chapter one - University of Lagos

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

The emergence of formal Early Childhood Education in Nigeria could be traced back

to the colonial era, towards the middle of 19th century, when the missionaries

started western education. Those who were associated with the missionaries

enjoyed the patronage of this education. Schools for children less than six years of

age were organised by the wives of missionaries for the children of foreign and

local dignitaries. These schools existed alongside western education in religious

missionaries‟ centres of Abeokuta, Lagos, Onitsha, Calabar, Borno, Warri, etc

(Maduewesi, 1999).

The Nigerian public did not show much interest in formal Early Childhood Education

until after the civil war. The demand for formal preschool education started after

the civil war when there was an upsurge of interest in sending children to nursery

school by parents. Recognising the importance and the demand for this level of

education, the government did not only include it in the National Policy on

Education but also encouraged private individuals in the provision of Early

Childhood Education (ECE). The recently evolved Universal Basic Education (UBE)

policy led to the emergence of linkage schools which serve children of ages 0-5.

Teachers who had varied academic qualifications outside the field of Early

Childhood Education handle the schools.

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Since the formal operation of these schools, an academically-oriented trend has

made its way down to Early Childhood classrooms where teachers are introducing

skills that are more suitable for older children‟s learning abilities to four-year-olds.

This emphasis on academics has led to memorization of facts rather than allowing

children to discover things for themselves (Shepard & Smith, 1988). The

explanation for this academic race could be established in Gestwicki (2007) when

he disclosed that understanding about the importance of the early years in brain

development has led many to believe that it is appropriate to introduce academic

contents and methods earlier to children. He went further to state that today‟s

children are smarter, having been raised with the stimulation of television and

preschools. Parents are often demanding that their children be taught more,

expecting them to read in nursery schools. In addition to the irrational expectation,

classroom teachers continue to report that they have little or no part in decisions

that determine curriculum and instructional methodology; instead decisions are

made by administrators who are influenced by public demand for more stringent

educational standard and by the increased reliance on standardized testing for

decision making. Furthermore, pressure comes from primary teachers who face

requirements for higher pupil achievement and argue that the kindergarten should

do more.

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Consequently, in the mid 1980‟s, there were pleas among Early Childhood

Education experts to move towards a “child-centred developmentally appropriate

curriculum” and away from the “back to basics academically oriented curriculum”.

The rationale behind this movement is the belief that school systems are putting

undue stress on children by overemphasizing academics (Dun and Kontos, 1997).

In the same vein, Shepard (1994) disclosed that The National Association for the

Education of Young Children (NAEYC), an international professional association of

early childhood educators expressed great concern for the downward trend of

events in early childhood classrooms. It condemns too many schools that narrow

the curriculum to adopt instructional approaches that are incompatible with current

knowledge about how young children should learn and develop (NAEYC, 1997).

Their position statement also supports that of Day (1988) who states that,

academic focus has been a common practice in most kindergarten programmes

because of the absorption of the kindergarten by the public school system.

Consequent on this, in 1997, the NAEYC published a document authored by

Bredekamp (1997) in which guidelines for Developmentally-Appropriate Practice

(DAP) was outlined. Internationally, Early Childhood Education has undergone

many changes in recent years as a result of these guidelines (Christian & Bell,

1992).

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Developmentally Appropriate Practice is a philosophy. It incorporates the thinking

of theorists like Dewey, Erikson, Piaget, and Vygotsky as to how children learn and

how success is determined in learning situations (Galen, 1994). A major premise of

Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) is that each child is unique and has

individual personality characteristics (learning styles, individual experiences,

characteristics and a particular family background).

A developmentally-appropriate curriculum can therefore be described as “a

curriculum that is appropriate for a child‟s age and all areas of the individual child‟s

developmental (including educational, social, emotional, physical and cognitive)

needs are met”. Developmentally Appropriate Practice therefore concurs with the

findings of several decades of research which clearly demonstrate that high quality

early childhood programmes produce short and long term effects on children‟s

cognitive and social developments (Barnett 1995). Other educational researches

which strongly indicate that early education promotes intellectual development

include those of Osanyin (2002) and Blooms (1964) which confirm that about 50%

of children‟s intellectual abilities are developed between the ages of 4 and 7.

Research on long-term effects of early childhood programmes indicates that the

children who attend good-quality child care programmes at very young ages,

demonstrate positive outcomes, and children who attend poor-quality programmes

show negative effects (Vandell & Powers 1983; Phillips, McCartney, & Scarr 1987;

Fields et al. 1988; Vandell Henderson, & Wilson 1988; Arnett 1989; Vandell &

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Corasanti 1990; Burchinal et al. 1996). Howes, (1988) specifically asserts that,

children who experience high-quality, stable child care engage in more complex

play, demonstrate more secure attachments to adults and other children, and score

higher on measures of thinking ability and language development. High-quality

childcare can predict academic success, adjustment to school, and reduce

behavioural problems for children in first grade.

Despite most outcome of researches and Piaget‟s theory linking high quality early

childhood programme with positive learning outcome for children, yet many early

childhood educators continue to dismiss these findings and theories to insist on

curriculum content and materials that are developmentally inappropriate for most

nursery school children.

Concern for the quality of Early Childhood Education has therefore placed pressure

on School Administrators to assess and upgrade the level of competence of their

teaching staff. No simple formula exists for measuring teacher competence, nor are

any new methods guaranteed to improve the quality of instruction; nevertheless,

by combining clinical supervision, teacher evaluation, and in-service education, on

one hand, incentive programmes and innovative leadership on the other,

administrators can increase the likelihood of attracting and retaining competent and

devoted professionals in their classrooms.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

There is no gainsaying that those who are involved in Early Childhood Education

should possess the relevant skills and knowledge that properly shape children. At

least, two decades of research confirm that teacher qualifications and skills

significantly affect the quality of care and education provided for young children.

Cost, Quality and Child Outcomes Study Team (as cited by Gestwicki 2007)

confirms that teacher educational level differentiates poor, mediocre and high

quality child care centres. However, Coffman and Lopez (2009) assert that despite

researches linking teacher education and child outcomes, most preschool teachers

lack the qualifications, clinical skills and experience needed to provide high quality

learning experiences for young children. This is demonstrated in the rigorous

academic exercises and teachers‟ instructions that focus only on isolated skills

development which are common practices in most of our nursery schools.

Moreover, in view of the fact that learning materials utilized are limited primarily to

workbooks, flash cards and charts, children‟s problem-solving and higher-order

thinking skills are not engaged. Opportunities for large muscle activities are

restricted to weekly activities because they are viewed as interfering with

instructional time. Similarly, Art, Music and Physical Education are seen as

distractions or special subjects that should be taken once a week or when the time

permits. This unbalance education provided for the children and its consequences

are serious sources of worry for stakeholders of Early Childhood Education. Pifer (as

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cited by Osanyin, 2000) pointed out that lack of good preschool education could in

addition to impairing children‟s development, also be the basis for them to grow

into crippled adults who would make little or nothing in terms of contributions to

their society.

Therefore, the need to assess the practices, knowledge and skills of Nursery school

teachers using a developed and validated Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Observation Schedule (DAPOS) and Behaviour-Anchor Rating Scale (BARS) among

Early Childhood teachers becomes imperative in this study.

1.3 Theoretical Framework

A number of theories provided the foundation for this study. These include Jean

Piaget‟s cognitive developmental theory, Eric Erickson‟s psychosocial theory, Lev.

Vygotsky‟s socio- cultural theory, ecological theory of Bronfenbrenners and

Bandura‟s social learning theory.

1.3.1 Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

Current Developmentally Appropriate Practice is based on the Piagetian theory, in

which the education of the child depends on a match between the curriculum and

the child‟s emerging mental ability (Sameroff and McDonough, 1994). His

particular insight was the role of maturation in children‟s increasing capability to

understand their world. In his words, he said that children cannot understand

certain tasks until they are psychologically matured to do so. He equally proposed

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that children‟s thinking do not develop entirely smoothly; instead there are certain

points at which it takes off and moves into completely new areas and capabilities.

He saw this transaction as taking place at the sensory motor stages (birth to 2

years), pre-operational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11) and

formal operational stage (11 years and above). This has been taken to mean that

before these ages, children are not capable of understanding things in certain ways

and this notion has been used as the basis for scheduling the school curriculum.

The educational implications of this theory are confirmed by Case‟s assertion (as

cited by Pearson Education 2010) that Piaget‟s theory has had major impacts on

the theory and practice of education in many ways. First, the theory focuses

attention on the idea of developmentally appropriate education - an education with

environments, curriculum, materials and instruction that are suitable for learners in

terms of their physical and cognitive abilities as well as their social and emotional

needs (Elkind, 1989). Similarly, Berk (as cited by Pearson Education, 2010)

summarizes the main teaching implications drawn from Piaget‟s theory as follows:

1. Teachers should focus on the process of children‟s thinking, not just its

products: In addition to checking the correctness of children‟s answers,

teachers are not to look at the end product only but must understand the

processes children use to get to the answers. He concludes by saying that

it is only when teachers appreciate children‟s methods of arriving at

particular conclusions that they are able to provide such experiences.

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2. Recognition of the crucial role of children‟s self-initiated, actively

involvement in learning activities: In a Piagetian classroom, the

presentation of ready-made knowledge is de-emphasized and children are

encouraged to discover knowledge for themselves through spontaneous

interaction with the environment. Therefore, instead of teaching

didactically, teachers should provide a rich variety of activities that permit

children to act directly on the physical world.

3. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress: Piaget‟s

theory assumes that all children go through the same developmental

sequence but that they do so at different rates. Therefore, teachers must

make a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and

small groups of children rather than for the total class group. In addition,

because individual differences are expected, assessment of children‟s

educational progress should be made in terms of each child‟s own previous

course of development, not in terms of normative standards provided by

the performances of same-age peers.

4. Piaget‟s view on the role of a teacher can best be summed up in his own

words: “What is desired is that the teacher ceases from being a lecturer

satisfied with transmitting ready-made solutions; his role should rather be

that of a mentor stimulating initiative and research”.

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1.3.2 Socio-Cultural Theory

Current conceptualizations of socio-cultural theory draw heavily on the work of

Vygotsky, as well as later theoreticians like Wertsch. According to Tharp and

Gallimore (1988), the socio-cultural perspective has profound implications for

teaching, schooling and education. A key feature of this emergent view of human

development is that higher order functions develop out of social interactions.

Vygotsky argues that a child's development cannot be understood solely by a study

of the individual but we must also examine the external social world in which that

individual life has developed. Through participation in activities that require

cognitive and communicative functions, children are drawn into the use of these

functions in ways that nurture and “scaffold” them. He also describes learning as

being embedded within social events and occurring as a child interacts with people,

objects and events in the environment.

Vygotsky‟s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major

themes that are important in the development of children.

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive

development. Vygotsky believes that social learning precedes cognitive

development. He states that “every function in the child‟s cultural

development appears twice: first, on the social level and later, on the

individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside

the child (intrapsychological)” (Vygotsky, 1978).

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2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): The MKO refers to anyone who has

a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with

respect to a particular task, process or concept. The MKO is normally

thought of as being a teacher, coach or older adult. The MKO could also be

peers, a younger person or even computers.

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The ZPD is the distance

between a learner‟s ability to perform a task under adult guidance or with

peer collaboration and the learner‟s ability to solving problems

independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurs in this zone.

Considering the contributions of socio-cultural theory to understanding the

development of communication, Adamson and Chance (1998) argue that there are

two particularly noteworthy aspects to a Vygotskian approach to social interactions.

First, it is fundamentally cultural. In that regard, caregivers are agents of culture

who set an infant's nascent actions within an intimate setting that is deeply

informed by the caregiver's cultural knowledge. Caregivers cannot help but view

infants' expressions as meaningful within the human sphere of their own culture.

Infants, in complement, are quintessential cultural apprentices who seek the guided

participation of their elders (Rogoff, 1990). Second, the notion of a zone of

proximal development reveals a pattern of developmental change in which a phase

of adult support precedes a phase of independent infant accomplishment. Each

cycle begins with a newly displayed behaviour, such as a smile, a visually directed

reach or babble. The adult's reaction and interpretations transform the infant's

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emerging behaviour into a social act. In essence, the child induces the adult to

recruit the act for communication after many experiences of supported expression,

the child gradually masters an action that is qualified with cultural meaning. The act

has passed through the zone of proximal development during which the adult has

educated the child in its use.

Teaching Strategies Based on Vygotsky‟s theory for the classroom include the use

of child‟s zone of proximal development, teaching to child‟s upper limit, use of

scaffolding when children need help with self-initiated learning activities, helping

move to higher level of skill and knowledge, using more skilled peers as teachers,

monitoring and encouraging children‟s use of private speech.

1.3.3 Ecological Theory of Child Development

According to this theory, everything in a child and his or her environment affects

the way the child grows and develops. Brofrebrenner divided the child‟s

environment into four different systems. These are: microsystem, mesosystem,

exosystem and macrosystem.

1. The microsystems layer, the smallest of the contexts in which the child is

embedded, is made up of the environment where the child lives and moves.

The people and institutions the child interacts with in that environment make

up the microsystem. Examples are immediate family members, childcare and

school teachers, peers and perhaps neighbourhood play area, depending on

the age of the child; school and religious institutions or spiritual groups may

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be part of the system. The younger the child, the smaller the number of

microsystems. The microsystems are set in the mesosystems layer.

2. The mesosystems layer relates to the interactions the people in the

microsystems have with each other – as parents interact with childcare

providers or as neighbours interact with each other with consequent effects

on the child. The child is not directly involved with the mesosystems, but

nevertheless, is affected by them.

3. The exosystems layer is a wider context as it relates to the broader

community in which the child lives. Examples of members of the exosystems

layer are extended family, family networks, mass media, workplaces,

neighbours, family friends, community health systems, legal services and

social welfare services. Though the child may not have direct contact with it,

the systems affect the child‟s development and socialization because the

people in the child‟s life are affected by the exosystems and mesosystems.

4. The outer layer, called the macrosystems, contains the attitudes, ideologies,

values, laws and customs of a particular culture or subculture. The effects of

a larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence

throughout the interactions of all other layers.For example, if it is the belief

of a culture that parents should be solely responsible for raising their

children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents.This

in turn affects the structure in which parents function. The parents‟ ability or

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inability to carry out that responsibility towards their children within the

context of the child‟s microsystem is likewise affected.

According to Yukti (2010), Bronfenbrenner sees the instability and unpredictability

of the family life we have let our economy create as the most destructive force to a

child‟s development. (Addison, 1992) confirms that children do not have the

constant mutual interaction with the important adults in their lives that are

necessary for development and as a result; they are looking for the affirmations

that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult)

relationship in inappropriate places. This theory calls for parents and guardians not

to abdicate their primary responsibility; as the school will never be able to make up

for the deficiencies; schools will only be able to complement parental effort by

providing stable, long-term relationships. Yet, Bronfenbrenner believes that there is

a primary relationship need to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring

that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a person or

people within the immediate sphere of the child‟s life. Schools and teachers are

fulfilling important secondary role, but cannot provide the complexity of interaction

that can be provided by primary adults. For the educational community to attempt

a primary role is to help our society continue its denial of the real issue.

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1.3.4 Social Learning Theory

Bandura‟s (1971) Social Learning Theory states that cognitive and environmental

events affect each other. This theory posits that individuals learn behaviours from

one another through observation, imitation and modelling. It emphasizes the

importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional

reactions of others. It further states that vicarious experiences (seeing or visualizing

other people performing successfully) can instil high self- perception of efficacy in

observers so that they can feel that they too possess the capabilities to master

comparative activities in learning. Bandura emphasizes that the four conditions

that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behaviour of

someone else are attention, retention, motor production and motivation.

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use. These are:

1. Learners often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behaviour can effectively increase the

appropriate behaviours and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve

discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various

behaviours.

3. Modelling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching behaviours. Instead

of using shaping, which is operant conditioning; modelling can provide a

faster, more efficient means for teaching new behaviour. Social learning

occurs when children observe admirable things which are thus modelled or

mirrored in return. To promote effective modelling, a teacher must make

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sure that the four essential conditions exist: attention, retention, motor

reproduction and motivation.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviour and be careful that

they do not model inappropriate behaviours. To an average learner at this

level, the teacher is the embodiment of knowledge; whatever the teacher

does or says is right. The teacher is thus expected to be a model of excellent

behaviour to the child. It can therefore be said that the quality of learners‟

behaviour is a reflection of the quality of their teacher‟s behaviour.

5. Teachers should expose pupils to a variety of other models. This technique is

especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

1.3.5 Psychosocial Theory of Development

Erik Erikson‟s psychosocial theory of development is one of the best-known theories

of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believes that

personality develops in a series of stages which he categorizes as Trust versus

Mistrust, Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, Initiative/Guilt and

Industry/Inferiority. Erikson‟s theory describes the impact of social experience

across the whole lifespan. Each stage in Erikson‟s theory is concerned with

becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will

feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes refers to as ego strength or ego

quality; but if the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of

inadequacy or inferiority. In each stage, Erikson believes that people experience

http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_erikson.htm

http://psychology.about.com/index.htm

http://psychology.about.com/od/sigmundfreud/p/sigmund_freud.htm

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conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson‟s view, these

conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to

develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high,

but so also is the potential for failure.

Between the Trust/Mistrust and Initiative/Guilt stages, the child develops basic and

secondary virtues. At the age of trust versus mistrust, the child develops hope and

drive (faith, inner calm and basic feeling that everything will be okay - enabling

exposure to risk, a trust in life, self and others, inner resolve and strength in the

face of uncertainty and risk). On the contrary, when a child is always being

discouraged by the do‟s and don‟ts in his environment, he develops mistrust and

withdraws to himself. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief system

that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. A teacher must be knowledgeable

enough to be a facilitator of good virtues. He must be an encourager; he must treat

children with respect, value, accept and treat them with dignity at all time. In doing

this, children‟s egos are strengthened and self esteem is built.

At the Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt stage, he develops willpower & self-

control (self-determination, self-belief, self-reliance and confidence in self to decide

things, having a voice, being one's own person, persistence, self-discipline,

independence of thought, responsibility and judgement). Children who successfully

complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with

a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. During the Initiative versus Guilt stage, the

http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/conflict.htm

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child develops purpose and direction (sense of purpose, decision-making, working

with and leading others, initiating projects and ideas, courage to investigate, ability

to define personal direction as well as goals and ability to take initiative and

appropriate risks). Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and

teachers develop feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive

little or no encouragement will doubt their ability to be successful; and this is the

beginning of loss of confidence in themselves.

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine teachers‟ practice in early childhood

classrooms in Lagos and Ondo States with a view to providing an intervention

strategy to improve teachers‟ competence on the implementation of DAP.

The specific objectives of the study are to:

1. examine the demographic profiles of the Early Childhood Education teachers

in Lagos and Ondo States;

2. investigate the behaviour and practice of the urban and rural Lagos and

Ondo ECE teachers;

3. examine the reasons that account for the weaknesses identified in the

application of Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the classrooms;

4. investigate the School Operators‟ levels of provision of professional resources

and DAP materials in the urban and rural Lagos and Ondo preschools;

5. examine the competency level of the urban and rural Lagos and Ondo ECE

teachers;

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6. provide an intervention package to improve teachers‟ competence on

creating a caring community of learners in a Developmentally Appropriate

Practice classrooms;

7. provide an intervention package to improve teachers‟ competence on

teaching to enhance development and learning in a Developmentally

Appropriate Practice classrooms;

8. provide an intervention package to improve teachers‟ ability in

constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum in a Developmentally

Appropriate Practice classrooms;

9. provide an intervention package to improve teachers‟ competence in

assessing pupils‟ learning and development in a Developmentally Appropriate

Practice classrooms.

1.5 Research Questions

To achieve the objectives of this study, the following research questions were

raised.

1. What are the demographic profiles of the Early Childhood Education teachers

in Lagos and Ondo States?

2. What are the observed behaviours and the practice of the urban and rural

Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in the two states before the intervention

package?

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3. What reasons account for the weaknesses identified in the implementation of

Developmentally Appropriate Practices in early childhood classrooms of the

two States?

4. What are the School Operators‟ levels of provision of professional resources

and DAP materials in the urban and rural Lagos and Ondo preschools?

5. Will there be significant differences in the competency level of the urban and

rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers?

6. Can the provision of an intervention package improve the post-test scores of

urban and rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in creating a caring

community of learners in the Early Childhood classrooms?


urban and rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in teaching to enhance

development and learning in the Early Childhood classrooms?


urban and rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in constructing/implementing

appropriate curriculum in the Early Childhood classrooms?


urban and rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in assessing pupils‟ learning

and development in the Early Childhood classrooms?

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1.6 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated and tested to guide this study:

1. There is no significant difference in the competency level of the urban and

rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers.

2. There is no significant difference in the post-test scores of urban and rural

Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in the treatment and control group in creating

a caring community of learners.


Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in the treatment and control group in

teaching to enhance development and learning.



constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum.



assessment of pupils‟ learning and development.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study is significant in providing useful information to school leaders concerning

the use of Developmentally Appropriate Practice in nursery school classrooms in

enhancing teacher competence.

This study will enlighten every early childhood educator/caregiver on the acceptable

developmentally appropriate activities, programmes, methodologies and language-

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reasoning skills that teachers can use to support children‟s learning with respect to

their mental ages.

It will sensitise all stakeholders of ECE on the dangers of implementing

Developmentally Inappropriate Practice (DIP) which are injurious to children‟s

social, emotional and cognitive development.

The study will sensitize as well as recommend to the government, administrators

and educators the need to focus on specialised training, minimum acceptable

standard of competence and professional development which teachers of young

children require to function effectively on their job.

It will also proffer recommendations to Patrons and Proprietors of schools on the

level of education required of Early Childhood School Operators or Proprietors in

order to provide qualitative and developmentally appropriate services to their

clienteles.

1.8 Delimitations of the Study

This study was delimited to nursery school teachers employed in the approved

private schools of the selected states during the 2008/2009 school year. The

observation of the classrooms‟ environment was also restricted to nursery classes

of ages 3-5. The public nursery schools and their teachers were not included

because they were just emerging as at the time of this field work.

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1.9 Operational Definitions of Terms

The following key terms used in this study have been operationally defined.

Early Childhood

This is the period of life from birth to age eight.

Early Childhood Education (ECE)

This refers to all forms of educational provisions given to children of ages 0- 8.It

comprises of learning through day care centres, nursery schools and first three

years of basic school.

Non-ECE specialists

These are trained teachers who are certificated in other disciplines of Education but

not Early Childhood Education.

Preschool

This is a school for young children below the age at which they can enter primary

school.

Early Childhood Settings

This is a part or full-day programme in a centre, school, or home that serves

children from birth to age eight and their families, including children with special

developmental needs.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP)

This is a practice that is known to contribute to a child‟s unique development. It is

a programme that is comprehensive in nature, developmentally-appropriate for

children so that both age-specific and individual characteristics are addressed and

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designed to meet the needs of children and families served. Programme planning

and implementation that recognizes the integrated nature of care and education for

young children and does not treat child care and early education as separate

programme functions.

Developmentally Inappropriate Practice (DIP)

This is defined as a teacher-directed instructional method that does not value the

knowledge and experience that children bring to school but focuses on children‟s

academic skills to the extent that their cognitive, social and emotional development

are limited or destroyed.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

This is the largest international early childhood professional membership association

for early childhood educators in the United States of America.

Teachers/teaching staff

These are paid adults who have direct responsibilities for the care and teaching of

children.

Teacher Competence

These are professional knowledge, abilities, dispositions, values, and attitudes

regarding child development and learning, curriculum development and

implementation, family and community relationships, assessment and evaluation,

professionalism, and practice that a qualified educator demonstrates during field

experiences and in the delivery of his duty.

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School Operator

This is defined in the context of this study as the personnel (school owner or paid

personnel) who administers and manages the school personnel and infrastructures

to achieve maximum result.

Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale- Revised (ECERS-R) - based on

a broad definition of environment including organization of space, interaction,

activities, schedule, and provisions for staff and parents and through revision of the

widely used programme quality assessment instrument. It is designed for use in

preschool, nursery school, and child care classrooms serving children two-and-a-

half through five years of age. The ECERS-R can be used for programme

improvement; by teaching staff for self-assessment, by agency staff for monitoring,

and in teacher training programmes. The established reliability and validity of the

scale make it particularly useful for research and programme evaluation (Harms,

Clifford, & Cryer, 1998).

Urban areas

In the context of this study, urban areas are those with indices of socio-economic

and infrastructural facilities (availability of good roads, adequate source of energy,

health services) and plurality of culture. Majority of people in this area engage in

secondary and tertiary activities.

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Rural areas

These are areas that lack basic socio- economic and infrastructural facilities. Rural

areas are generally characterised by lack of good roads, irregular electricity supply,

inadequate health facilities and poor pipe-borne water etc. In addtion, majority of

dwellers engage in primary and retail activities.

ADDIE

Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE) is a

systematic step by step framework used by instruction designers, curriculum

developers and trainers to ensure that course development and training do not

occur haphazardly or in an unstructured way.

ADDIEF

Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation and Feedback

(ADDIEF) is an adaptation from ADDIE which is a systematic step by step

framework used by the researcher to design and develop the instructional package

used for training the sampled teachers in this study.

27

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This section discussed relevant evidences on the state of the art by previous

researchers, authors and scholars. Specifically literature was reviewed on the

following subtitles:

Early Childhood Education in Nigeria

Foundations of Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP)

History of Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP):

Principles that inform DAP

Overview of Developmentally Inappropriate Practices (DIP)

Differences between DAP and DIP

Key practice areas of Early Childhood Education

Danger of implementing Developmentally Inappropriate Practices (DIP)

Indicators of Developmentally Appropriate Programme

Benefits of Developmentally Appropriate Practice to children

Teacher competency

Importance of teacher competence

Indicators of teacher competency

Importance of teacher training in developing professional competence

The concept of professional development for teachers.

Professional development strategies

Influence of location on preschool setting

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2.1 Early Childhood Education in Nigeria

The education of the Nigerian child starts in infancy just as in any nation of the

world. Although practices differ from one ethnic group to another but Fafunwa

(1974) confirms that all societies train their children in toileting, eating, socialization

and general behaviour. Children engage in participatory education through

ceremony, recitation and demonstration. Fafunwa also states that education before

the colonial era was tailored towards both physical and intellectual training.

Furthermore, traditional education was all embracing and social institutions were

involved in educational activities which led the individual to acquire behaviour

pattern, abilities and skills necessary for effective citizenship in the community in

which they lived. Traditional education system was focused on teaching appropriate

values, habits and functionality as the child learnt to manipulate things, played with

toys and other objects that were easily accessible to him/her.

Additionally, Fafunwa (as cited by Akinbote, Oduolowu and Lawal 2001)

underscores that African educational objectives for their children included the

following:

to develop the child latent physical skills;

to develop character;

to inculcate respect for elders and those in position of authority;

to develop intellectual skills;

29

to acquire specific vocational training and to develop a healthy attitude

towards honest labour;

to develop a sense of belonging and to participate actively in family and

community affairs; and

to understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the

community at large.

These were before the advent of formal education, when the training of the

Nigerian child was a collective responsibility of every member of the family and the

immediate community.

Formal Early Childhood Education started about the middle of nineteenth century

when the missionaries introduced western education in Nigeria. Initially, it was

limited to the children of the elites but as time went by, the opportunity was made

available to those who could afford it. Those who associated with the missionaries

enjoyed the patronage of this education. Schools for the under six year olds were

organized by the wives of missionaries for the children of foreign and local

dignitaries. Akinbote et al (2001) confirm that these types of schools started as

Sunday schools. Increase in the number of children in Sunday schools made the

missionaries to extend the scope of these Sunday schools to Mondays through

Fridays thereby accommodating Christians and non-Christians. The schools existed

alongside western education in religious missionary centres of Abeokuta, Lagos,

Onitsha, Calabar, Borno, Warri, etc. (Maduewesi, 1999).

30

The 1969 National Curriculum Conference was the very first time mention was

made of formal schools for the education of children between the ages of 3 and 5.

They were to be enrolled in nursery and kindergarten classes to prepare them for

lower primary level of education. This declaration eventually led to the emphasis

placed on the preparatory role of preschool institutions.

The demand for formal preschool education came after the civil war when there

was an upsurge of interest in sending children to nursery school by parents in

Nigeria. Reasons that accounted for the high demand for Early Childhood Education

in Nigeria were: increasing industrialization, absorption of women into work force

and the oil boom of 1980s which made it possible for many parents to afford

preschool education for their children and the scarcity of domestic workers caused

by the introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE).

Osanyin (2002) declares that there is no clear nomenclature for the institutions at

this level of education in Nigeria. They come under various names such as: Nursery

schools, Daycare centres, Playgroup, Kindergarten, Home lesson. However, the four

distinct categories of these institutions in Nigeria are: Day Care centres, Koranic

schools, Early Child-Care Development and Education centres and Nursery schools.

31

Recognizing the importance and the demand for this level of education, the

government included it in the National Policy on Education. The National Policy on

Education (NPE, 2004) states the reasons for establishing pre-primary schools;

among which are to:

a. effect a smooth transition from the home to the school;

b. prepare the child for the primary level of education;

c. provide adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents

are at work ( on the farms, in the markets, offices, etc)

d. inculcate social norms;

e. inculcate in the child the spirit of enquiries and creativity through the

exploration of nature, the environment, art, music and playing with toys;

f. develop a sense of co-operation and team- spirit;

g. learn good habits , especially good health habits; and

h. teach the rudiments of numbers, letters ,colours, shapes etc, through play.

Looking closely at the purposes of preschools, one will realize that Preschool policy

intends to provide for the total development of the child. In order to meet the

needs of this level of education and to encourage full participation, government

undertook to:

1. encourage private effort;

2. make provision for the training of the pre-primary teachers;

3. ensure that the medium of instruction is principally the mother-tongue or the

language of the immediate community; and to this will; develop the

32

orthography of many more Nigerian languages and produce textbooks in

Nigerian languages;

4. ensure that the main method of teaching at this level shall be through play

and that the curriculum of the teacher education is oriented to achieve this;

5. regulate and control the operation of pre-primary education.

