity.

Besides being a mysterious figure, Aben-Hamet is

also a passionate lover. In the past, as Ibrahim, he has

wooed Zorayma, but she has yielded to her father's ambitions

and has married Boabdil. Since that time, he has tried to

forget his affection while fighting in the wars against the

Christians, but he has been unable te de se, and, in time,

jealousy has converted leve into hatred. Having returned

to Granada in disguise, in the early part of the play, he

is determined to get vengeance against his former beloved.

In order te effectuate his revenge he arranges a midnight

meeting with Zorayma in the harem garden, where he secretly

plans te kill her.

Although he finally allows his friend, Alhamur, to

dissuade him from taking the reprisals which he has plan­

ned, he is drawn irresistibly to the nocturnal interview.

There, speaking to Zorayma, he reveals the depth of his

passion;

Imaginai, Zorayma, imaginai agora que terrivel me nao foi aquelle memento, quando eu tranquille, e^seguro da vessa lealdade como de mim mesmo, euvi que ja ereis de outrem! O que fiz entae nao sei,!!o que senti em que o quizesse nao vel-e pederia dizer! Tornando a mim

148

d'aquelle espasmo de ddr que me tinha como alienado de mim mesmo, pensei que mais valera nao vos tornar a ver, deixar vos entregue aes vesses remorses, se es—podess-eis sentir, se recordagdes minhas alguma hora vos assal-tassem! . . . Tanto tempo soffri cemigo que sinte agora nao sei que amargo prazer em avivar as feridas do meu cora^rao, que ainda goteja, e em ves dizer pela tiltima vez que eu ves amava, como nunca foi amade euri do pro-pheta. (Obras posthumas, p. 474)

Aben-Hamet's love turned te hatred, turns again to

leve near the end of the play. When Boabdil angrily accuses

Zorayma of having been unfaithful, he pleads with him to be

merciful. Then, after he is condemned to death as an

Abencerraje, Aben-Hamet, in high Romantic form, finds con­

solation in the thought that he and his beloved will die

together: "Merrerei, sim merrerei, sem queixar-me, e mil

vezes bemdicto seja Allah, que na sua bondade me permitte

esta derradeira, esta grande censelacao que nao mereco--a

de morrer comtigo!" (p. 526).

Like other Romantic heroes, both Spanish and Bra­

zilian, Aben-Hamet is a man of great virtues and abilities

who receives recognition from others. As Ibrahim, he was

the richest, most valiant, most generous, and most beloved

of the Abencerrajes (pp. 406, 409). Since he has assumed

the guise of Aben-Hamet, he has fought bravely and spirit­

edly against the Christians and has won the friendship of

Boabdil by saving his life in battle (p. 420).

In spite of his unknown origins, Boabdil appreci­

ates Aben-Hamet's true nobility of character:

149

Aben Hamet

Sabeis donde venho? que fade e e meu? sabeis mesmo quem sou?

Boabdil

ts meu amige:— e mais que importa? Nascesses embora em uma cabana e de pais mendiges, tens um coracae de rei. (p. 420) ^

Boabdil is so confident of Aben-Hamet's integrity, in fact,

that he entrusts to him the difficult duty of defending his

honor when he learns that Zorayma plans to meet at midnight

with an unknown soldier. Although, of course, it is real­

ly Aben-Hamet himself who has arranged the meeting with

Zorayma, the king's confidence is not in vain since Aben-

Hamet allows Alhamur te persuade him that it is wrong to

betray the trust for the sake of vengeance.

In the final scenes of the play, Aben-Hamet displays

great generosity and a sense of justice as he confronts

Boabdil at the time of the execution of the Abencerrajes.

He generously upholds the innocence of Zorayma against

Boabdil's wrath (p. 522), and he expresses a sense of moral

outrage en learning that Boabdil is murdering all the Aben­

cerrajes because he suspects that one has dishonored him.

Because of his sense of outrage, he feelsr compelled to re­

veal that he tee is an Abencerraje and to beg te be allowed

te die along with the rest (p. 523).

Aben-Hamet is also an unfortunate figure and a vic­

tim of a hostile destiny. References to his role as an

unfortunate one appear from time to time both in his own

150

words and in those of other characters. For example, when

Alhamur recognizes him as Ibrahim, Aben-Hamet replies as

follows: "Ibrahim morreu!—Se em algum tempo te fui care,—

se alguma lembran9a te ficou desse desgra9ade Abencerraje,

esque^a-te esse neme" (pp. 40 5-4 06). Later, while Zorayma

waits for Aben-Hamet to come meet her in Act Two, Scene One,

she soliloquizes concerning how unhappy he must be if he

remembers his love for her and that better time of their

youthful innocence: "Desditoso! come nao ser£ terrivel a

sua desesperac^ae, si ainda censerva lembran9as d'aquelle

tempo de innocencia e venturas, que juntos passamos, se

ainda sente por mim aquelle amor tao grande que se nao devera

acabar nunca!" (p. 431). After Aben-Hamet renounces his

much desired revenge against Zorayma, Alhamur expresses

sympathy ("desditoso amige"), and Aben-Hamet agrees: "Bem

desditoso, sim" (p. 471).

Especially in the earlier part of the Play Aben-

Hamet speaks with frequently concerning a superior force

which he believes te be shaping the events of his life and

to be leading him to seek reprisals against Zorayma. Some­

times he refers te this force in terms of Mohammedan religion

as the will of Allah, and other times he speaks of it in mere

general terms as fade or destine. Many of his references

to this superior force appear in his conversation with Alha­

mur in Act One, Scene Two. There he speaks of the de­

sire which he has for revenge (pp. 407-408), and it seen

151 becomes clear that he regards vengeance as his destiny.

In the past, he says, it was the will of Allah to make

Boabdil's friendship increase at the same time he was be­

ginning to feel greater and greater hatred for the king:

"[Q]uante mais fugia da sua presenga, mais me precurava

elle; quante mais o odiava, tanto maior se ternava a sua

amizade. Eu que vi claramente a mae de Allah em todos os

acontecimentos, curvei humilde a cabe9a, porque ante a sua

vontade que vale o querer dos hemens?" (p. 411). Boabdil

rewarded him for saving his life by bringing him te court,

and in this Aben-Hamet sees the working of destiny to make

possible his revenge: "Vim constrangide, Boabdil elevado

ao throne contra e costume dos reis, nao se esqueceu que a

um vassalle devia a vida; quiz premiar-me mae grade meu,

porque sd assim se pederia cumprir o seu e e meu destine"

(p. 411). When Alhamur begs him te seek permission from

the king to leave Granada, he finally agrees te do so, but

he reminds his friend that there is a stronger force than

human will: "Ha alguma cousa mais forte que a intencao dos

hemens, e a vontade d'aquelle que Ihes escreveu as ac9oes

nos astres em caracteres de fogo" (p. 412). Aben-Hamet

also speaks of destiny in Act Three, Scene Two when he

talks to Alhamur just prior to his midnight meeting with

Zorayma. There, before yielding to his friend's pleas net

te take vengeance against the queen, he first asks Alhamur

to let him struggle alone with his fate: "—Vai—deixa-me

152

luctar sdsinho com o meu fade, quebra a nessa amizade,

separa dos meus es teus destines: se feliz—adees" (p.

470) .

Besides being ill-fated, Aben-Hamet is also fatal

and causes suffering for his beloved. By his persistence

in arranging and carrying out the nocturnal meeting with

Zorayma he arouses the suspicions of Ayxa and of Boabdil

leading to accusations concerning Zorayma's infidelity.

Aben-Hamet is conscious of his role as a fatal man. Near

the end of the play he sees Zorayma in the Patio of the

Lions surrounded by the murdered Abencerrajes. At that

moment he realizes what he has dene and expresses regret

for having caused the queen such great misfortune: "Ver-te

assim entregue nas maes dos teus algozes, e nao ter forcas,

nao ter posses para te arrancar do abysmo onde eu te

precipitei com a minha imprudencia! Oh! Zorayma, sdmente

agora e que posse l§r na serte que te espera quae grande

foi e meu delicto!" (p. 525).

In addition to resembling the Spanish Romantic here

type by being a mysterious person, a passionate lover, a

man of great virtues and abilities, and an ill-starred

figure, Aben-Hamet also displays the usual tendency to­

ward melancholy. His melancholy often expresses itself in

the form of a longing for suicide. For example, in Act

One, Scene Two he tells Alhamur hew, after Zorayma betrayed

him, he sought death in tourney and battle and was unable

153

to find it: "—Justas e teurneios tude affrentei para ver

se em alguma parte encontrava a morte: nao a encontrei

nunca! Na batalha de Lucena tentei ainda morrer, tambem o

nao pude!" (p. 410). In speaking of his vengeance, on

several occasions he expresses a desire te kill himself

after first killing Zorayma:

Quero v^l-a . . . ouvil-a! . . . nao, basta v^l-a: depois—alli--de jeelhes—a meus pes—matal-a, a ella e a mim. (p. 407)

Por grande que elle fosse, verias, Alhamur, verias que fragil barreira me seria a vinganga implacavel do rei, comtanto que eu podesse ter um omento nestes braces— um memento sd—que a podesse suffocar de amor, de deses-pero e de ciumes, e arrastal-a cemigo a presenca de Allah tingida ne seu e no meu sangue. (pp. 467-68)

As he enters the harem garden for the midnight interview

with Zorayma, he tells Alhamur that he must carry out his

fate even if that means death (p. 467), and when Zorayma,

during the course of the interview, tells him that she

really loves him, he wishes that he could be stricken down

at that moment (p. 4 77).

Even though Aben-Hamet displays many of the charac­

teristics of a Romantic here of the Spanish type, there are

also some important differences. One, of course, is that

he is net the principal character of the play as a whole

but only a central figure in a love subplot. In this

respect he resembles Alcoforade in Leonor de Mendonga and

also, as we shall see later, Estevae in Jose de Alencar's

0 Jesuita.

154

Another important difference is that Aben-Hamet

practically has two separate personalities associated res­

pectively with his true identity as the leader of the Aben­

cerrajes and with his disguise as the unknown warrior. The

reader is made aware of both not only because there is

frequent allusion to Aben-Hamet's past but also because

Aben-Hamet often speaks as Ibrahim when he is alone with

other characters who are aware that this is his real iden­

tity. Although there is a blending of the personalities

as the play progresses, Ibrahim appears more as the devoted

lover of Zorayma and the loyal subject of Boabdil while

Aben-Hamet emerges more as a passionate figure who seeks

revenge. The association of Aben-Hamet with vengeance

becomes particularly clear in Act One, Scene Two where the

hero tells Alhamur to forget his former character:

Nao sou mais Ibrahim! Sou Aben-Hamet, e guerreire sem brazdes e sem familia, que ne mundo sd tem um desejo, sd alimenta uma esperanca!