The above provision indicates that Government also encourages private individuals

in the provision of Early Childhood Education (ECE). Although, encouraging private

effort can be said to have been implemented nationally in the country, it remains

the bane of preschool education as the private individuals maximize this

opportunity for their economic gains. Most proprietors are professionally

inexperienced thereby lack the adequate knowledge of the needs of children. This

is exemplified in the provision of inappropriate facilities and equipment in the

schools. Some administrators neither see reason for providing outdoor and neither

indoor equipment nor meeting the requirements as stipulated by government.

Handfuls of schools can boast of qualified preschool teachers because of the high

welfare packages that the professionally qualified teachers would demand. Owners

of schools prefer to reduce cost by employing less qualified teachers or personnel

who are not experts in the field: who know little or nothing about children and their

developmental needs. These incompetent personnel continue to engage pupils in

rigorous academic exercise because they lack the skill and experience to facilitate

appropriate learning experience. Scholarly researches confirm that when teachers

33

function in the areas where they have not been trained, they do more harm to

themselves and to the students (Ingersoll, 2001).

2.2 Foundations of Developmentally Appropriate Programmes (DAP)

Developmentally-appropriate programmes are those in which children of all

abilities, ages, races, cultures, religious beliefs, socio-economic status, as well

family and lifestyle backgrounds feel lovable, valuable, and competent (Kostelnik,

1993). DAP is universal and accommodates the needs of children who come from

varied cultural and economic backgrounds, live in diverse family settings, are

bilingual or multilingual and have physical and/or mental disabilities (Galen, 1994).

Although quality indicators are not always labelled as DAP by some authors, the

underlying premise remains consistent with the philosophy of DAP. This is the case

with Rasmussen (1998) who did not specifically use the term “Developmentally

Appropriate Practice” to describe the tenets of a high quality programme; yet, the

characteristics she listed were consistent with DAP - use of experience and

touching, child play leading to child learning and planning based on observation of

the children.

The practices associated with developmentally appropriateness did not emerge all

at once, nor were they the product of any one person‟s thinking. Developmentally

Appropriate Practice has its roots in the works of some early philosophers and child

advocates described below whose contributions laid the foundation for the general

practices that characterize DAP classrooms. They are as follows:

34

People whose work contributed to Developmentally Appropriate Practice.

John Amos Comenius(1592-1670)

He wrote that multisensory learning was more relevant than verbal learning alone.

He advocated that all learning materials must be

divided according to the age levels.

He urged parents to be involved in the education of

their children.

John Locke (1632-1704) English philosopher

He advocated that none of the things that children are to learn should be made a burden to them.

He discussed individual differences among children.

He equally suggested that teaching is best

accomplished through modelling, using praise, providing opportunities for children to practise what they learned, and adapting to each child‟s current capacity.

Pestalozzi (1746-1827) A Swiss Pedagogue and an Educational Reformer

He used nature study as a part of the curriculum and believed that good education meant the development of the senses.

He was pragmatic putting forth ideas and practices

for teachers on educating and caring for the child.

He stressed the ideas of an integrated curriculum that

would develop the whole child.

He wanted education to be of the hand, the head and

the heart of the child.

John Dewey(1859-1952) The first American influence on American education.

Believed that children are valuable and that childhood is an important part of their lives.

Children should have real life experiences and

programmes should be set up so that children are allowed to make choices. (they must learn to live in a democratic society.)

Advocated children‟s learning by doing through

hands- on activities, projects, units and a child- centred, integrated curriculum.

35

Highilghted the value of play

Founded the first –laboratory school to study child

development and teaching through systematic research and practice.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) Italian physician

She emphasised active, self –corrected learning through play and freedom within limits.

She advocated the multi- age class

She designed and promoted the use of

developmentally appropriate educational materials , classroom and learning methods for young children and proved that the children could achieve with proper motivation and environments.

She focused on the sequential steps of learning.

Froebel (1782-1852) German Philosopher

He is known as the father of kindergarten; meaning the children‟s garden, a school for children aged 2-6

He stressed the significance of play and the value of

childhood as a time of importance for its own sake, not simply as preparatory for adulthood.

He created the first curriculum-including a planned

programmed for children to follow, routines,(songs, finger plays and circle time) and specialized objects for children to handle).

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss Psychologist and Biologist

He proposed a theory of stages of children‟s development.

He described ways in which children‟s thinking is

qualitatively different from that of adults.

He emphasised that children learn through

experiment with objects.

Lev Vygotsky (1896_1934) Russian Psychologist

He described the influence of language, culture and social interaction on children‟s learning.

He emphasized the importance of appropriate

instruction.

Margaret Mcmillian(1860-1930) British reformer and teacher The teacher of little children is not merely giving lessons

She was the first to use the language nursery schoo.l

She focused on whole-child learning through play, sensory experience and open air classrooms.

She emphasized working with parents and suggested

36

She is helping to make a brain and nervous system and this work is going to determine all that comes after.

doing home visits.

Patty Smith Hill (168_1946) American educator Observe the children and take their lead.

She promoted hand-on learning, experimentation and self –discovery

She wrote a kindergarten manual to systematically

define best practices for young children.

She founded the National Committee on Nursery

Schools(1926) which eventually became the National Association for the Education of Young children (NAEYC).

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778) A child should neither be treated as an irrational animal nor as a man but simply as a child.

He recognized individual patterns of development within children.

He promoted the idea that children‟s natural curiosity

was a strong source of learning. Believed that the school fit the child, not the child must fit the school.

Figure 1. Source: Kostelnik et al (2007). Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum: Best Practices in Early Childhood Education. For decisions to be developmentally-appropriate, teachers must have drawn from

at least three important sources of knowledge of how young children learn and

develop; including knowledge of the sequences and structures of content learning

and skills acquisition. Teachers also make decisions in terms of what they know

about the individual children and their families. Finally, teachers need to use their

knowledge of the social and cultural context within which children and families live

(NAEYC, 1997).

37

2.3 History of Developmentally Appropriate Practice

The 1980s was a time of great change for the field of education, particularly in the

area of early childhood. State-mandated reform efforts were developed in America

to raise the standards of public school systems as a whole, focusing heavily on

teachers and students. These reform efforts impacted areas such as “teacher

education, graduation requirements, school structure, and accountability measures”

(Bredekamp, Knuth, Kunesh & Shulman, 1992). The pressure to demonstrate

achievement was felt at all educational levels. In partial response to these reform

efforts, many preschools and kindergarten programmes began to incorporate

practices such as placement testing, standardized testing, skill-based curriculum,

transitional classes, retention practices, and delayed entrance practices

(Bredekamp, 1987; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Bredekamp, et. al, 1992;

Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992, 1995; Elkind, 1986; Walsh, 1989). Many early

childhood educators were turning away from more child-centered approaches and

were utilizing more skill-based, teacher-directed methods (Bredekamp, 1987;

Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Bredekamp, et al., 1992; Bredekamp & Rosegrant,

1992, 1995; Egertson, 1987; Graue, 1993).

In addition, many educators and educational organizations were becoming

increasingly concerned about the impact these change efforts might have on young

children and stood firmly against the implementation of more formalized early

learning experiences (ASCD, 1989; Elkind, 1986; IRA, 1989; Katz, 1988a; Moyer, et

al., 1987; NAESP; 1990; NCTM, 1989; SREB, 1995; Walsh, 1989).

38

One of the most influential professional organizations at this time was the National

Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). In 1987, NAEYC

formulated a set of philosophical guidelines defining high-quality programme for

young children. These guidelines were entitled Developmentally Appropriate

Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8

(Bredekamp, 1987).

DAP is neither a curriculum nor a rigid set of standards that dictates practice. It is a

framework, a philosophy and an approach to working with young children

(Bredekamp and Rosegrant, 1992). NAEYC defines DAP as resulting from the

process of professionals making decisions about the well-being of children based on

at least three important kinds of information or knowledge:

1. What is known about child development and learning - knowledge of age-

related human characteristics that permits general predictions within an age

range about what activities, materials, interactions, or experiences will be

safe, healthy, interesting, achievable, and also challenging to children.

2. What is known about the strengths, interests and needs of each individual

child in the group to be able to adapt for and be responsive to inevitable

individual variation; and

3. Knowledge of the social and cultural contexts in which children live to ensure

that learning experiences are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for the

participating children and their families.

39

In addition, DAP refers to a practice and a programme that is not only

comprehensive in nature but also takes into consideration the contributions of the

environment, curriculum contents, materials, activities and teachers‟ methodology

in such a way that age specific and individual characteristics of children are

addressed and designed to meet the needs of children and their families. These

guidelines encourage early childhood programmes to provide an educational

environment that responds to the needs and interests of children.

This much-needed document was intended to serve as a directive for early

childhood programme seeking to meet NAEYC‟s strict accreditation criteria; helping

them develop more appropriate learning experiences, curriculum, teaching

strategies and assessment for their children and their families (Bredekamp, 1987;

Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Bredekamp, et al., 1992). This document was also

intended to make an official stand against the reform movement‟s pressure to

develop programmes that are considered by many not in the best interest of young

children. According to Bredekamp et al. (1992), NAEYC‟s guidelines represented:

a growing consensus that the traditional scope

and sequence approach to curriculum with its

emphasis on drill and practice of isolated,

academic skills does not reflect current

knowledge of human learning and fails to

produce students who possess the kind of higher-

order thinking and problem solving abilities that

will be needed in the 21st century…Specifically,

40

these professional organizations call for

schooling to place greater emphasis on:

active, hands-on learning; conceptual learning

that leads to understanding along with

acquisition of basic skills; meaningful, relevant

learning experiences; interactive teaching and

cooperative learning; a broad range of relevant

content, integrated across traditional subject

matter divisions.

Serving as a voice for the field of early childhood, the NAEYC opposed the

increasing development of highly structured academic early childhood programmes

(Bredekamp, 1987). Therefore, this document was also intended to create change

within the field of early childhood, encouraging educators to develop high-quality,

appropriate programming for young children. This document encouraged

administrators and teachers to make a “clear commitment regarding the rights of

young children to respectful and supportive learning environments and to an

education that would prepare them for participation in a free and democratic

society” (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997).

The original guidelines provided examples of both appropriate and inappropriate

practices. Developmentally “appropriate” classrooms were described as those

focusing on a relatively child-centered approach to teaching and learning

(Bredekamp, 1987; Fowell & Lawton, 1992). McMullen as cited in Philips (2004)

affirms that this approach values the “overall development of the whole child across

41

social, emotional, aesthetic, moral, language, cognitive, physical, (which includes

health, gross motor, and fine motor) domains”.

Bredekamp, (1987) describes developmentally appropriate classrooms as those

which are designed around the belief that young children are creators of their own

knowledge and need to be actively involved in the learning process. These

environments contain rich experimental materials and activities that allow for self-

selection and self-direction. These environments are “equipped and designed to

meet the individual needs of a wide variety of children at various stages of

development” (Conant, 2001). Flexible grouping, including individualized

experiences, small group activities, and when necessary, whole group instruction, is

used to better meet the various needs of the children. “The practices endorsed in

the guidelines are those which emphasize direct experience, concrete materials,

child-initiated activity, social interaction, and adult warmth” (Hyson, Hirsh-Pasek, &

Rescorla, 1990, p. 474).

Bredekamp (1987) describes developmentally “inappropriate” classrooms as those

focusing on a relatively formal approach to teaching and learning, classroom

instruction that focuses predominantly on teacher-directed experiences, including

lecturing, modeling, teacher-led discussions, and repetitive drill and practice

activities. These types of environments focus on the “teacher‟s behaviour rather

than the child‟s own activity with materials”. Smith, (1990) adds that within this

42

type of classroom, children “are much more likely to experience the world primarily

through their teacher‟s organization of it, rather than through individual

construction of their own experience and activity.” Within this approach, children

tend to assume a more passive role in the overall learning process. According to

the guidelines, these types of “preplanned, deliberate, and teacher-determined”

practices should not predominate in a classroom because they are less sensitive to

the many developmental and individual needs of young children (Smith, 1990).

2.4 Principles of Child Development and Learning that Inform

Developmentally Appropriate Practices

Developmentally Appropriate Practice is based on knowledge about how children

develop and learn. As Katz (1995) states, “In a developmental approach to

curriculum design, decisions about what should be learned and how it would best

be learned depend on what we know of the learner‟s development”. To guide the

decision about practice, all early childhood teachers need to understand the

developmental changes that typically occur in the years from birth through age

eight and beyond; variations in development that may occur and how best to

support children‟s learning and development during these years.

A complete discussion of the knowledge base that informs early childhood practice

is inexhaustible because development and learning are so complex. No one theory

is sufficient to explain these phenomena; however, The National Association for the

Education of Young Children (NAEYC) provides common principles of child

43

development and learning that will help to inform and guide decision about

Developmentally Appropriate Practice. The principles were generated from a

number of developmental theories.

McDevitt & Ormrod, (2004) define developmental theory as an organised system of

principles and explanations of certain aspects of child development. Berk (2003)

asserts that developmental theories assist teachers in a number of ways. First, they

help to describe, explain, and predict behaviours. In addition, they also guide and

give meaning to what we see; they help teachers to interpret behavioural

observations. Thirdly, theories help teachers to distinguish typical patterns of

development from unique patterns of development which in turn assists them in

providing additional instructional assistance or services to young children. Lastly,

developmental theories guide teachers‟ formal and informal instructional decision-

making. Scholarly researches therefore provide a list of empirically based principles

of child development and learning that inform and guide decisions about

Developmentally Appropriate Practice.

44

1. Domains of children’s development–physical, social, emotional, and

cognitive – are closely related. Development in one domain

influences and is influenced by development in other domains.

Sroufe, Cooper, & DeHart, Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren (as cited by Bredekamp

and Copple 1997) assert that development in one domain can limit or facilitate

development in others. For example, when babies begin to crawl or walk, their

ability to explore the world expands, and their mobility, in turn, affects their

cognitive development. Likewise, children‟s language skill affects their ability to

establish social relationships with adults and other children, just as their skill in

social interaction can support or impede their language development.

Developmental domains are interrelated and as a result, educators should be aware

of and use these interrelationships to organize children‟s learning experiences in

ways that help children develop optimally in all areas and that make meaningful

connections across domains.

Bredekamp and Copple (1997) reiterate that recognition of the connections across

developmental domains is also useful for curriculum planning with the various age

groups represented in the early childhood period. They opine that curriculum with

infants and toddlers is almost solely driven by the need to support their healthy

development in all domains and that during the primary grades; curriculum

planning attempts to help children develop conceptual understandings that apply

across related subject matter disciplines.

45

2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly sequence, with later

abilities, skills, and knowledge building on those already acquired

Human development research indicates that relatively stable, predictable sequences

of growth and change occur in children during the first nine years of life. Piaget,

Erikson, Gallahue 1993, Case & Okamoto (as cited by Bredekamp and Copple 1997)

confirm that predictable changes occur in all domains of development; although the

ways that these changes are manifest and the meaning attached to them may vary

in different cultural contexts. In addition, they affirm that knowledge of typical

development of children within the age span served by a programme provides a

general framework to guide how teachers should prepare the learning environment

and plan realistic curriculum goals, objectives and appropriate experiences.

3. Development proceeds at varying rates from child to child as well as

unevenly within different areas of each child’s functioning

Sroufe, Cooper, and DeHart (as cited by Bredekamp and Copple 1997) assert that

individual variation has at least two dimensions: the inevitable variability around the

average or normative course of development and the uniqueness of each person as

an individual. Each child is a unique person with an individual pattern and timing of

growth, as well as individual personality, temperament, learning style, experiential

and family background. All children have their own strengths, needs and interests

while in some children, special learning and developmental needs or abilities are

identified. Given the enormous variation among children of the same chronological

age, a child‟s age must be recognized as only a crude index of developmental

maturity.

46

Recognition that individual variation is not only to be expected but also valued

requires that decisions about curriculum and adults‟ interaction with children be as

individualized as possible. Emphasis on individual appropriateness is not the same

as “individualism”. Rather, this recognition requires that children be considered not

solely as members of an age group, expected to perform to a predetermined norm

and without adaptation to individual variation of any kind. Having high expectations

of group norms do not reflect what is known about real differences in individual

development and learning during the early years. Gestwicki (2007) counsels that

comparing the development of individual of similar chronological ages is impossible

and dangerous because each child has a pace of development that is unique to the

individual with factors such as heredity, health, individual temperament, learning

style, experiences and family background that are creating enormous differences.

4. Early experiences have both cumulative and delayed effects on an

individual child’s development; optimal periods exist for certain

types of development and learning.

Researchers‟ have indicated by Gestwicki (2007) that both positive and negative

effects result from repeated experiences early in the lives of young children and

these effects have implications for later development. For example, children given

the opportunity to develop social skills through play with peers in the preschool

years usually develop confidence and competence in their social relations with

others. This allows them to enter confidently into later peer relationships as they

begin primary school and to enter group learning situations with considerably more

47

ease than children lacking those earlier social experiences. Asher, Hymel &

Renshaw (as cited in Bredekamp and Copple 1997) pointed out conversely that

children who lack social competence and are neglected by peers are at significant

risk to drop out of school, become delinquent and experience mental health

problem in adulthood. Times of readiness for optimal learning occur in the early

years and need to be taken advantage of in planning curricular experiences.

Kuhl (1994) notes that the first three years of life appear to be an optimal period

for verbal language development although delay in language development due to

physical or environmental deficits can be ameliorated later on but such intervention

usually requires considerable effort.

5. Development proceeds in predictable directions toward greater

complexity, organizations and internalization

Bruner (as cited by Bredekamp and Copple 1997) confirms that learning during

early childhood proceeds from behavioural knowledge to symbolic or

representational knowledge. For example, children learn to navigate their homes

and other familiar settings long before they can understand the words left and right

or read a map of the house. Katz (1995) asserts that Developmentally Appropriate

Programmes provide opportunities for children to broaden and deepen their

behavioural knowledge by providing a variety of firsthand experiences and by

helping children acquire symbolic knowledge through representing their experiences

in a variety of media, such as drawing, painting, construction of models, dramatic

play, verbal and written descriptions. In the same vein, Edwards, Gandini, &

48

Forman (as cited by Bredekamp and Copple, 1997) affirm that representational

modes and media also vary with the age of the child. For instance, most learning

for infants and toddlers is sensory but by age two children use one object to stand

for another in play.

6. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple

social and cultural contexts

Bronfenbrenner (as cited by Bredekamp and Copple, 1997) provides an ecological

model for understanding human development. He explains that children‟s

development is best understood within the sociocultural context of the family,

educational setting, community, and broader society. These various contexts are

interrelated, and all have impact on the developing child. For example, a child in a

loving, supportive family within a strong, healthy community is affected by the

biases of the larger society, such as racism, and may show the effects of negative

stereotyping and discrimination.

Edwards & Gandini, Tobin, Wu, & Davidson 1989; Rogoff as (cited by Bredekamp

and Copple 1997) emphasise that since a child grows within a cultural context of

his society, every culture and structure interpret children‟s behaviour and

development according to the cultural norms. In agreement with this notion,

Bowman (as cited by Bredekamp et al 1997) states, “Rules of development are the

same for all children, but social contexts shape children‟s development into

different configurations”. Vygotsky (1978) therefore admonished all early childhood

teachers of the need to understand the influence of socio-cultural contexts on

49

learning, recognize children‟s developing competence, and accept a variety of ways

for children to express their developmental achievements.

Teachers should learn about the culture of the majority of the children they serve if

that culture differs from their own. However, recognizing that development and

learning are influenced by social and cultural contexts does require teachers to

understand all the fine distinctions of every cultural group they may encounter in

their practice; this would be an impossible task but this recognition sensitizes

teachers to the need to acknowledge how their own cultural experience shape their

perspective and to realize that multiple perspectives, in addition to their own, must

be considered in decisions about children‟s development and learning.

Vygotsky (1978) discloses that development and learning are dynamic processes

requiring adults to understand the continuum, observe children closely to match

curriculum and teaching to children‟s emerging competencies, needs, and interests,

and then help children move forward by targeting educational experiences to the

edge of children‟s changing capacities so as to challenge but not frustrate them. He

therefore encourages teachers to acquaint themselves with the principle of learning

in that children can do things first in a supportive context and then later

independently and in a variety of contexts. This is what Vygotsky refers to as

scaffolding. Rogoff (1990) describes the process of adult-assistance as “guided

participation” to emphasize that collaboration with others is required to move to

complex levels of understanding and skills.

50

7. Children are active learners, drawing on direct physical and social

experience as well as culturally transmitted knowledge to construct

their own understanding of the world around them.

Key principles of Developmentally Appropriate Practices are based on the work of

theorists such as Piaget and Vygotsky and those who followed their work. They

view intellectual development as occurring by a process of constructivism through

interaction with other people, materials, and experiences. As children form and test

their own hypotheses that they have mentally constructed, children are forced to

adjust the model or alter the mental structures to account for the new information

about how the world works, their thought processes and mental structures undergo

continual revision. Throughout the early childhood period, the child in processing

new experiences continually reshapes, expands and reorganizes mental structures

(Piaget 1952; Vygotsky 1978; Case & Okamoto 1996). Appropriate classrooms

create environments that provide the materials and interaction needed for such

constructions. When teachers use teaching strategies that support children‟s active

learning and rely less on direct transmission of knowledge, the knowledge and the

understanding gained from the experience is deepened (Copple, Signel and

Saunders 1984).

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8. Development and learning result from interaction of biological

maturation and the environment, which includes both the physical

and the social worlds that children live

The National Association for the Education of Young Children Position Statement

on the principles that inform DAP (as cited by Bredekamp & Copple (1997) asserts

that researches have confirmed that human beings are products of both heredity

and environment and that these forces are interrelated. Development is the result

of the interplay between the growing, changing child and the child's experiences in

the social and physical worlds. For example, a child's genetic make up may predict

healthy growth, but inadequate nutrition in the early years of life will keep this

potential from being fulfilled. Likewise, a child's innate temperament such as a

predisposition to be either wary or outgoing - shapes and is shaped by how other

children and adults interact with that child.

9. Play is an important vehicle for children’s social, emotional, and

cognitive development as well as a reflection of their development.

Play is the optimum context in which children can actively construct their

knowledge of the world. NAEYC (as cited by Bredekamp & Copple, 1997) defines

play as that which gives children opportunities to understand the world, interact

with others in social ways, express and control emotions, and develop their

symbolic capabilities. The position statement goes on to declare that child-initiated,

teacher-supported play is an essential component of Developmentally Appropriate

Practice. Children‟s play gives adults insights into children‟s development and

52

opportunities to support the development of new strategies. Vygotsky (as cited by

Bredekamp & Copple, 1997) believes that play leads to development, with written

language growing out of oral language through the vehicle of symbolic play that

promotes the development of symbolic representation abilities. Play provides a

context for children to practice newly acquired skills and also to function on the

edge of their developing capacities to take on new social roles, attempt novel or

challenging tasks that they would not otherwise do. In addition to supporting

cognitive development, Herrron & Sutton-Smith (as cited by Bredekamp et al

(1997) affirm that play serves important functions in children‟s physical, emotional,

and social development. Understanding fully what play is and how it supports

development of the whole child is such an important aspect of Developmentally

Appropriate Practice.

10. Development advances when children have opportunities to practice

newly acquired skills, as well as when they experience a challenge

just beyond the level of their present mastery.

NAEYC position statement asserts that children‟s images of themselves as

successful learners result from experiences in which they can succeed most of the

time. Thus, teachers have an important role in identifying children‟s growing

competencies and interests and in matching curriculum accordingly. In addition,

Bondrova & Leong (as cited by Bredekamp et al (1997) confirm that children can

learn when experiences are just above their present abilities, especially when

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supportive adults collaborate to help children move to more complex levels of skill

and understanding.

11. Children demonstrate different modes of knowing and learning and

different ways of representing what they know

Research has confirmed that most children use all their senses to learn but for

many, one modality tends to overshadow the rest. Some children prefer one

modality to the other. These preferences are described as differences in learning

style. A child that is a visual learner will respond best to what he sees and visualize

something in his mind as a way to recall. An auditory learner relies on hearing and

talking as his primary means of learning. Gardener (1993) asserts that everyone

possesses at least eight intelligences or frames of mind and that a person’s blend

of competencies in each area produces a unique learning profile. The 8

intelligences are linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,

intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalistic. He emphasizes that people possess

varying degrees of know-how in all eight categories and that individuals may be at

promise in some areas while being average or below average in others. Differences

in learning style may also exist because of temperament or cultural factors. All

these variations in learning styles suggest that there is no single correct way to

learn and that there are many ways to be smart.

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Gardener’s Eight Multiple Intelligences in Children

Children who

are strongly

Think Love Need

Linguistic in words Reading, writing, telling

stories, playing word

games, etc.

Books, tapes, writing tools

papers diaries, dialogues,

discussion, debate stories

Logical

mathematical

by reasoning Experimenting,

questioning, figuring out

puzzles, calculating, etc.

Things to explore and think

about, science materials,

manipulatives, trips to the

planetarium and science

museum.

Spatial in images and

pictures

Designing, drawing,

visualizing, doodling, etc

Art, lego, video, slides,

imagination games, mazes,

puzzles, illustrated books,

trips to art museums

Bodily

kinesthetic

through somatic

sensations

Dancing, running,

jumping, building,

touching, gesturing, etc.

Role play, drama,

movement, things to build,

sports and physical games

tactile experiences, hands-

on learning

Musical via rhythms and

melodies

Singing, whistling,

humming, tapping feet

and hands, listening, etc.

Sing-along time, trips to

concerts, music playing at

home and schools, musical

instruments

Interpersonal by bouncing

ideas off other

people

Leading, organizing,

relating, manipulating,

mediating, cooperating,

partying, etc.

Friends, group games,

social gatherings,

community events, clubs,

mentors/apprenticeships

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Intrapersonal being

individualistic

Working alone; pursuing

own interest; being

aware of inner moods,

intentions, motivations

and self desires.

Things to explore and think

through.

Naturalistic by observation Observing nature,

interacting with plants

and animals, perceiving

relationships among

natural things.

Loves field trip/excursion,

explores properties of

materials.

Figure 2. Source: Adapted from Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum: Best Practices in ECE &Tools for Effective Curriculum Development by Christ the Redeemer’s Schools Movement

12. Children learn best in the context of a community in which they are

safe and valued, their physical needs are met, and they feel

psychologically secure.

Developmentally Appropriate Programmes recognize the importance of meeting

children‟s physical and psychological needs. Maslow (as cited by Bredekamp et al,

1997) declares that learning is not considered possible unless physical and

psychological needs for safety and security are first met. In a Developmentally

Appropriate Programmes, attention should therefore be given to healthy and safe

environments, as well as meeting comprehensive services, such as nutrition, dental

and medical needs. In the same vein, attention should also be given to creating

environments in which warm relationships can develop over time.

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2.5 An Overview of Developmentally “Inappropriate” Practice (DIP)

Developmentally Inappropriate Practice is based on a behavioural perspective of

learning. This perspective is influenced by individuals like Watson, Skinner and

Pavlov (Weber, 1984). This theory focuses on the impact external stimuli can have

on an individual‟s behaviour. Behavioural theory holds that behaviours acquired and

displayed by young children can be attributed almost exclusively to their

environment (Duncan, Kemple & Smith, (2000). Through a process of repetition

and reinforcement, a desired behaviour can be achieved (Duncan, et al., 2000;

Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972; Weber, 1984). It is not the interaction of learner and

environment but the influence environment can exert to produce predicted

behaviour that is the essence of behaviourism (Weber, 1984).

The NAEYC guidelines provide examples of inappropriate practices as well as

examples of appropriate practices. In current educational literature, these

“inappropriate practices” are often referred to as “direct-instruction,” “teacher-

directed instruction,” “teacher-centered instruction,” or even “the traditional

approach”. Despite the many different labels, it is clear that many early childhood

educators believe that these practices are clearly unacceptable with young children

when used exclusively. The NAEYC clearly supports more child-centered, child-

initiated experiences and emphasizes that teacher-directed instruction should be

used on a limited basis and only in response to the individual or group needs

(Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). In addition, Bredekamp & Copple, (1997), Gestwicki

(2007) decry the act of narrow focusing on academic skills which is problematic

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during the years from 3 to 6. They argue that Developmentally Inappropriate

Practice is not only potentially damaging to children‟s social and emotional

development but also because it is intellectually limiting. Similarly, Freire (as cited

by Philips, 2004) asserts that a more teacher-directed approach does not value the

“knowledge of living experience” which the children bring to school.

2.6 Dangers of implementing “Inappropriate” Practice

Dunn & Kontos, Burts (as cited by Gestwiscki, 2007) confirm that the activities

found to be most stressful for kindergarten children were workbooks and

worksheets assignments as well as waiting and transition activities. Gestwicki

(2007) asserts that early exposure to academics has in fact jeopardized later

success and that delaying exposure has beneficial effect. In the same vein, Lillian

kartz vehemently states in Gestwicki (2007) that “while there is no compelling

evidence to suggest that early introduction to academic work guarantees success in

school in the long term, there are reasons to believe that it can be

counterproductive.”

Several studies have examined the long-term effects of different curriculum models

on young children‟s overall achievement and development. For example,

Schweinhart‟s study (as cited by Hohmann and Weikart, 2002) and that of

Gestwicki (2007) examines the long-term impact of three different preschool

curriculum models; including the High/Scope Model, the Distar Model, and a

Nursery School Model. High/Scope is an open framework preschool programme that

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focuses on cognitive developmental experiences. DISTAR is a teacher-directed

preschool programme that focuses on pre-academic skills. Nursery School is a child-

centered preschool programme that values play and focuses on the needs and

interests of the children. When the children who attended these programmes were

interviewed at age 15; results indicated that Intelligent Quotent (IQ) and

achievement differed little among the three groups. However, the group that

participated in the Distar programme reported engagement in twice as many

delinquent acts, such as property violence, personal violence, and drug abuse, as

the other two groups. This group also reported poor relationship with their families,

less participation in sports, and fewer employment opportunities.