Aben-Hamet nada tem com os nebres Abencerrages. Ibra­him jaz na sepultura do velho Mohamede, nao atraigoara e segredo de seu filho, e e coragae de um amige que tambem nao sera traider—Eu tenhe na terra, ja t'o disse, um sd desejo, uma sd esperanca, talvez uma missao de sangue (Em voz baixa e surda) Centra uma mulher, Alhamur, centra uma mulher! (pp. 406-407)

The divergence between Ibrahim and Aben-Hamet with respect

te loyalty te the king is brought out in Act Three, Scene

Two where Alhamur is shocked te learn of Aben-Hamet's

plans to betray the trust te defend Boabdil's honor:

Se de um Abencerrage me contassem que elle houvesse trahido a confianca de um homem, quem quer que elle

155 fosse—peae ou cavalleiro—rice eu pobre—pederoso eu fraco—nao ou [sic] crera nunca. Mas quando todos praticassem jamais o acreditara de ti, Aben-Hamet, se neste mesmo instante nao estivissem meus ouvidos escu-tando o testmunhe vivo de quae differente estas hoje de que foste noutro tempo. (p. 470)

Gongalves Dias' treatment of Aben-Hamet as a single

character having essentially a dual personality seems te

point te another major difference between the Spanish Rom­

antic dramas and seme of the Brazilian ones. The distinc­

tion between Ibrahim and Aben-Hamet goes beyond mere dis­

guise such as one sees in den Alvare's appearing in Italy

as don Fadrique de los Herreres or in don Carlos' appearing

as den Felix de Avedane, and practically amounts to a sin­

gle character's being two personages at once. The phenom­

enon, though absent in the Spanish dramas, recurs, as I

shall point out later, in the Brazilian play, A vez do

page by Bernardo Guimaraes.

If Aben-Hamet resembles the Spanish Romantic hero

in many important respects, the king, Boabdil, has much in

common with some of the villains. The similarities ex­

tend both te roles and to character traits. Like Fernan

Perez of Larra's Macias, for example, Boabdil emerges as

a jealous husband bent en vengeance against his rival and

his spouse. Also, like don Nuno of Garcia Gutierrez' El

trovador, he appears as an authority (in this case, as the

exalted authority of king) who uses his power arbitrarily

for personal ends.

156

Boabdil's jealousy is first aroused by Ayxa's tell­

ing him that she has overheard Zorayma arranging to meet

the unidentified soldier at midnight. Reacting te this

news, he reveals the intensity of his feeling in a solilo­

quy in Act Two, Scene Eight:

Trahir-me—e absurdo! impossivel! Parece que a tinha neste memento diante de mim, que a veje qual sempre a vi formosa e deslumbrante, pura nas palavras, meiga nes olhos, dece nes movimentos, a encantar-me, a arroubar-me com a sua modesta singeleza! A f4 que eu tinha em seu amor: a tranquilidade, o descango, a placidez que eu desfructava a seu lade, esses nao voltam mais! Nao voltam, nao! — E era de outre! toda de outre! era, sim, que de outre mode como pederia eu soffrer tanto! Eu dormia descuideso em seu regage sem que a sembra de uma suspeita me corresse o pensamento! era feliz perque amava,—feliz perque acreditava em seu amor! Agora me esta ca dentre esta suspeita a torturar-me o coracae! Nenhuma certeza tenhe, nao creio, duvido ainda, mas a duvida—eis o que mata!—E nao hei de vingar-me! Aca-bem-se estas suspeitas,—merra embora o meu amor; perem o vil me ultraja, acabe, merra tambem!—Hei de saber quem seja, hei de alcangal-e ainda que se esconda nas entranhas da terra.—e quando eu e colher as maes, quando e tiver em meu peder,--quando Ihe puder contemplar as feicdes, e ler nellas a sua vileza! . . . Oh! minha vin-gan ia, perque tardas tanto?! (pp. 4 56-57)

To effectuate his revenge, Boabdil charges Aben-

Hamet to go to the garden that night and to capture anyone

whom he happens to find there. In doing so he is exercis­

ing his royal authority in arbitrary fashion. He specifi­

cally rejects Aben-Hamet's suggestion, for example, that he

submit the matter to his judges according to the normal

procedure, saying that he himself is responsible for jus­

tice in the realm (pp. 457-58).

Later Boabdil's fears are temporarily put aside

because Aben-Hamet reports that he did not see Zorayma in

157 the garden, but, eventually, revelations of Ayxa's proteg^,

Muley Hassan, who was also in the garden at the time, and

who was arrested by Aben-Hamet, arouse his jealousy anew.

Muley Hassan asserts that he saw some Abencerrajes in the

garden and that he heard Zorayma talking to a man of love.

He furthermore produces one of the queen's veils as evidence

of the truth of what he is saying. Boabdil's reaction en

this occasion is extreme. Seizing upon the possibility

that the man who dishonored him was an Abencerraje, he

orders the mass killing of an entire noble family.

Besides being a jealous husband and a cruel and

unscrupulous authority, Boabdil also resembles seme of the

Spanish villains in having a choleric temperament, in being

arrogant, and in sometimes showing weakness and vacillation.

Boabdil shows his cheler throughout the play as he repeat­

edly reacts with anger te matters which displease him.

At the end of Act One he orders a holy dervish seized for

preaching te him concerning his failure to defend his empire

against the Christians. Following Ayxa's revelation that

she has overheard Zorayma speaking to a strange man, he

explodes with rage:

E nao tremestes, Senhora, de vir dar semelhante noticia sem me efferecerdes no mesmo instante large paste a mi-nha vinganga! E dizeis que sois minha mae, que velais sobre mim, que velais sobre a minha tranquilidade! Um homem ne meu serralho! ves e ouvistes, e nao chamastes OS meus guardas, nao fizestes arrombar as pertas, nao o assassinastes! Certe que eu vol-e agradecera^ e vindes fria e calculadamente atermentar-me, quando nao posse adivinhar quem seja o infame que assim me ultraja, quando nao me vale ser rei para vingar-me! (p. 4 53)

158

After Muley Hassen shows him the veil and mentions what he

has seen and heard in the harem garden, he delivers a scath­

ing attack atainst the Abencerrajes:

Que fazia um Abencerrage nos jardins do meu serralho, e que eutro a nao ser dessa tribu ediosa, teria a audacia de levantar tao alto es olhos, e de so encontrar cemigo! —-Os Abencerrages conhego-es pelo genie turbulento, fac-ciose, promptos a cemetterem emprezas, e a tratarem amo­res nos desturbios da guerra. Miseraveis, que se pre-claman descendentes dos reis, e que obedecem come escra-ves!—por muito es soffro! (p. 504)

Boabdil's arrogance is especially evident in Act Four,

Scene Ten where he refuses te listen to Muley Hassan's ob­

jections te his plan to murder the Abencerrajes but instead

counters with a simple order to obey (p. 508). He dis­

plays vacillation, for example, in Act One in his dealings

with the dervish, whom he first orders seized as a criminal

and then orders released as a person of unbalanced mind.

Although Boabdil has many of the characteristics of

the villains in the Spanish Romantic dramas, like dem Jaime

in Leonor de Mendonga, he differs from them in that he is

mere fully developed psychologically. Gongalves Dias'

more complete psychological explanation of Boabdil's deter­

mination to murder the Abencerrajes. In his determination

te kill the Abencerrajes, Boabdil net only is acting out

of jealousy against a rival in the manner of Fernan P^rez

in Macias or don Nuno in El trovador, but also he is re­

acting against the domination of his everbearing mother,

Ayxa. The part which reaction against Ayxa's domineering-

159 ness plays in motivating him is brought out clearly at the

beginning of Act Five where Boabdil turns on Ayxa after she

tries to stop him from carrying out his design:

Basta: festes vds quem solicita pela minha henra lan^astes mae de tude para me cenvencer da minha verge­nha: festes vds quem com os vesses desveles pela minha felicidade nao cessaveis de clamar a todo o memento nos meus ouvidos que eu era rei e trahido! - Acerdastes e leao que dormia: eil-o agora de crinas irrigadas; tremei, mas nao deveis queixar-vos. (p. 514)

Boabdil, like Dem Jaime, also differs from the

Spanish villains in having a role of far greater importance

in the total structure of the play. While he is the vil­

lain of the leve plot, he is the leading character of the

larger drama involving the power struggle with Ayxa and

the downfall of Granada. Through his depiction of Boab­

dil, Gongalves Dias portrays a man bringing about his own

destruction and that of his countrymen. Out of jealousy

and out of rebellion against the mother who attempts te

warn him of the consequences of his acts, he fails to de­

fend his kingdom and, at the close of the play, a tragic

end for both himself and his people is clearly inevitable.

Indianist Drama

The dramas of Gongalves Dias, with their inspira­

tion in European history, lie somewhat outside the main­

stream of Brazilian Romanticism. Brazilian Romantic

literature as a whole tends to emphasize nationalistic

elements. There is a marked desire on the part of

160

Brazilian Romantic authors to create an independent Brazil­

ian literature based on the treatment of local subjects.

Nationalism sets Romanticism in Brazil somewhat

apart from European Romanticism, including that of Spain,

but the separation is never complete. As Candido points

out (pp. 14-16), it is characteristic of Brazilian Romantic

literature to combine nationalism with Romanticism properly

speaking and to utilize European tradition in the portrayal

of national themes.

One of the favorite themes of Brazilian Romanticism

is that of the Indian. Indianism is related to national­

ism since it represents the search for the authentically

Brazilian (Candido, p. 18). During the Romantic period,

besides serving as the inspiration for some of the finest

poetry of Gongalves Dias and for the well known novels of

Jose de Alencar, O guarani and Iracema, Indianism also ent­

ers the theater.

In the theater, as in ether genres. Romantic writ­

ers, shewing the tendency to combine nationalism and Euro­

pean tradition, are apt te portray Indian protagonists who

are idealized and Eurepeanized (Candido, pp. 18-20). While

these protagonists display superficial differences from the

heroes of the Spanish dramas and of the European-style

dramas of Gongalves Dias (evident, for example, in their

carrying bows and tacapes^ and in their alluding to Indian

deities such as Tupa and Anhanga ), and while they have

161 a longing for a somewhat different sort of vengeance from

what Spanish heroes seek, in essence they are really quite

similar. Like these other heroes, they emerge as outcasts,

lovers, rebels, and men of outstanding physical qualities

and moral attributes. Moreover, they are mysterious and

often display traits of sensitivity, self-preoccupation

and melancholy.

The influence of European tradition en the Indianist

theater, evident in the portrayal of the native protagon­

ists, is even more apparent in the development of villains.

The villains in the Indianist dramas are the familiar ty­

rannical fathers, jealous rivals, and unscrupulous authori­

ties whom we have seen before.

Cobe

One of the most interesting examples of Indianist

drama is Cobe by the novelist, Joaquim Manuel Macedo. Set

in Rio de Janeiro in the early years of the colonial period,

this play, which was written in 1852 and first performed in

12

1859, treats the internal struggle within Cobe, a defea­

ted Tamoyo chief, between revenge and leve for Branca, the

daughter of his Portuguese master, Dem Rodrigo. By way of

a subplot in a mere traditional Romantic vein, it also

develops the conflict between Branca's leve for the unknown

adventurer, Estacio, and her father's desire te have her

married to the Portuguese nobleman, Dem Gil da Cunha.

In Cobe Macedo portrays a native protagonist who

"-^TO*- •

u *. -^ ^. ^ 162

has traits which resemble those of ether Romantic heroes in

Spanish and Brazilian plays. As an Indian in Portuguese

colonial society Cobe is an outcast. Formerly an exalted

chief, at the time of the drama, he appears as a lowly

slave in the household of Dem Rodrigo.

Even though he is an outcast, however, Cobe is a

man of great physical prowess and outstanding moral attri­

butes. He is handsome, strong, and agile. He is a fierce

fighter who is respected by friend and foe alike for his

warlike skill. He is noble in character and thoroughly

honorable. He refuses to betray a secret or to abandon 13 his Tamoyo people to fight for the Portuguese.