In further follow-up, (Schweinhart & Wallgren 1993; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1996

1997), the researchers found that these same children who participated in direct

instruction group reported at age 23: a) higher rates of misconduct; b) higher

felony arrests; c) higher property crimes; d) lower participation in community

service e) fewer marriages; f) early teen misconduct; h) work suspensions and i)

need for treatment for emotional impairment and disturbance. At the age 23 and

40, the adults who had participated in the child- centered preschool programme

had completed higher levels of schooling; earned significantly higher salaries; were

more likely to own their homes, own second cars and be married; received

significantly fewer social services; had fewer arrest; and were more likely to have

participated in volunteer work in their communities.

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Harts (as cited by Gestwicki, 2007) reports that the impact of developmentally

inappropriate disciplinary practices on first grade pupils made the children more

hostile, aggressive, anxious, fearful, hyperactive and distractible than children who

had attended kindergarten using Developmentally Appropriate Practice.

In the same vein, Katz assertion (as reported by Gestwicki, 2007) is that when

adults expect children to engage in activities that are beyond their developmental

level, an unnecessary sense of failure is created. He went further to say that when

children continually get disapproval from adults because they cannot meet the

expectations of adults, it hurts their self-esteem. Programmes centered on

academic learning stress mastery of narrowly defined cognitive skills and imply to

children that mastery in other areas is of little value.

Another risk that may attend introducing young children to academic work

prematurely is that those children who cannot relate to the content or tasks

required are likely to feel incompetent. Greeenberg (as cited by Gestwicki, 2007)

warns that if we expect a young child to master tasks that are meaningless to

him/her as an individual, he/she has little satisfaction or feeling of self-worth in

doing the chore, even if she succeeds. The rote learning of abstract skills and sub-

skills is far from the natural interest and active curiosity of young children.

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2.7 Five Key Practice Areas of Early Childhood Education

Bredekamp and Copple (1997) state that the guidelines for Developmentally

Appropriate Practice address decision making in five key practice areas of Early

Childhood Education. These are (1) Creating a caring community of learners;

(2) Teaching to enhance development and learning; (3) Constructing/implementing

curriculum to achieve important goals; (4) Assessing children‟s development and

learning; and (5) Establishing reciprocal relationships with families.

Figure 3: Key Practice Areas of Early Childhood Education

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2.7.1 Creating a Caring Community of Learners

The National Association for the Education of Young Children‟s guidelines for

decisions about Developmentally Appropriate Practice confirms that DAP occurs

within a context that supports the development of relationship between adults and

children, relationship among children as well as between teachers and families.

Such a community reflects what is known as the social construction of knowledge

and the importance of establishing a caring inclusive community in which all

children develop and learn. NAEYC position statement (as cited by Bredekamp and

Copple, 1997) spells out the following guidelines that describe teachers‟ role in

making decision about practice.

Early childhood education setting must function as a caring community of

learners in which all participants contribute to the well-being and learning of

one another.

Consistent, positive relationships with a limited number of adults and other

children are a fundamental determinant of healthy human development and

provide the context for children to learn about themselves and their world

and also how to develop positive constructive relationships with other

people. The children in this class are respected and valued. Children are also

given the opportunity to play or work together in small and large group

thereby enhancing their social relationship. Interacting with other children in

small groups provides a context for children to operate on the edge of their

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developing capacities and constructing understanding through interactions

with adults and other children in their environment.

Developmentally appropriate programmes adopt supportive climate in their

interaction with children. The supportive climate advocated in a

developmentally appropriate programme is that in which adults and children

share control over the teaching and learning process. In this climate, adults

provide an effective balance between the freedom children must have to

explore as active learners and the limits needed to permit them to feel

secure in the classroom or centre.

Adults create an orderly physical environment to support a broad range of

children‟s interests, and they establish a daily routine within which children

express and carry out their intentions. Throughout the day, children and

adults initiate experiences based on children‟s strengths and interests. Even

during adult-initiated experiences, children make choices and decisions about

materials and outcomes. Adults make their presence known by joining

children as partners who are genuinely interested in and committed to

watching, listening to, conversing with, and working with children; they

encourage children and assist them as they solve problems that arise

throughout the day.

When conflicts arise, adults are not judgmental, instead, they acknowledge

children‟s feelings and engage children in problem solving so children

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experience the satisfaction of figuring out and being responsible for their

own solutions. Adults and children alike view problems, mistakes, and

conflicts as active learning opportunities.

- Developmentally Appropriate Classroom Climate

Hohman and Weihart (2002) confirm that there are generally three types of

climates that dominate interaction in any organisation; be it school, business or any

enterprise: these are directive, supportive and laizzez-faire climates.

The directive approach to teaching and learning is characterised by adult-controlled

activities. In this setting, the daily routine and physical settings are tightly

controlled by adults so they can lead children efficiently through adult planned

learning sequences. Adults talk; children listen and follow directions. In this climate,

children remain subdued and attentive while adults, following skilled- based

objectives, show and tell them what they need to know.

Hohman and Weihart (2002) see a laizzez-faire permissive climate on the other

hand as being largely controlled by the children themselves. The daily routine and

the physical environment are loosely structured; giving free reign to children‟s play

which adult in this setting view as the primary focus of the early childhood

programme. Adults purposely leave children alone so they may play with one

another and with the materials provided, intervening only when asked to impart

information or to restore order.

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However, several researches as well as Hohman and Weihart (2002) assert that

developmentally appropriate programmes adopt supportive climate in their

interaction with children. The supportive climate advocated in a developmentally

appropriate programme is that in which adults and children share control over the

teaching and learning process. In this climate, adults provide effective balance

between the freedom children must have to explore as active learners and the

limits needed to permit them to feel secure in the classroom or centre.

Wardle (1989) confirms that the benefits of supportive climate are enormous. He

asserts that when adults maintain a consistently supportive climate for active

learners, everyone benefits from the partnerships that emerge. On one hand,

children and adult are free to learn and children gain experience in forming positive

relationships. Children grow in their capacity to trust, be autonomous, take initiative

as well feel both empathy and self-confidence. On the other hand, adults see

children‟s behaviour in terms of development and not misbehaviour nor

abnormality; adults and children view problems, mistakes and conflicts as active

learning opportunities.

- Strategies for Creating Supportive Climates among Community of

Learners

The advocates of High/Scope approach (as cited by Hohman and Weihart (2002)

recommend five key elements of support that are used as guidelines for working

with children and that when these elements are incorporated into any setting;

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adults create supportive climates that encourage the development of young

children‟s capacities for trust, autonomy, initiative, empathy and self-confidence.

These elements of support advocated for are:

sharing of control between adults and children

focusing on children‟s strengths

forming authentic relationships with children

making commitment to support children‟s play

adopting problem solving approach to social conflict

- Sharing the Control between Adults and Children

Sharing of control in a supportive climate calls for reciprocity – a mutual give-and-

take between children and adults. In their joint interactions, both children and

adults take turns being leader and follower, teacher and learner, speaker and

listener. Hohman and Weihart (2002) offer explanation for the necessity of adults

sharing control with children. They argue that if adults give up control altogether,

the hardest children dominate, often at the expense of the others and if adults

retain total control, children have little opportunities to try to develop the ability to

control themselves or to make their own decisions and learn from the

consequences. But when adults and children share power and control, an

atmosphere of mutual trust, respect, and self-actualization prevails. When adults

and children are willing to listen to and try out one another‟s ideas; children feel

secure, act independently, and take initiative. Since children are permitted to make

decisions and discuss choices and decisions that affect them and the people around

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them, they develop a sense of their own powers and limits. Very early on, they

come to understand that they do not have to wait for things to happen to them –

they can make things happen themselves.

Hohman and Weihart (2002) recommend that adults can share control with children

by taking cues from children, participate with children on their terms, learn from

children, relinquish control or consciously giving control to children.

- Focusing on Children’s Strengths

Bowlby ( as cited by Bredekamp and Copple, 1997) asserts that learning occurs

best when children are motivated by personal goals and interests, and as a result

adults can create a supportive climate by discovering and building on children‟s

interests, talents, capacities and abilities. He reminds teachers of the need to

observe young children in action so that they can capitalize on children‟s natural

desires and interests. This is in contrast to approaches in which adults look for

children‟s weaknesses and prescribe activities designed to correct them. Hohman

and Weihart (2002) refer to this method as deficit-based approach in which adults

must motivate children to do things they have no desire to do. The more adults try

to pressurize children into action, the more defensive and anxious children become.

On the other hand, by focusing on children‟s strengths, adults do not have to

motivate children; the children have already motivated themselves. Hohman and

Weihart (2002) enumerate several strategies that adults can use to focus effectively

on children‟s strengths. These include:

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- Looking for children’s interests

When adults seek out and support children‟s interests and children are free to

follow through on interests and activities they are already highly motivated to

pursue; they are also willing to try new things that build on what they are already

doing.

- View situations from the child’s perspective

Sometimes adults have a tendency to view children‟s strengths with mixed

emotions because children‟s new-found enthusiasm can mean extra work for

adults. It makes sense to look at these situations from the child‟s point of view

because the feelings of success the child gets from attempting a new activity are

more important in the long run than the short-term inconvenience that this may

cause adults.

- Share children’s interests with parents and staff

The principle of attending to each child‟s strengths and interests rather than deficits

also extends to interactions with colleagues and parents. When adults who work

with children cannot give good report of the children; children and their parents

often become defensive and discouraged. On the other hand, when adults focus on

children‟s strengths, children feel successful and parents see their children as able

individuals.

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- Plan around children’s strengths and interests

Most educators and adults who care for children believe that each child is unique

and, consequently, they strive to individualize their approach to teaching. Since

children‟s strengths and interests are tangible manifestations of their uniqueness,

focusing on children‟s strengths is a key to individualization in the developmentally

appropriate curriculum.

- Forming Authentic Relationships with Children

Adults, like children, have strengths and interests. In a supportive climate, adults‟

unique capacities and enthusiasms to enrich and enliven their interactions with

children lay the foundation for authentic relationships that allow honest, effective

teaching and learning to occur. Psychologist, Carl Rogers (as cited by Hohman and

Weihart, 2002) defines authenticity as “a transparent realness in the facilitator, a

willingness to be a person, to be and live the feelings and thoughts of the moment.

When this realness includes a prizing, a caring, a trust, a respect for the learner,

the climate for learning is enhanced. When it includes a sensitive and accurate

empathic listening, then indeed a freeing climate, stimulative of self-initiated

learning and growth, exists. The student is trusted to develop”.

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- Interaction among Children

Adults working with children must realize that social interaction among children is

an essential element of a developmentally appropriate programme. Building

relationship takes time and close associations grow slowly through daily interactions

and experiences with the same people. To build relationship outside their families,

young children need a stable community of learners.

Hohman and Weihart (2002) advise that one way to support the relationship

children are building is to be aware of the peer relationship that exits or are

emerging in your setting. Among the behaviour that you might observe are: sharing

objects, talking with each other, engaging in pretend play, working on the same

activities and planning together, etc. Encouraging children to turn to another peer

for assistance in solving problems helps to build relationships. When adults refer

children to their peers for help and conversation, children begin to build

relationships based on mutual interests and a respect for one another‟s skills.

Sometimes, the relationship that children build with peers leads to collaborative

play, making or doing something together that requires the skill, the idea and the

contribution of each person. Playing together in preschool then is a significant

social experience. The memory of such experience or lack therefore can shape

children‟s approaches to future collaborations.

The following suggestions will help adult to encourage peer interactions.

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- Creating and experiencing collaborative play

Provide materials that encourage collaborative play.

Provide space for collaborative play: Collaborative play takes place

throughout the active learning setting –As you arrange your active learning

space and set up the interest areas; make sure you provide enough space

for children to work together and spread out in their play experiences.

Watch for children playing together: One basic way to support collaborative

play is to look for and acknowledge emerging and ongoing play partnerships.

Encourage children who play together to plan and recall together: Once you

are aware of pairs of children who tend to play together at work time, you

can support their play by putting them in the same planning and recall

groups (if they are not already together) or by simply asking them to plan

with the people they intend to play with. At the same time, it is important to

understand that even if they do not play, pairs plan together, their plans will

continue to evolve as they play while unforeseen problems will be inspired

by what they see other children doing. Nevertheless, encouraging children to

plan together acknowledges the importance of their collaboration; and

having them recall together adds richness and dimension to their recall

narratives and also helps them to see story-telling as a collaborative venture.

Allow time for collaborative play to evolve.

Form partnerships with emerging players: Sometimes, you will observe

children who want to become play partners but have not quite figured out

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how to do so. In such cases, it may be appropriate for adults to become

partners with children, so the children have the opportunity to develop the

skills needed to participate with their peers.

Provide opportunities for collaborative play at small-group time: At daily

team planning, as you consider what to do at small-group time, include

experiences in which children have opportunities to work together. Consider

these suggestions:

- Provide pairs of children with ball and ask them how they could roll (toss,

bounce) them to each other.

- As a group, act out stories children tell.

- Wash something big together, such as the sand toys, all the chairs, a

staff member‟s car.

- Empty the sandbox and fill it with new sand. This requires shovel and

bucket carriers.

- Give children the choice between building on small, one-person Lego

bases and large, two-person Lego bases. Many children will choose to

work in pairs and then will negotiate such things as whether to build a

house for dogs or people or both, and whether there can be a diving

board in the living room.

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- Developmentally Appropriate Physical Environment

As children and adult enter a classroom, the arrangements of furniture and

materials convey messages about the expected activities and ways of behaving.

Gestwicki (2007) notes that if most of the classroom spaces are filled with tables

and chairs, it is evident that the teacher expects the children to spend most of

their time seated doing quiet activities, implying a good deal of teacher-direction.

She goes further to say that when only the physical space and furnishing allow

only sitting and when teacher arranges tables and desks so they focus on his/her

position in the classroom, the physical environment dictates passive learning

experiences for children. On the other hand, if a good numbers of learning centres

are arranged throughout the room, it seems likely that the children will be more

actively involved with materials of their own choosing.

Gestwicki (2007) reiterates that setting up a traditional classroom that emphasises

teacher instruction and individual study is relatively easy; but in the

developmentally appropriate classroom for three through five year olds

emphasising active, individualized learning, autonomy and social interchange,

teachers are challenged to create a dynamic, inviting atmosphere.

Wardle (1989) notes that careful arrangement of materials helps children begin

their play without needing teachers to tell them what they are going to do that day.

To encourage children‟s choice of materials, teachers make sure that materials are

stored near the location where they will be used and are displayed on low, open

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shelves where children can reach what they need. Containers are open or clear for

visibility or distinctly marked with labels children can interpret.

Developmentally appropriate preschool programmes value play and learning

experiences for children. Both indoor and outdoor are considered as equally

essential (Debord et al 2002). In these programmes therefore, outdoor play is not

another time for children to blow off steam, or a sort of recess before going back

indoors to get down to the serious business of learning; rather it is an opportunity

for adults to learn more about children to know what they can do and what

attracts their interest. Children need opportunity and places for swinging, sliding,

rolling, climbing, jumping, throwing, kicking, riding and transporting under adults‟

guidance and encouragement without excessive caution and restriction. In

recognition of this essential need, Wardle (1989) asserts that an early childhood

environment that lacks indoor gross motor play space and developmentally

appropriate outdoor play equipment places a low priority on physical development

in its curriculum.

Developmentally appropriate social, emotional interaction grows out of the

relationship and experiences that are important to children. Forming personal

relationship with young children is the necessary first step in the process of

identification. Children only want to be like adults they care for and who they sense

care for them. The interaction that comes from warm adult/child relationships is the

vehicle for crucial social/emotional guidance from adults. Honig & Wittmer, Fortner-

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Wood (as cited by Gestwicki, 2007) confirm that research has shown that children

whose first relationships with adults were positive played in more harmonious ways

with others. Gestwicki (2007) also notes that teachers create security when they

encourage sense of belonging to a community that supports individual growth, as

well as when they value individual variations in temperament and ability.

Positive individual identity is nurtured when teachers use words and non-verbal

actions to show affection for children and is sincere in them; spend time talking

individually with each child each day; creates a classroom atmosphere that

encourages and values individuality by calling attention to each other‟s

accomplishments, not to foster a spirit of competition, but to show children that

you value their competence. In addition, teachers are to respond with sensitivity to

children‟s individuality; convey respect for individual parents‟ styles and needs and

use parents knowledge of their children as a primary source for getting to know

individuality; provide opportunities, materials and encouragement, for children to

initiate activities that have meaning and interest for them personally.

One method of building community is holding class meetings to discuss issues and

problems that arise in the course of daily life in the classroom. Communicating

together in this meeting allows teachers to help guide children in problem solving in

real situations.An adult who wants to foster a caring community of learners must

become an active pluralist who organizes his classroom to become a microcosm of

a plural society which the children do and will continue to live in, always

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emphasising the similarity among people more than their differences. Gestwicki

(2007) asserts that teachers who actively create an anti-bias environment are

helping children of all cultural backgrounds to form healthy identity and attitudes,

involve all children in the classroom and create opportunity for parents to share

family story.

Adults can equally encourage pro-social behaviour by providing materials that

encourage playing together and cooperating on a task; encouraging children to ask

one another for assistance, guiding children towards awareness of others‟ needs

and feeling; modeling prosocial behaviour, etc.

Developmentally Appropriate Literacy Environment

Teachers facilitate literacy environment by reading aloud to children individually, in

small groups and collectively. Teacher prints and let children know what they are

reprinting. One of the reasons for learning corners is to facilitate independent

learning. In order to achieve this, writing materials are placed at strategic corners

of the classrooms to encourage children to write. NAEYC, (1998 ) confirms that one

of single most important activity for building the components of literacy essential

for reading success appears to be reading aloud to children. Rybczynski &Troy (as

cited by Gestwicki, 2007) proffer that other ways of encouraging children to read

and write is to include books as part of every learning centre and to print children‟s

names on their cubbies or on their tables where they are also encouraged to write

their names. Labels are placed on boxes of materials for children to find.

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According to Jim Green (as cited by Wardle, 1989), he summarizes a

developmentally appropriate environment as environment that is rich in experience,

play, teaching, with people, significant to children and a place they can call their

own. Kostelnik (1993) therefore concludes that Early Childhood Education

practitioners should be able to create a caring community and environment where

children feel lovable, valuable and competent.

Early childhood environment should be functional for both children and teachers.

Unlike traditional classrooms, early childhood environments need to support both

basic functions and learning activities. Wardle (1989) opines that teachers should

look around their classrooms from a child‟s perspective whether the toilets, sinks,

windows, faucets, drinking fountains, mirrors, towel racks, chairs and tables,

toothbrush containers, and bulletin boards are at the child‟s level and size.

Developmentally appropriate physical environment should accommodate children

with special needs: be the physically challenged, learning disabilities or emotional

issues. Braille and large lettering can be used for children with visual impairments,

and sign language can be incorporated into the curriculum for those children with

hearing impairments.

The learning environment of the children is designed to protect children‟s health

and safety and is supportive to children‟s physiological needs for activities, sensory

stimulation, fresh air, rest and nourishment. The learning environment is organized

and dynamic but is predictable and comprehensive from the child‟s point of view.

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The learning environment provides a variety of materials at the interest centres

where children can have first hand, meaningful experiences.

2.7.2 Teaching to Enhance Development and Learning

Bredekamp and Copple (1997) assert that adults‟ relationship with children is an

important determinant of children‟s social, emotional, language and intellectual

development. The adults must therefore strive to achieve an optimal balance

between children‟s self initiated learning and adult guidance or support. Therefore,

in teaching to enhance development and learning, NAEYC Position statement

(1987) provides the under listed guidelines that describe the aspects of the

teachers‟ role in making decisions.

Teachers accept responsibility for actively supporting children to acquire

important knowledge and skills. Teachers use their knowledge of child

development and learning to identify the range of activities, materials and

learning experiences that are appropriate for a group or individual child.

Moore (1999) affirms that as adults provide the climate, materials,

curriculum, and opportunities, children construct their own learning by

initiating activities and interacting with materials and the people around

them.

Teachers respect, value and accept children and treat them with dignity at

all times.

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Teachers make it a priority to know each child well through observation and

interaction which provides important insight for teachers to adapt and create

activities, curriculum and strategies that meet children‟s need and potentials.

Strive to offer experiences, materials, and equipment that support diverse

learning styles, cultures, special abilities, interests and skills.

Foster collaboration. Encourage children to work cooperatively on projects

and in problem-solving efforts -large and small. One strategy is to vary the

groups children work in. Be involved just enough to enhance interest and

provide meaningful direction when needed.

Understand that children develop and learn in the context of their families

and communities. Teachers must establish relationship with children‟s

families that increase their knowledge of the children‟s lives outside the

classroom and their awareness of the perspective and priorities of those

individuals most significant in the child‟s life.

Teachers are alert so well as to recognize the sign of undue stress and

traumatic events in children‟s lives and aware of effective strategies to

reduce stress and support the development of resilience.

Teachers are responsible at all times for all children under their supervision

and plan for children‟s increasing development of self regulation abilities.

Teachers bring each child‟s home culture and language into the shared

culture of the school so that the unique contributions of each group are

recognized and valued by others.

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Teachers facilitate the development of responsibility and self- regulation in

children by:

a. setting clear, consistent and fair limits for children‟s behaviour and holding

children accountable for standard of acceptable behaviour; to the extent that

teachers engage them in developing rules and procedures for the behaviour

of class members;

b. teachers redirect children to more acceptable behaviour or activities or use

children‟s mistakes as learning opportunities, patiently reminding children of

rules and their rationale as needed;

c. teachers listen and acknowledge children‟s feelings and frustrations respond

with respect, guide children to resolve conflicts and model skills that help

children to solve their own problems.

In addition to guidelines for teachers‟ decision, North Central Regional Educational

Laboratory (2007) confirms that research supports the value of using multiple

teaching strategies in a developmentally appropriate programme.

Some Teaching and Learning Strategies in Developmentally Appropriate

Programmes.

Active Learning Experiences: High/Scope approach in Hohman and Weikart

(2002) define active learning as learning in which the child by acting on objects and

interacting with people, ideas and events constructs new understanding. Hohman

et al further state that active learning is fundamental to the full development of

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human potential and it occurs most effectively in settings that provide

developmentally appropriate learning opportunities. National Association for the

Education of Young Children (1996) affirms that children manipulate real objects

and learn through hands-on experience, interact, explore the environment and

communicate with other children and adults in Developmentally Appropriate

Programmes. Active learning experiences are provided through learning centres,

field trips, real life experiences-such as cooking, re-enacting historical events,

conducting scientific experiments, etc.

Varied Instructional Strategies: Developmentally Appropriate Practice

encourages the use of varied instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of

children. Such approaches may include process writing, skill instruction, guided

reading, modelled writing, cooperative learning, independent learning activities,

peer coaching and tutoring, teacher-led instruction, thematic instruction, projects,

learning centres, problem-based learning and literature-based instruction (Privette

(1996); Stone (1995); American Association of School Administrators (1992). By

providing a wide variety of ways to learn, children with various learning styles are

able to develop their capabilities. Teaching in this way also helps to provide for

multiple intelligences and enables children to view learning in new ways.

Balance between Teacher-Directed and Child-Directed Activities:

Developmentally Appropriate Practice encourages a mixture of teacher-directed and

child-directed activities. Teacher-directed learning involves the teacher as a

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facilitator who models learning strategies and gives guided instruction. Child-

directed learning allows the child to assume some responsibilities for learning goals.

Integrated curriculum through thematic and Project approach

Kostelnik et al (2007) confirm that theme teaching involves creating an array of

educationally sound activities planned around a central idea. These activities are

integrated into all aspects of the curriculum and take place within a concentrated

time frame, ranging from several days to several weeks. Such integration creates a

common thread among activities that facilitates children‟s generalization of

knowledge and skills from one experience to another. Early childhood educators

who successfully implement themes incorporates the principles of DAP. Such

practices form the foundation for effective theme teaching.

How themes and projects contribute to children’s concept development

Using themes and projects to organize young children‟s educational experiences is

not a new idea. It has been a popular teaching method since Dewey first proposed

that curriculum be related to children‟s real-life experiences. Since then, educators

have looked to themes as way to help children gain an overall sense of direction

and consolidation in their learning.

Through participation in theme or project-related activities, children form

connections among individual bits of information. These connections contribute to

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children‟s concept development and are the most important reason to use

themes/projects as part of your program.

Benefits of thematic approach for children

Theme enhances children‟s concept development. Kostelnik, et al (200) enumerate

the following list of advantages that themes and projects provide for young learners.

First, they offer children a means for exploring a central pool of information

through many different avenues. Regardless of whether children prefer small- or

whole-group activities; more or less active modes of interaction; or auditory;

kinesthetic, visual, interpersonal, or intrapersonal experiences, they can gain access

to a topic in ways that suit their individual needs. If one activity is unappealing or

does not match their learning style or fails to fit their capacities, children have other

options for learning about the concept. They may pursue alternative activities

instead, gaining similar insights. This is not the case when ideas are presented only

once or in only one way.

Second, themes and projects encourage children to immerse themselves in a topic.

As youngsters become interested in an idea, they often want to know all about it.

Exploring a theme-based concept satisfies this desire. It also enhances children‟s

disposition to become mentally absorbed in pursuing ideas (Katz & Chard, 2000).

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Keeping the early childhood curriculum varied and interesting is a third value of

theme teaching and projects. Both children and teachers experience a sense of

novelty with each new topic. As themes change, so do props, activities, and

materials, which reinvigorates daily routines.

Fourth, group cohesiveness is promoted when several children focus on a particular

topic simultaneously. Children who have common experiences and knowledge

develop a nucleus of mutual interests that provides a natural context for

cooperative learning. As children discover classmates whose interests match theirs,

their social circles widen. Their perceptions of one another also broaden because

with each theme change different children act as novices and experts; youngsters

who are leaders for one topic may be followers for another. Thus, their patterns of

interaction vary, which allows each child an opportunity to experience different

social roles.

Teachers’ Benefits

By acting as a focus around which to plan, themes and projects help practitioners

organize their thinking choose relevant activities and vocabulary to support

theme/project related goals, and locate resources prior to implementing their plans

Another advantage is that theme teaching and projects enable early childhood

educators to address topics in sufficient breadth and depth to ensure that each

child has had a chance to learn something new. In designing multiple theme- or

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project-related activities across domains, teachers structure the presentation of

concepts more coherently and devise sequential plans that gradually challenge

children‟s thinking

In addition, teachers who approach theme planning appropriately research each

topic, generating a pool of factual information. Doing so increases their knowledge

base as well as the accuracy of the information they provide to children. Further, it

allows practitioners to consider in advance how to handle sensitive issues

associated with the theme and prompts them to think of original activities, a

process that teachers find intellectually stimulating. The collegiality that sometimes

arises when they collaborate with fellow members on developing thematic units or

projects is also pleasing.

A sample of thematic web is graphically presented below.

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American Association of School Administrators (1992) carefully reviewed research

on effective early childhood teaching and came out with a list of tools that a

competent teacher must have in his tool belt among which are acknowledging,

encouragement, giving specific feedback, modelling, demonstrating, creating or

adding challenge, giving a cue, hint, or assisting, providing information, giving

directions and scaffolding.

Holman And Weihart (2002) also recommend that a dynamic teacher can enhance

teaching and learning by adopting learning formats in his approach to teaching and

learning situation. The four types of formats advocated for are as follows: 1.

Learning centres 2. Small group 3. Large group 4. Outside time.

What are learning centres?

Holman and Weihart (2002) define learning centres as independent stations set

up throughout the classroom where children can go to actually engage in

some learning activities. The learning centre approach provides a time when

children explore and practice skills to their own satisfaction. These centres

provide children with hands- on learning, cooperative learning and open-

ended activities. Learning centres should reflect the goal of active learning;

they must not be work stations full of worksheets for pupils to complete.

Learning centres offer opportunity for children to be responsible for their

own learning; this responsibility is the foundation for lifelong learning (Stone,

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1995). This includes the combination of the following centres that are

diagrammatically represented below.

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Figure 5. Source: Adapted from Kostelnik et al (2007). Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum: Best Practices in Early Childhood Education.

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Small Group

It is an unchanging group of children with the same adult. It is a small group time

when the same group of children meet each day with the same adult. It is an

intimate setting where children are given their own materials; make choices about

how to use them, talk to one another and the adult about what they are doing.

Small group time is important because it is an opportunity to build on children

strengths. By planning small group activities around children‟s emerging abilities,

adult can help children consolidate what they are learning. It is an opportunity to

regulate peer contact and interaction. For example, in small group time

drama, little band of children come together to explore the same materials

and as a result of this proximity, children have lots of opportunities to

interact and communicate with one another.

Large Group Time

Large group time involves the entire group of children and all the members

of the adult teaching team. At large group time, children actively manipulate

materials such as props, musical instrument or move their body to music.

They talk about their ideas and observation and receive adult support for

their initiatives.

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Adult plan and initiate participation in large group experiences that are active

rather than passive, move swiftly from one experience to the next and

accommodate children‟s interest and initiatives.

Why is large group time important?

It brings children and adult together for brief periods to exchange

information and do things together thereby building a sense of community.

Large group briefly draws everyone together to look at a new idea or act out

a story. When the day begins and ends in large group, parents can also

participate. Children benefit from group problem solving experiences.

Children may have more ideas for songs to sing than time allows in such

case, adult allows children to resolve the problem by listening to children‟s

suggestion.

Outside Time

What is outside time?

It is an energetic outdoor play time where children have opportunity to run,

jump, throw, swing, climb, dig and ride. It is an opportunity for social play. It

often brings young children together and has socializing effect because they

accommodate more than one child at a time. It is an outdoor setting for

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learning. As they explore and play outdoor, they have many key experiences

e.g music, language and literacy, movement, number, space, etc.

Outside time is important for children because it allows them to express and

exercise themselves in ways that are generally not available to them in

indoor play. It is also a time for children to breathe fresh air, absorb vitamins

from the sun and exercise their hearts, lungs and muscles. Children who are

quiet and shy inside often become more talkative and adventurous outside.

In addition, they experience the natural world in ways that make sense to

them.

On the other hand, it is an opportunity for adult to learn more about

children. At outside time, adult observe, converse and play with children to

learn more about what children can do and what attracts their interest. The

adults‟ role at outside time is very similar to their work-time role. They focus

all their attention on children to understand and support children‟s outdoor

initiatives in a playful, non-managerial way. They examine their beliefs about

how children learn at outside time; help children obtain the materials they

need; observing nature with children and bringing outside time to a close.

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2.7.3 Constructing/Implementing Appropriate Curriculum

National Association for the Education of Young Children does not recommend a

particular curriculum, but whatever curriculum that must be used for children must

address all areas of development and must also not be watered down so as to

leave many children unchallenged, bored or unmotivated. Bredekamp and Copple

(1997) on the other hand emphasise that when next grade expectations of mastery

of basic skills are routinely pushed down to the nursery section and teacher-led

instruction is the dominant teaching strategy; children who cannot sit still and

attend to teacher‟s lecture are tagged as disobedient. More so, pupils who are

bored and unchallenged or frustrated by doing workbook pages for long periods are

mislabelled as immature, disruptive and unready for school.

The NAEYC position statement (1996) therefore advises that in planning and

implementing curriculum, school should implement curriculum that is thoughtfully

planned, challenging, developmentally appropriate, culturally and linguistically

responsive, comprehensive and likely to promote positive outcomes for all young

children. In the same vein, Shephard and Smith (1988) maintain that constructing

and implementing appropriate curriculum requires attention to all areas of

development. This includes a broad range of content across disciplines that are

socially relevant, intellectually engaging and personally meaningful to the children;

building on what the children already know and are able to do. In addition,

Bredekamp and Copple (1997) emphasise that curriculum content that has

intellectual integrity provides opportunities to support children‟s home culture and

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language while also developing all children„s abilities to participate in the shared

culture of the programme and the community.

Research clearly demonstrates that children learn more in programmes where there

is a well-planned and implemented curriculum. A good curriculum is much more

than a collection of activities. It is based on the key outcomes for children, and it

should provide teachers with a useful framework for choosing learning experiences

and materials and for seeing how those fit together to accomplish the outcomes.

Kostelnik et al (2007) describe curriculum is all the organised educational

experiences provided for children by the early childhood school. Formulated with

the framework of developmentally appropriateness, the curriculum described

represents one interpretation of how to educate children aged 3-8. They refer this

curriculum as the Children‟s Comprehensive Curriculum. Children‟s Comprehensive

Curriculum has two purposes: 1. to help children develop the knowledge, skills,

attitudes, and dispositions essential to becoming happy, contributing members of

the society and 2. to give educators the tools necessary to facilitate such learning.

This type of curriculum represents a whole -child approach to teaching. It unites all

understanding of what is with value statement of what ought to be with methods of

achieving these aims. The developmental domains described in this curriculum are

aesthetic, emotional, cognitive, language, physical and social domains.

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Weikart (1998) confirms that this developmental domains curriculum is preferred to

traditional subject matter designations because subject matter alone is not a

sufficient source of curriculum. Too often, it leads to fragmented, isolated skill

development or the exclusion of other kind of knowledge and skills that are

essential to children‟s ultimate success in society. However, all subjects

compartmentalization are subsumed in the developmental domains: e.g art, music

and dance are covered under aesthetic, affective includes not only self awareness

and self esteem, but also independence and a sense of industry, science and maths

are components of cognitive domain. Reading, listening, speaking and writing are

found within the language domain.

On the other hand, several philosophers have emphasized certain materials that

enhance learning goals for children, e.g Froebel‟s gift and Montessori‟s Pink Tower.

When teacher make the assumption that with proper equipment, instructional

aspects of the school will take care of themselves, goals for children‟s learning are

often unspecified and teacher may neglect to challenge children sufficiently; instead

their main focus becomes one of monitoring children for appropriate material use.

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2.7.4 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development

Assessment of children and learning are essential for teachers and programmes in

order to plan, implement, and evaluate the effectiveness of the classroom

experiences they provide. Assessment is also a tool for monitoring children‟s

progress toward a programme‟s desired goals.

In Developmentally Appropriate Programmes, assessment is an integral part of the

curriculum, with teachers continually engaging in observational assessment for the

purpose of improving teaching and learning. Developmentally appropriate

assessment is based on strategic and purposeful assessment of young children‟s

progress and achievements, reflection of assessments progress towards important

learning and developmental goals, tailoring the assessments towards specific

purposes which have been demonstrated to produce reliable, valid information and

identifying, planning appropriate curriculum, teaching as well as using

developmental assessments and observations for children who have learning and

developmental needs (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997; Shephard and Smith, 1988).

Developmentally appropriate assessment is based on the following guidelines:

a. assessment of young children‟s progress and achievements is ongoing,

strategic, and purposeful. The results of assessment are used for the benefit

of children. In adapting curriculum, teaching must meet the developmental

and learning needs of children, communicating with the children‟s family and

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evaluating the programme‟s effectiveness for the purpose of improving the

programme.

b. the content of assessments should reflect progress towards important

learning and developmental goals .

c. the methods of assessment are appropriate to the age and experiences of

young children. Therefore, assessment of children relies heavily on the

results of observations of children‟s development, descriptive data,

collections of representative work by children and demonstrated

performance during authentic, not contrived activities. Input from families as

well as children‟s evaluations of their own work are part of the overall

assessment strategy.

d. assessments are tailored to a specific purpose and used only for the

purpose for which they have been demonstrated to produce reliable and

valid information.

e. decisions that have a major impact on children such as enrolment or

placement are never made on the basis of a single developmental

assessment but are based on multiple sources of relevant information,

particularly observation by teachers and parents.

f. to identify children who have learning and developmental needs and to plan

appropriate curriculum and teaching for them, developmental assessments

and observations are used.

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g. assessment recognizes individual variation in learners and allows for

differences in styles and rates of learning. Assessment takes into

consideration such factors as the child‟s facility in English, stages of

language acquisition, and whether the child has had the time and

opportunity to develop proficiency in his home language as well as in

English.

h. assessment legitimately addresses not only what the children can do

independently but also what they can do with the assistance of other

children or adults. Teachers study children as individual as well as in

relationship to groups by documenting group projects and other

collaborative work.

2.7.5 Establishing reciprocal relationship with families

Developmentally Appropriate Practice derives its knowledge about each child from

the relationship formed with the child‟s family. The younger the child, the more

necessary it is for professionals to acquire this knowledge through relationships

with children‟s families.

Practice is not developmentally appropriate if the programme limits parents‟

involvement to scheduled events or if the programme has a strong parents

education orientation. Parents do not feel like partners in the relationship when

staff members see themselves as having all the knowledge and insight about

children and view parents as lacking such knowledge. Such approaches do not

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adequately convey the complexity of the partnership between teachers and families

that is a fundamental element of good practice.

NAEYC recommended that programmes of shared focus are to be guided by the

following guidelines for practice.

Reciprocal relationship between parents and families require mutual respect,

cooperation shared responsibility and negotiation of conflicts towards

achievement of shared goals.

Early childhood teachers should work in collaborative partnerships with

families, establishing and maintaining regular frequent two-way

communication with children‟s parents.

Parents are welcome in the programme and participate in decisions about

their children‟s care and education.

Teachers acknowledge parents choices and goals for children and respond

with sensitivity and respect to parents preferences for their children.

Teachers and parents share their knowledge of the children and

understanding of children‟s development and learning as part of day to day

communication and planned conferences. Teachers support families in ways

that maximally promote family decision making capabilities and competence.

Teachers, parents, programmes, social services, health agencies and

consultants who may have educational responsibilities for the children at

different times should with family participation share developmental

information about children as they pass from one level or programme to

another.

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2.8 Differences between Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP)

and Developmentally Inappropriate Practice (DIP)

Developmentally Appropriate

Practices

Developmentally Inappropriate

Practices

Creating a caring community of learners

In creating a caring community of learners,

teachers promote positive climate by ensuring

that children function as a group of caring

community of learners. Teachers help and

support children to develop positive relationship

with adults as well as children.

Teacher uses the method of divide and

rule by separating children from their

friends because he wants to maintain

order. Children who lack social skills

are therefore denied the opportunity to

learn from others and neither would

they receive help to develop positive

social skills from others.

Developmentally appropriate programme retain

their teachers for longer period; making it

possible for teachers to get acquainted with

their pupils and at the same time, pupils can

form bond with their teachers.

Composition of the teaching staff

changes from time to time which

denied the children the opportunity to

form bond with teachers and teachers

too find it difficult to know the children

intimately.

To help children develop self confidence and

positive feelings towards learning, teacher

provides opportunity for them to accomplish

meaningful task, and to participate in tasks that

they can succeed most of the time but yet

challenged to work on the edge of their

developing capabilities.

Planned activities often present no real

challenge for children, such as when

children engage in pasting pre-cut

form.

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Teaching to enhance development and learning

Teachers know each child well and design

activities based on their knowledge of individual

children‟s differing abilities, developmental

levels, and approaches to learning.

Responsiveness to individual differences in

children‟s abilities and interests is evident in the

curriculum, adults‟ interactions, and the

environment (where photograhs of children and

their families and children‟s work are displayed

and spaces are provided for personal

belongings).

The curriculum and environment are

essentially the same for each group of

children that comes through the

programme, without adaptation for the

identities, interests, or work of that

group of individuals.

Teachers use many strategies to help build a

sense of the group as a cohesive community.

The children sometimes work on group

activities that all can identify with, such as

creating a mural for the classroom or planning

a surprise event for parents. Teachers engage

children in experiences that demonstrate the

explicit valuing of each child, such as sending a

“We miss you!” card to a sick classmate.

The sense of community is undermined

by teachers‟ behaviours and

techniques. For example, encouraging

or allowing chronic tattling,

scapegoating, teasing, or other

practices that turn children against

each other; or setting up games or

situations in which the same children

are always chosen and less-popular

children are left out.

Teachers bring each child‟s home culture and

language into the shared culture of the school

so that children feel accepted and gain a sense

of belonging. The contributions of each child‟s

family and cultural group are recognized and

Cultural and other individual

differences are ignored. Some children

do not see their language, or culture

reflected in the classroom. So they do

not feel part of the group.

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valued by others. Children learn to respect and

appreciate similarities and differences among

people.

Differences among children are

stressed to such an extent that some

children are made to feel that they do

not fit in.

Recognizing the value of working and playing

collaboratively, teachers provide many

opportunities for children to work in small,

flexible groups that children informally create or

the teacher organizes. Whole-group time is

used as an opportunity to build a sense of

community and shared purpose, such as book

reading, storytelling (about children‟s

experiences), problem-solving as a group, or

taking attendance by asking the group of

children. “Who is absent today?” As each child

encounters what others in the group think, say,

and create, the child‟s own knowledge and

understanding grow and change.

Most of the time, teachers talk to the

whole group or expect all children to

do and presumably learn the same

things at the same time without

attention to their individual needs or

differences or without opportunities to

learn from each other.

Teachers frequently group children or

set up competing teams by age,

gender, or other ways that may

diminish children‟s sense of their being

part of a whole group. Teachers do not

help children develop feelings of caring

and empathy for each other.

Children with disabilities or special learning

needs are included in the classroom socially

and intellectually as well as physically, and

necessary supports are provided to ensure that

their individual needs are met in that context.

As much as possible, children with disabilities

receive therapeutic or other services within

their regular classroom to maintain their sense

of continuity and support their feeling of

belonging to and acceptance by the group.

Children with disabilities or special

learning needs are nomarlly excluded

from mainstream schools.They are

taken to special schools with special

instructors but where they are

absorbed in regular schools, these

children have only a vague sense of

what is happening in their classroom,

and the classroom teacher is unfamiliar

with their educational programme

because she assumes they are getting

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intensive treatment from the special

education teacher.

Teachers plan and prepare a learning

environment that fosters children‟s initiative,

active exploration of materials, and sustained

engagement with other children, adults and

activities. In choosing materials and equipment,

teachers consider children‟s developmental

levels and the social/cultural context, for

instance, the geographic location of the

programme and the background of the

children.

The organization of the environment

severely limits children‟s interaction

with other children and their

opportunities to pursue engaging

learning experiences. For example,

children have to stay in their seats

throughout most of the day or have to

always ask teachers for materials.

Teachers maintain a safe, healthy environment

and careful supervision. They anticipate and

avoid accidents or problems before they occur.

Teachers guard children‟s safety, while also

encouraging children to do what they are

capable of doing for themselves. Teachers

support children‟s age-appropriate risk taking

within safe boundaries.

Teachers are frequently inattentive or

careless about supervising children and

monitoring the safety of the indoor and

outdoor environments.

Teachers organize the daily schedule to allow

for alternating periods of active and quiet time,

adequate nutrition, and naptime (for younger

children). Teachers allocate extended periods of

time (at least one hour) for children to engage

in play and projects. Children have ample time

to explore and learn about the environment,

investigate what sparks their curiosity, and

Teachers schedule frequent transitions

of activity, so children have insufficient

time to become involved in a sustained

investigation, dramatic-play; children‟s

behaviour is restless and frenetic

rather than interested and engaged.

Playtime is provided only for a brief

time early in the morning or late in the

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experiment with cause-and-effect relationships. afternoonr.

Teachers plan a variety of concrete learning

experiences with materials and people relevant

to children‟s own life experiences and that

promote their interest, engagement in learning,

and conceptual development. Materials include,

but are not limited to, blocks and other

construction materials, books and other

language, arts materials, dramatic-play themes

and props, art and modelling materials, sand

and water with tools for measuring, and tools

for simple science activities.

Learning materials are primarily work-

books, ditto sheets and flash cards that

focus on drill and practice rather than

engaging children‟s problem-solving

and other higher-order thinking skills.

Constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum

Teachers provide opportunities for children to

plan and select many of their own activities

from among a variety of learning areas and

projects that are available, based on

programme goals and information gathered

about children‟s varying interests and abilities.

Following their own interests, children choose

from among various activities that typically

include, but are not limited to, dramatic-play

construction, science and/or math experiences,

games and puzzles, books and recordings,

computers, art, and music. Teachers also use

these various materials and experiences in

teacher-planned activities to address learning

goals; for example, a dramatic-play restaurant

The programme provides few or no

opportunities for children‟s choices.

The teacher does much of the activity

for the children, such as cutting shapes

or performing steps in an experiment.

Children‟s alternative ways of doing

things are rejected; copying the adult‟s

model is considered more important.

The same materials are available day

after day. Children have few new

experiences from which to choose,

either in terms of materials or the

degree of challenge.

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theme includes literacy (menus, order forms)

and mathematical materials (play money, cash

register).

Teachers encourage children‟s developing

language and communication skills by talking

with them throughout the day, speaking clearly

and listening to their responses, and providing

opportunities for them to talk to each other.

Teachers engage individual children and groups

in conversations about real experiences,

projects, and current events; they encourage

children to describe their products or ideas, and

they respond attentively to children‟s verbal

initiatives.

Teachers make it a priority to maintain

a quiet environment; they ignore,

reprimand, or punish children for

talking or for not waiting to be called

on. Teacher‟s speech is mostly one-

way-for instance, much more often

telling children what to do than

facilitating back-and-forth exchange

and usually to the group as a whole.

For the most part, teachers address

individual children only to admonish or

discipline them.

In accordance with children‟s developing

capacities, teachers incorporate experiences to

enhance children‟s ability to actively listen and

observe-for instance, children listening to a

peer describe an event and then having the

opportunity to ask questions for clarification or

respond with their own ideas.

Teachers expect attentiveness during

these times, but children often become

restless or tune out.

Children spend a major portion of time

passively sitting and waiting-for

example, during transition time that

are not planned in advance.

Teachers observe and interact with individuals

and small groups in all contexts (including

Children do much paper-and-pencil

seat work of the type in which there

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teacher-planned and child-chosen learning

experiences) to maximize their knowledge of

what children can do and what each child is

capable of doing with and without coaching,

scaffolding, or other supportive new skills or

understanding, teachers select from a range of

strategies, such as asking questions, offering

cues or suggestions, demonstrating a skill,

adding more complex materials or ideas to a

situation, or providing an opportunity for

collaborating with peers.

are only right or wrong answers. Thus

teachers have little idea about the

proves of children‟s problem-solving or

their specific areas of difficulty and

competence. As a result, teachers do

not know how to help children who do

not understand and are frustrated or

how to further challenge children who

get the problem “right”.

Teachers stimulate and support children‟s

engagement in play and child-chosen activities.

Teachers extend the child‟s thinking and

learning within the child-initiated activities by

posing problems, asking questions, making

suggestions, adding complexity to tasks, and

providing information, materials, and assistance

as needed to enable a child to consolidate

learning and to move to the next level of

functioning.

During children‟s play and choice

activities, teachers assume a passive

role, contributing little or nothing to

children‟s play and learning. Teachers

see the outside time as a period to rest

or do other important things.

Teachers provide many opportunities for

children to plan, think about, reflect on, and

revisit their own experiences. Teachers engage

children in discussion and representation

activities (such as dictating, writing, drawing, or

modeling in clay), which help children refine

their own concepts and understanding and help

the teacher understand what children know and

Feeling pressed to cover the curriculum

and believing that returning to the

same topic or experience is a waste of

time, teachers present a topic only

once and fail to provide the revisiting

opportunities that make fuller, more

refined understanding possible.

Teacher makes no room for children to

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think; for example, teachers use children‟s own

hypotheses about how the world works to

engage them in problem solving and

experimentation.

recall and reflect on activities they just

concluded.

Teachers facilitate the development of social

skills, self-control, and self-regulation in

children by using positive guidance techniques,

such as modelling and encouraging expected

behaviour redirecting children to more

acceptable activities, setting clear limits, and

intervening to enforce consequences for

unacceptable, harmful behaviour. Teachers are

patient, realizing that not every minor infraction

warrants a response.

Teachers spend a great deal of time

punishing unacceptable behaviour,

demeaning children who misbehave,

repeatedly putting the same children

who misbehave in time-out or some

other punishment unrelated to the

action, or refereeing disagreements.

Teachers do not set clear limits and do

not hold children accountable to

standards of acceptable behaviour. The

environment is chaotic, and teachers

do not help children set and learn

important rules of groups behaviour

and responsibility.

Curriculum goals address learning in all

developmental areas-physical, social,

emotional, language, aesthetic, and intellectual.

Curriculum goals are narrowly focused

on a few dimensions of the child‟s

development or on one dimension at a

time, without recognition that all areas

of a child‟s development are

interrelated.

Curriculum content from various disciplines,

such as math, science, or social studies, is

integrated through themes, projects, play, and

other learning experiences, so children develop

children‟s learning and cognitive

development are seen as occurring in

separate content areas, and times are

set aside to teach each subject without

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an understanding of concepts and make

connections across disciplines. for example, in

exploring patterns in math, children use art,

music, objects in nature, pegboards, blocks and

other materials.

integration.

The curriculum plan is designed to help children

explore and acquire the key concepts and tools

of inquiry of the various disciplines in ways that

are comprehensive and accessible for their age.

For example, science experiments include

opportunities in which children explore and

directly observe changes and phenomena.

Teachers are knowledgeable about the

continuum of development and learning for

preschool children in each content area. For

example, teachers understand the continuum of

emerging literacy and support individual

children as they learn to recognize letter names

and initial sounds and to hear and generate

rhyming words.

Curriculum content lacks intellectual

integrity and is trivial, unimportant,

and unworthy of children‟s attention.

Curriculum expectations are too low,

underestimating children‟s cognitive

capacity.

Curriculum expectations are not well

matched to children‟s intellectual

capacities and developmental

characteristics, so children do not

understand what is being taught.

Teachers fail to recognize the

continuum of learning in the discipline

areas and how these apply to children

in this age range. For example,

teachers expect children to perform the

task of addition before they understand

one-to-one correspondence and other

fundamentals of number.

Teachers plan and implement a coherent

curriculum to help children achieve important

developmental and learning goals. They draw

on their knowledge of the content, what is

likely to interest children of that age, and the

Teachers rigidly follow a prescribed

curriculum plan (sometimes

commercially prepared or adopted by a

school) without giving attention to

individual children‟s interests and

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context of the children‟s experiences. They also

recognize that learning experiences are more

effective when the curriculum is responsive to

the children‟s interests and ideas as they

emerge.

needs or the specific and challenging

context. For example, regardless or

where the school is located or the local

wheather conditions, children should

be taught season at the appropriate

time.

Teacher plan curriculum that is responsive to

the specific context of children‟s experiences.

Culturally diverse and nonsexist activities and

materials are provided to help individual child

develop positive self-identify, to construct

understanding of new concepts by building on

prior knowledge and creating shared meaning,

and to enrich the lives of all children with

respectful acceptance and appreciation of

differences and similarities. Books and pictures

include people of different races, ages, and

abilities, and of both genders in various roles.

Children‟s cultural and linguistic

backgrounds and other individual

differences are ignored or treated as

deficit to be overcome.

Multicultural curriculum reflects a

“tourist approach” in which the

artifacts, food, or other particulars of

different cultures are presented

without meaningful connections to the

children‟s own experiences. Some

children‟s cultural traditions are noted

in ways that convey that they are

exotic or deviations from the “normal”

majority culture.

Teachers use a variety of approaches and

provide daily opportunities to develop children‟s

language and literacy skills through meaningful

experiences, such as listening to and reading

stories and poems; taking field trips; dictating

stories, seeing classroom charts and other print

in use; participating in dramatic play and other

experiences requiring communication; talking

informally with other children and adults; and

In reading and writing instruction,

teachers follow a rigid sequence of

prerequisites; for example, children do

not have experiences with books or

other meaningful text until they have

mastered the whole set of

predetermined phonics skills. A single

approach is used for all children

regardless of what some can already

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experimenting with writing by drawing, copying

and using their own “invented” spelling. Adults

read to children every day in various contexts,

such as lap book reading to individuals, guided

reading to small groups, as well as occasional

large-group story time. Children have

opportunities to develop print awareness, sense

of appreciation for literature, and

understanding of the various uses of the

written word, while learning particular letter

names and letter-sound combinations and

recognizing words that are meaningful to them

(such as their names, names of friends,

phrases like “I love you”, and commonly seen

functional words like exit).

do. For instance, letters are introduced

one at a time and with insufficient

context in words; some children are

bored because they already know all

the letters, and other children are

confused because they cannot make

sense of isolated bits of information.

Teachers use a variety of strategies to help

children develop concepts and skills in

mathematics, science, social studies, health and

other content areas through a variety of

meaningful activities. For example, teachers

design activities for children to seek solutions to

concrete problems; construct with blocks;

measure sand, water, or ingredients for

cooking; observe and record changes in the

environment; work with wood and tools;

classify objects for a purpose; explore animals,

plants, water, wheels, and gears; use art

media, music, movement, and other modes to

represent what they see, understand, and feel;

Instruction focuses only on isolated

skills development through

memorization and rote, such as circling

an item on a worksheet, memorizing

facts, reciting in unison, or drilling with

flash cards.

Teachers are inattentive or uninvolved

in children‟s play and do not look for

opportunities to support intellectual

development during play activities and

daily routines.

Children‟s supervision are delegated to

less qualified staff to do so that

teachers can rest.

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learn and practice routines of healthy living.

Children have daily opportunities for aesthetic

expression and appreciation through art and

music. Children experiment and enjoy various

forms of dramatic play, music, and dance. A

variety of art media, such as markers, crayons,

paints, and clay, are available for creative

expression and representation of ideas and

feelings.

Art and music are seen only as

diversions or once-a-week activities,

disconnected from the goals and

activities of the rest of the programme.

Teachers fail to help children acquire

the knowledge and skills inherent in art

and music.

Art and music are provided only when

time permits. Art consists of colouring

pre-drawn forms, copying an adult-

made model of a product, or following

other adult-prescribed directions.

Children have opportunities throughout the day

to move freely and use large muscles in

planned movement activities. Planned indoor

and outdoor activities, involving balancing,

running, jumping, and other vigorous

movements, are provided to increase the child‟s

understanding of movement and to support

gross-motor development.

Opportunity for large-muscle activity

(in-door or outdoor) is limited to once

a day or less. Outdoor time is limited

because it is viewed as interfering with

instructional time.

Reciprocal relationship with parents

Teachers work in partnership with parents

communicating regularly to build mutual

understanding and ensure that children‟s

learning and developmental needs are met.

Teachers and parents work together to make

Teachers communicate with parents

only about conflicts and problems.

Teachers blame parents when children

have difficulty and demand that

parents punish their children at home

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decision on how best to support children‟s

learning and development or to handle

problems or differences of opinion as they

arise. Parents are always welcome to the school

and home visits by teachers are encouraged.

for infractions.

Teachers view parents visit to school

as intrusive and discourage parents

from visiting.

Programme policies

Teachers are qualified to work in pre-school

and kindergarten children as a result of college-

level preparation in early childhood education

or child development and supervised

experience with this age group. Teachers

engage in ongoing professional development

activities. Time and opportunities are available

for teachers to plan, reflect on their practices,

and collaborate with colleagues

Teachers lack early childhood

professional preparation and do not

engage in on-going professional

development. Teachers with no

specialized training are viewed as

qualified to work with children because

they possess general education

certificates.

Figure 6. Source: Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Education Programme

2.9 Indicators of a Developmentally Appropriate Programme

2.9.1 Staff Qualification

Teachers working with children are expected to have as much general education or

specific training in child development, health and safety education because

educated caregivers are more likely to promote the physical, mental, health, safety

and cognitive development of the children in their care. Caregivers with early

childhood education degrees or certification provide better service than a provider

with a degree in an unrelated field. In the words of Berks (as cited by Fiene, 2002),

caregivers with college education have children who are more compliant and

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socially competent. They encourage children more, exhibit more teacher direction

and engage in less destructive behaviour with children than do high school

educated caregivers. Similarly, teachers with more education are more likely to

continue in child care employment which promotes attachment and social

development in children. This is important as children who have stable caregivers

are more likely to engage in social activities, spend less time aimlessly wandering

around the centre and are more likely to display secure attachment which is a

major component of later healthy personal/social development (Whitebook, Howes

and Philips, 1989; Hayes, Palmer and Zaslow, 1990). They also engage children in

interaction that expand upon and extend children‟s ongoing activities and promote

the development of verbal skills (Berk 1985).

2.9.2 Staff Training/Development Indicators

Training develops a caregiver‟s skill in working with children. Caregivers who

receive specialized training are better able to facilitate a positive learning and

socialization environment and tend to have children who are compliant, more

cooperative, less aggressive and who exhibit less negative behaviour with an

unfamiliar peer (Kontos and Dunn, 1994). When caregivers receive more training,

they tend to stimulate children‟s cognitive and language development and have

children with more cognitive competence who display more complex cognitive play

(Kontos and Dunn, 1994). Caregivers that receive specialized training in facilitating

language interactions, will have such interactions, increase in frequency thereby

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resulting in children‟s accelerated language acquisition (Tennnat, McNaughton &

Glynn, 1988).

2.9.3 Staff/ Child and Group Size Indicator

Review of major researches in child care clearly demonstrates the importance of

maintaining appropriate staff/ child and group sizes. Staff/child and group sizes are

two of the most appropriate indicators for determining the quality of a child care

programme and they significantly affect many other health and safety issues. Small

group of children is associated with lower risk of infection in childcare. Lower child/

staff ratio reduces the transmission of disease. Available researches suggest that

fewer children per adult reduces the transmission of disease because caregivers are

better able to monitor and promote healthy practices and behaviour (Bredekamp,

1990; Hayes, Palmer, and Zaslow 1990).

2.9.4 Outdoor Playground Indicator

Hohman and Weikart (2002) describe outdoor/outside time as an energetic outdoor

play time where children have opportunity to run, jump, throw, swing, climb, dig

and ride. It is an opportunity for social play. It often brings young children together

and have socializing effect because they accommodate more than one child at a

time. It is an outdoor setting for learning. As children explore and engage in

outdoor play, they have many key experiences e.g music, language and literacy,

movement, number, space, etc. Ajiduah (1998) describes outdoor time for children

from the psychological point of view and asserts that it helps to recharge their

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body, enhance the removal of unwanted metabolism from the body, recharge the

fatigue brain cell and predispose it to intellectual activities. Hohman et al (2002)

advise that adult can support outside time by helping children obtain materials they

need; observing nature with children; examining their belief about how young

children learn and bringing outside time to a close.

In a developmentally appropriate programme, Fiene (2002) gives a description of

an appropriate outdoor play area which shall be:

“enclosed with a fence or natural barriers. The barrier shall be at least 4 feet

in height and the bottom edge shall be no more than 3 ½ inches off the

ground. There shall be at least two exits from such areas, with at least one

remote from the buildings. Gates shall be equipped with self-closing and

positive self-latching closure mechanisms. Outdoor play equipment shall be

of safe design and in good repair. Climbing equipment and beings shall be

set in concrete footings located below ground surface (at least 6 inches).

Swings shall have soft or flexible seats. Access to play equipment shall be

limited to age groups for which the equipment is developmentally

appropriate. All pieces of playground equipment shall be designed to match

the body dimensions of children. All pieces of playground equipment shall be

installed so that an average adult will not be able to cause a fixed structure

to wobble or trip.”

Fiene (2002) also recommended that the playground equipment shall be checked

on a monthly basis for the ends of tubing that requires covering with plugs or caps.

a) visible cracks, bending or warping, rusting, or breakage of any equipment.

b) deformation of open hooks, shackles, rings, links, and so forth.

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c) worn swings hangers and chains. (d) missing, damaged, or loose swing seats.

e). broken supports or anchors. (f) cement support footings that are exposed,

cracked, or loose in the ground. (g) accessible sharp edges or points.