Like other Romantic heroes, Cobe is a dedicated

lover. He expresses willingness te face any danger and to

make any sacrifice for his Branca:

fi certe, euvi: com esse amor de chammas Com esse amor agreste e desabrido Que nes ermes accende a natureza. Eu me abrase, senhora; per quem amo Nao ha . . . nao ha perigo que me espante,

Sacrificio nao ha a que eu recue. (p. 265)

Because of his leve he remains voluntarily enslaved and ul­

timately abandons all thought of escaping te fight for the

Tamoyos. In the end he decides to kill himself for the

sake of leve, but before he dies, he avenges Branca by

stabbing her tormentor, Dem Gil da Cunha.

As a lover, Cobe is ill-starred. Because he is

an Indian and a slave, he is separated socially from Branca

and can never hope to see his love fulfilled. He alludes

163

to this situation indirectly in Act Two, Scene Two where he

tries to insinuate his affection to Branca. There he says

love without hope is the worst thing which a human may have

to endure (p. 260) , and then he goes en, at length, te exp­

ress sympathy for the point-ef-view of the man whom destiny

separates from a beloved:

E o desgracado? . . . pesaes bem, senhora. Seus martyrios crueis? . . Ao desgracado O amor e um flagello, e a vida um peso! A mulher que idolatra, e seu tormente; Junto d'ella sd bebe atro veneno; E e infeliz de continue a esta seguinde Por toda parte, e em toda parte esbarra Com a dita alheia e a miseria propria! Ah! senhora, quando elle apenas ousa Erguer timido elhar, sorrindo n'alma, Aes pes do care objecto, mil mancebos, Tao altos come ella, ve que a cercae E Ihe off'recem de amor ternos protestes. Que vem sear do misere aes ouvidos. Ne sarao a mae d'elles toca a d'ella, Seus vestidos se regam, se cenfunde 0 ar, que elles respiram, ledos brincam . . . Gracejam . . . mutuamente trocam rises . . . Ah! nao, senhora, nao! ninguem cempr'ende 0 que se soffre entae, sem ter soffride Tambem martyrie igual: dentre do peito 0 pobre coragae quasi que estala! Tude e negro na vida: e dia . . . a neite Tem e mesmo tormente a toda a hora. Se no leito, um instante, em fugaz senhe Elle consegue o que acordado almeja, E um acase feliz Ihe off'rece a posse Da mulher que idolatra, a mae terrivel De um genie malfeiter vem sacudil-o, Accerdal-e e ferir brade sinistro Que ne future echda "Nunca! . . . nunca! . . . Impossivel! Oh! nunca! . . ." E o seu senhe Em funesto pezar prompto se torna. De dia, se elle a segue, se atermenta: Cada encante que ve e novo golpe,^ Pels ve e que ama e o que gozar nao pode! Se Ihe foge, suspira longe d'ella.^ Quer distrahir-se, e em seu amor sd cuida. Oh! e jamais, senhora, uma esperanca: Na solidae, n'um ermo, em toda parte

164 Esse praguento brade vem soar-lhe; Nao ha silencio . . . nao . . . em toda parte O destine Ihe diz: "Nunca! impossivel! . . . " Ninguem falla, senhora, e e miserande Ouve sempre o clamor de desengano!!! (pp. 262-63)

In spite of the circumstances which separate him

from Branca, however, Cobe persists in his amorous passion,

and because of his persistence he is a rebel. He is also

rebellious in that other aspect of his being which stands

in contrast with his love, namely, his desire for vengeance

By wishing to oppose Portuguese rule, he is setting himself

in opposition te a powerful force, an "establishment,"

which cannot be challenged with impunity.

Cobe also resembles representatives of the Romantic

hero type in Spanish and earlier Brazilian dramas in seme

of his psychological traits. He has an admirable sense

of pride. He is aware of his superiority over his Portu­

guese captors and does net hesitate te assert it:

Nome de escravo per querer tolero, Nao me attribula a condigae portanto. Pensaes, senher, que a forga aqui persisto? . . . Ah! . . . e OS bosques? . . . e a natureza immensa . . E essas nebres montanhas orgulhosas Qu'inda de vesses pes virgens se applaudem? . . . Qual de vds eusaria ir la buscar-me, Se eu quizesse escapar de vesses ferros? Com minha agilidade de tamoyo, Como uma setta foge do arce adunco A vesses olhos rapido fugira; Atravessande selvas e torrentes 0 pincare da serra galgaria; Entae aes ramos d'arvore prendende A rede leve do feliz selvagem. La de cima . . . embalade pelos ventos, Pelo bramir do tigre festejade, Sobre a minha cabega o sol brilhande Vds outros pelas praias espalhados.

165 Se pudesseis, v§r-me-ieis nobre, altivo, Orgulhoso no cume da montanha, Como se eu fdra o rei da natureza; E vos elhande, ao muito, eu julgaria V^r pelos valles rastejantes vermes. Se eu quizesse fugir, e ser-vos care! . . . Pagar-vos uma a uma as heras tedas De minha escravidae! . . . perem . . . eu beijo Os ferros de meus pulses! . . . desgracado De quem eusar quebrar estes meus ferros! . . . (pp. 240-41)

He is preoccupied with his own emotions and often indulges

in long monologues in which he speaks of his love and his

desire for vengeance. He is given te melancholy thoughts

and to longing for death. In Act Two, Scene Two, for

example, he tells Branca that the world is full of wrongs

(p. 26 0) and says that he suffers but that his suffering

is sweet (p. 261). In Act One, Scene Five he welcomes

the mortal punishment which he anticipates as a result of

his refusal to fight for the Portuguese ("Cede e castige

seguira meu crime: / Severa punigae . . . talvez a morte

. . . / Ah! senher mas a morte 4 paz eterna . . ." [p.

243]), and in Act Three, Scene Five he is unconcerned

about the fatal consequences which may come from his cri­

ticizing Dem Gil: "Que o bem maior que espere e sd* a

morte; / E quem despreza a vida e mais que bravo . . . "

(p. 293).

The villains in Cob^ are Dem Rodrigo and Dem Gil

da Cunha. Dem Rodrigo is a tyrannical father who close­

ly resembles characters in Spanish drama such as the

Marques de Calatrava in Don Alvaro as well as stern

fathers in Brazilian drama such as Coelho de Sousa in

166 A voz do paq^, to be discussed later. He is a vain

nobleman whose chief concern is te marry his daughter to

a man who will exalt her standing. He is totally scorn­

ful of the unknown Estacio and is indifferent to the

feelings of Branca as Branca herself makes clear in a

scene in which she speaks to her servant and confidante,

Valentina:

Branca

Frio, austere come ^, eu temo tude . . .

Valentina

Agigantaes, senhora, as vessas penas; 0 senher d. Rodrigo ves estima.

Branca

Mais estima seus titules de nobreza; E nunca querera dar sua filha Ao pobre Estacio, um simples cavalleiro. (p. 256)

He is cruel, and when Branca resists the marriage which

he proposes for her, he orders it:

Nao serei um pae tao fraco Que esque9a meus direitos, p'ra dobrar-me Ao que me diz a voz da inexperiencia. Devem es nebres dar exemplo ao pove, Devem aes paes obedecer es filhos. Dem Gil e ja teu neive, e dentre em pouce Teu marido sera, assim t'o ordeno.

(p. 276)

Like Dem Rodrigo, Dem Gil da Cunha is a vain

aristocrat. Both in his relation to Cobe and in his

relation to Estacio he appears in roles typical of vil­

lains in Spanish and ether Brazilian Romantic dramas.

He is a representative of governmental authority who is

167 responsible for the capture of Cobe, and he is the rival of

Estacio for the hand of Branca.

Not only does Dem Gil emerge in roles which are

typical, but also he displays many of the usual character

traits. As a rival he is very jealous. He is thoroughly

scornful of Estacio, and if Estacio is successful, he in­

tends to seek vengeance both against him and against Branca:

Dentre do coragae ser-me-a traidera Per um desconhecide aventureiro, Despreza extremes de um fidalgo illustre. Tenhe por meu rival quem me nao vale; E se eu triumpho aes p^s de sacerdote N'alma d'aquella ingrata elle triumpha! Miseravel! . . . se acase da vinganga Seasse a hora para mim . . . come eu sobera Appreveitar-me d'ella! . . . acceso em edio, (Sou capaz de o fazer: s6e essa hora!) Acceso em edio Ihe rasgara o peito; E e moribundo vira cem(D pesam No roste de um vilae pes de um fidalgo; Depois p'ra refinar minha vinganca 0 seu cadaver arrastando eu mesmo A Branca e levaria e Ihe bradara: Eis aqui meu rival! vede-e, matei-o! . . . (pp. 300-301)

He is cruel and unscrupulous not only in his treatment of

Cob^ but also in his relationship with his beloved. If

Branca dees not leve him, he is, nevertheless, resolved to

dominate and possess her:

Oh! barbara mulher, tu me desprezas! Louco te adore, e o meu amor insultas! Pels bem, a pezar teu vaes pertencer-me, Ja que nao posse ser espose amade Serei senher ao menos! Dorme, Branca, Dorme tranquila ainda, que hoje mesmo Ao meu destine presa, escrava humilde V§r-te-ei a meus pes ajoelhada Pedindo compaixae . . . . (pp. 299-300)

T*wr

168 When Branca asks for a few moments to pray before going to

the marriage ceremony, he threatens to use force (p. 338).

His determination to coerce his beloved recalls the atti­

tude of don Rodrigo de Azagra in Hartzenbusch's Los amantes

de Teruel.

All in all, Cobe is of interest because it demon­

strates the success with which Brazilian Romanticism adapts

European tradition te the treatment of native subjects in

the theater. Cobe is an Indian but a Eurepeanized one.

While he has a desire for vengeance and a feeling of hope­

lessness on loving a Portuguese lady which arise out of

conditions in colonial Brazil, he is developed in the ideal­

ized manner of the Romantic heroes in Spanish dramas and in

the dramas of Gencalves Dias. The villains, moreover, who

are set in contrast te Cobe fit definitely within the old

world mode and resemble very closely the tyrannical fathers

and jealous rivals of the Spanish Romantic plays.

A voz de page

Another example of the Indianist drama is A vez de

page by Bernardo Guimaraes, who is better known as a writer

of prose fiction and as a poet. This play, which was not

published during the author's lifetime, represents Guima-14

raes' only theatrical piece ever to be printed.

The work is set in Pernambuce in the late sixteenth

century and refers to the first attempts of the Portuguese

to colonize Paraiba, a dependency of Pernambuce then m the

169 possession of the Potigear Indians. It treats a conflict

within the Potigear captive, Henrique, between the desire

to avenge his people and love for Elvira, daughter of the

capitae-mor, Coelho de Sousa. In his dilemma, Henrique is

very much influenced by a page or Indian priest who preaches

revenge. The action, moreover, is made more complicated

because of Coelho de Sousa's insistence that Elvira marry

the Portuguese nobleman, Diego de Menden9a.

Henrique, the Indian protagonist, displays many of

the characteristics of the Romantic here type seen in Span­

ish and ether Brazilian dramas. He is a mysterious figure.

At the beginning of the play he appears as a mere servant in

the household of Coelho de Sousa. Neither he nor anyone

else knows anything about his origins except that he was

captured as an infant in the Indian wars and was given to

Coelho de Sousa as a present. Only at the end of Act Two

when the dying Potigear chief, Pirajiba, mentions having

placed a sign consisting of two crossed arrows and a tacap^

over the heart of his long lest son, Jurupema, does Henrique

discover that he is really Pirajiba's child and successor.