(h) exposed bolt ends that have lost caps or covers. ( j) loose bolts, nuts, and

so forth that require tightening. (k) splintered, cracked, or otherwise

deteriorating wood. (l) lack of lubrication on moving parts. (m) worn

bearings or other mechanical parts. (n) broken or missing rails, steps, rungs,

or seats. (o) worn or scattered surfacing material. (p) hard surfaces,

especially under swings, slides, and so forth (e.g., places where resilient

material has been shifted away from any surface underneath play equipment).

(q) chipped or peeling paint. (r) pinch or crush points, exposed mechanisms,

juncture, and moving components.

Wardle (1989) notes that an early childhood environment that lacks indoor gross

motor play space and developmentally appropriate outdoor play equipment places a

low priority on physical development in its curriculum.

2.9.5 Hand Washing Indicator

Kendall and Moukaddem (1993) confirm that hand washing is the most effective

way to interpret the transmission of infectious diseases that are spread through

fecal-oral route. They pointed out that the two key issues to note about hand

washing are: (1) rubbing hands together thoroughly with soap creates a rich lather

that helps to loosen germs, and (2) rinsing hands thoroughly with water rinses

germs off the skin. They reiterate the fact that because young children love water,

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it isn‟t difficult for them to wash correctly. Washing hands takes time and energy

and should be acknowledged if hand washing is to be successfully implemented.

Facilities that are not conducive to convenient hand washing for adults and children

can discourage this healthy practice. Caregivers who are frequently interrupted with

spontaneous demands on their time and energy are likely distracted and forget, or

be able to wash hands as needed but the consequences of failing to wash hands

frequently can be serious. Adults and children may contract hepatitis A unless

scrupulous washing procedures are followed.

Other studies of May, Niffenegger, Mohle-Boetani, Stapleton, Finger, Bean, Blake, &

Griffin (as cited by Fiene, 2002) clearly demonstrate that hand washing has been

recognized as one way to manage the spread of infectious diseases in child care

centres. Poor hand washing among school children can promote the spread of

infections like cold sores and in schools.

National Resource Centre for Health and Safety in Child Care, University of

Colorado (2002) recommended that washing of hands should be done at least at

the following times and whenever hands are contaminated with body fluids: before

food preparation, handling, or serving; after toilet or changing diapers; after

assisting a child with toilet use; before handling food; before any food serving

activity (including setting the table); before or after eating meals or snacks and

after handling pets or other animals.

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Although the NAEYC document contains many examples of appropriate and

inappropriate practice, Gullo, Hart, Burts, & Charlesworth, D.F. Miller, (as cited by

Kostelnik et al 1993) listed ten fundamental practices that characterize

Developmentally Appropriate Programme. These are as follows:

They address the whole child: In a Developmentally Appropriate

Programme, early childhood professionals address child development and

learning from a holistic perspective, creating curricula to meet children‟s

emotional, social, cognitive, and physical needs.

Individualizing the programme to suit particular children:

Programme planning and implementations are adapted to meet the different

needs, levels of functioning, and interests of children in the group.

Recognizing the importance of child-initiated activity: Children are

active decision makers in the learning process. Teachers accept a wide range

of constructive child responses.

Recognizing the significance of play as a vehicle for learning: Play is

valued and facilitated both indoors and outdoors.

Creating flexible, stimulating classroom environments: Teachers

actively promote children‟s learning, using direct and indirect instruction as

appropriate.

Using an integrated curriculum: Programme content and curriculum

areas (e.g, science, math, literacy, and social studies) are combined in the

context of daily activities.

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Learning by doing: Children engage in concrete experience with real

materials. The activities in which they participate are relevant and

meaningful to them.

Giving children choices about what and how they learn: Teachers

provide a wide range of activities and materials from which children may

choose and within which children pursue educational goals in many ways.

Continually assessing individual children and the program as a

whole: Practitioners use a variety of assessment strategies, including formal

and informal techniques; not only for the sake of the children and to plan

instruction for individual and groups, but to communicate with families, to

identify children who need intervention and to inform programme

development. Standardized assessment is deemphasized in favour of

performance-based documentation.

Forming partnerships with families: Parents and other significant family

members are valued as partners and decision makers in the education

process. Their involvement in their children‟s education is viewed as

desirable and essential.

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2.10 Benefits of Developmentally Appropriate Practice for Children

Since publication of NAEYC‟s guideline (1978), many researchers have begun to

conduct studies that are relevant to the current childhood academic debate.

Several researchers have investigated the relationship between early childhood

environments and children‟s developmental outcomes. In many cases,

environments that emphasize a more child-centred approach have been found to

have a positive influence on educational outcomes. These areas include academic

achievement, cognitive development, motivational development and social-

emotional development.

In regards to academic achievement, studies have revealed that children who

attended preschool, kindergarten, and even elementary programme that

incorporated more developmentally appropriate approaches: a) mastered more

basic academic skills (Maron, 1992, 1993, 1994; Slaughter & Powers, 1983); b)

demonstrated increased performance in reading achievement (Burts, et al., 1993;

Freppon & Mclntre, 1999; Rose & Medway, 1981; Sherman & Mueller, 1996

c)demonstrated increased performance in writing achievement (Freppon, 1995 and

d) demonstrated increased performance in Mathematical achievement (Pellegrini,

1992, Rose & Medway, 1981; Sherman &Mueller, 1996).

Other studies revealed that the children attending more child-centred programmes:

a exhibited improved cognitive development (Frede, Austin, & Lindauer, 1993; b)

scored higher on creativity (Marcon, 1992; Slaughter & Powers, 1983; c)

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demonstrated improved language skills (Dunn, et al., 1994; Marcon, 1992; Rose &

Medway, 1981; Sherman & Mueller 1996; Slaughter & Powers 1983; d) exhibited

better listening skills (Dunn, Beach, & Kontos, 1994, Marcon, 1994; and

e)demonstrated improved problem-solving skills (Spidell-Rusher et al., 1992).

In regards to socio-emotional and motivational development, (DeVries, Reese-

Leamed, & Morgan, 1991; Frede, Austin, & Lindauer, 1993; Freppon & McIntyre,

1999; Gottlieb & Rasher, 1995; Jones & Gullo, 1999; Pellegrini, 1992; Rose &

Medway, 1981); ( as cited by Philips, 2004) assert that children who participated in

more developmentally appropriate environments are: a) rated higher in social

competence skills (i.e., cooperation, sharing, and self control b) demonstrated more

motivational behaviours (Marcon, 1992; Rose & Medway, 1981; c) Stírek, 1993;

Stírek, et al., 1995; Tumer, 199; d) demonstrated greater autonomy (Spidell-

Rusher, et al., 1992; Stírek, et al., 1995; e) demonstrated more positive attitudes

toward later school (Hyson, et a1., 1990; f) demonstrated more curiosity and

inventiveness (MilIer & Bizzell, 1983; and g) demonstrated more positive attitudes

towards reading (Freppon & Mclntyre, 1999). In Stírek, et al. (1995), children

attending more child-centered preschools and kindergarten programmes were

compared to children attending more academic-based programmes in the areas of

basic skill achievement and motivation. This study found that children in child-

centered programmes rated their abilities higher, had higher expectations for

success on school-like tasks, selected a more challenging math problem to do,

show less dependency on adults for permission and approval, evidenced more pride

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in their accomplishments, and claimed to worry less about school (Stipek, et al.,

1995).

On the contrary, environments that emphasize a more academic, performance-

based approach have been found to have a negative influence on educational

outcomes. Areas affected include academic achievement, social-emotional

development, and motivational development. In regards to academic achievement,

several studies have found a negative relationship between a more developmentally

inappropriate learnng environment and children's performance (i.e Bryant,

Burchinal, Lau, & Sparling, 1994; Freude & Barnett, 1992; Hirsh-Pasek, et.al., 1990;

Mantzicopoulos & Neuharth-Pritchett, 1995; Pellegrini, 1992). For example, in a

two-year study conducted by Hirsh-Pasek, et al., (1990), researchers examined the

impact "high and low academic programmes" in 11 different schools had on young

children as they began preschool and completed kindergarten. One measure of the

study was to look specifically at the programmes‟ effect on academic achievement,

creativity, and motivation. Researchers found that highly academic preschool

programmes had “virtually no positive effects” for the children. Any advantage that

was noticed had disappeared by the end of kindergarten. Highly academic

preschool programmes were "related to less creativity, higher levels of test anxiety,

and less positive attitude towards school". Hirsh-Pasek, et al., (1990) confirmed

that if a more formal approach "has no clear benefit to the child's development and

if it may hinder development, there may be no defendable reason to encourage the

introduction of formal academic instruction and adult-focused learning during the

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preschool years”. Despite the initial increase in academic achievement, several

studies have also found that the programme effect fades over time (i.e., Cole, Mills,

& Dale, 1989; De Vries, et al., 1991; Lazar & Darlington, 1982).

Other research supports these fore-mentioned findings particularly in the area of

motivation. Children who experienced a less developmentally appropriate early

childhood programme: a) demonstrated less positive attitudes about school

(Freppon, 1995; Hirsh-Pasek, et.al., 1990; Hyson, Van Trieste, & Rauch, 1989;

Pellegrini, 1992; Stipek, 1993); b) experienced increased levels of test anxiety

(Fleege, Charlesworth, Burts, & Hart, 1993; Hirsh-Pasek, et al.,1990; c)

demonstrated lower self-esteem (Fry & Addington, 1984); d) demonstrated more

passive behaviour (Freppon, 1995; e) scored lower on behavioural evaluations

(Mantzicopoulos & Neuharth-Pritchett, 1995; Marcon,1994; f) demonstrated less

confidence in ability (Fry & Addington, 1984; g) demonstrated less ability to

problem-solving (Fry & Addington,1984; and d) demonstrated more stress-related

behaviours (Bentley & Wilson, 1989; Burts, et al., 1990; DeWolf, 1992; Fleege, et

al., 1993; Fry & Aďdington, 1984; Hart, Burts, Durland, Charlesworth, DeWolf, &

Fleege, 1998; Honig, 1986; Love, Ryer, & Faddis, 1992; Ruckman, Burts, & Pierce,

1999; Stipek, et al., 1992a; Some of the observed stress-related behaviours

included nail biting, yawning, clothes chewing, pencil tapping, mumbling, stuttering,

fidgeting, and even crying (Burts, et al., 1990; Fleege, et al., 1993).

In Burts et. al (1990), many of these stress-related behaviours were observed

during whole group instruction and individual, seatwork experiences. In several

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studies that examined gender effect, boys experienced more stress than girls in

more developmentally inappropriate classrooms (Burts, et al., 1992; Burts, et al,

1990; Hart, et al, 1998; Marcon, 1993). For example, Marcon (1993) conducted a

comparative study that examined the effects "academically-focused versus socio

emotional" kindergarten environments had on children's academic achievement and

development. Classrooms that emphasized primarily whole-class, skill-based

instruction "indicated the generally detrimental impact of an overal academic

emphasis on young boys' development". In this study, boys tended to respond

better to "moderately academic" programmes that valued all developmental

domains, rather than just cognitive (Marcon, 1993, p. 88). Boys in this study made

gains in several areas, including: a) communication skills; b) gross and fine motor

skills; and c) reading, Mathematics, and language achievement (Marcon, 1993).

Marcon (1993) expressed the view that "moderately academic kindergartens that

value socio-emotional development may provide the most appropriate transitional

experience for children as they move from developmentally appropriate preschool

experiences to the reality of formal instructional public school classrooms, at least

until more public schools become developmentally appropriate havens of learning".

Several studies have examined the long-term effects of different curriculum models

on young children‟s overall achievement and development. For example,

Schweinhart, et al. (1986) examined the long-term impact of three different

preschool curriculum model s, inc1uding the High/Scope Model, the Distar Model,

and a Nursery School Model. High/Scope is an open framework preschool program

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that focuses on cognitive developmental experiences. DISTAR is a teacher-directed

preschool program that focuses on pre-academic skills. Nursery School is a child-

centered preschool program that values play and focuses on the needs and

interests of the children. Children who attended these programs were interviewed

at age 15. Results indicated that IQ and achievement differed little among the three

groups. However, the group that participated in the Distar programme reported

engagement in twice as many delinquent acts, such as property violence, personal

violence, and drug abuse, as the other two groups. This group also reported poor

relations with their families, less participation in sports, and fewer emp 1997),

researchers found that these same children at age 23 reported: a) higher rates of

misconduct; higher felony arrests; c) higher property crimes; d) lower participation

in community service e) fewer marriages; and f) lower college graduation rates.

However, the researchers recognize that it would probably be a mistake to

conclude that DISTAR caused these problems. As the researchers explained, we are

inclined to believe that the preschool DISTAR experience did not actually harm the

children‟s social development. After all, the programme‟s major goals were

academic. It is reasonable, therefore, to find few if any social-behaviour effects,

positive or negative. The point is that the other two preschool curriculum

approaches in this study did have social-behaviour goals and did appear to produce

favourable long-term social effects indicated by lower rates of juvenile delinquency

and other social-behaviour problems, as well as equivalent academic outcomes.

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They further concluded that young children appear to learn from both their

relationship to the teacher and peers and the manner in which knowledge is

gained. While the knowledge that young children gain for themselves in several

curriculum approaches may appear to be the same as the knowledge that is

dispensed to the child, the social consequences for the child may be very different

(Schweinhart, et al., 1986).

In conclusion, although a few studies have shown little or no difference from

attending DAP programmes (Hyson et. al., 1990), most studies support the positive

impact of attending a more developmentally appropriate learning environment.

Despite this fore-mentioned body of evidence, there exists an amount of research

that supports the positive impact that more structured, teacher-directed learning

environments have on children‟s various learning domains.

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2.11 Teacher Competency

Passos (2009) asserts that there are two distinct meanings of competence in

education. From a theoretical point of view, competence is understood as a

cognitive structure that facilitates specified behaviours. From an operational point

of view, competence seems to cover a broad range of higher- order skills and

behaviours that represent the ability to deal with complex, unpredictable situations.

This operational definition includes knowledge, skills, attitudes, metacognition and

strategic thinking, and presupposes conscious and intentional decision making.

Westera (2009) went further to say that competencies have a mental component

involving thought and a behavioural component involving competent

performance.But our understanding of the true nature of competence should go

beyond the aspects of knowledge, skills and attitudes, because something extra

seems to be necessary to ensure effective and efficient performance.

Edmund Short (as cited by So Wing-mui et al 1996) attempted to clarify the

confusion by presenting four different conceptions of competence. Firstly,

competence is taken as behaviour or performance, the doing of a particular thing

independent of purpose or intent. Secondly, competence is taking as command of

knowledge or skills, involving choosing and knowing why the choice is appropriate.

Thirdly competency can be seen as the level of capability which has been

insufficient through some judicious and public process and this sufficient indicator

may fluctuate since it involves a value judgement. Fourthly competence involves

the quality of a person or state of being, including more than characteristic

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behaviours; performance, knowledge, skills, levels of sufficiency and anything else

that may seem relevant.

Gonzales and Wagenaar (2005) asserted that competencies represent a dynamic

combination of knowledge, understanding, skills, abilities and values that are key to

effectiveness and lead to superior performance in work. Adegoke (2003) defined

competency as the ability to cope with a certain class of problems encountered on

the job or in a work or any desired activity. Houstan (1987) asserted that

competencies are the requirements of a competency based teacher education,

which include knowledge, skills and values the trainee teacher, must demonstrate

for successful completion of the teacher education programme. Competency

education is more than just scholastic or academic achievements. It pertains to how

well the educational system prepares the students to become responsible citizens

and instils in them attitudes and moral values relevant to a modern society.

Houstan went further to describe the characteristics of competencies as follows:

“Competency consists of one or more skills whose mastery

would influence the attainment of other competencies; has its

linkage with the domains of knowledge, skill and attitude which

under performance can be assessed; competencies are

observable, demonstrable and measurable and as a result It is

possible to assess competency from the performance of a

teacher.”

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Fostering these competencies is the object of any educational programme. Zgaga,

(2006), Rajovic & Radulovic (2007) enjoined that teacher education should

therefore be oriented towards development of key competencies in subjects and

educational matters and provision of practical experiences.

Oke (1990) summarized the characteristics of a competent teacher as:

“ability to plan lessons that enable students to relate

new learning to prior understanding and experience;

develop rapport and personal interaction with students ;

establish and maintain rules and routines that are fair

and appropriate to students ; arrange the physical and

social conditions in the classroom in ways that are

conducive to learning and that fit the academic task;

assess students learning using a variety of measurement

tools and adapt instruction according to the responses in

order to improve their teaching.”

Examples of competencies required of a teacher are: adaptability, commitment,

creativity, motivation, foresight, leadership, independence, emotional stability,

analytical reasoning and communication skills.

A crucial element in providing quality child care services is the quality of the staff

(Ruopp et al., 1979). As part of a larger effort to provide a comprehensive

competency- based, the division of human resource at the University of Southern

Maine conducted a study of child care teachers to identify the job responsibilities

and the competencies needed for effective performance. The study drew on

information from the teachers themselves and provided new insights into what it

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takes to be an effective child care teacher. Nineteen competencies were identified.

Eight of the competencies (the optimal ones) distinguished the advanced teachers

from the beginning teachers. These included skill in creating a safe psychological

environment, breadth of perspective, programme management, building

cooperative professional relationships, initiative, self- confidence, empathy and non-

verbal understanding. The remaining eleven competencies (the required ones) were

displayed with approximately equal frequencies by both groups. They were: skill in

classroom control and discipline, skill in providing stimulation for children, skill in

communicating with young children, observational skill, pattern recognition,

diagnostic skill, building trust and rapport with families, ability to maintain own

equilibrium, setting limits and boundaries, self –development and job commitment

(Bernotavics 1995).

2.12 Importance of Teacher Competence

Houstan (1987) believes that competencies are the requirements of a competency

based teacher education, which include knowledge, skills and values the trainee

teacher, must demonstrate for successful completion of the teacher education

programme. Samplelesson (2009) echoes that as global business competition shifts

from efficiency to innovation and from enlargement of scale to creation of values,

management needs to be oriented towards the strategic use of human resources.

Teacher education must therefore be directed towards creating values for the

society and for themselves.

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Howie and Plomp (as cited by Passos 2009) affirm that teachers are the key players

on the educational stage and as such are expected to make up for the deficiencies

in the curriculum and in educational resources. The success of any educational

enterprise is therefore believed to hinge on the quality of teaching that goes on in

the classrooms. This claim means that from the professional point of view, the

competence of a teacher is important; as successful teaching and learning depends

on it. Storey (2006) emphasised this importance when he stated that competencies

are essential for the well-being of teachers; as those teachers who are less

competent will be less satisfied with their jobs, less efficient and with lower well-

being. This will definitely impact the teaching process with its outcomes in pupils.

To highlight the effects of competency on pupils‟-learning outcomes, National

Association for the Education of Young Children (2008) supported the opinion that

children benefit most when their teachers have higher levels of formal education

and specialized early childhood professional preparation. Teachers who have

specific preparation, knowledge and skills in child development and early childhood

education are more likely to engage in warm, positive interactions with children,

offer richer language experiences and create more high-quality learning

environments.

The importance of teachers‟ competence cannot be overemphasised as Okebukola

(2009) buttresses this point that no nation can hope for a top quality education

system as long as her schools are manned by second-rate teachers. More so, since

the quality of teachers is largely dependent on the quality of training they received

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before entering the profession (pre-service) and while they are on the job (in-

service). In the same vein, Logan, Ellet and Nail (as cited by Oke , 1990) posites

that “the entrance of teachers with inadequate knowledge base into the teaching

and learning enterprise (that is those that are unable to perform pre-active,

interactive and post active task, of teaching in a competent manner) may place

learners at the risk of educational failure.”

2.13 Indicators of Teacher Competency

Competency indicators are necessary as they enable School Operators to detect

dispositional qualities in screening new job applicants and they also help the

trainees to give focus on specific areas of professional development. Nations

around the world seem to have similar characteristics of competences expected of

their teachers as noted in the North Carolina Professional teaching standard, Florida

core competences for Early care and Education Practitioners, University of Alabama

Teacher Candidate Competency Indicators. The key competences discussed in this

study are the core competencies generally required of teachers in any levels of

education. These core competences are: Content Mastery, Pedagogical Expertise,

Critical/Reflective Thinking, Effective Communication, Professionalism and

Leadership.

Content Mastery

Effective teachers are expected to demonstrate a thorough understanding of the

content of their curricular areas. They know their subjects considerably beyond the

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content they are expected to teach, and know how professionals in their field think

and analyze the world.

Competent teachers have strong background in the subjects related to their

specialty area; understand major concepts, assumptions, debates, processes of

inquiry, and ways of knowing that are central to the discipline they teach. They

should be able to communicate this content material to students using

methodologies that are appropriate for the age and abilities of the learners.

With regards to curriculum design and implementation, teachers understand

content knowledge in Early Childhood Education and they know the link among the

subjects they teach. Competent teachers design and implement curriculum to

support cognitive development and general knowledge by asking children relevant

open-ended questions about their surroundings and actively listening to their

responses. They encourage child-centred play that takes into account the interests

of children; provide opportunities to develop mathematical and scientific thinking

through use of manipulative, tools, blocks, puzzles, sensory activities and

sequencing activities.

They equally provide a variety of materials including materials that can be

manipulated and used in a variety of ways to encourage imagination and creativity.

Competent teachers are able to design and implement a curriculum to support

physical health and motor development of children. They do this by closely

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supervising and interacting with children during physical activities and assisting

with fine and gross motor skill development activities indoors and outdoors.

Furthermore, they design and implement a curriculum to support social and

emotional development by engaging in communication and developing individual

relationships with children; foster positive interactions among children; support

children‟s participation in age and ability appropriate group activities; encourage

age- appropriate emotional expression; identify ways young children express and

communicate both verbally and non-verbally.

Communication Skills

Not only should teachers exhibit the skills necessary for communicating ideas

clearly to pupils, but they must also communicate with parents, other teachers,

their administrators and their communities. They must be open, approachable and

diplomatic in conveying information. In a technologically oriented world, these

teachers will use contemporary modes of communication like email and interactive

websites in addition to traditional means of communication.

Professionalism

Teacher excellence is reflected in professionals‟ efforts towards continual

improvement in his field. Professional teachers are marked by their personal

presentation, reflection, collaboration, the desire to advance and adaptability.

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These teachers believe students can learn, instil a love of learning and self-

confidence based on achievement; treat students as individuals; enjoy spending

time in the company of children and young adults learn all they can about each of

their students; maintain the dignity of each student; express pride in their students'

accomplishments. Teachers know and respect the influence of race, ethnicity,

gender, religion and other aspects of culture on a child's development and

personality.

They demonstrate the belief that diversity in the classroom, in the school, and in

society is a strength and show this commitment by daily conduct.

They strive to understand how an individual child's culture and background

influence his or her school performance.

In terms of professional development and ethics, teachers meet high ethical

standards of practice and engage in professional development activities, including

development in the area of technology. Competent teachers keep the needs of

students at the center of professional thoughts and actions. They live up to

universal ethical principles of honesty, truthfulness, integrity, fair treatment, and

respect for others; maintain a clear distinction between personal values and

professional ethics. They advocate for teacher professionalism, for school

conditions that encourage teaching and learning, and for decision-making

structures that take advantage of the expertise of teachers. They recognize that

life-long learning is an integral part of the profession; recognize the professional

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responsibility for engaging in and supporting appropriate professional practices for

self and colleagues.

Reflective thinkers

Competent teachers integrate knowledgeable, reflective, and critical perspectives

on Early Childhood Education. They think systematically about what happens in the

classroom and school, why it happens, and what can be done to improve students‟

achievement. They study educational literature and interpret research and apply it

to classroom and school; value critical thinking and self-directed learning as habits

of mind. They discuss experiences and practices with colleagues, identifying areas

of strengths and opportunities for growth, and seek input from supervisors where

improvement might be needed.

Critical thinking

Edward Glaser (1941)defines critical thinking as “The ability to think critically,

which involves three things: ( 1 ) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a

thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's

experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and

(3) some skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a persistent

effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the

evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. Teachers

encourage students to ask questions, think creatively, develop and test innovative

ideas, synthesize knowledge and draw conclusions. They help students exercise

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and communicate sound reasoning; understand connections; make complex

choices; and frame, analyze, and solve problems.

Competent teachers raise vital questions and problems; formulating them clearly

and precisely; gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to

interpret them effectively; comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions,

testing them against relevant criteria and standards.They thinks open-mindedly

within alternative systems of thought; recognizing and assessing, as need be, their

assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and communicate

effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Leadership

Teachers demonstrate leadership by taking responsibility for the progress of all

pupils to ensure that children are prepared for life in the 21st century. Using a

variety of data sources, they organize, plan, and set goals that meet the needs of

the individual pupils and the class. Teachers use various types of assessment data

during the school year to evaluate pupils‟ progress and to make adjustments to the

teaching and learning process. They establish a safe, orderly environment, and

create a culture that empowers pupils to collaborate and become lifelong learners.

Teachers demonstrate leadership in the school by collaborating with school

personnel to create a professional learning community. They analyze and use local,

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state, and national data to develop goals and strategies in the school improvement

plan that enhances pupils‟ learning and teacher working conditions.

Teachers strive to improve the teaching profession. They contribute to the

establishment of positive working conditions in their school. They actively

participate in and advocate for decision-making structures in education and

government that take advantage of the expertise of teachers. Teachers promote

professional growth for all educators and collaborate with their colleagues to

improve the profession.

Pedagogical Expertise

Competent teachers know the ways in which learning takes place, and they know

the appropriate levels of intellectual, physical, social, and emotional development of

their students. Teachers know how students think and learn. Teachers understand

the influences that affect individual student‟s learning (development, culture,

language proficiency, etc.) and differentiate their instruction accordingly. Teachers

keep abreast of evolving research about students‟ learning. They adapt resources

to address the strengths and weaknesses of their students.

Teachers collaborate with their colleagues and use a variety of data sources for

short and long range planning that reflect an understanding of how students learn.

Teachers engage students in the learning process. They understand that

instructional plans must be constantly monitored and modified to enhance learning.

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Teachers make the curriculum responsive to cultural diversity and to individual

learning needs.

Competent teachers practice effective classroom management. They exercise

leadership by taking personal responsibility for the progress of all students;

organize and motivate students to act in ways that meet the needs of both the

individual student and the class as a whole; aximize efficiency, maintain discipline

and morale, promote teamwork, plan, communicate, focus on results, evaluate

progress, and make constant adjustments.

They work to minimize disruptions in students‟ learning and take advantage of

unexpected events to teach students. They are skilled at facilitating consensus and

mediating conflict; use a range of strategies to promote positive relationships,

cooperation, and purposeful learning in the classroom; engage students in

individual and cooperative learning activities that help them develop the motivation

to achieve. They equally organize, allocate, and manage the resources of time,

space, activities, and attention to provide active and equitable engagement of

students in productive tasks.

Teachers know when and how to use technology to maximize students learning.

Teachers help students use technology to learn content, think critically, solve

problems, discern reliability, use information, communicate, innovate, and

collaborate.

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2.14 The Importance Of Teacher Training In Developing Professional

Competence

Westera (2001) asserts that many factors contribute to the quality of teaching,

such as the professional competence of the teacher, which includes subject matter

knowlegde, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of the teaching and

learning, curricular knowledge, teaching experience and certification status.

Chapman and Mahlck (as cited by Passos, 2009) confirm that pre-service training is

the single most widely employed strategy to improve instructional quality. This

comes as no surprise as one of the most widely held beliefs underlying both

national and international educational development activities is that the most direct

and efficient way to improve the content pedagogical expertise of teachers is

through increased levels of training.

Holmes group (as cited by Passos, 2009) gives recognition to the importance of

teachers in the educational reform when it indicates that the quality of teachers

with the crucial role of the teachers in bringing about meaningful educational

change is being acknowledged in developing and developed countries alike. It is the

teachers who are the keys to educational quality. Excellent curricular, materials,

infrastructure and administration will not improve the quality of education if the

quality of education is poor; conversely, good result, can be achieved with quality

teaching even with poor curricula, materials or infrastructure. Curriculum plans,

instructional materials, elegant classrooms and even intelligent administration

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cannot overcome the negative effects of poor teaching. The entire curriculum of

the school is filtered through the hearts and minds of classroom teachers, making

the quality of learning dependent on the quality of teachers.

Investing in human capital therefore is the best way to improve the quality of

education and is the key to increasing the quality of achieving educational

outcomes. Steyn (as cited by Passos, 2009) who states that the effort towards

improvement of schools should focus on people improvement. He furthers states

that investing in human capital is the key to effective improvement of the quality of

schools. Programmes and materials do not bring about effective improvement, but

the people in the educational system do.

2.15 How Teacher Competency Can Be Attained

According to Joki (1982), teacher competency can be enhanced by writing strong,

clear policies on administrative accountability (including provisions for instructional

leadership), teacher recruitment, supervision and evaluation: an instructional model

keyed to specific objectives and in-service training for administrators and teachers.

Superintendents might also provide school administrators with clerical assistance to

free more time for classroom observation, clinical supervision, demonstration,

teaching and staff development. Teacher evaluation, in addition to its customary

function of establishing a basis for promotion, retention or dismissal of teachers,

can also be a valuable tool for improving instructional effectiveness.

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2.16 The Concept of Professional Development for Teachers

Bartram and Walton (2002) define teacher development as "the constant and on-

going re-energizing of a teacher's technique whilst the teacher is actually on the

job. Its real purpose is to provide continuing refreshment and critique of what is

and what should be happening in the classroom." Olujide (2004) defines it as "a

life-long form of education for the improvement of the teacher and the educational

system."

According to Mohammed (2006), teachers' professional development has two main

phases: initial preparation and continuing professional development. Continuing

professional development, according to him, may be regarded as all forms of in -

service', 'continuing education', 'on-the-job-training', 'workshops', 'post-qualification

courses' etc; whether formal or informal, structured or unstructured, teacher-

initiated or system-initiated, accredited or not. He went further to identify the

rationale for continuing professional development of teachers. Major among them

are as follows:

As key agents in changes, teachers face high expectations, new roles and

demands. They need new skills, knowledge and new roles which they can get

through Continuous Professional Development.

One of the key elements of teacher quality is the provision of adequate

opportunities for personal growth and professional development.

We live in a rapidly changing world such that whatever knowledge and skills

teachers acquired in their pre-service training becomes stale very fast as new

challenges and realities emerge in the socio-economic and political environments.

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Quoting Robinson and Latchem (2003), Mohammed also notes that there is a great

diversity in the entrants into the teaching profession, and that the diversity has

great implication for mounting continuing professional development programmes.

Teachers, he noted, vary in:

number of years of education received and the levels attained;

the nature and amount of training completed;

average age, social status, location (urban or rural) and income levels; .

their skills as adult and independent learners;

their beliefs and models of ideal teacher; their levels of motivation;

their access to information and communication technologies (lCT) and

learning resources (teachers' journals, books on teaching professional

associations, newsletters);

their opportunities for professional development and support; etc.

These diversities no doubt require that custom-built Continuous Professional

Development courses be organized for the teachers. Jegede (as cited in Olojede

2009) states that opportunities for continuing professional development must be

created to re-skill the potential teacher, re-motivate the interested teacher, retrain

the dedicated teacher and the practicing teachers. According to Lawal and Adeosun

(2007) "It is non debatable that high quality of professional development is an

essential component of any effective educational programme."

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Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987) examine the conditions necessary to change

teachers' practice. They propose a combination of theory, demonstration, practice,

and feedback and found that sustained practice was a critical element. Another

important consideration in professional development is the educational context in

which it is carried out. Pontz (2003) highlights minimum conditions that education

for adults (including education for teachers) should meet in order to be effective:

clarity of goals, adequate levels of challenge, capitalization on previous knowledge,

sustainability over time, organizational support, and alignment of achievement with

the goals set.

Professional development models are differentiated by the degree of involvement of

the teachers themselves in planning, delivering, and evaluating the activities in

which they are involved. Sparks (2002) argues that professional development

should be embedded in the daily lives of teachers, with strong administrative

support and use of strategies that are tailored to their specific needs. The needs

may incorporate issues of language, culture or pedagogy. Professional development

focuses specifically on how teachers construct their professional identities in

ongoing interaction with learners, by reflecting on their actions in the classroom

and adapting them to meet the learners' expressed or implicit learning needs. The

ultimate purpose of professional development is to promote effective teaching that

results in learning gains for all students. Summing it up, Okebukola (2009) states

that the nation cannot hope for a top quality education system as long as her

schools are manned by second-rate teachers, since the quality of teachers is largely

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dependent on the quality of training they received before entering the profession

(pre-service) and while they are on the job (in-service).

2.17 Professional Development Strategies

The National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (1996) identified

several problems with current pre-service teacher preparation programmes:

Inadequate time: three year pre-service training in a College of Education

makes it difficult for prospective primary school teachers to learn subject

matter and for prospective secondary teachers to learn about the nature of

learners and learning.

Fragmentation: The traditional programme arrangement (foundations

courses, developmental psychology sequence, methods courses, and field

experiences) offers disconnected courses that novices are expected to pull

together into some meaningful, coherent whole.

Uninspired teaching methods: Although teachers are supposed to excite

students about learning, teacher preparation methods courses are often

lectures and recitation; so, prospective teachers who do not have hands-on

and "minds-on" experiences with learning are expected to provide these

kinds of experiences for their students upon graduation.

Superficial curriculum: The need to fulfil certification requirements and

degree requirements leads to programmes that provide little depth in subject

matter or in educational studies, such as research on teaching and learning.

Not enough, subject-matter courses are included in teachers preparation.

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These problems equally plague the Nigerian educational system and thus

necessitate continuous professional development of the practising teachers to

ensure that teachers' skills and capabilities continue to meet the changing

requirements placed upon them. According to Lockheed and Verspoor (1994), there

are three common forms of in -service education, namely: short-term residency

programmes, continuous training and visit programmes, and distance education

programmes (correspondence courses, educational television, or radio

programming). However, the most effective forms of training are ongoing, rather

than one-shot courses with no follow-up. They observed that in-service teacher

education programmes, particularly ongoing programmes that monitor and evaluate

teachers regularly, show much promise for improving teaching in developing

countries and have received support from international community. They further

identified the following broad objectives that in-service teacher education

programmes can be organised to achieve:

to upgrade the professional competence of serving teachers to prepare

teachers for new roles.

to provide knowledge and skills relating to emerging curricular changes -

content, process and evaluation.

to overcome gaps and deficiencies of pre-service education.

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Mohammed (2006) on the other hand identifies the two most commonly used

models for teacher professional development in Nigeria. These are the workshop

model and the school-based teacher professional support model. According to him,

the workshop model entails drawing participants out of their schools to a venue

where they are exposed by experts to a core of information and skills. The

workshop may be short or long-term. The skills and processes to be acquired also

vary.

The school-based teacher professional support and mentoring model on the other

hand is an alternative strategy for in-service training of teachers. Here, pupils,

teachers, supervisors and facilitators are involved collaboratively in carrying out a

series of classroom/school-based activities that will help the teachers to improve.

The teachers get professional support from facilitators and supervisors who serve

as mentors. Activities may include direct classroom support by the facilitators and

supervisors; staff meetings within the school and involving head-teachers and the

participating teachers; demonstration lessons by teacher-educators or mentors;

visits to the school by mentors (if external); etc. Given the diversity of teachers'

needs, a differentiated approach to professional development is needed. Various

approaches to teachers' professional development are described below as ways to

address diverse teacher needs, skills and knowledge.

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1. Face to Face Institutional Model: In this model, the training institution

offers in-service training programme on its premises using direct face-to-face

training approach. Many teacher training institutions in the country currently

run one form or the other of this type of training. The merit of this approach is

that there is a direct and sustained interaction between participants and

resource persons. The limitation of this approach is that it cannot be used

when the institution wants to train a very large number of participants within a

short time.

2. Cascade Model: In this model, the number of persons to be trained is very

large and training design is built on two or three tier systems. In the first level

the key resource persons are given training. They train resource persons who

in turn train teachers. The advantage of this model is that a large number of

teachers can be trained within a short duration of time. However, it has its

limitations. Knowledge and information passed on at the first tier of key

resource persons and then at the second tier of resource persons get

somewhat diluted resulting into transmission loss of training effectiveness.

3. Peer Observation: Peer observation is based on the three-phase model of

Planning Observation Feedback known as clinical supervision (Cogan,

1973). Pairs of teachers, who have been trained to do so, visit each other's

classes and provide each other with insights and advice on their teaching.

Teachers themselves decide on the focus for observation and the observation

instrument, and reflect on the results of the observation based on their

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development needs. Peer observation is particularly suitable for teachers who

need to learn better ways to use the target language in the classroom.

4. Study Groups: Study groups involve teachers in reviewing professional

literature or analyzing samples of student work. Groups structure their

interactions around scripts or agendas called protocols (Birchak, Connor,

Crawford, Kahn, Kayer, Turner & Short, 1998) and use lesson plans or samples

of students' work as input for discussion. Study groups are suitable for teachers

who need to develop a more reflective stance toward their teaching or their

students' learning.

5. Dialogue Journal: According to Peyton (1993), dialogue journals are

conversations in writing. Although they have been widely used in language and

literacy classrooms since their first documented use (Staton, Shuy, Peyton, &

Reed, 1998), they have only recently found its place in the professional

development field. Teachers who cannot meet with colleagues for reasons of

time or distance may choose to keep a written conversation with a mentor or

peer in order to share expertise and reflections on their instruction.

6. Mentoring: Mentoring brings together a more knowledgeable professional

with a less experienced colleague for collaboration and feedback on teaching

and learning.

Mentors provide advice, support, encouragement, and modelling for their less

experienced colleague, who, in turn, provide mentors with opportunities to use

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and reflect on their expertise. Mentoring relationships work best when

structured and developed over time. Mentors can be instrumental in helping

novice teachers enhance their proficiency in the language as well as their

pedagogical competence. Mentors also help novices reflect on the efficacy of

their language use and the pedagogical strategies they use in class by

modelling the thinking and communication processes required of professionals

in the field.

On the whole, successful learning for teachers requires a continuum of coordinated

efforts that range from pre-service education to opportunities for lifelong

development as professionals. Creating such opportunities for preschool teachers,

especially for improving their proficiency in English language, represents a major

challenge, but it is not an impossible task; hence Erant (1994) has suggested that

any framework for promoting and facilitating professional development should take

into account the following:

1. an appropriate combination of learning settings (on-the-job, near the job, home,

library, course, etc.);

2. time for study, consultation and reflection;

3. the availability of suitable learning resources;

4. people who are prepared (i.e., both willing and able) to give appropriate

support; and

5. the learner's own capacity to learn and to take advantage of the opportunities

available.

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There is no doubt that each of the above-listed factors can be quite effective for

teachers' professional development. However, the reality is that very few private

school teachers, if any, are making use of them. Reasons for this have been given

in the appropriate sections of this chapter. Regular sponsored-workshops therefore

remain a necessity for professional development of school teachers in Nigeria.

Mohammed (2006) admits that whereas it appears obvious through substantial

research that teachers need continuous professional development, not much

importance seem to be attached to that need in Nigeria. For most teachers, training

ends as soon as they graduate. No opportunities exist for updating their knowledge

and skills through seminars, conferences and workshops that can enhance their

knowledge and skills and ultimately their classroom practice. Budgets for continuing

professional development are often small. Indeed, funds are rarely allocated and

where available, they are inadequate and often misused. The result is that

government-sponsored in-service training workshops and seminars for pre-primary

school teachers are very few and irregularly organized.

2.18 Influence of Location on Preschool Setting

Urbanization and rurality.

The terms urban and rural areas are relatively used in the sense that there are

many perceptions and interpretations of the terms; so both depend on the unit of

analysis and the policy concerned. Haub (2009) asserts that rural and urban

environment are not clearly distinguishable; population density, topography and

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distance from urban areas are the only three of the many variables that

characterise rural areas.

For the purpose of this study urbanization and rurality in Lagos and Ondo States

are defined in terms of availability and non-availability of social amenities, economic

activities and infrastructural facilities within a geographical area.

1. Characteristics Of Rural And Urban Schools

Though the distinction between rural and urban areas is usually not bi-modal but

rather on a continuum, the differences between the quality of urban schools and

rural schools can be stark. In most urban areas-even in the poorest countries,

education is in high demand; and the main problem facing schools is that they are

overcrowded and high cost of infrastructural facilities which raise their overhead

cost in many instances that they have to cut cost on teachers‟ salaries. On the

other hand, Hanushek, (1995) confirms that it remains more difficulty to provide

good-quality basic education to children in rural areas than to those in urban areas.

In his assertion, he said that it is not enough to enroll children in schools but drop-

out rates are high in many rural areas, reflecting families‟ awareness that they get

little return on their own investment. Because the families of those children see no

value in the time and other cost spent on schooling, the tendency to withdraw

children from school is high. Likewise, the social rate of return is low if those who

attend school do not learn much.

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Quoting Lawless (2009), one significant challenge facing rural schools is that the

finances and opportunities are not always readily available. They therefore lack

facilities and resources and this makes their pupils achieve less. Rural schools also

face the difficulty in providing the latest technological trends students need to excel

in school.

Gardiner (2008) confirms that many rural schools still lack clean running water,

electricity, libraries, laboratories and computers. These are not easy conditions in

which to provide a sound education for young children. In material terms, urban

schools are usually in better conditions than those in the countryside.

Another critical problem facing rural schools is the shortage of qualified teachers.

Rural schools are incapable of recruiting and retaining higher qualified teachers.

Moulton (2001) confirms that far fewer teachers want to serve in rural schools.

Most individuals who have the education credentials that would qualify them as

teachers have had some urban or quasi-urban experience, in the course of their

teacher training schools. As a result of this, many are reluctant to be posted to

remote rural areas, especially in communities that are not their own. This is

particularly true of female teachers. Moreover, since most high-quality teachers

colleges are in urban areas, students who do complete college do not want to

return to village life where there is no water, electricity, or bright city lights. Eric

digest (2009) confirms that recent research on rural teachers‟ recruitment and

retention appears thin. Murphy and Angelski (as cited by Eric digest, 2009) found

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that teachers leave rural communities because of geographic isolation, weather,

distance from larger communities and family and inadequate shopping.

Urban areas on the other hand attract more qualified teachers because of basic

amenities that are available to them. As a result of this, pupils are well educated

and exposed because the schools create more courses and extra-curricular

activities. More so, in urban schools, parents are more likely to be professionals

(such as lawyers, doctors etc) who value education and this encourages the

students to aspire to higher education.

Moulton (2001) equally confirms that professional support for rural teachers is often

missing in rural schools. In his explanation, he argues that hierarchical ministries of

education usually employ school inspectors at the district level, but like many sub-

central government employees, inspectors are not given the skills, vehicles, or

motivation to actually visit schools and provide encouragement and professional

guidance to teachers.

Quoting the words of Cleland (2009), many families in the rural areas see little

immediate value in their children sitting behind desks, learning, reading and writing

and other skills for which there is no use in the village. Children themselves often

find no reinforcement of what is taught in school, making it seem like a foreign

environment. The perception that school is of little value is heightened when poorly

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built, poorly lit schools are badly maintained, teachers are often absent, and, in

fact, very little teaching and learning take place.

Furthermore, rural areas schools in low income-areas often suffer because they are

remote from the central offices of ministries of education which distribute the

instructional resources, so their quality is poor. Literature confirms that rural

families cannot afford the direct cost of schooling or the opportunity cost of having

their children away for many hours of the day in low-quality schools.

2.19 Summary of the Review

The study explores the history and the practices of Early Childhood Education

teachers in Nigeria. The predominant practice found among the teachers were

Developmentally Inappropriate Practice which was found to be inadequate and

injurious to children‟s development and learning and this gave rise to the yearning

for Developmentally Appropriate Practice.DAP concept which runs through this work

is entrenched within the five key areas of teachers‟ professional practice which are

essential for the effective implementation of DAP. This study brought to light the

danger of implementing inappropriate practice as well as the benefits of

implementing developmentally appropriate practice for children.

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Significant themes that run through this study are: teacher qualifications, teacher

competence, the needs for focused training and continuing professional

development as strong indicators for implementing Developmentally Appropriate

Practice. In addition, this study emphasises the need for teachers‟ specialization

and competence in the area of their practice as they are sine-qua non for success

in any educational endeavour.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This study adopted both descriptive survey and the quasi experimental pre-

test/post-test control group designs. Best and Ofo (as cited by Ogunleye (2000)

define descriptive survey as the educational research that is concerned with

conditions that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and points of view or ideas that

are developing. The design is appropriate for this study as it enabled the researcher

to describe the sampled teachers accurately. The pre-test/post test control group

design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) used in this study enabled the researcher to

determine whether the provision of intervention had significant effect on teacher

competence or not. The pre-test/post-test control group design is illustrated below:

Table 1: Quasi-Experimental Design

O1 = Pre- test observation scores for treatment group.

O2 = post-test observation scores for treatment group

X = Represents the experimental treatment (DAPEP).

O3 = Pre -test observation scores for control group.

O4 = Post-test observation scores for control group

O1 X O2 O3 O4

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The conventional DIP approach was adopted for teaching the participants in the

control group by the researcher and her assistants.

3.2 Population

The population consisted of all nursery school teachers in Lagos and Ondo States of

Nigeria.

3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample for the study comprised two hundred and forty five (245) teachers and

100 School Operators selected from one hundred (100) schools in the two States.

In selecting the sample for this study, the simple random sampling technique was

used. The researcher studied two States from the south west geo-political zone.

The States for this study were obtained using the hat and draw method. A listing

of all the six states was done and their names were written on small pieces

of paper. They were carefully wrapped and mixed in a small container and

then, pick and drop balloting system was used to select the two States. This

procedure was used to ensure that each state had equal and independent

chances of being selected; hence, Lagos and Ondo States were selected for

the study.

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In selecting samples from Lagos State, the researcher used the Lagos State Area

Educational distribution by districts. Lagos Educational Area is divided into six

education districts and the districts are further divided into twenty (20) Local

Government Education Authorities (LGEAS). The supervision and control of the

public and private Nursery and Primary Schools are under the administration of

these LGEAS. Using the stage stratified sampling technique; the researcher divided

the twenty Local Government Education Authorities into two categories: urban and

rural areas. The random sampling technique was then employed to select ten Local

government education areas based on the above classifications.

Similarly, Ondo State Educational Area is divided into 18 Local Government

Educational Areas and the same stage-stratified sample technique was used to

divide the area into two groups: urban and rural.

Table 2 shows urban and rural classifications of the schools used for the study in

the two States.

Table 2: Urban and Rural Classifications

States Urban Rural

Surulere Epe

Ikeja Ajeromi Ifelodun

Lagos Lagos Island Badagry

Eti-Osa Ikorodu

Lagos Mainland Ojo

Ondo Ondo West

Okitipupa

Akoko south west

Ondo East

Akure North

Ilaje

Akure South Ile Oluji-oke igbo

Owo Odigbo

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Then, using the random sampling technique, five (5) state‟s approved schools were

selected from each Local Government Area used for the study. In Lagos State,

three teachers were selected from the Nursery section of each of the schools used

for the study while in Ondo State; two teachers were observed in each of the

schools because most of the schools had only Nurseries 1 and 2. In all, 245

teachers were drawn from 100 schools selected from the 20 Local Government

Education Authorities chosen from the two states that participated in the study.

In addition to selection criteria, the researcher could not use the teachers‟ pretest

mean scores as a basis for selection but had to use intact groups of teachers in

each school as the criterion for selection into treatment groups (experimental and

control) in order to avoid experimental contamination.

3.4 Research Instruments

The following instruments were used to obtain information in the course of this

study.

1. Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation Schedule (DAPOS)

2. Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale (BARS)

3. Structured Oral Interview Schedule (SOIS)

4. School Operators Questionnaire (SOQ)

5. Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package Evaluation Questionnaire

(DAPPEQ)

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3.4.1 Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation Schedule

(DAPOS)

DAPOS was adapted from the ECERS-R, developed by Harms, Clifford and Cryer

(1998) and A Developmentally Appropriate Practice Template (ADAPT) by Mark Lee

Horn and Sharon Rameh (2001). The ECERS-R, was developed at the Frank Porter

Graham Child Development Centre, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill while

ADAPT was developed at the University of Alabama at Birmingham.

The major variables of DAPOS were derived from the five key areas early

childhood education practice while the NAEYC‟S DAP guidelines form the birds‟ eye

view through which the researcher was able to observe and evaluate behaviours of

the teachers to see whether they are DAP compliant or not. These guidelines help

practitioners to take appropriate decisions in the areas of practice. The five key

areas early childhood education practice are: creating a caring community of

learners, teaching to enhance development and learning, constructing

/implementing appropriate curriculum, assessing children‟s development and

learning and establishing reciprocal relationship with parents. The last variable was

extracted from the study because not too many parents come to the classrooms or

schools daily for the researcher to be able to observe and make accurate

judgement about their relationship with the teachers of their children.

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3.4.2 Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale (BARS)

This is an instrument adapted from the University of Alabama in Huntsville (Teacher

Candidate Competency Indicators), Australian Overview of Competencies. BARS is a

scale of six variables designed to assess the competency level of Early Childhood

Education teachers in Lagos and Ondo States. The competency rating scale sought

information on content mastery, pedagogical expertise, critical thinking/creativity,

effective communication, children enabler, professionalism and leadership. This

instrument was administered along with Developmentally Appropriate Observation

Schedule (DAPOS). It is also an observation schedule and the data supplied by the

teachers on Dapos were also used as the bio data for BARS.

3.4.3 Structured Oral Interview Schedule (SOIS)

This instrument was designed by the researcher to elicit information on the factors

that are responsible for weaknesses in the areas observed in the teachers‟

classrooms. It contains fifteen questions that were administered on the

respondents.

3.4.4 Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package Evaluation

Questionnaire (DAPPEQ)

This instrument was adapted from Adebayo (2009) Skill Evaluation Model

Questionnaire. The Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package Evaluation

Questionnaire (DAPPEQ) is made up of forty three (43) items arranged in seven

sections. Section 1 comprised seven items and focused on objectives of the

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training, Section 2, consisting three items, covered the training locations. Section 3

contained three items that focused on training administration. Section 4 comprised

thirteen items that covered the training content. Section 5 consisted of seven items

which were to assess balance of training. Section 6 contained six items that

covered the trainer‟s evaluation while Section 7 with eight items, focused on action

plan implementation. This instrument was used to evaluate the trainees on the

knowledge and skills gained and the success or otherwise of the training.

3.4.5 School Operators Questionnaire (SOQ)

This is a forty items instrument designed by the researcher to elicit information on

the School Operators‟ backgrounds (educational, training, etc). It is divided into 3

sections. Section A gathered information about the School Operators‟ background,

section B focused on the provision of professional development for the teachers

and the operation of the schools. Section C is a checklist of the provision of

Developmentally Appropriate Materials (furniture, space, learning centres, ICT, fine

and gross motor equipment).

3.5 Validity of Research Instruments

Validity refers to the extent to which the questions or the procedures actually

measure what they claim to measure. It is the appropriateness, meaningfulness

and usefulness of the specific inferences researchers make based on the data they

collect (Fraenkel & Wallen 1990). According to Campbell and Stanley (1963),

internal validity is the minimum property without which any experiment is

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unacceptable. Measures used to collect data about a variable in a research must

both be reliable and valid if the overall effort is to produce useful information.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation Schedule (DAPOS), Behaviour

Anchor Rating Scale (BARS) and Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package

Evaluation Questionnaire (DAPPEQ) were adapted from the works of earlier

researchers who had validated and used them in their studies. The researcher

however, revalidated the instruments because of their adaptations. The other three

instruments (Structured Oral Interview Schedule (SOIS), School Operators

Questionnaire (SOQ) and Developmentally Appropriate Practice Enhancement

Package (DAPEP)) were developed by the researcher.

For their face and content validity, the researchers‟ supervisors, two early childhood

specialists and two measurement and evaluation experts from the Department of

Education Foundation, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos evaluated the

contents, the correctness, the appropriateness and the scope of all the instruments

in the light of Early Childhood Education practices in Nigeria. All the comments

from the experts and the observed deficiencies were used to re-package the

instruments. In addition, inputs from the pilot study contributed to sharpening the

instruments.

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3.6 Reliability of Research Instruments

To determine the reliability status of the above instruments, a pre-pilot study was

carried out. Two weeks after the initial collection of data, the process was repeated

under the same administrative conditions. Each observation and each respondent‟s

score on the first and second times were collated using alpha cron-bach. The result

is presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Reliability of Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation

Schedule (DAPOS) using alpha cronbach

Sub scales of the major scales Alpha coefficient

Creating a caring community of learners 0.72

Teaching to enhance development and learning 0.75

Constructing appropriate curriculum 0.94

Assessing children‟s learning & development 0.92

The above alpha coefficient values show high reliability status of the instruments

Table 4: Reliability of Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale (BARS)

Competency Indicators Alpha coefficient

Content mastery 0.93

Pedagogical expertise 0.95

Critical thinking/creativity 0.85

Effective communication 0.93

Children enabler 0.72

Professionalism & Leadership 0.82

The above alpha coefficient values shows high reliability status of the instruments

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Table 5: Reliability Coefficient of School Operators Questionnaire

(SOQ), and Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package

Evaluation Questionnaire (DAPPEQ)

Mean Alpha Coefficient

SOQ 3.33 0.79

DAPPEQ 3.45 0.87

3.7 Pilot Study

The Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation Schedule (DAPOS),

Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale (BARS) and Structured Oral Interview Schedule

(SOIS) were administered on thirty Nursery school teachers of three Local

Government Education Areas of Lagos State and twenty Nursery teachers in three

Local Government Education Areas of Ondo States. The LGEAS used for the pilot

study in the two states were not involved in the main study. The researcher and a

research assistant conducted the pilot study that ran through September to

November, 2008.

The objectives of the pilot study were to:

1. determine the reliability of the instruments which were obtained using alpha

cronbach;

2. test the workability and the adequacy of the designs of the study, isolate the

weaknesses identified in the design and introduce appropriate corrective

measures before the main study was carried out.

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3.8 Significance of the pilot study

The pilot study being a yardstick for determining how feasible the main study was

has revealed useful information which helped to improve the study in the following

ways:

1. The pilot study showed a degree of confidence in the efficacy and

appropriateness of descriptive survey and quasi experimental research

designs used for the study.

2. It also enabled the researcher to identify the potential pitfalls in the study. It

revealed that some items in the instruments were foreign to Nigerian

preschool classrooms and were unnecessary; therefore they had to be

expunged from the study.

3. The pilot study also revealed further weakness in the structure of some of

the items that were found to be too long and some rather ambiguous. All

these were amended prior to the administration of the instruments in the

main study.

4. Furthermore, the pilot study gave insight into the rigour that would be

involved in the main study.

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3.9 Findings from the pilot study

The major findings of the pilot study are as follows:

1. Majority of the teachers in Early Childhood Education settings/locations are

educators with varied academic degrees rather than Early Childhood Education

qualifications;

2. The teachers do not have the in-depth knowledge of Developmentally

Appropriate Practice but a general pedagogical knowledge of their profession;

3. The teachers lack the skill to implement Developmentally Appropriate Practice;

4. There were no material resources to implement Developmentally Appropriate

Practice;

5. Some of the limitations were caused by Proprietors who are providers of

inappropriate materials.

3.10 Selection and Training of the Research Assistants for Main Study

The researcher recruited ten research assistants for the observation and training

exercise(s). Five research assistants were used in each State. In Lagos State, two

of the research assistants are members of staff of the State Universal Basic

Education Board (SUBEB) who were on annual leave at the time of this field work,

two were retired heads of schools and one undergraduate part–time student of the

University of Lagos. They were all involved in the Lagos observation exercise. In

Ondo State, two of the research assistants were from Adeyemi College of Education

while the remaining three were Local Government Education District Board Officers

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in charge of Nursery and Primary Education. The research assistants were given

one week of training in each state. All the research assistants participated in the

administration of the observation schedules and Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale.

However, only 4 assistants taught in the intervention package in the experimental

and the control groups of the two States. They were duly mobilized for the exercise

and therefore their participation was very effective.

A major factor that influenced the selection of some of the research assistants was

the fact that they had been working in the early years settings either as

teachers/head teachers or in schools‟ inspectorate. Their experiences contributed to

the researcher‟s ability to effectively take them through the one week training.

3.11 Administration of Instruments (Pre-Treatment)

The Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation Schedule (DAPOS) and

Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale (BARS) were administered on the sampled teachers

in the two States. The two instruments were observation schedules and so, their

administrations were carried out alongside each other. The class teachers

completed the demographic profiles immediately and handed them back on the

same day. The researcher and her assistants went into the classrooms to carry out

the observation exercise. The same demographic data that were used for DAPOS

were the same used for BARS. The administration of the instruments in Lagos State

took place from January 12th to March 20th, 2009 while in Ondo State; the

instruments were administered from April 22nd to June 5, 2009.

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3.12 Administration of Structured Oral Interview Schedule (SOIS)

Structured Oral Interview Schedule contains fifteen questions which were used to

elicit information from the teachers on the reasons that accounted for the

weaknesses in their ability to implement appropriate practices. The physical

presence of the research team also allowed for clarification of grey areas in the

interview schedule.

3.13 Administration of School Operators Questionnaire (SOQ)

This is a forty items instrument designed by the researcher to elicit information on

the 100 School Operators‟ backgrounds (educational, training, gender etc). It is

divided into 3 sections. Section A gathered information about the School Operators

background, section B focused on the provision of professional development for the

teachers and the operation of the schools. Section C is a checklist of the provision

of Developmentally Appropriate Materials (furniture, space, learning centres, fine

and ICT and gross motor equipment). The School Operators supplied the

information needed for sections A and B while the researcher and her assistants

assessed the provisions of DAP materials within the schools‟ environment.

3.14 Administration of Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Enhancement Package (DAPEP)

The teachers in Lagos State could not agree to the training schedule proposed

during the academic session because most of them were involved in the

compulsory lessons that hold in the schools from Monday to Friday. When it

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became practically impossible to conclude the training arrangement, the researcher

arranged meetings with school proprietors/school-heads in order to woo the school

owners to embrace the exercise. She gave copies of the instruments and the

training manuals to School Operators and discussed the importance of the training

with them. In addition, the researcher promised to issue certificates of participation

to every attendee. Most of the Proprietors that cooperated persuaded their teachers

to attend the training. Finally, there was an agreement for the training to take

place during the Easter holiday.

The Lagos State training took place in two centres between April 13th and 26th,

2009. One experimental group of 33 teachers and one control group of 34 teachers

met at Ketu centre at Comforta Nursery/ Primary school while the second group

met at the Ambassadors‟ Academy, Apapa Road, Lagos. The researcher and the

two research assistants met with the teachers in the experimental group between

the hours of 9am and 12.30pm everyday of the training period and met with the

control groups between the hours of 2pm to 4pm. Forty one teachers (41) teachers

with thirteen (13) School Operators constitute the sample of the experimental

group 1, while experimental group, location 2 consisted of thirty three (33)

teachers and ten (12) School Operators. Light refreshments were made available to

the participants for every day of the training. The training ended with the award of

certificates of participation to all attendees.

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Ondo State training also took place in two centres as the 99 teachers for the

experimental and the control groups could not converge at the same location due

to logistics problems. One centre was located at Akure with 27 teachers, 13 School

Operators in the experimental group and 23 teachers with 12 School Operators in

the control group while the other centre at Okitipupa consisted of 24 teachers and

13 school operators in the experimental group and 26 teachers with 12 School

Operators in the control group. The training in Ondo State took place on Friday

afternoons and Saturdays between June 5 and August 1st, 2009. The researcher

and two research assistants were involved in the training. The training in Ondo

state lasted for 10 weekends. The training also ended with the award of certificates

of participation to all attendees.