Henrique is also a man of great physical prowess

and outstanding moral attributes. He has all the qualit­

ies of strength, agility, and good leeks which the Brazili­

ans wanted their readers oriented toward Europe to associate

with the Indian. He is "belle e grande come e gequitaba,

agil e rebuste como o jaguar." ' Moreover, he is noble.

170 brave, and generous. He has saved Elvira's life from the

attack of a wild bull (pp. 86-87), and he is able to re­

cognize good qualities in Coelho de Sousa in spite of in­

jury which the latter causes him by giving Elvira to anoth­

er: "Tu morreste Coelho de Sousa, meo unico amige; meo

genereso bemfeiter! bem sei que nunca aprovarias e meo

amor, que ate e repellerirei com indignacae, que ves outros,

es brancos, tendes singulares capriches; mas nem por isso

deixareide venerar a tua memoria" (pp. 128-29).

Because of his good qualities, in the role of Juru­

pema, chief of the Potigoars, Henrique receives recognition

from his fellow Indians. In Act Four, Scene Two, for in­

stance, the page alludes te the Indians' admiration for him

as he begs Henrique, who has been imprisoned by the Portu­

guese, te escape te rally the defeated:

Depois que vieste com um vil, quebrar o mais tremende dos juramentes aes pes de uma mulher, os brancos derao fe de nessos movimentos, e cahirao sobre nds de sur-preza. Foi terrivel a matanga, indemavel a carnagem dos guerreiros de Tupa!

Depois de tamanho desastre, fiquei sd, gemendo em vao na minha caverna solitaria . . . 0 resto dos guerreiros, que escaparae ao ferro dos brancos, embrenharae-se pelas selvas, dispestes a ir buscar nes seies dos prefundos sertoes guarida segura centra os opresseres. Ja iao longe em sua triste peregrinagae, atravesando ries in-mensos, empinadas serras, impenetraveis brenhas, quando encentrarao uma grande tribu, que vinha fugindo de igual perseguigae la das bandas de rei dos ries. Sentarae-se a sembra da mesma taba, fumarae junctes o caximbe da paz, contao-se mutuamente suas desgragas, e jurarao amizade e allianga eternas. Ei-los que voltao, occultande cuidad-esamente sua moradia pelo seie mais escuro das florestas; ja estae mui longe; amanha mesmo, se e quizeres, a um sd aceno tee, aqui se acharao. Elles virao quebrar-te esses ferros, proclamarte-hao chefe dos chefes; guiados

171 por ti, voarae ao cembate, e recebrarao a liberdade e a terra de sees paes, ou morrerae a morte dos herdes. (pp. 123-24)

In spite of his outstanding qualities, Henrique is

an outcast who is rejected by the Portuguese because he is

an Indian. Elvira's servant and confidante, Maria, for

example, is horrified when her mistress tells her that she

is in love with the young savage:

Elvira (com hesitacae)

E si eu te dissesse que . . . amo.

Maria

Diria que estaveis zembando. Amas? A quem? Quem podereis amar neste ermo, onde nao vedes senao os soldados de vesso pae, e es Indies?

Elvira

Pels nao sera pessivel amar-se um Indie?

Maria

Que estaes dizende, minha menina? Nem per gracejo quero ouvir de vessa boca semelhantes palavras.

Elvira

E entretante nao e um gracejo, Maria; e a pura verdade; eu amo um selvagem, eu amo Henrique.

Maria

Senhora, per quem seis, nao gracejeis assim . . .

Elvira

Nao gracejo, eu te repito: e a realidade . . .

Maria (com severidade)

Senhora, vds amaes esse indie?! . . . per quem seis, nab m'o digaes outra vez.

172 Elvira (com resolucao)

Sim, Maria; ja que uma vez fugio-me dos labies essa palavra fatal, dir-t'a-hei mil vezes: eu amo Henrique, esse nobre e valente indie, que me salvou a vida, esse indie tao civilizado come nds, e capaz de fazer inveja aes mais illustres e valentes cavalheiros pertuguezes.

Maria

Oh! Senhora, sera tude e que quizerdes, mas nunca deixara de ser um selvagem, um escravo! (p. 80)

In Maria's remarks one sees a clearer presentation of the

racial issue which is only hinted at in the Spanish play.

Den Alvaro, in don Alfonso's scorn of the protagonist in

that play because of his mestizo background.

Coelho de Sousa and Diego de Mendenca are able to

accept Henrique as a submissive servant, but they cannot

accept him as the lover of Elvira. In introducing him to

Diego de Mendenca, for example, Coelho de Sousa praises

Henrique for docility and ether qualities which he judges

good:

Mandarae-me de mime; mime preciese por certe, e pelo qual eternamente Ihes serei agradecido. Baptisade com e neme de Henrique e educade por mim com todo esmero, mostrou-se sempre docil, tratavel e submisso, e per sua intelligencia, vivacidade e^boas qualidades, torneu-se credor da estima e distinc^ao de todos. De selvagem sd tem a cor, a for^a e a incrivel agilidade. (p. 86)

Later, however, when he learns that Henrique is in love with

Elvira, his attitude becomes scornful:

(com angustia)Justo Dees! e pessivel que naquelle coracae tao jovem caiba tamanha deslealdade?--E eu que incauto acolhi e affaguei em meu seie a vibora para me ella merder tao cruelmente o corac^ao! (p. Ill)

173 Similarly, Diego de Mendenca praises Henrique en learning

of his having saved the life of Elvira ("Nobre e valente

indiane, desde ja quero que sejas o meu amige" [p. 87]),

but he severely criticizes the Indian when he becomes over-

zealous in defending his mistress:

Henrique

Sempre por ella darei todo o meu sangue.— (com crescente exaltacao) Senher cavalheire! ai daquelle que tentar reubal-a a minha affei^ao . . . ai delle!

Diego de Mendenca

Basta, denodade indiane; modera esses assemos de tua nebre dedicacae. Ninguem eusara no-la reubar; seremes juncto della sempre felizes; e sera nosso unico cuidado ternal-a tambem a mais ditesa pessivel, tu com tua sub-missae e lealdade, e eu com e meu terne e extremoso amor! (p. 88)

Henrique is a dedicated lover. Although the idea

of vengeance tempts him, as it dees Macedo's Cobe, at criti­

cal points, he always decides in favor of love. In Act

Two, he resists the demands of the page and Pirajiba that

he seek reprisals against all the Portuguese including El­

vira, and he only yields te their will at the end of the

act because he is moved by seeing Pirajiba die. Later,

having accepted leadership of the Potigear cause, he comes

to tell Elvira that he must leave her, but he concludes by

giving her an oath of eternal faithfulness. The revela­

tion by Diego de Menden5:a' s half-breed servant, Juliae, in

Act Four, Scene Three that Elvira has consented te marry

his master provokes Henrique te think once mere of revenge.

•!»^'

174 However, at the end of the play, he again becomes convinced

of Elvira's fidelity, and he is moved by her suicide to

stab himself in order to be reunited with her in eternity.

As a lover Henrique is both ill-fated and fatal.

It is his destiny to be separated from his beloved in this

earthly life both because the Portuguese reject him and

because his own tribe adheres to a creed which demands un­

remitting vengeance against all white people. For the

same reasons it is his let to cause her suffering.

Henrique is very much aware of his ill-starred

condition and often has occasion to lament it. At the

end of Act Two, for example, after he swears that he will

kill every last Portuguese including Elvira, he almost

immediately regrets what he has done: "eh! desgracado!

desgracado de mim!" (p. 103). Similarly, he speaks of

his misfortunes in Act Three, Scene Seven when he comes to

tell Elvira that he must leave her: "Ah! perque vim eu a

este lugar? . . . perque, imprudente e cege, cerri ao vesso

encentro? . . . em vao quero fallar-vos: a palavra gela-se

de horror em meos labies. Em nada posse, nada sei dizer-

ves senao que vos amo muito, oh! mais que nunca, e mais

que nunca sou desgraciado!" (p. 116). In that scene also

he alludes to his role as a fatal man as he urges Elvira

to hate him because their love is cursed: "Ah! porque me

destes e vesso amor? . . . porque me encostastes a fronte

branca e pura come as penas do guara sobre e peito maldito

175 do infeliz selvagem? . . . Quante fora melhor, que me

odeasseis com entranhavel edio! D. Elvira, D. Elvira, eu

vos pe^o por piedade, odeae-me, detestae-me; assim o

deveis; vesso amor para cemigo ^ um crime; um crime, com

que effendeis e ceo e a terra!" (pp. 117-18).

Other references to Henrique's fatality and mis­

fortunes appear in a soliloquy which he delivers while in

prison and in his closing remarks at the end of the play.

In the prison soliloquy Henrique speaks of daydreams which

he has had of Elvira's suffering on account of her love for

him: "Ah! que nao sei come estes terriveis pensamentos

que aqui me fervem de continue, nao me tem de todo apagado

o rise! Ora e a imagem de meo pae, que surge ameacando

ante meos olhos e me brada vinganga! . . . ora e Elvira que

soffre que por mim bebe talvez o fel de infortunio, Elvira

que geme, e que se debate entre as garras de vingativo Em-

boaba!" (pp. 121-22).1^ At the conclusion of the play

Elvira dies in Henrique's arms, and as a group of Potigear

Indians comes in to hail their chief for victories, Henrique

replies to their cries of "viva Jurupema! viva! viva!"

with "merra o desgracado Jurupema" (p. 150).

Beth in his leve for Elvira and in his desire for

revenge, Henrique is rebellious. By loving Elvira, daugh­

ter of the Portuguese capitao-me;V, he is defying the ruling

class and opposing the will of the page. When he thinks of

vengeance, he is acting as a rebel in a socio-political

176 sense. He is seeking to overthrow a powerful race which

is attempting to conquer his land and people.

Henrique also shows familiar characteristics in his

psychological make-up. For one thing, he displays an ad­

mirable sense of pride. He objects to the demeaning

treatment which he receives at the hands of others—especi­

ally ether servants—and often refuses te accept it. For

example, when Elvira's servant, Maria, criticizes his giving

her mistress flowers symbolic of his leve as an action in­

appropriate for a slave, he protests that he is only a slave

out of leve for Elvira (p. 83). When the half breed,

Juliae, advises him against his love, he resents it (p. 89),

and when Juliae informs him of a scheme of Diego de Menden­

ca ' s te have him hanged and to display his corpse before

Elvira en her wedding day, he insinuates that, if Juliae is

net telling the truth, he will have te suffer for it (p.

130) .