3.15 Administration of Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package

Evaluation Questionnaire (DAPPEQ)

The Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package Evaluation Questionnaire

(DAPPEQ) was administered on the teachers in the experimental group to

determine the effect of the training on the participants and to also get a feedback

on the areas of the training that needed improvement. The teachers completed the

questionnaire on the last days of the training at the different locations and handed

them back on the same day. This eliminated the possibility of biases that might

have resulted if they were allowed to interact and compare responses.

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3. 16 Challenges of the Administration of the Intervention Package

The major constraints of the training programmes were:

1. difficulty of the researcher in getting the consent of the School Operators

and their school heads to persuade their teachers to attend the training;

2. lack of funds to secure alternative training venue closer to the teachers

and to support the transportation cost of some of the participants as

some of them stopped coming before the end of the training session;

3. the difficulty of capturing the true representative samples of diversely

trained personnel who are lead instructors in early childhood classrooms

in the two states which led the researcher into urban and rural

classifications of the states;

4. difficulty of the teachers in getting to the training centres in time;

5. difficulty of the researcher to sustain their attention and enthusiasm

throughout the period.

3.17 Lessons Learnt From the Administration of the Research

Instruments

a. A training programme for teachers requires huge financial commitment for

the provision of transport fares, training materials and at least one good

meal for the participants at each training session.

b. A training of this magnitude would never be possible without the maximum

cooperation of the School Operators.

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3.18 Administration of Post-Observation Instruments

The Lagos State schools‟ post observation instruments were administered between

June 15 and August 6, 2009 after the training of the experimental groups, while

that for Ondo State took place between September 21st and October 30th, 2009.

The post observation instruments were the same as those in the pre-treatment

exercise. These were used to assess the performance of the teachers after the

intervention package.

3.19 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected from the various instruments were treated statistically using

both descriptive and inferential statistics. Cross tabulation statistics, descriptive

statistics was used to show the means, mean differences, standard deviations for

the pre and post test scores. Cross tabulation statistics was used for both research

questions 1 and 4. Descriptive statistics was used for research question 2 while

research question 3 was analysed qualitatively using open ended questionnaire.

Hypothesis one was tested with two-way analysis of variance, (ANOVA ) while

Hypotheses 2,3,4 and 5 were tested with analysis of covariance, (ANCOVA). All

hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. All data collected for testing

the research hypotheses were computer analysed with appropriate SSPS statistical

package.

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3.20 Procedure for Designing the Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Enhancement Package (DAPEP)

Arising from the objectives of the study was a need to develop a Developmentally

Appropriate Practice Enhancement Package for Early Childhood Education Teachers

in the Nigerian Nursery schools. The developed instructional package used the

systematic approach to the Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and

Evaluation (ADDIE) model of Instructional Design. ADDIE is a systematic step by

step framework used by instruction designers, curriculum developers and trainers

to ensure that course development and training do not occur haphazardly or in an

unstructured way. It is designed to ensure that:

(1) learners will achieve the goals of the course;

(2) allows for the evaluation of learner's needs;

(3) the design and development of training materials, and

(4) evaluation of effectiveness of the training programme using processes with

specific, measurable outcomes. This model forms the foundation on which the

training package was developed.

The adapted ADDIE model provides a simplified description of the process of

development of the package. The model has six elements that are diagrammatically

represented thus:

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Figure 7. Source: Developed by the researcher

In the development of the package, the following steps were adopted namely: the

situational analysis, designing of the materials, the development of the materials,

implementation, evaluation and feedback.

Objectives of the Training Package

1. To enhance teachers‟ competence to implement Developmentally Appropriate

Practice.

2. To equip teachers with relevant skills and knowledge needed to handle

children.

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3. To help trainees to be able to demonstrate versatility in the content of the

curriculum and how to engage children in challenging activities.

4. To furnish the teachers /caregivers with appropriate teaching tools,

stimulating learning strategies, activities, programmes that teachers can have

with children in respect to their mental ages.

3.20.1 Analysis Phase

The first step in the development of this package is the need assessment which

was carried out by the researcher through survey. This phase according to Igwe

(1993) has to do with the identification of what is, what should be and the need for

change through empirical research. The phase included such activities as data

gathering using questionnaire, interviews and documentary study.

The researcher conducted a survey to investigate the status-quo of the teachers‟

practice. The survey revealed that:

1. majority of the teachers in early childhood education sectors are educators

with varied academic qualifications rather than early childhood education

degree;

2. the pilot study revealed that the teachers do not have the in-depth

knowledge of Developmentally Appropriate Practice but a general

pedagogical knowledge of their profession;

3. the teachers lack the skills to implement Developmentally Appropriate

Practice;

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4. there were no material resources to implement Developmentally Appropriate

Practice;

5. that some of the limitations are caused by Proprietors who are providers of

inappropriate materials.

Learning Objectives

1. At the end of each training session, the trainees should be able to identify

their roles in the relationships that unfold in the early childhood environment.

2. The trainees should be able to able to enumerate the types of relationship that

exist in the early childhood environment.

3. They should be able to utilise the best climate in the environment to enhance

children‟s development and learning.

4. They should be able to demonstrate care for children in all aspects that

children need help.

5. In teaching to enhance development and learning, the teachers should be able

to utilise varieties of teaching strategies to facilitate learning and development.

6. Constructing/ Implementing Appropriate Curriculum. The trainees must be

able to demonstrate versatility in curriculum contents and how to engage

children in challenging activities.

7. Teachers should be able to determine and use various assessment strategies

that aid children‟s development and learning.

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3.20.2 The Design phase

This is the systematic process of research, identifying and selecting the complete

design of the course objectives, topic contents, training methodology. Typically

detailed prototypes are developed at this time and the contents are determined.

Selection of the content of DAPEP was based on the foundations of the curriculum

models guiding the early childhood education. Contents were carefully selected

from the best practices of early childhood education manuals, e.g Developmentally

Appropriate Curriculum, Developmentally Appropriate Practice Teachers‟ Manual,

High/Scope Approach, Montessori and Nigerian preschool curricular.

3.20.3 Development Phase

This is the actual production of the learning materials that were developed at the

design phase. After the development of the handout, a trial-testing of the material

was done on a small scale in some selected schools to see the acceptability and

relevance of the material to the teachers and children. According to Adegoke

(1989) as cited by Igwe (1993), try testing provides data for improvement,

provides basis for assessing quality, value fit and utility for the model. The thrust of

the package is being adaptable to situational peculiarities. The Development phase

creates and begins the production of the learning materials to be used in the

training.

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3.20.4 Implementation Phase

This is the stage where the developed training materials are actually put into use

and the final product developed based on the needs/ errors discovered while

testing with a prototype product is presented to the target audience.

Prior arrangement done before the presentation day included set up and

preparation of the training venues, trainees registration areas were set with

registration materials and necessary equipment for the training were identified and

set for the training. The teachers in the treatment group were trained with the

DAPEP.

3.20.5 Evaluation phase

This is a systematic process of considering feedback from learners. The feedback

gathered during this phase measures reaction, identifies what is working and not

working, determines the effectiveness and quality of the delivery, and is designed

to fine-tune the programme. It validates whether the course satisfied its objectives

and the effectiveness of the training materials used. It finds out whether the

learning went as planned, and it may also uncover any obstacles that may have

emerged, then, by making revisions, adjustments and corrections as needed,

insures the success of the next presentation.

Use a well-designed post presentation questionnaire, evaluation and/or survey that

provide for anonymous feedback if desired by the participants.

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This stage assessed the effectiveness of the training contents and materials utilized

in the programme and made improvement changes for the next implementation or

presentation. At the evaluation stage, four levels were examined using Kirkpatrick

(1998) evaluation sequence which was subsumed in the ADDIE model. These four

level model essentially measures the training as follows:

The reaction of student - what they thought and felt about the

training.

The learning - the resulting increase in knowledge or capability.

The behaviour - extent of behaviour and capability improvement and

implementation/application.

The results - the effects on the business or environment resulting from

the trainee's performance.

The Kirk Patrick Model is diagrammatically represented below.

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Level Evaluation type (what is

measured)

Evaluation description and characteristics

Examples of evaluation tools

and methods

Relevance and practicability

1 Reaction Reaction evaluation is how the trainees felt about the training or learning experience

feedback forms

Also verbal reaction, post-training surveys or questionnaires

Quick and very easy to obtain

Not expensive to gather or to analyse

2 Learning Learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in knowledge - before and after

Typically assessments or tests before and after the training

Interview or observation can also be used

Relatively simple to set up; clear-cut for quantifiable skills

Less easy for complex learning

3 Behaviour Behaviour evaluation is the extent of applied learning back on the job – implementation

Observation and interview over time are required to assess change, relevance of change, and sustainability of change

Measurement of behaviour change typically requires cooperation and skill of line-managers

4 Results Results evaluation is the effect on the business or environment by the trainee

Measures are already in place via normal management systems and reporting - the challenge is to relate to the trainee

Individually not difficult; unlike whole organisation

Process must attribute clear accountabilities

Figure 8. Evaluation Effectiveness Model Adapted from Kirkpatrick (1998)

The evaluation effectiveness theory by Kirkpatrick (1998) has now become arguably

the most widely used and popular model for the evaluation of training and learning.

Evaluation level one (reaction) measured the trainees perceptions about the

training or the learning experiences. In order to generate learners‟ response, the

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package Evaluation Questionnaire (DAPPEQ)

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was administered on the sampled teachers to measure their perceptions. Evaluation

level 2 which was the administration of post observation by the researcher

assessed the level of increase in knowledge of trainees. Evaluation level 3

measured the extent of applied learning back on the job while evaluation level 4

examined the effects that the training had on the teaching/learning activities.

3.20.6 Feedback Stage

The feedback stage involves trainer‟s observation of training implementation in

schools. This was carried out at the post observation level. The researcher went

back to observe the teachers in their classrooms to see the extent of

implementation of DAP. The areas that suffer setback are those areas where the

School Operators could not provide materials needed because they are capital

intensive materials and equipments.

3.21 Content Selection for the DAPEP

DAPEP contains contents carefully drawn from Developmentally Appropriate

Practice Teacher Training Manual, Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum, High/

Scope approach to educating young children, Guidance for the early year‟s

foundation stage and Evans Teachers‟ guide and Scheme of work for Nursery

schools. The training package is intended to equip the teachers with varieties of

tools and knowledge base for Developmentally Appropriate Practice.

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The package is divided into ten modules. Module one defines the concept of

Developmentally Appropriate Practice and its integration in the five key areas of

ECE professional practice that have been discussed in the literature review. Module

two explores the difference between DAP and DIP; characteristics of the two

practices were equally enumerated. Module three presents the facts that ECE

practitioners should know about children‟s development and how they can help

children. Module four describes various climates and the interactions that make

DAP to thrive in early childhood environment.

Module five describes the organisation of space and materials in DAP classrooms.

The enhancement package recommends age appropriate furniture and

arrangement of furniture that allows easy room traffic. Adequate spaces as well as

learning corners are recommended based on proven research. Module six discusses

varieties of teaching strategies that are effective for teaching young children. In

addition, the teaching tools recommended for a competent teacher by the American

Association of School Administrators are equally explored. Furthermore, the

package describes the different learning formats that are at the disposal of teachers

of young children to utilize in order to facilitate learning.

Modules seven and eight present a model curriculum package that can complement

teachers‟ efforts in achieving success with children. The contents of the curriculum

areas were drawn from the Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum, High /Scope

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Approach Key Experiences in different subject areas, Montessori curriculum areas,

British curriculum and Evans Module.

Module nine proffers an assessment record of children‟s learning and development.

The assessment record is adapted from New Jersey Early Childhood Expectations

related to the High/Scope & key experiences and Child Observation Records (COR)

items.

Module ten describes the ideal reciprocal relationship that should exist between

teachers and parents, between parents and the school in a developmentally

appropriate programme.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This section presents the detailed description of the findings of the main study. The

first section provides the results of the analysis of data in terms of answering the

research questions posed while in the second section, the hypotheses are tested

through the use of Descriptive and inferential statistics.

4.1 Section One: Analysis of Data in Response to the Research

Questions

Research Question 1

What are the demographic profiles of the Early Childhood Education

teachers in Lagos and Ondo States?

To determine the demographic profiles of the ECE teachers in the study a cross

tabulation was performed using teacher qualifications, areas of specialization, sex

and exposure to staff professional development programmes.

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Table 6: Cross Tabulation of Study Location and Teachers’ Qualifications

State Location WASC or M.Ed/M.A/M.Sc equivalent NCE B.Ed/B.A/B.Sc Total

Lagos Urban 4(5.4%) 47(63.5%) 18(24.3%) 5(6.8%) 74(100.0%)

Rural 13(18.1%) 49(68.1%) 7(9.7%) 3(4.2%) 72(100.0%)

Total 17(11.6%) 96(52.1%) 25(17.1%) 8(5.5%) 146(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 5(10.0%) 37(74.%) 8(16.0%) 1(2.0%) 50(100.0%)

Rural 16(32.7) 29(59.2%) 4(8.2%) - 49(100.0%)

Total 21(21.2%) 66(66.7%) 12(12.1%) 1(1.0%) 99(100.0%)

States‟ Total 38(15.50% 162(66.1) 36(14.3%) 9(3.7%) 245(100.0%)

Table 6 shows that of 74 teachers in urban Lagos, 63.5% of them had NCE, 24.3%

were first degree holders while a negligible 6.8% and 5.4% had M.Ed and School

Certificates respectively. In Ondo State, there were 50 teachers in urban Ondo of

which 74% were holders of NCE, 16% had first degree, 10% were School

Certificate holders while the remaining 2% had postgraduate qualifications.

In rural Lagos, out of the 72 teachers, 68.1% of them had NCE, 9.7% were first

degree holders while only 4.2% had post graduate qualifications and 18.1% were

school certificate holders or its equivalents respectively.

In the same vein, there were 49 teachers in the rural Ondo schools of which 59.2%

were holders of NCE, 8.2% were first degree holders while 32.7% had WASC

qualifications and there were no teacher with postgraduate qualification in rural

Ondo schools. From this table, it appears that generally, Lagos State schools had

more qualified teachers than Ondo State preschools.

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In summary, NCE holders constitute the largest percentage of teachers with 66.1%

in both Lagos and Ondo states. Teachers with WASC ranked second with 15.5%

while first degree ranked third with 14.7% and post graduate degree holder ranked

fourth with 3.7%.

Table 7: Cross tabulation of Study Location and Major Areas of

Specialization

State Location Early Non-ECE

Childhood Specialists Education Others Total

Lagos Urban 24(32.4%) 39(52.7%) 11(14.9) 74(100.0%)

Rural 19(26.4%) 43(59.7%) 10(13.9) 72(100.0%)

Total 43(29.5%) 82(56.2%) 21(14.4%) 146(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 17(34.0%) 25(50%) 8(16%) 50(100.0%)

Rural 15(30.6%) 26(53.1%) 9(18.4%) 49(100.0%)

Total 32(32.3%) 51(51.5%) 17(17.2%) 99(100.0%)

States‟ total 75(30.6%) 133(54.3%) 38(15.5%) 245(100.0%)

From table 7, we can deduce that 29.5% of the urban and rural Lagos teachers

specialized in Early Childhood Education; 56.2% were Non- ECE specialists while

the 14.4% specialized in other areas. In addition, 32.3% of urban and rural Ondo

teachers specialized in Early Childhood Education; 51.5% were Non-ECE specialists

while 17.2% specialized in other areas. Summarily, the Early Childhood experts

represent only 30.6% of the total teacher population in the two states, 54.3% of

the teachers are Non-ECE specialists while the others 15.5% represents those who

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are not educationist at all. This implies that majority of the early childhood

classrooms are manned by teachers who are not experts in the field where they

function.

Table 8: Cross tabulation of Location and Gender

State Location Male Female Total

Lagos Urban 5(6.8%) 69(93.2%) 74(100.0%)

Rural 3(4.2%) 69(95.8%) 72(100.0%)

Total 8(5.5%) 138(94.5%) 146(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 7(14.0%) 43(86.0%) 50(100.0%)

Rural 6(12.2%) 43(87.6%) 49(100.0%)

Total 13(13.1%) 86(86.9%) 99(100.0%)

Evidence from table 8 shows that eight teachers (5.%) in urban and rural Lagos

preschools are males while 138 representing 94.5% are females. In addition,

13.1% teachers in urban and rural Ondo are males while majority of the teachers

86.9% are females. Thus the gender distribution of the ECE teachers across Lagos

and Ondo as shown in the table reveals that females dominate early childhood

classrooms in the two States.

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Table 9: Cross tabulation of Study Location and Exposure to professional

Development Programmes.

State Location Always Sometimes Seldom Never Total

Lagos Urban 24(32.4%) 43(58.1%) 7(9.5%) 74(100.0%)

Rural 17(22.9) 42(58.3%) 34(47.2%) 2(2.8%) 72(100.0%)

Total 24(16.4%) 79(54.1%) 41(28.1%) 2(1.4%) 146(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 17(34.0%) 15(30.0%) 18(36.0%) 50(100.0%)

Rural 24(49.0%) 23(46.9%) 2(4.1%) 49(100.0%)

Total 17(17.2%) 39(39.4%) 41(41.4%) 2(2.0%) 99(100.0%)

Table 9 reveals that 16.4% of ECE teachers in urban and rural Lagos State said that

they always attend professional development programmes, 54.1% sometimes

attend professional development programmes, 28.1% and 1.4% seldom attend

staff development programme while 2(1.4%) said that they never attend

professional development programmes. Similarly, 17(17.2%) of ECE teachers in

urban and rural Ondo State said that they always attend professional development

programmes, 39(39.4%) sometimes attend staff development programmes while

41(41.4%) seldom attend professional development programmes while 2(2.0%)

said they never attend development training. Summarily, only 16.7% of the

teachers confirmed that they always attend professional development programmes,

48.2% sometimes attend while 33.5% and 1.6% said that they seldom and never

attend professional development programmes in the two States. This indicates that

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majority of the teachers in the two states do not have regular access to

professional development programmes.

Research Question 2

What are the observed behaviours and the practice of the urban and rural

Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in the two States before the intervention

package?

To determine the observed behaviours of teachers in the study locations,

descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation scores of the teachers in the

DAP variables were used. The results are presented in the table 10.

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Table 10: Descriptive data of the Observed behaviours of ECE teachers in

Ondo and Lagos States before intervention

Creating a Teaching Constructing/ Assessing Pupils Caring Community to enhance Implementing Learning and Development Appropirate Development State Location and Learning Curriculum Lagos Urban Mean 47.68 15.24 30.27 18.22 N 74 74 74 74 Std. Deviation 3.74 2.11 4.14 1.89 Minimum 37.00 11.00 22.00 15.00

Maximum 55.00 19.00 38.00 22.00 Max.obtainable 225 60 195 36

Rural Mean 46.056 15.21 30.42 18.67 N 72 72 72 72 Std. Deviation 3.94 2.24 4.48 2.24 Minimum 33.00 8.00 16.00 10.00

Maximum 52.00 19.00 38.00 22.00 Max.obtainable 225 60 195 36 Total Mean 46.88 15.23 30.34 17.46 N 146 146 146 146

Std Deviation 3.91 2.167 4.31 2.21 Minimum 33.00 8. 00 16.00 22.00 Maximum 55.00 19.00 38.00 22.00 Max.obtainable 225 60 195 36

Ondo Urban Mean 47.58 15.18 30.20 17.88

N 50 50 50 50 Std Deviation 4.0259 2.13 4.18 2. 51 Minimum 33.00 8.00 16.00 22.00 Maximum 55.00 19.00 38.00 22.00 Max.obtainable 225 60 195 36

Rural Mean 46.69 15.24 30.33 17.59 N 49 49 49 49

Std Deviation 3.57 2.18 4.31 1.88 Minimum 37.00 11.00 22.00 12.00 Maximum 55.00 19.00 38.00 22.00 Max.obtainable 225 60 195 36

Total Mean 47.14 15.21 30.26 17.74 N 99 99 99 99

Std Deviation 3.81 2.18 4.31 1.88 Minimum 33.00 8.00 16.00 10.00 Maximum 55.00 19.00 38.00 22.00

Max.obtainable 225 60 195 36

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Table 10 shows that the participants in Lagos State obtained a mean score and

standard deviation of 47.68 and 3.47 as against 47.14 and 3.81 of Ondo State

teachers in creating a caring community of learners. However, the mean score of

Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in creating a caring of community of learners are

very low when compared with the obtainable score of 225 in creating a caring of

community of learners.

Similarly, in teaching to enhance development and learning, Lagos State ECE

teachers obtained a mean score and standard deviation of 15.23 and 2.16 as

against Ondo State ECE teachers‟ mean score of 15.21 and 2.18.

In addition, Lagos ECE teachers‟ mean score and standard deviation in

constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum were 30.34 and 4.31 as against

30.26 and 4.31 obtained by Ondo State ECE teachers.

Lastly, on assessing pupils‟ learning and development, Lagos ECE teachers obtained

a means score and standard deviation of 17.46 and 2.21 while their Ondo State

counterparts mean score and standard deviation were 17.74 and 1.88 respectively.

From the findings therefore, the mean scores and standard deviations that

emerged show that the teachers‟ performance on DAP variables are very low when

compared with the maximum obtainable scores in all DAP variables.

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Research Question 3

What reasons account for the weaknesses identified in the

implementation of Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early

Childhood classrooms in Lagos and Ondo States?

In order to answer the above question, structured oral interview schedule was

administered on the sampled teachers to elicit information on the weaknesses

observed.

The teachers were asked the following guided questions.

1. Why do teachers fail to greet children on arrival to school?

In response to question 1, 92% of the teachers retorted that the act of a teacher

greeting a child is both an aberration as well as contrary to cultural values that are

greatly upheld. However, eight percent of the teachers said that they greet their

pupils and that this habit boosts the self esteem of the children and also makes the

children feel lovable.

2. Why are children not allowed deep interaction with their peers in

class?

Eighty percent of the teachers said that children‟s interaction in class is noisy and

distracting. Children are only allowed to interact together during their break period.

Thirteen percent of the teachers said that they would not allow interaction because

the children might injure themselves which oftentimes lead to rancour among the

school administration, parents and the teachers concerned. Seven percent of the

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teachers responded that they encouraged peer interaction as this helps in children‟s

socialisation.

3. Why are there no learning corners/interest corners set-up in class?

Eighty nine percent of the teachers said that they were not familiar with learning

corners and interest corners in the classrooms. Five percent of the teachers that

affirmed that they had knowledge of learning corners did not have the facilities -

space and resource materials/teaching aids to set them up. Six percent of the

teachers said that although they managed to fabricate teaching materials, they had

no knowledge of the arrangement to create distinctive learning corners.

4. Why don’t teachers go out with the pupils during outdoor play?

Asked why they, as teachers don‟t go out with their pupils during outdoor play,

77% of the respondents said that the assistant teachers were saddled with the

responsibility to monitor the children during their outdoor play because the class

teachers had so many responsibilities to attend to even when the children were not

in class while 23% of the teachers said that they do go out with their pupils to play.

5. Why are the preschoolers sharing the same gross motor equipment

with primary schools pupils?

Seventy six percent of the teachers interviewed replied that the School Operators

were responsible for providing the equipment and that most of the school facilities

were purchased without the knowledge of the teachers. Eighteen percent of the

teachers attributed this situation to lack of adequate funding to provide the

equipment while six percent of the schools had child- size gross motor equipment.

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6. Why are the children not practising simple self-help skills like

sweeping their crumbs after meals or setting tables?

Eighty one percent of the teachers‟ responses were that the schools‟ policies did not

encourage these activities and that parents also frowned at such activities.

Nineteen percent of the schools encouraged children to set their tables but not to

sweep crumbs.

7. Why are teachers not working with children from low level

furniture?

In the schools observed, 92% of the teachers said that they were not comfortable

working on low level furniture while only 5% that sat with the pupils did so when

their lessons were on but returned to their seats while the remaining 3% sat and

walked round to ensure that pupils were working.

8. Why are there no individualised instructions in your class?

Eighteen percent of the teachers said that they practised individualised instructions

while the remaining eighty two percent of the teachers responded that the numbers

of children in the classes could only give room for individualised teaching and

instruction.

9. Why is there no mini-library in your class to inculcate the reading

culture in the children?

Eighty nine percent of the teachers said that their classes do not need mini-library

because the school already had one while eleven percent said that they organised

reading time for pupils but do not have reading centre because of lack of space.

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10. How do you encourage reflection and critical thinking in the

pupils?

Majority of the teachers (83%) reported that their class schedules were tight that

left little or no room for children‟s discussions. Seventeen percent of the teachers

reported that the demand to finish up activities slated for a term left no room for

children‟s reflective thinking.

11. Why are local music and musical instruments not used in the

class/school?

Twenty eight percent of the teachers reported that they sang local songs but do

not use local instruments in class. Seventy two percent of the teachers said that

they were not allowed to sing local songs because parents/schools resist the use of

native language as they believe that this would retard the development of English

language acquisition among the children.

12. Why are Creative arts and Physical/ Health education not given

equal attention as other subjects?

In all the classes observed, 87% of the classes had PH.E once in a week. They

attributed this to the fact that the subjects were handled by subject teachers who

were also part- time teachers of the schools. Thirteen percent of the teachers

affirmed that they engaged their children in these activities but they were done

once in a week. All the teachers attested to the fact that their schedule of activities

could only accommodate these activities once in a week.

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13. Why are there no activities done with sand and water?

Ninety six percent of the teachers interviewed responded that no parent wanted to

see their wards/children playing with sand and water as they would not want the

children‟s dresses to be soiled. Some of these teachers equally said that the

children had outgrown such activities and that parents had sent their children to

school to learn, and not to play and pour sand. The generality of opinion on sand

and water activities was that it is a form of play.

14. Why is computer not being used as one of the free choice activities

in class?

Ninety three percent of the teachers interviewed responded that the schools did not

provide computers for Nursery classes because the children are too young to

handle such technology. For the remaining 7% classes that had computers, only

4% allowed the children to access the computers while the other 3% said that the

computers were provided for teacher‟s use.

15. How do you determine the weight and height of the children in

order to account for their physical development?

Seventy four percent of the teachers responded that their schools had weighing

scale that they use for measuring the children‟s weight. No school teacher reported

to have used height measuring equipment. Twenty six percent of the teachers

reported that they measured the weight of the children at the beginning of an

academic session but attached no importance to this activity as they never reported

this to the parents as a way of monitoring children‟s physical growth.

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Research Question 4

What are the School Operators’ levels of provision of professional

resources and DAP materials in the urban and rural Lagos and Ondo

States preschools?

To determine the School Operators‟ provision of professional resources and DAP

materials in the study locations, cross tabulation statistics was adopted using

provision of in-service training, inductions for teachers, support for staff,

subscription to resource materials, furniture for play, gross motor equipment, fine

motor activities, toilet facilities, and other DAP materials.

Table 11: Cross tabulation of study location and provision of in-service

training

State Location Always Sometimes Seldom Total

Lagos Urban 8(32.0%) 11(44.0%) 6(24.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 6(24.0) 8(32.0%) 11(44.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 14(28.0%) 19(38.0%) 17(34.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 5(20.0%) 11(44.0%) 9(36.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 4(16.0%) 9(36.0%) 12(48.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 9(18.0%) 20(40.0%) 21(42.0%) 50(100.0%)

From table 11, 28.0% of the School Operators in Lagos State as against 18.0% in

Ondo State claimed that they always make provision for in-service training. In

addition, 38.0% and 34.0% of School Operators in Lagos as against 40% and

42% in Ondo said that they sometimes and seldom make provision respectively.

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The summary of the table reveals that Lagos state School Operators were better

providers of in-service training than their Ondo counterparts but the two state‟s

School Operators percentage (23%) provision were still grossly inadequate.

Table 12: Cross tabulation of study location and organisation of induction

for teachers


Lagos Urban 5(20.0%) 13(52.0%) 7(28.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 4(16.0%) 11(44.0%) 10(40.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 9(18.0%) 24(48.0%) 17(34.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 6(24.0%) 14(56.0%) 5(20.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 4(16.0%) 5(20.0%) 16(64.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 10(20.0%) 19(38.0%) 21(42.0%) 50(100.0%)

Table 12, shows that 18.0% of the School Operators in Lagos State as against

20.0% in Ondo state claimed that they always organise induction training for their

teachers. Similarly, 48.0% and 34.0% of School Operators in Lagos as against

38.0% and 42% in Ondo said that they sometimes and seldom organise induction

training for their teachers respectively. The summary of the table reveals that only

19% of the School Operators in the two States organised induction programmes for

their teachers.

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Table 13: Cross tabulation of study location and support for staff to

attend courses or conferences


Lagos Urban 8(32.0%) 13(52.0%) 4(16.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 5(20.0) 11(44.0%) 9(36.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 13(26.0%) 24(48.0%) 13(26.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 7(28.0%) 12(48.0%) 6(24.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 5(20.0%) 9(36.0%) 11(44.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 12(24.0%) 21(42.0%) 17(34.0%) 50(100.0%)

Table 13, shows that 26.0% of the School Operators in Lagos State as against

24.0% in Ondo State claimed that they to support their staff to attend courses and

conferences. In addition, 48.0% and 26.0% of School Operators in Lagos as

against 42.0% and 34% in Ondo said that they sometimes and seldomly support

staff to attend courses respectively. The summary of table 13 reveals that only

25% of the School Operators in the two States support their staff for conferences.

Table 14: Cross tabulation of study location and subscription to

professional resources


Lagos Urban 9(36.0%) 8(32.0%) 8(32.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 4(16.0%) 9(36.0%) 12(48.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 13(26.0%) 17(34.0%) 20(40.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 5(20.0%) 8(32.0%) 12(48.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 3(12.0%) 7(28.0%) 15(60.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 8(16.0%) 15(30.0%) 27(54.0%) 50(100.0%)

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Table 14 shows that 26% of the School Operators in Lagos State as against 16%

in Ondo State always subscribe to professional resource materials for their

teachers. 34.0% and 40.0% of School Operators in Lagos as against 30.0% and

54% in Ondo said that they sometimes and seldomly subscribe to professional

resource materials respectively. The summary of the table reveals that only 21% of

the School Operators in the two states subscribe to professional resource materials

for their teachers.