Henrique, moreover, tends to be preoccupied with

his own emotions. This self-centeredness, as in the case

of Macedo's Cobe, is apparent in frequent long monologues

about leve and vengeance. He declaims at length concern­

ing his love, for example, in Act Four, Scene One. There,

while in prison, he wishes for death since Elvira cannot be

his. He speaks both in pagan terms of returning to earth

in another form to console his beloved and in Christian-—if

Romantic—terms of being reunited with her in heaven:

177 i^' ^^^^* * * * P^^^ ^^^ estae fechados todos os cami-nJios da vida! a morte e meo unico refugio. Elvira, d mmha adorada Elvira, ja que nao podeis ser minha, ao menos deixem-me morrer por vds! cherareis lagrimas de vesses belles olhos sobre a sepultura de infeliz ameri-cano, e nao o amaldigoareis, porque amaveis. Eu virei do mundo das sembras visitar-vos n'um raio de lua, eu gemer no rame da palmeira juncto a vessa janella: virei consolar-vos, porque sei que nao quereis bem ao maldito Emboaba, e me jurastes nao casar com elle. Essa religi-ao de um Dees de bondade, cujas virtudes tantas vezes por vesses belles labies me ensinastes, nos diz que ha para OS infelizes uma patria melhor al^m dos astres, onde nao tem peder algum o edio e a injustica dos hemens: La, Elvira, um dia nos encentraremos para sermos eternamente felizes. (p. 122)

Henrique soliloquizes about vengeance in Act One, Scene

Four, where he threatens Diego de Mendonga should he dare

take Elvira from him:

Oh! se vos hei de seguir, Senher Diego de Mendenca! ainda o duvidaes? seguir-ves-hei sim, come a on^a segue a presa atrav^z das florestas; seguir-ves-hei per toda a parte com es olhos da vinganca acceses sobre vesses passes.--E quem es tu, que assim ouzaste roubar-me a formosa filha de estrangeiro, a alva pemba, que era o encante do meo besque, o enlevo de minha solidae? Quem? . . .Ah! e que me importa? quem quer que sejas, reu-bader infame, has-de m'a restituir, bem que te custe a vida. Accautela-te, Diego de Mendonga! olha, que nessa senda, em que te precipitas, ebrio de amor e de orgulho, em vez de flores nao encentres senao sangue e lagrimas! Olha tu, brilhante e afortunade cavalheire, olha que essa terra, que esperas encontrar juncada de flores pelas maes dessa a quem chamas teu anjo nao se abre de subite debaixe de tees pes para devorar-te. (pp. 88-89)

Like ether Romantic heroes, Henrique displays sen­

sitivity toward the feelings of his beloved and a tendency

toward melancholy. His sensitivity toward the attitude of

Elvira is obvious in the sudden regret which he comes to

feel in Act Three when she faints after he tells her how

he swore that he would kill her: "Infeliz! . . . quante

7 ^

178

me adera! e eu, ingrate, terei a cruel coragem de assassi­

nal-a?! . . . Nao! . . . mil vezes nao!" (p. 120). Like­

wise it is also evident in his determination te resume his

vengeance after Juliae convinces him that Elvira has be­

trayed him by consenting to the marriage te Diego de

Mendonga. His melancholy expresses itself in a frequent

longing for death (See, for example, the passage from this

prison scene on pp. 176-177 above) and also in the belief

which he utters occasionally that without Elvira's love, no

happiness is possible:

Pels bem, padre: ja que vem com a sancta missao de tornar menos amarges es ultimos mementos de um infeliz condenado, eu t'o agradego: mas vae, eu t'o supplice, vae primeiro levar tuas palavras de paz, e de brandura aquella mulher, aquelle tigre, que me rasgou todas as fibras do coragae em suas garras furiesas; vae ver se amansas os seus furores, dize-lhe que arrependa de sua horrivel traigae, que tenha dd de sua infeliz victima, que venha arrependida o lacrimosa langar-se em meos bragos e reconhecende o see erro, implorar o meo perdae; faze que eu a veja, que a abrace, que Ihe diga um der-radeiro adeus, e Ihe imprima na fronte e beijo do per­dae: faze-me iste, d padre, e eu escutarei as tuas palavras, e merrerei tranquille. (pp. 132-33)

While Henrique has much in common with Spanish Ro­

mantic heroes, he also differs in that he practically has

two separate personalities associated with different iden­

tities. He is both Henrique, the submissive servant and

devoted lover of Elvira, and Jurupema, the vengeful leader

of the Potigoars. This dual personality of Guimaraes'

here, which recalls Gencalves Dias' innovative treatment

of Aben-Hamet in Boabdil, receives particular stress in

?TTf

179

certain passages. In Act Two, Scene Two, for instance,

the pag^ comes te Henrique's prison to attempt to persuade

him to resume leadership of the Potigear cause. He re­

minds Henrique that he is Jurupema, sen of Pirajiba, in

whom the Potigoars' last hopes for vengeance reside, but

Henrique resists in the name of his love, asking the eld

priest to tell the warriors that Jurupema is dead: "Pag^,

nao sabes que a minha cabeca e de patibule, e e meo coracae

6 de Elvira? . . . Vae dizer a esses valentes guerreiros,

a quem e ceo preteja em seus generosos esforcos, vae dizer-

Ihes, que Jurupema 6 do tumulo. Vae te, deixa-me morrer

per ella e juncto d'ella" (p. 124).

The distinction between Henrique's two natures is

brought out even more forcefully in Act Five, Scene Five.

At the beginning of that scene, while an Indian rebellion

is taking place outside, Henrique bursts into Elvira's

room determined to punish the latter for her supposed un­

faithfulness. When Elvira, giving a cry of frightened

surprise, calls out his name, Henrique underscores his

vindictive character in his role as chief by replying, in

a thundering voice, "Nao e Henrique, nao; e Jurupema"

(p. 146) . Later, however, after Elvira manages te con­

vince him of her leve, he once again shows his affectionate

and servile temper as he tells her that he will take her te

the forest and make her his queen or, if she prefers, he

will stay and be her faithful slave Henrique: "Vem, Elvira,

180

vem, corre a meos brakes, vem ser rainha cemigo! Ou, se

mais te apras, farei voltar esses guerreiros para suas

selvas, deixarei nas brenhas e tacape do cacique, pendura-

rei de novo na caverna de page as armas invinciveis de Pira­

jiba, e voltarei ainda a ser e tee escravo, o tee fiel

Henrique!" (p. 148).

The principal wicked characters in A voz do page

are Coelho de Sousa and Diego de Mendonja. The former is

the familiar cruel authority. As capitae-mdr he is intent

upon severe punishment of the rebellious natives for whom

he has nothing but scorn. At one point he even suggests

that it may be necessary to kill every last native in

order to quell the uprising and te restore peace: "Em vao

tenhe nelles feite es mais terriveis e exemplares castiges:

nada os desalenta: sera talvez mister matar ate o ultimo

dessa raga maldita, para respirarmos tranquillos" (p. 110).

Coelho de Sousa is also a tyrannical father who

resembles the Marques de Calatrava in Don Alvaro, as well

as Dem Rodrigo in Cobe. As a high-ranking aristocrat, he

is concerned with obtaining a socially proper marriage for

his daughter regardless of her feelings. Without consul­

ting Elvira at all he simply announces that she is te marry

Diego de Mendenca, and at the time of his death, he makes

her swear te carry out his will.

Like other villains of the tyrannical father type,

Coelho de Sousa is sensitive about matters of honor. In

181

Act Three, Scene Three when Diego de Mendenca mentions that

Henrique loves Elvira and insinuates that he is leading the

Indian rebellion in order to abduct her from her father's

house, Coelho de Sousa reacts with extreme anger te the

stain upon his honor: "Merra de vil mertes o vil traider,

que ousou profanar com seus olhos e theseuro querido de

minha alma: risquem-se para sempre da memoria es seus

services, que ficarae para sempre apagades sob essa hedionda

nodea que os cobre!" (p. 111). Henrique's supposed offense

in this instance further excites his fury against all the

Indians whom he accuses of being capable only of robbing,

killing, burning houses, and dishonoring families:

Senher Diego de Mendonga, demos ca^a quante antes a essas hordas malditas, a guerra, a persiguicao, o ferro e e fogo sigae-lhes ne encalce; nao Ihes dels quartel, nem poupeis a nenhum; o melhor delles e isso, que estaes vende. Nao centente de derramar o incendio, e roube, e a matanga insinuao-se astutos come a serpente, ne recinto de nessos lares, para trazer ao seie de nossas familias o veneno da deshonra . . . (p. Ill).

In a following scene Diego de Mendont^a, aware of Coelho de

Sousa's sensitivity about honor, mentions to his servant,

Juliae, how he stepped short of telling Coelho de Sousa of

Elvira's leve for Henrique:

Pobre pae! ainda nao sabe senao a metade de see infor­tunio e ja tanto se afflige! Que diria se soubesse que Elvira com see vergenhoso procedimente Ihe macula o neme, e Ihe deshonra as cans? . . . se soubesse que sua treslo-cada filha prestitue seus sorrisos a esse misere selva­gem? Nao quiz dizer-lhe tude; nao eusei descarregar sobre see coracae de uma sd vez todas essas terturas: poupemos o coracae de um infeliz pae, se bem que em breve forga lhe''sera saber de tude. (p. 112)

182

Whatever his roles may be, by temperament Coelho de

Sousa is choleric. His tendency to react with anger is

obvious in some of the remarks he makes about the Indians—

as, for example, in the following passage where he urges

his fellow Portuguese en te severe retribution: "Cumpre

prevenir seus movimentos, dar sobre elles de imprevizo an­

tes que se refercem, e descarregar sobre os revoltoses um

terrivel castige, que de uma vez para sempre Ihes sirva de

escarmento" (p. 108) . It is also apparent, of course, in

his reaction te the supposed stain en his honor which

Henrique's love for Elvira represents.

Diego de Mendenca is a vain nobleman who, like

many ether villains in Spanish and Brazilian Romantic

dramas, appears simultaneously in the roles of jealous

rival and unscrupulous authority. As jealous rival he

seeks vengeance both against the here and against his own

beloved. As authority (first as the man charged with

principal responsibility for quelling the Indian rebellion

and later as capitae-mdr) he attempts te use his official

position to further his personal revenge.

Diego de Mendonga's jealousy and vindictiveness are

apparent throughout the play in his desire te execute Hen­

rique and to display his corpse before Elvira. He announc­

es his plan for revenge in Act Three, Scene Four:

(com furor) Fisestes bem em desapparecer da minha pres-enca inselente Celumim! . . . mas nao esperes escapar a minha vinganca! nio; tua cabeca deve cahir come

183

presente nupcial, aes p^s dessa mulher insensata! Se ella o ama, melhor ainda! . . . debrade sera o prazer de uma dobrada vinganca! (p. 113)

Later, he takes delight in revealing it te Elvira:

Parece que pisamos em um terrene solapade pela traic ao . . . 0 indie 5 ferez . . . a vingan9a 6 implacavel. (Carregando nas palavras com intengae sinistra). Quem sabe se e sangue de vesso amante nao sera o primeiro que vira tingir essa terra em que pisaes? (p. 114)

In the final act he attempts te carry out the execution but

Henrique thwarts his intent substituting in his place the

unfortunate Juliae.

Diego de Mendenca is a sinister character whose

generally evil nature is brought out through repetition

of vituperative epithets in reference to him. Henrique,

Elvira, and others frequently speak of him as "o homem

terrivel," "o vil emboaba," "o algez dos selvagens," and

"e accosador dos genties."

Besides appearing in certain typical roles and be­

ing a generally sinister figure, Diego de Mendenca displays

familiar villainous character traits. He is scornful of

nearly everyone. He expresses disdain for Henrique, for

example, when he tells Coelho de Sousa that the Indian

saved his daughter's life in order to destroy her honor

("Foi para profanal-a com see amor maldito que esse mise­

ravel conservour os dias de Elvira!" [p. HI]) and when he

reveals his plan to have Henrique executed ("Fisestes bem

em desapparecer da minha presenca inselente Celumim! . . .

mas nao esperes escapar da minha vinganca!" [p. 113]). In

mmc'-

184

private, however, he also sneers at Coelho de Sousa, criti­

cizing his failure to recognize the passion of Elvira and

Henrique: "Esse velho estava acase cege, que nao lia em

seus olhos sua terpe a miseravel paixae" (p. 113). He dis­

dains Elvira, mocking her pretended fear of the Indians in

a scene in which he confronts her after learning of her

leve ("Mede dos indies! . . . oh! Senhora, ha tanto tempo

que OS cenheceis. Cuidei que ja estivesseis mais avesada

. . . " [p. 114]), and publicly he dismisses the page as a

lunatic and visionary who does not merit attention (p. 14 0).

Diego de Mendenca is also extremely hot-headed in

his reaction te particular events. As I have pointed out

before, in the first act, he assumes a severe attitude when

Henrique becomes overzealeus in his loyalty te Elvira (p.

88). He is furious en hearing Juliae confirm Elvira's leve

for Henrique (p. Ill), and in Act Five, Scene One he reacts

with anger when the page shouts, "[M]orte ao carrasco!,"

while he is displaying the corpse which he believes to be

Henrique's te his wedding guests.

In spite of his cheler and bravado en many occas­

ions, Diego de Mendonga sometimes shows himself te be a

coward. The episode where the page shouts, "[M]orte ao

carrasco!", is an example. Publicly he says the pag^ and

his statement are unworthy of attention: "Senhores, nao

ves encemmodeis . . . cenheco esta vez; e de um velho

indie, que as vezes anda vagande come um phantasma, e que

_ 185

o vulgo respeita come nigromante, eu feiticeiro; seremes

por ventura crean5:as para termos mede de sees ageures? e

um vizienarie, um louco: nao vos d^ isso cuidado" (p. 14 0)

In private, however, in spite of his bravado, he confesses

real fear: "Confesse que tremeria, se fosse pessivel hoje

eu ter mede de cousa alguma neste mundo . . . " (p. 140).

Then he chooses the cowardly way of escape and threatens te

have the eld man hanged: "Mas o vil feiticeiro ira fazer

cempanhia ao traider Henrique; . . . sera mais um dependur-

ade para selemnisar este dia que devia ser o dia de amor, e

torneu-se e dia do edio e da vinganca!" (p. 140).

In short, A vez do page provides interesting mater­

ial for comparison te Spanish Romantic drama and te other

Romantic dramas of Brazil. Moreover, it illustrates well

the tendency of Brazilian Romanticism te adapt European

tradition to the treatment of native subjects. Like

Macedo's Cobe, it portrays a Eurepeanized Indian as prota­

gonist who has much in common with the Spanish Romantic

heroes and with the heroes and hero types of the European

style dramas of Gencalves Dias, and it develops contrasting

villains whose resemblances te the evil characters of these

other works are even mere noticeable. The similarities

would tend te suggest greater attention should be paid this

virtually unknown work by a Brazilian poet and prose writer

of recognized merit.

186 Jose de Alencar, "0 Jesuita"

In addition to Indianism, especially in the later

years of the Romantic period, the nationalistic tendency

of Brazilian Romanticism also brought te the stage histori­

cal dramas treating other aspects of the colonial past.

A good example of a play of this type is 0 Jesuita, which

was written by the well known novelist and playwright, Jes^

de Alencar in 1861 and which was first presented in Rio de

17 Janeiro m 1875.

Set in the late eighteenth century at the time of

the expulsion of the Company of Jesus from the Portuguese

Empire, O Jesuita develops the theme that the Jesuits pre­

pared the way for the independence of Brazil. The play is

a complex one which combines the patriotic theme with a

love plot, a story of mystery and intrigue and a treatment

of the moral idea of the relationship of ends and means

(Almeida Prado, "A evelucao," p. 263. Because of the

complexity of the work, it is appropriate te include in my

text enough details of the plot to form a background for

analysis of the characters.

The main action centers around the person of Dr.

Samuel, a disguised Jesuit vicar general who has spent his

life building a great Brazilian nation and preparing it

for emancipation from Portuguese rule. Nearing the end

of his life. Dr. Samuel wishes te bequeath his mission to

his godson, Estevae. He believes that, for Estevae to

187

fulfill this destiny, he toe must become a Jesuit, but his

desires in this regard conflict with Estevae's love for

Constanca, who is ostensibly the ward and really the ille­

gitimate daughter of the Count of Bebadela, the Royal gover­

nor who plans to execute the order for the expulsion of the

Company of Jesus and te arrest Dr. Samuel. Applying Jesu­

itical casuistry, for a time. Dr. Samuel tries to separate

Estevao from Constanja by persuading the latter te offer to

sacrifice her honor in an effort to repel him, but, in the

end, yielding to a feeling of paternal love, he decides to

allow Estevao's marriage.

O Jesuita shews the tendency of Brazilian Romanti­

cism to combine nationalism with European tradition. The

influence of European tradition is apparent especially in

the portrayal of characters. Although the characters have

a symbolic dimension related te the patriotic theme of the

play, they are essentially European types rather than hav­

ing their roots in Brazilian soil.

In Estevao, Alencar develops a figure who has much

in common with ether Romantic heroes. He is mysterious.

He is a foundling who has been taken in by Dr. Samuel, and

neither he nor anyone else knows anything about his origins

Because his origins are unknown, Estevae is an out­

cast rejected by established society. He refers to his

position as an outcast, for example, in Act One, Scene Six

in a speech te Constanca:

188

Lembre-se, Constanca, que sou enjeitade; nao recebi de meus pais nem a heranca que e mendigo deixa a seu filho. um neme.

A seciedade deserdeu-me; minha familia renegou-me; mas Deus me deu coragem para lutar com e meu destine e vence-lo. (Jose de Alencar ebra completa, IV, 488.)

In spite of his unknown origins and his outcast

standing, however, Estevao is ambitious. In this respect

he resembles Rugiero, Manrique, Marsilla and Alcoforade.

By performing great deeds he wishes to make a name for

himself and te make himself worthy of Constanca. His

ambition as well as his leve for Constanya makes it possible

for the Count of Bebadela te exploit him. He allows the

Count to persuade him to accept a high position in the

Portuguese military and, for a time, to abandon his

protector. Dr. Samuel.

Estevao has a number of familiar outstanding attri­

butes: intelligence, noble character, truthfulness, inte­

grity, pride, spirit, and a becoming modesty. His desir­

able traits are brought out in Act Two, Scene Fourteen

where the Count of Bebadela offers him the military career.

At the beginning of that scene, Constanca remarks upon

Estevao's nobility and modesty: "Ele e nebre e medesto"

(p. 506). The Count also notes his modesty and expresses

confidence in his future: "E meco; leio em sua fisionomia

inteligencia e coragem. Se Ihe falta um passado, tem

diante de si um longe future" (p. 506). The Count offers

and Estevao accepts the sword which was never removed from

189 its scabbard except in defense of a just cause (p. 507).

When the Count inquires about Dr. Samuel, Estevao is too

loyal te reveal his whereabouts. Nevertheless, even his

refusal te do so dees net prevent the Count from continuing

to praise his spirit, as is evident in the following pas­

sage in which the Count speaks first te Estevae and then

to the lieutenant Correia:

(a Estevao) A^sua agae imprudente e de um mancebo de brio: e eu nao posse condena-lo

(a Correia) fi uma natureza altiva e um nobre coracae! Farei deste homem alguma ceisa! (p. 50 8)

Estevae is a dedicated lever. For Constanga's sake

he resists Dr. Samuel's plan to make him a priest. He will

sacrifice anything, he says, except his love: "Exigi de

mim todos os sacrificios . . . meu amor, nao: esse nao

posse dar-vos » » . t dela! . . . " (p. 492). Te earn the

right te Constanca's hand, of course, he accepts the posi­

tion which the Count offers him as a soldier, and ultimate­

ly, because of his leve, he denounces as madness Dr. Samuel's

scheme for the independence of Brazil and his desire to make

him heir te that mission.

Estevae's love is a passionate one. The intensity

of his feeling is evident, for example, in Act One, Scene

Eight, where, thinking that he must forsake Constanga's

leve in order to become a priest, he tells Constanta to

wait for him until death if necessary: "Qualquer que seja

esse cruel destine que pesa sobre mim, qualquer que seja

190

o misterio que me envolve, sd tenhe conscigncia de uma

ceisa: sou livre, dei-lhe minha existencia; feliz eu des-

gracada, ela perten^e-lhe. Espere-me sempre! . . . Se eu

nao puder viver em seus bragos, jure que virei morrer a

seus p4s!" (p. 490).

Estevao is also a rebel who opposes attempts of

others te control his life. Early in the play he rebels

against Dr. Samuel's plan te make him a priest, rejecting

Dr. Samuel's protection and renouncing the vows which the

latter says that he has made: "Confesse a verdade: era o

vesso direito. Chegou o tempo, perem, de reassumir a

minha liberdade. Renege os votes que fiz sem consciencia;

hoje mesmo dexarei para sempre vessa casa" (p. 491) . Al­

though he willingly joins the "establishment" for a time

when he accepts the military post which the Count of Beba­

dela offers him, he later rebels against the Count's de­

mand that he reveal the whereabouts of Dr. Samuel (p. 508).

His protest in the final act against the madness of the

doctor's scheme for Brazilian independence is still a fur­

ther act of revolt on his part.

Like ether Romantic heroes of Spanish and Brazilian

drama, Estevao occasionally complains that he is the victim

of a hostile fate. We have already noted hew he refers to

the "cruel destine que pesa sobre mim" as he bids farewell

te Constanca thinking he must forsake her for the priest­

hood (See p. 189 above). Elsewhere he tells Dr. Samuel

wf--

191 that he has the courage to face his destiny whatever it may

be (p. 491), and he speaks of love as being "essa lei fatal

da natureza que faz pulsar o caracao do homem" (p. 4 91).

Estevao also has moments of melancholy. For exam­

ple, he is very sad after Constanfa repels him by offering

to sacrifice her honor. He feels that he has been betray­

ed, and in a conversation with the novice, Jose Basilie,

and the rector, Frei Pedro, in Act Four, Scene Two, he says

that he could even wish for death (pp. 525-26).

While Estevae has much in common with the Spanish

Romantic heroes, he differs from them in that he is not the

leading character of the play as a whole but merely a cen­

tral figure in a love subplot. The principal personage

of the drama, of course, is the disguised Jesuit, Dr.

Samuel. Estevae occupies a position of prominence only

in the story of his affection for Constanga. In casting

a character of the Romantic here type in a subordinate role

in the total structure of the play but giving him a posi­

tion of importance in a leve subplot, Alencar is using a

device which we have seen before in Gencalves Dias' two

dramas, Leonor de Mendenca and Boabdil.

The principal villain in 0 Jesuita is the Portu­

guese governor and protector of Estevao's beloved Constanca,

the Count of Bebadela. Like most of the other wicked

characters in the Spanish and Brazilian dramas which I have

considered, Bebadela is haughty, arrogant, and choleric.

192

One perceives his haughtiness and arrogance, for example,

at the beginning of the play where he tells the lieutenant

Miguel Correia that he will seek to arrest Dr. Samuel re­

gardless of what others may think in order te shew that a

mere adventurer cannot mock him nor oppose royal authority

with impunity: "E eu e acusarei centra o pove, centra os

jesuitas, contra todos. Nao se dira que um aventureiro

zombou do Conde de Bebadela e lutou impunemente contra a

coroa de Portugal" (pp. 479-80). These qualities of his

are also evident in the scene where he comes to the con­

vent to execute the order of expulsion. There he scorn­

fully accuses the clerics of falsehood, hypocrisy, and

rebellion:

Conde

Quando a hipocrisia e a falsedade se cembrem com e habito da religiao e se abrigam aes pes de altar, e rei deve expulsa-las de temple onde so pode entrar a virtude.

Fr. Pedro

Falais dos companheiros de Jesus, Senher Governador?

Conde

Falo da Ordem rebelde e ambiciosa, que, traindo o Insti­tute de seu fundador e a santidade de sua missao abuso, es Reis de Portugal . . . para conspirar contra a majes-tade. (p. 521)

He refuses to shew respect for Dr. Samuel, but instead

presses for information concerning the secret treasure of

the order: "Hei de humilhar a vessa arrogancia; todo o

peder da ordem nao vos salvara. Revelai o segredo de que

sois sabedor, eu entregar-vos-ei ao brace secular como

rebelde e desobedente as ordens regias" (p. 522).

The Count reveals his cheler on a number of occas­

ions. In Act Two, Scene Fourteen, for example, he irately

accuses Estevae of being a rebel when the latter refuses te

disclose the whereabouts of Dr. Samuel. Later he learns

that Dr. Samuel is holding Constanca hostage to prevent his

carrying out the order against the Jesuits, and he reacts

by protesting the doctor's insolence and threatening to

kill him:

Samuel

[E]u vos esperava para dizer-vos que essa ordem nao se ha de cumprir.

Conde (com irenia)

Quem o obstara? Vds?

Samuel

A Providencia, que armeu e meu brago para punir-vos, se eusardes tentar centra a Cempanhia de Jesus.

Conde

Inselente!

Samuel (Aponta para o interior)

Vede!

Conde

Constanca! (Espante)

Samuel

t vessa filha sim, que ali esta adormecida. Aquele homem que a centempla apertande o cabe do punhal, e um automate, instrumento cege da minha vontade.

Conde

194 E um infame assassino, como vds que Ihe armaste o brago.

Samuel

Curvai-ves a fatalidade! . . . Fostes vencido por Deus!

Conde

Oh! Eu a salvarei! Ainda que seja precise matar-ves com as minhas maes, e roubar-ves ao patibule! (Ergue e punhal para Samuel) (pp. 523-24)

He likewise shews his irascibility in the final

scene following his issuance of an order for Dr. Samuel's

arrest. In that scene Dr. Samuel responds to the order

for his arrest by saying that he is going to Rome, and he

proceeds to declare that, although the Count may arrest

the priest, he cannot step the idea of liberty. Bebadela

responds to Samuel' s statement that he is going to Rome by

angrily exclaiming, "Estais zembando" (p. 536), and he re­

acts to the declaration by furiously shouting, "Impostor!"

(p. 536), and by ordering Dr. Samuel seized.

Even though the Count of Bebadela resembles the

wicked characters in the Spanish Romantic dramas in his

possession of a haughty, arrogant, and choleric temperament,

like the villains of Gencalves Dias, he differs in that he

is much more fully developed psychologically. Net only

does he show negative traits, but also he displays positive

ones as well. All his actions, including the less desir­

able ones, are fully explained se that the reader under­

stands and, to a certain extent, sympathizes. His beha­

vior, unlike that of the Calatravas in Don Alvaro, for ex-

195

ample, cannot always be explained in terms of pre­

conditioned responses te an outmoded code of honor. In­

stead of being solely concerned with defense of personal

reputation, he often acts out of adherence te a mere

admirable sense of nobility and duty. Rather than being

a static character, he is a dynamic one who experiences

internal conflict and change.

The more complex nature of the Count of Bebadela

is brought out in his relations with Estevao, Dr. Samuel,

and Constanca. Although, at the beginning of the play,

Estevao fears that the Count will not accept his love for

Constanca because of his unknown origins, the contrary

proves to be the case. Rather than following the out­

moded honor-code notion which rejects these who are not of

noble birth, the Count cheeses te adhere to the Neo-Classical

ideal that "cada hombre es hijo de sus obras." He is willing

to let Estevao be his son-in-law provided that he make a

name for himself through his brave action. He even pro­

vides Estevao with the opportunity te earn a reputation by

giving him the position in the Portuguese military. While

the Count appears te be motivated in part in this choice

by a desire to take advantage of Estevao in order to gain

power ever Dr. Samuel, he also seems to have a genuine

appreciation for the young man's worth. The former atti­

tude is evident in remarks which he makes with reference

to Dr. Samuel in a conversation with the lieutenant Correia:

196 Conde

Tenhe enfim, o meie de apoderar-me dele!

Correia

Como! Este mancebo? . . .

Conde

Sim! t o unico de quem ele confia e segredo de sua vida criminosa! (pp. 508-509)

The latter is evident in his continued praise of Estevae in

spite of Estevae's refusal to betray his protector.

Throughout the play, Bebadela shews great devotion

te king and country. This dedication rather than personal

vengeance is the basis of his harshness toward Dr. Samuel.

In a situation which brings to mind the determination of

Guzman el Bueno in the well-known Spanish Romantic play by

Antonio Gil y Zarate to sacrifice his son rather than be­

tray a premise made to his sovereign to defend Tarifa a-

gainst the Moors, Bebadela decides to forego filial love

when Dr. Samuel takes Constanca hostage in an attempt te

prevent enforcement of the royal decree against the Jesuits.

The decision te sacrifice his daughter is not an

easy one for the Count. Although Alencar does net give

an elaborate development of his internal struggle, it is

alluded to briefly but clearly in a dialogue between the

priest Frei Pedro and the novice Jose Basilie in Act Four,

Scene One. In a secret interview in the scene immediately

preceding this one. Dr. Samuel has confronted Bebadela with

19 7 the spectacle of his daughter about to be sacrificed and

has given him one night to deteinnine her fate. The con­

versation of the two clerics takes place during that night.

Both remark how the Count left the interview very much

changed. Furthermore, Jose Basilie leeks out the window

and notes how the Count is nervously pacing back and forth

over the same spot in the courtyard.

All in all, Alencar's 0 Jesuita presents an inter­

esting case of the utilization of Romantic character types

in a play which finds its inspiration in the Brazilian

past. Like the Indianist dramas, it is one more example

of the tendency of Brazilian Romanticism to combine nation­

alism with European tradition.

Summary

In conclusion, in major Brazilian Romantic dramas

there emerges a character type similar te the hero in

Spanish Romantic dramas. This character is often a

mysterious person of unknown origins. He is usually an

outcast rejected by established society and an ill-starred

figure, victim of a hostile fate, but a man of outstanding

physical and moral attributes whose nobility of character,

bravery, and generosity tend to arouse admiration in his

peers. He is always a lover and is usally a rebel. His

rebellion may be political in nature, may be directed a-

gainst social norms or the cosmic order, or may represent

198

simple rejection of the domination of others. He is proud,

sensitive to the feelings of others, especially his beloved,

and given to pessimism and melancholy.

In contrast to the hero there emerge certain vil­

lains who likewise shew similarities to the evil characters

of major Spanish Romantic dramas. As in Spanish Romantic

drama there are jealous husbands and rivals who are bent en

vengeance and tyrannical fathers who oppose their daughters'

leve. Quite often these characters are also unscrupulous

authorities who abuse their official positions for personal

ends. While the vindictive brother is much mere character­

istic of Spanish Romantic drama, there is at least a sug­

gestion of this type in Leonor de Mendenca where Leonor

warns against her brothers' anger. Whatever their specific

roles may be, these villains are usually vain aristocrats

who are hot-headed and scornful. They are given te bravado,

but they are apt te be weak and cowardly in action.

NOTES

Sabato Magaldi, Panorama do teatro no Brasil (Sao

Paulo: Difusao Europeia do Livro, 1962), pp. 67-68.

Further references to this work will be given parenthetically

in my text by the author's surname and the short title

Panorama.

Leonor de Mendonga, in Gongalves Dias poesia

completa e presa escolhida, ed. Manuel Bandeira, et al.

Biblieteca Luso-Brasileira—Serie Brasileira (Rio de Ja­

neiro: Jose Aguilar, 1959), p. 695. This scholarly

edition serves as the basis of my study of Gongalves Dias'

leading play. Further references will be te the edition

and will be given parenthetically by page numbers in my

text.

3 In addition to the division in acts and scenes,

Leonor de Mendonga is also divided into quadres. The

quadros are numbered consecutively throughout the play and

usually correspond te changes in setting. Acts One and

Three have two quadres each. Act Two has but a single

quadro. Scenes within individual quadres are always

separately numbered.

' Nancy Louise Duncan Swigger, Gongalves Dias'

199

200

Dramas, Diss. Indiana University, 1969, pp. 183, 200.

Further references to this will be given by author's sur­

name and the title, "Gongalves Dias' Dramas."

Fritz Ackermann, A ebra poetica de Gongalves Dias,

Tr. Egon Schaden (Sao Paulo: Censelhe Estadual de Cultura,

Comisae de Literatura, 1964), p. 22. The original was net

available.

Spellings of the name Patkul are net consistent.

The modern English spelling has a single 1, but the text of

the play consulted for the purpose of this study spells the

name with a double 11_. Here I use a single 1 when refer­

ring to the historical personage and a double 1]^ when refer­

ring to the character in Gongalves Dias' play.

Patkull, in Obras posthumas de A. Gongalves Dias.

Precedidas de uma noticia de sua vida e obras pelo dr.

Antonio Henriques Leal. Theatre (Rio de Janeiro: H.

Garnier, 1909), pp. 274, 279. This edition has been

chosen for the study of Patkull and Boabdil for reasons of

availability. Further references to both of these works

will be to it and will be given parenthetically by page

numbers in the text.

g

Antonio Candido, Fermagae da literatura brasileira

(mementos decisivos), 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro: Livraria

Martins, n.d.), II, 9. Further references to this work

will be te this edition and will be given parenthetically,

201 by author's surname in the text.

9 A tacape is a type of Indian club.

10m ^ . Tupa IS the supreme deity of the Indians.

11, -Anhanga is the evil spirit or devil of the Tupis

and Guaranis.

12

Lafayette Silva, Historia de teatro basileiro (Rio

de Janeiro: Service Grafice do Ministerio da Educacao e

Saude, 1938), pp. 140-41.

13

Cobe, m Theatre de Doctor Joaquim Manuel Macedo

(1963; rpt. Rio de Janeiro: B. L. Garnier, 1863), II, 243,

259. Further references will be to this edition and will

be given parenthetically by page number in the text. 14 <• ~

According to Basilie de Magalhaes (Bernardo

Guimaraes: esboco biografico e critico [Rio de Janeiro:

Typografia do Annuario do Brasil, 1926], p. 205), in

addition to A vez do page, Guimaraes also wrote one other

drama, Os dels recrutas, which is new lost, and started

still a third play, Os cenfidentes, which he never finished. 15

A voz do page, in Bernardo Guimaraes: Perfil bio-

biblio-literario, ed. Dilermande Cruz, 2nd ed. (Belo Ho­

rizonte: Imprenta Oficial do Estado de Minas, 1914), p.

101. Further references will be to this edition, the

only one available, and will be given parenthetically by

page numbers in the text. The gequitaba (or jeguitaba) is

202 a type of large South American tree.

16

Brazilian colonists used the term emboaba as a

scornful nickname with reference te newly arrived Portuguese

who came in search of gold and precious stones. Literally

an emboaba is a bird having feathers down te its tees.

The nickname drew attention to the fact that the Portuguese

always wore boots while many of the impoverished colonists went barefoot.

17

R. Magalhaes Junior, "Sucesses e insucessos de

Alencar no teatro," intred. to Jose de Alencar obra com­

pleta (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Jose Aguilar, 1960), IV,

38. Further references te this volume of this edition

will be given parenthetically by page number in the text.

CONCLUSION

Although there are many important similarities be­

tween Brazilian and Spanish Romantic dramas in their por­

trayal of principal masculine characters, there are also

some differences. With respect to the heroes, one notice­

able difference is that the Brazilian plays develop chara­

cters from a greater variety of backgrounds. While, in

the Spanish drama, with the exception of don Alvaro, who

belongs to the eighteenth century, all of the heroes whom

I have considered are medieval southern Europeans, in

Brazilian theater, Gongalves Dias develops Romantic heroes

in the late seventeenth century Livenian, Patkull, and in

the Moor, Aben-Hamet, and Macedo and Guimaraes bring the

Indian to the stage.

The greater variety of backgrounds of the Brazilian

Romantic heroes, however, is not so important a difference

as it might at first seem since all these characters, re­

gardless of their circumstances, are portrayed in essen­

tially European terms. Other more important differences

may be found in the treatment of the Brazilian heroes.

Whereas in the Spanish dramas the Romantic hero always

emerges in the leading role, in some of the Brazilian

plays, he appears as a figure of secondary importance

203

204

except in the context of a leve subplot. Alcoforade of

Gongalves Dias' Leonor de Mendonga, Aben-Hamet of his Boab-

dil_, and Estevae of Alencar's 0 Jesuita, illustrate this

generalization. Furthermore, some of the Brazilian

dramas, unlike the Spanish ones, develop characters of the

Romantic hero type who have essentially two personalities

associated with different names and identities. Examples

may be found in Aben-Hamet of Gongalves Dias' Boabdil and

Henrique of Guimaraes' A voz do page. Aben-Hamet can be

Aben-Hamet but not Ibrahim. Ibrahim can be Ibrahim but

not Aben-Hamet. While Henrique is totally an idealized,

Eurepeanized figure in the manner of Macedo's Cobe, Juru­

pema, as I have pointed out before, has a touch of the

genuine savage apart from any European concept.

With regard to the villains, seme of the Brazilian

dramas portray characters who are much mere fully develop­

ed than the majority of their Spanish counterparts. Al­

though Spanish villains occasionally show seme positive

qualities, these are never explained and are both less

frequent and less important than in the case of Brazilian

villains. Goncalves Dias in particular goes to great

lengths not only te shew the redeeming side of such vil­

lains as the Duke of Braganga and Boabdil but even analyz­

es and explains the causes of their villainy in psycholo­

gical terms. This technique renders them and their

faults sympathetic to the reader as well as to the ether

^:^'-

205 characters in the plays. Virtually the same claims may be

made for Alencar's treatment of the Count of Bebadela. In

Leonor de Mendonga and Boabdil, moreover, the villains have

a part in the total structure of the play which transcends

their role as opponents of the hero's love. They are

something very close te the leading characters of these

plays and serve as instruments for the author's expression

of larger themes.

The Brazilian plays tend te show a strong influence

of nationalism. This nationalistic current is particularly

noticeable in the Indianist dramas, of which Macedo's Cobe

and Guimaraes' A voz do page are examples. The Brazilians

felt a need te express what was unique in their environment

in terms comprehensible te the European—thus the portrayal

of the idealized and Eurepeanized Indian.

In the theater, Brazilian nationalism also takes

the form of exaltation of liberty and independence. Hark­

ing back to the colonial past, Alencar's 0 Jesuita glorifies

the nation and attributes its emancipation to the Jesuits.

Estevao, a native son of Brazil, is portrayed as the some­

what reluctant heir te the Jesuits' legacy. Gongalves

Dias' Patkull is set in faraway Livonia but carries impli­

cations which extend beyond its particular historical and

geographical circumstances through its portrayal of a here

who is a champion of liberty in the struggle against tyran­

ny.

206

Nationalism of a different sort appears in Gongal­

ves Dias' Leonor de Mendonga and Boabdil. in these two

plays the Romantic hero figures embody Portuguese rather

than Brazilian nationalistic ideals. Gongalves Dias'

treatment of Portuguese material is net surprising in view

of the fact that he received his education at Coimbra.

In Leonor de Mendonga the circumstance of Alcoforado's

being destined te play a role in the military campaigns in

North Africa calls to mind a long-standing notion that Por­

tugal should direct its overseas expansion to the south

against Christendom's traditional enemy, the Moor—an idea

which finds expression in Camoes' Lusiadas where o Velho

do Restelo tells the parting Vasco da Gama that it is fol­

ly te seek foes in faraway places when there is room for

conquest and defense of the faith closer at hand:

Nao tens junto centigo o Ismaelita, Com quem sempre teras guerras sobejas? Nao segue ele do Arable a lei maldita, Se tu pela de Cristo sd pelejas? Nao tem cidades mil, terra infinita, Se terras e riqueza mais desejas? Nao e ele per armas esforgado ^ Se queres por vitdrias ser louvado?

Boabdil treats the Moorish conflict in terms of the fall of

Granada to the Spaniards. This presentation may be con­

sidered a manifestation of Portuguese nationalism, how­

ever, because of a tradition, which finds expression in

Camoes, which regards the entire Iberian Peninsula, "Hes-

panha," as a united whole. The warrior Aben-Hamet is a

20 7

Moor, but, as an idealized fee, he embodies a national con­

cept because he symbolizes what manner of men the Spanish

and Portuguese were able te defeat.

While nationalism is particularly associated with

the Brazilian dramas and has a very direct influence on

some of them, it also appears in the Spanish plays te a

lesser degree. Whereas in many of the Brazilian works one

sees assertion of independence following the breaking of

ties with Portugal, in the Spanish dramas one sees reasser-

tien of national autonomy following the expulsion of the

Napoleonic invaders. Martinez de la Rosa's La conjuracion

de Venecia is set in fourteenth-century Venice, but Rugiero,

as a member of the conspiracy against the Doge, is a cham­

pion of liberty, whose portrayal has implications for nine­

teenth-century Spain. Larra's Macias is a soldier involv­

ed in the struggle against the Moors. By evoking an ear­

lier period when the Spaniard threw the invader out of his

native land, Larra captures the spirit of his own age.

The Duque de Rivas conjures up the grandeur of the Spanish

empire through his portrayal of den Alvaro, sen of a Peru­

vian viceroy and an Inca princess, who appears in the mid­

dle scenes of the play fighting to upheld Spanish hegemony

in Italy. Manrique in Garcia Gutierrez' El trovador is

involved in a struggle for justice in fifteenth-century

Aragon. Control of Aragon is of key importance for Span­

ish unification, and Garcia Gutierrez seems te imply that,

208

for Spain to be effectively united, right must prevail in

this major province. Hartzenbusch's Los amantes de Ter-

uel_, like Larra's Macias, is set against the background of

the Recenquest. Marsilla has fought against the Moors and

has suffered as a victim of their oppression. Through

evocation of a past period, Hartzenbusch, like Larra,

speaks te the temper of his time.

All in all, both the similarities and the differ­

ences in the portrayal of principal masculine characters

between leading Spanish and Brazilian Romantic dramas are

of considerable interest. The similarities point to the

capacity of writers of little known Brazilian dramas to

develop characters within the conventions of European

Romanticism who are capable of standing en their own with

respect te the characters of better known works of Spain.

The differences, particularly these regarding the portrayal

of Romantic heroes of varied background, the depiction of

Romantic here types having dual personalities, and the

utilization in character development of different currents

of nationalism, suggest an ability on the part of Brazilian

dramatists to innovate and te adapt Romantic conventions to

changing artistic needs.

NOTE

Luis de Camoes, As Lusiadas, ed. Frank Pierce

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), p. 107 (canto iv, stanza

c.) .

209

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Plays Studied

Alencar, Jose de. O Jesuita, Jos^ de Alencar obra cem-pleta. Rio de Janeiro: Edit6ra Jos/Aguilar, 1960. Pp. 478-536.

Garcia Gutierrez, Antonio. El trovador: drama caballer­esce en cinco jornadas. Ed. Paul Patrick Rodgers. Boston: Ginn and Company, 19 26.

Gongalves Dias, Antonio. Boabdil, Obras posthumas de A. Gongalves Dias. Precedidas de uma noticia da sua vida e opras peio ar. Antonio Henriques Leal. Theatre. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier, 1909. Pp. 395-530. Cita­tions from Patkull also refer te this edition.

. Leonor de Mendonga, Gongalves Dias poesia e presa esceinida. tia. Manuel banaeira, et ai. HTblio teca Luso-Brasileira—Serie Brasileira. Rio de Janeiro Editora Jose Aguilar, 1959. Pp. 685-736.

Patkull, Obras posthumas de A. Gongalves Dias Precedidas de uma noticia da sua vida e oPras pelo dr. Antdnio Henriques Leal. Theatre. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier, 1909. Pp. 274-394.

Guimaraes, Bernardo. A voz de page, Bernardo Guimaraes: Perfil bio-biblio-literario. Ed. Dilermande Cruz. 2nd ed. Belo Horizonte: Imprenta Oficial do Estado de Minas, 1914. Pp. 77-150.

Hartzenbusch, Eugenie. Los amantes de Teruel, Nineteenth Century Spanish Plays. Ed. Lewis E. Brett. The Cen­tury Modern Language Series. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 19 35. Pp. 125-6 5. Citations from Den Alvaro also refer te this edition.

Larra, Mariano Jose de. Macias, Obras de don Mariano Jose de Larra (Figaro). Biblieteca de Autores Espaneles, vol. 129. Madrid: Atlas, 1960. Pp. 257-96.

Macedo, Joaquim Manuel. Cobe, Theatre de Doutor Joaquim Manuel Macedo. 1863; rpt"! Rio de Janeiro: B. L. Garnier, 1963. Pp. 228-343.

210

IF

211 Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco. La conjuracidn de Venecia,

Martinez de la Rosa obras dramaticas. Ed. Jean Sarrailh. 2nd ed. Clasicos Castellanes. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1947. Pp. 245-345.

Rivas, Duque de. Don Alvaro e la fuerza del sino. Nine­teenth Century Spanish Plays. Ed. Lewis E. BrettT" The Century Modern Language Series. New York: Apple­ton-Century-Crofts, 1935. Pp. 61-120.

Works Consulted

Ackermann, Fritz. A ebra poetica de Gongalves Dias. Tr. Egon Schaden. Sao Paulo: Censelhe Estadual de Cul­tura, Comisae de Literatura, 1964.

Adams, Nicholson B. The Romantic Dramas of Garcia Gutie­rrez. New York: Institute de las Espanas en los Estados Unidos, 1922.

Almeida Prado, D^cie. "A evolugao de literatura dramatica," A literatura no Brasil. Ed. Afranio Coutinho, Eugenie Gomes, and Barreto Filho. Rio de Janeiro: Editeria Sul Americana, 1955. II, 249-83.

Alense Cortes, Narcise. "El teatro espanol en el siglo XIX," Historia general de las literaturas hispanicas. Ed. Guillerme Diaz Plaja. Barcelona: Editorial Barna, 1957. IV, pt. 2, 261-337.

Bandeira, Manuel. A Brief History of Brazilian Literature. Tr. Ralph Edward Dimmick. Pensamiento de America. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Union, 1958.

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