Table 15: Utilization of varieties of technological for children engagement


Lagos Urban 9(36.0%) 11(44.0%) 5(20.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 7(28.0%) 8(32.0%) 10(40.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 16(32.0%) 19(38.0%) 15(30.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 6(24.0%) 10(40.0%) 9(36.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 3(12.0%) 6(24.0%) 16(64.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 9(18.0%) 16(32.0%) 25(50.0%) 50(100.0%)

Table 15 shows that 32.0% of the School Operators in Lagos State as against

18.0% in Ondo State made provision for varieties of technology for children‟s

engagement. Furthermore, 38.0% and 30.0% of School Operators in Lagos as

against 32.0% and 50% in Ondo confirmed that they sometimes and seldomly

provide varieties of technology for children‟s engagement. The summary of the

table reveals that:

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i. Lagos State School Operator‟s provision of varieties of technological tools is

higher than their Ondo State counterparts.

ii. Only 25.11% of the School Operators in the two states organise induction

programmes for their teachers.

Table 16: Cross tabulation of study Location and furniture for routine

care, play and learning

State School type Adequate Not adequate Total Lagos Location

Urban 20(80.0%) 5(13.6%) 25 (100.0%)

Rural 18(72.0%) 7(26.9%) 26(100.0%)

Total 38(73.1%) 12(20.9%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 13(52.0%) 12(48.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 8(32.0%) 17(68.0%) 25(100.%)

Total 21(42.0%) 29(58.0%) 50(100.0%)

Evidence from table 16 shows that 73.1% of the urban and rural Lagos preschools

had adequate furniture for routine care, play and learning, while 20.9% were

reported to have inadequate furniture. On the other hand, only 42% of the urban

and rural Ondo preschools had adequate furniture while the remaining 58.% of the

schools had furniture were inadequate for play and learning. Summarily, Lagos

State School Operator‟s provision of a appropriate furniture was better than their

Ondo State counterparts.

204

Table 17: Cross tabulation of Study Location and Space


Urban 8(32.0%) 17(68.0%) 25 (100.0%)

Rural 9(36.0%) 15(57.7%) 25(100.0%)

Total 17(37.5%) 32(64.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 9(30.0%) 17(64.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 6(22.2%) 19(76.0%) 25(100.%)

Total 5(28.0%) 36(72.0%) 50(100.0%)

In respect to space, table 17 reveals that only 37.5% of the urban and rural Lagos

schools had adequate space while 62.5% of the urban and rural Lagos preschools

had no adequate space. Similarly, only 28% of the urban and rural Ondo

preschools had adequate space while majority, 72% of urban and rural Ondo

schools had no adequate space. This implies that majority of the schools in the two

States do not have adequate indoor and outdoor spaces.

Table 18: Cross tabulation of Study Location and Gross Motor

Equipment

State School type Adequate Not adequate Total

Lagos Location

Urban 13(52.0%) 12(480%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 9(36.0%) 16(64.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 22(44.0%) 28(56.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 12(48.0%) 13(52.0%) 23(100.0%)

Rural 10(40.0%) 15(68.0%) 27(100.%)

Total 22(44.0%) 28(56.0%) 50(100.0%)

205

Table 18 shows that only 44.0% of the urban and rural Lagos preschools had

adequate gross motor equipment while 56.0% had inadequate gross motor

equipment. On the other hand, 44% of the preschools in urban and rural Ondo

had adequate gross motor equipment while 56% had inadequate gross motor

equipment. Summarily, urban schools in the two states had better gross motor

equipment than the rural schools while the gross motor equipment of the majority

of the schools in the two States were average in adequatecy.

Table 19: Cross tabulation of Study Location and toilet facilities


Urban 15(60.0%) 9(36.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 6(24.0%) 20(80.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 21(42.0%) 29(58.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 12(48.0%) 11(47.8%) 23(100.0%)

Rural 6(24.0%) 21(77.8%) 27(100.%)

Total 18(36.0%) 32(64.0%) 50(100.0%)

Evidence from the table 19 reveals that most of the urban and rural Lagos schools

(58.0%) had inadequate toilet facilities while (42.0%) of the toilet facilities were

adequate. On the other hand, majority of urban and rural Ondo preschools (64%)

had inadequate toilet facilities while only 36% of Ondo preschools had adequate

toilet facilities. The School Operators‟ provision of developmentally appropriate

toilet facilities leaves much to be desired in the two States.

206

Table 20: Crosstabulation of Location Versus other DAP Materials


Urban 7(28.0%) 18(72.%) 25 (100.0%)

Rural 6(24.0%) 19(78.0%) 25(100.0%)

Total 13(26.0%) 34(68.0%) 50(100.0%)

Ondo Urban 9(36.0%) 16(64.0%) 25(100.0%)

Rural 4(16.0%) 21(84.0%) 25(100.%

Total 13(26.0%) 37(74.0%) 50(100.0%)

We can deduce from table 20 that most of the urban and rural Lagos and Ondo

preschools (68%) and (74%) respectively had inadequate DAP materials, while

only 26% of the urban and rural preschools in both Lagos and Ondo had

adequate DAP materials respectively.

4:2 Section Two: Hypotheses testing

1. There is no significant difference in the competency level of the

urban and rural Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers?

To test this hypothesis, a 2x2 Analysis of variance was utilized. The dependent

variables were test scores of teachers in content mastery, pedagogical expertise,

critical thinking and creativity, effective communication, children enabler and

professionalism/leadership. There were two fixed (independent) factors-state and

location each of which was measured at two levels. The results of the analysis are

presented in Table 21.

207

Table 21: Descriptive Data and ANOVA testing differences in competency

level of teachers in the two states on content mastery

Dependent Variable: Content Mastery

State Location Mean Std. Deviation N

Lagos Urban 23.28 3.42 74 Rural 23.22 3.87 72

Total 23.25 3.64 146

Ondo Urban 23.98 2.90 50

Rural 23.95 3.07 49 Total 23.47 3.01 99

Total Urban 23.56 3.23

124

Rural 23.11 3.56 121

Total 23.34 3.39 245

Table 22: Test of Between-Subjects Effects (state and Location) on content mastery

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Model 133526.617a 4 33381.65 2887.25

.000 State 2.767 1 2.77 .239

.625

Location 17.277 1 17.278 1.49 .223

State/ Location 13.570 1 13.57 1.17 .280

Error 2786.383 241 11.56 Total 136313.000 245

a. R Squared = .980 (Adjusted R Squared = .979)

Table 21 shows that the participants‟ mean scores and standard deviation in

content mastery by urban and rural Lagos State‟s teachers were 23.64 and

sd=3.64 as against 23.47 and sd=3.01 obtained by urban and rural Ondo

208

participants respectively. A disaggregation according to location shows respective

mean scores of 23.56 and 23.12 with corresponding standard deviations of 3.23

and 3.56 for urban and rural teachers.

Table 22 shows the joint contributions of the independent variables to the

explanation of the variance in content mastery. Adjusted R2 .979 was very high and

the F calculated value of 2887.24 is greater than the critical value of 2.88. The total

variance accounted for by the model was 98.%.

A consideration of each of the independent factors shows that state (F=.239),

location (F=1.49) two-way interactions (F=1.17) were not statistically significant at

the 0.05 alpha level.


level of teachers in the two states on pedagogical expertise

Dependent Variable: Pedagogical Expertise

State Location Mean Std. Deviation N Lagos Urban 49.05 7.19 74

Rural 49.30 6.55 72 Total 49.18 6.86 146

Ondo Urban 46.6000 4.34 50

Rural 51.84 6.99 49 Total 49.19 3.34 99

Total Urban 48.06 6.29 124

Rural 50.33 6.82 121 Total 49.18 6.64 245

209

Table 24: Tests of Between-Subjects effects (state and location) on test

scores of teachers in pedagogical expertise

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Model 593344.245a 4 148336.061 3542.396 .000

State .088 1 .088 .002 .964 Location 444.19 1 444.19 10.67 .001

State/Location 366.500 1 366.500 8.75 .003

Error 10091.75 241 41.88

Total 603436.000 245

R Square = 98.3 (Adjusted R2.983)

Table 23: shows the participants‟ mean scores and standard deviation in

pedagogical expertise by urban and rural Lagos State of 49.05 and sd=7.21 as

against 49.18 sd=6.44 obtained by urban and rural Ondo participants. A

disaggregation according to location shows respective mean scores of 48.06 and

50.33 with corresponding standard deviations of 6.31 and 6.82 for urban and rural

teachers.

Table 24 indicates the joint contributions of the independent variables to the

explanation of the variance in pedagogical expertise by teachers. Adjusted R2.983

was very high and the F calculated value of 3542.39 is greater than the critical

value of 2.88. The total variance accounted for by the model was 98.3%.

A consideration of each of the independent factors shows that state (F=.002) is not

statistically significant at the 0.05 alpha level. But at the interaction level, location

(F=10.67) and the two-way interactions of state and location (F=8.75) were

210

statistically significant at the 0.05 alpha level. In other words, there are significant

differences between location and state in pedagogical expertise.


level of teachers in the two states on critical thinking and creativity

Dependent Variable: Critical thinking and Creativity

State Location Mean Std. Deviation N Lagos Urban 15.34 2.77 74

Rural 15.46 2.49 72

Total 15.39 2.63 146 Ondo Urban 23.98 3.06 50

Rural 15.57 2.57 49 Total 15.45 2.81 99

Total Urban 15.34 2.88 124

Rural 15.50 2.51 121

Total 15.42 2.70 245


scores of teachers in Critical Thinking and Creativity

Dependent variable: Critical Thinking and Creativity Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F

Sig.

Model 58260.351a 4 14565.088 1976.847

.000 State .196 1 .196 .027

.871 Location 1.826 1 1.826 .248

.619

State/Location .181 1 .181 .025

.875 Error 1775.65 241 7.368

Total 60036.000 245

R Squared = .970 (Adjusted R Squared = .970)

211

Table 25 shows that the participants‟ mean scores and standard deviation in critical

thinking and creativity by urban and rural Lagos State of 15.39 and sd=2.63 as

against 15.45 and sd=2.81 obtained by urban and rural Ondo participants. A



teachers.


explanation of the variance in critical thinking and creativity. Adjusted R Squared =

.970 was very high and the F calculated value of 1976.85 is greater than the critical

value of 2.88. The total variance accounted for by the model was 97.%.

A consideration of each of the independent factor shows that state (F=.027),

location (F=.248) two-way interactions (F=.025) were not statistically significant at

the 0.05 alpha level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.


level of teachers in the two states on effective communication

Dependent Variable: Effective Communication


Lagos Urban 16.81 2.80 74

Rural 16.90 2.56 72 Total 16.86 3.67 146

Ondo Urban 17.02 2.62 50 Rural 16.86 2.78 49

Total 16.94 2.69 99

Total Urban 16.89 2.72 124 Rural 16.88 2.64 121

Total 16.89 2.67 245

212


scores of teachers in Critical Thinking and Creativity

Dependent variable: Effective Communication Spruce Sum of Squares df Mean Square F

Sig.

Model 69891.349a 4 17472.837 2416. 407 .000

State .394 1 .394 .055

.816 Location .074 1 .074 .010

.919

State/Location .958 1 .958 .132 .716

Error 1742.651 241 7.231

Total 71634.000 245


Table 27 shows the participants‟ mean scores and standard deviation in effective

communication by urban and rural Lagos State of 16.86 and sd=3.67 as against

16.94 sd=2.69 obtained by urban and rural Ondo participants. Scores by rural and

urban locations show respective mean scores of 11.68 and 11.69 with

corresponding standard deviations of 1.25 and 1.54.

Table 28 reveals the joint contributions of the independent variables to the

explanation of the variance in effective communication. Adjusted R Squared = .976


value of 2.88. The total variance accounted for by the model was 97.6%.


location (F=010) two-way interactions (F=.000) were not statistically significant at

the 0.05 alpha level, thus the null hypothesis was accepted.

213


level of teachers in the two states on children enabler

Dependent Variable: Children Enabler State Location Mean Std. Deviation N


Total 11.67 1.40 146

Ondo Urban 11.70 1.09 50 Rural 11.71 1.70 49

Total 11.71 1.42 99


Total 11.68 1.40 245


scores of teachers in children enabler

Dependent variable: Children Enabler Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F

Sig.

Model 33456.293a 4 8364.073 4193.287 .000

State .076 1 .076 .038 .846

Location .016 1 .016 .008 .929

State/Location .000 1 .000 .000

.991 Error 480.71 241 1.99

Total 33937.000 245



children enabler by urban and rural Lagos state of 11.67 and sd=1.40 as against

11.71 and sd=1.42 obtained by urban and rural Ondo participants. A


214


teachers.


explanation of the variance in children enabler. Adjusted R2 .986 was very high and

the F calculated value of 4193.29 is greater than the critical value of 2.88. The total

variance accounted for by the model was 98.%.


location (F=008) two-way interactions (F=.O25) were not statistically significant at

the 0.05 alpha level. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.


level of teachers in the two states on Professionalism and Leadership

Dependent Variable: Professionalism and Leadership



Total 28.99 2.94 146 Ondo Urban 30.4800 2.43 50

Rural 28.78 2.57 49

Total 29.64 2.63 99

Total Urban 29.61 2.78 124

Rural 28.88 2.85 121

Total 29.25 2.83 245

215


scores of teachers in professionalism and leadership

Dependent variable: Professionalisms and Leadership Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F

Sig.

Model 209695.266a 4 52423.816 6782.577

.000 State .24.314 1 .24.314 3.146

.077 Location .47.096 1 .47.096 6.093

.014

State/Location 38.79 1 38.79 5.019

.026 Error 1862.73 241 7.729

Total 211558.000 245



professionalism and leadership in urban and rural Lagos State of 28.99 (sd=2.94)

as against 29.64 (sd=2.63) obtained by urban and rural Ondo participants.

Participants‟ scores according to location shows respective mean scores of 29.61

and 28.89 with corresponding standard deviations of 2.78 and 2.85 for urban and

rural teachers.


explanation of the variance in professionalism and leadership. Adjusted R2 .991


value of 2.88. The total variance accounted for by the model was 99.%.

216

A consideration of each of the independent factors shows that state (F=3.15) is not

significant but there is a significant difference between locations (F=6.09) and the

two-way interactions, (F=5.02) at the 0.05 alpha level.

Summarily, the following results emerged from the hypothesis raised:

i. the null hypothesis was accepted in content mastery, critical thinking,

effective communication and children enabler.

ii. the null hypothesis was rejected at the interaction level between location

and state in pedagogical expertise and professionalism/leadership.

Hypothesis two

Hypothesis two states that there is no significant difference in post test

scores of rural and urban Lagos and Ondo ECE teachers in the treatment

and control groups in creating a caring community of learners.

To test this hypothesis, a 2x2x2 Analysis of covariance was utilized. The dependent

variable was post-test scores of teachers in creating a caring community of

learners. The covariate was pre-test scores of the teachers in creating a caring

community of learners. There were three fixed (independent) factors-state, location

and experimental condition, each of which was measured at two levels. The results

of the analysis are presented in Table 33.

217

Table 33: Descriptive Data of post-test scores of teachers in creating a

caring community of learners across state, location and experimental

condition

Dependent Variable: Post-test scores of creating a caring community of

learners

State Location Group Mean Std. Deviation N

Lagos Urban Experiment 127.84 10.21 38 36 Control 47.055 3.45

Total 88.54 41.37 74

Rural Experiment 120.11 22.16 36 Control 46.42 4.25 36

72 Total 83.26 40.35

Total Experiment 124.08 17.42 74

Control 46.74 3.85 72 Total 85.94 40.81 146

Ondo Urban Experiment 119.46 20.24 26 Control 44.38 4.36 24 Total 83.42 40.67 50

Rural Experiment 119.54 12.06 24 Control 45.76 4.89 25

49 Total 81.89 38.35

Total Experiment 119.50 16.65 50 Control 45.08 4.65 49 Total 82.67 39.34 99

Total Urban Experiment 124.44 15.53 64 60 Control 45.98 4.03

Total 86.48 41.00 124

Rural Experiment 119.88 18.66 60 61 121

Control 46.15 4.49 Total 82.71 39.39

Total Experiment 122.23 17.20 124 Control 46.07 4.25 121

245 Total 84.62 40.18

Table 33 shows that the participants in Lagos State obtained a mean score of 85.94

(sd=40.81) as against 82.67 (sd=39.34) obtained by Ondo participants. A

218


82.71 with corresponding standard deviations of 41.00 and 39.39 for urban and

rural teachers. A comparison between the experimental and control groups yielded

respective scores of 122.23 (sd=17.20) and 46.07 (sd=4.25) for treatment and

control groups. No discernable pattern emerged for the two-way and 3-way

interaction effects.

Table 34 shows the main and interaction effects of the independent variables on

the dependent variable.

Table 34: Tests of Between-Subjects effects (state, location and

experimental condition) on post test scores of teachers in creating a

caring community of learners

Dependent Variable: Post-test scores of creating a caring community of

learners

Source Sum of Squares Degree of freedom Mean Square F Sig.

Model 2111936.992(a) 9 234659.666 1535.168 .000 Pretestccc 623.844 1 623.844 4.081 .044 State 594.116 1 594.116 3.887 .050 Local 84.697 1 84.697 .554 Group 339217.118 1 339217.118 2219.194 .000 state * local 306.136 1 306.136 2.003 .158

.387 state * group 114.643 1 114.643 .750 local * group 199.298 1 199.298 1.304 .255 state * local * group

196.110 1 196.110 1.283 .258

Error 36074.008 236 152.856 Total 2148011.000 245

a R Squared = .983 (Adjusted R Squared = .983)

219

Table 34 indicates that the joint contributions of the independent variables and the

covariate to the explanation of the variance in post tests scores of teachers in

creating a caring community of learners was statistically significant at the 0.05

alpha level and beyond as the F calculated value of 1535.16 is greater than the

critical value of 2.88. The total variance accounted for by the model was 98.30%.

A consideration of each of the independent factor shows that state (F=3.89),

experimental condition (F=2219.19) and the covariate (F=4.08) were statistically

significant at the 0.05 alpha level. All two-way and three-way interactions were not

statistically significant at the 0.05 level.

Further analysis of Table 34 shows that the post-test scores of ECE teachers in the

treatment group in creating a caring community of learners were significantly

higher than those of the teachers in the control groups. Similarly, the Lagos state

teachers were superior to their Ondo state counterparts in fostering a caring

community of learners. From the analysis:

1. Enhancement package was effective in fostering a caring community of

learners among teachers.

2. Lagos State ECE teachers appeared to have been superior to their Ondo

state counterparts in creating a caring community of learners.

3. There was no significant difference between participants in rural and urban

areas in creating a caring community of learners.

220

Hypothesis three

Hypothesis three states that there is no significant difference in post test


and control groups in teaching to enhance development and learning.

A 2x2x2 Analysis of covariance was utilized to test this hypothesis. The dependent

variable was post-test scores of teachers in teaching to enhance development and

learning. The covariate was pre-test scores of the teachers in teaching to enhance

development and learning. The independent factors were state, location and

experimental condition, each of which was measured at two levels. The results of

the analysis are presented in Tables 35 and 36.

221

Table 35: Descriptive data of post test scores of teachers in teaching to

enhance development and learning across state, location and

experimental condition

Dependent Variable: Post-test score of teaching to enhance development and learning

State Group Location Mean Std. Deviation N

Lagos Experiment Urban 30.21 4.43 38 36 Rural 29.42 5.99

Total 29.82 5.22 74

Control Urban 15.06 2.16 36 36 Rural 15.33 2.24

Total 15.19 2.19 72

Total Urban 22.84 8.39 74 Rural 22.38 8.39 72 Total 22.61 8.36 146

Ondo Experiment Urban 29.42 5.22 26 Rural 31.08 3.91 24

50 Total 30.22 4.67

Control Urban 14.83 2.39 24 Rural 15.52 1.92 25 Total 15.18 2.17 49


64

Total Experiment Urban 29.89 4.74 Rural 30.08 5.28 60

124 Total 29.98 4.99

Control Urban 14.97 2.24 60

61 Rural 15.41 2.10 Total 15.19 2.17 121


245 Total 22.68 8.36

222

Table 35 shows that the participants in Lagos state obtained a mean score of 22.61

(sd=8.36) as against 22.78 (sd=8.38.) obtained by Ondo participants. A

comparison between experimental and control groups yielded respective mean

scores of 29.98 (sd=4.99) and 15.19 (sd=2.17) for treatment and control groups.

Teachers‟ distribution by location show respective mean scores of 22.67 (sd=8.37)

for urban teachers with corresponding mean scores of 22.69 and standard deviation

of 8.38 for rural teachers.


experimental condition) on post test scores of teachers on teaching to

enhance development and learning

Dependent Variable: Post test scores of teaching to enhance

development and learning

Source Sum of Squares Df

Mean Square F Sig.

Model 139484.520(a) 9 15498.280 1031.622 .000 .180 Pretested 27.228 1 27.228 1.812

State 2.680 1 2.680 .178 .673 .000 Group

Local state * group

12973.721 1 12973.721 863.578 12.556 1 12.556 .836 .362 2.632 1 2.632 .175 .676

.159

.930 state * local group * local

30.022 1 30.022 1.998 .117 1 .117 .008

state * group * local

15.921 1 15.921 1.060 .304

Error 3545.480 236 15.023 Total 143030.000 245


223


covariate to the explanation of the variance in post-test scores of teachers in

teaching to enhance learning and development was statistically significant at the

0.05 alpha level and beyond as the F calculated value of 1031.622 is greater than

the critical value of 2.88. Adjusted R Squared = .974 was very as the total variance

accounted for by the model was 97.40%.

A consideration of each of the independent factors shows that it was only the

experimental condition (F=863.58) that was statistically significant at the 0.05

alpha level while state (F=.178) and the covariate (F=1.81) were not significant. All

two-way and three-way interactions were not statistically significant at the 0.05

level.


treatment group were significantly higher than those of the teachers in the control

group. This indicates that the enhancement package was effective in teaching to

enhance development and learning; thus the null hypothesis was rejected.

In addition, there was no significant difference between participants in rural and

urban areas in teaching to enhance development and learning and as a result, the

null hypothesis was accepted.

224

Hypothesis four

Hypothesis four states that there is no significant difference in post test


and control groups in constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum.

To test this hypothesis, a 2x2x2 Analysis of covariance was utilized. The

independent factors were state, location and experimental condition while the

dependent variable was post-test scores of teachers and the covariate was the pre-

test scores of teachers in constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum. The

results of the analysis are presented in Table 37.

225

Table 37: Descriptive Data of post-test scores of teachers in

constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum across state, location

and experimental condition

Dependent Variable: Postest constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum


Lagos Experiment Urban 73.79 6.11 38 36 Rural 68.33 13.89

Total 71.14 10.91 74

Control Urban 29.89 4.22 36 Rural 30.67 4.48 36 Total 30.28 4.34 72


146 26

Total 50.99 22.12

Ondo Experiment Urban 72.54 10.00 Rural 72.41 6.04 24

Total 72.48 8.26

50 24

Control Urban 29.67 4.78 Rural 31.04 3.83 25

Total 30.37 4.33 49

Total Urban 51.96 23.02 50

49 99

Rural 51.31 21.48 Total 51.64 22.16

Total Experiment Urban 73.28 7.87 64 Rural 69.97 11.52 60 Total 71.68 9.91 124

Control Urban 29.80 4.41 60 Rural 30.82 4.20 61

121 Total 30.31 4.32

Total Urban 52.24 22.74 124

121 Rural 50.23 21.46 Total 51.25 22.09 245

226


(sd=22.12) as against 51.64 (sd=22.16) obtained by Ondo participants. A

comparison between the experimental and control groups yielded respective scores

of 71.68 (sd=9.91) and 30.31 (sd=4.32) for treatment and control groups. Urban

and Rural locations in the two states show respective mean scores of 52.24 and

22.74 with corresponding standard deviations of 50.23 and 21.46.


experimental condition) on post test scores of teachers on constructing/

implementing appropriate curriculum

Dependent Variable: Post-test constructing /implementing

appropriate curriculum

Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Model Pretestcurri

748908.429(a) 9 83212.048 1435.994 .000 8.889 1 8.889 .153 .696

State 32.478 1 32.478 .560 .455 .000 Group 101295.460 1 101295.460 1748.061

Local 43.007 1 43.007 .742 .390 state * group state * local

27.264 1 27.264 .471 .493 128.868 1 128.868 2.224 .137

group * local 215.373 1 215.373 3.717 .055 state * group * local

83.046 1 83.046 1.433 .232

Error 13675.571 236 57.947 Total 762584.000 245


227

Table 38 shows the contributions of the independent variables and the covariate to

the explanation of the variance in post- tests scores of teachers in constructing/

implementing appropriate curriculum was statistically significant at the 0.05 alpha

level and beyond as the F calculated value of 1435.99 is greater than the critical

value of 2.88. (Adjusted R Squared = .981) was very high as the total variance

accounted for by the model was 98.1%.

Table 38revealed that it was only the experimental condition (F=1748.06) that

was statistically significant at the 0.05 alpha level while state (F=.560), and the

covariate (F=.153) were not significant at the 0.05 alpha level. All two-way and

three-way interactions were not statistically significant at the 0.05 level.


treatment group in constructing and implementing appropriate curriculum were

significantly higher than those of the teachers in the control groups; therefore the

null hypothesis is rejected.

Finally, there was no statistically significant difference between participants in rural

and urban areas in constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum.

228

Hypothesis five

Hypothesis five states that there is no significant difference in post test


and control groups in assessing pupil’s learning and development.

This hypothesis was tested using the 2x2x2 analysis of covariance. The

independent factors were state, location and experimental condition while the

dependent variable was post-test scores of teachers and the covariate was the pre-

test scores of teachers in assessing pupil‟s learning and development. The results of

the analysis are presented in Table 39.

229

Table 39: Descriptive Data of post-test scores of ECE teachers in

assessing pupil’s learning and development across state, location and

experimental condition.

Dependent Variable: Post-test scores of assessing pupils’ learning and development


Lagos Experiment Urban 29.50 2.79 38 Rural 28.67 4.27 36

74 Total 29.09 3.59

36

Control Urban 18.08 1.63 Rural 16.67 2.27 36

72 Total 17.38 2.09


26

Ondo Experiment Urban 28.62 3.89 Rural 29.17 3.33 24

50 Total 28.88 3.61

Control Urban 16.25 3.12 24 Rural 16.00 3.28 25

49 Total 16.12 3.17

Total Urban 22.68 7.16 50

Rural 22.45 7.41 49 99 Total 22.57 7.25

Total Experiment Urban 29.14 3.28 64

Rural 28.87 3.90 60 Total 29.00 3.58 124

Control Urban 17.35 2.49 60

61 Rural 16.39 2.72 Total 16.87 2.64 121


245 Total 23.01 6.85

230


(sd=6.57) as against 22.57 (sd=7.25) obtained by Ondo participants. A comparison

between the experimental and control groups yield respective scores of 29.01

(sd=3.58) and 16.87 (sd=2.64) for treatment and control groups.


experimental condition) on post test scores of teachers on assessing

pupils’ learning and development

Dependent Variable: Post test scores of assessing pupils’ learning and

development

Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Model 138877.027(a) 9 15430.781 1578.547 .000 Pretest learning 7.264 1 7.264 .743 .390 State 32.457 1 32.457 3.320 .070 Group 8833.375 1 8833.375 903.642 .000 Local 9.581 1 9.581 .980 .323

.189 state * group 16.956 1 16.956 1.735 state * local 19.548 1 19.548 2.000 .159

.333 group * local 9.183 1 9.183 .939 state * group * local

.659 1 .659 .067 .795

Error 2306.973 236 9.775 Total 141184.000 245



covariate to the explanation of the variance in post-tests scores of teachers in

constructing/implementing appropriate curriculum was statistically significant at the

0.05 alpha level and beyond as the F calculated value of 1578.55 is greater than

231

the critical value of 2.88. The total variance accounted for by the model was

98.30%. A consideration of each of the independent factors shows that that it was

only the experimental condition (F=903.64) that was statistically significant at the

0.05 alpha level while state (F=.3.32), and the covariate (F=.743) were not

significant at the 0.05 alpha level. All two-way and three-way interactions were not

statistically significant at the 0.05 level.


treatment group in assessing pupils‟ learning and development were significantly

higher than those of the teachers in the control groups.

1. From the analysis enhancement package was effective in assessing

children‟s learning and development.

2. There was no statistically significant difference between participants in rural

and urban areas in assessing pupils learning and development.

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4:3 Summary of Findings

The study employed both descriptive survey and pre-test-post-test control group

experimental designs in the course of the study while the intervention package

focused on how to implement appropriate practices within the five interrelated

aspects of early childhood education practice.

Five research instruments were used to obtain data for the study. Cross tabulation

statistics, percentages, ANCOVA and ANOVA were used for data analysis. At the

conclusion of this study, several discoveries were made. Major among them were:

1. The demographic profiles of the ECE teachers revealed that majority of the

teachers had NCE as their qualification and this sector does not attract

teachers with higher qualifications. In addition, Early Childhood Education

classrooms are dominated by female teachers in the two study locations. A

startling discovery was that majority of the teachers that manned the ECE

classrooms are experts in unrelated fields to early childhood education and at

the same time do not have regular access to in-service training and

professional development programmes.

2. Teachers‟ observed behaviours and practice in the DAP variables as displayed

in their performance before intervention were reflections of Developmentally

Inappropriate Practice (DIP) rather than DAP.

3. Teachers adduced ignorance and lack of adequate provisions of DAP materials

as the reasons that accounted for the weaknesses in the implementation of

DAP.

233

4. The School Operators‟ provision of professional resources and materials were

grossly inadequate. This finding also revealed that there is a gap between the

teachers‟ opinion on their attendance of professional development

programmes and what the School Operators claimed that they provide to this

same group of teachers.

5. The observed competency levels of teachers in urban and rural Lagos and

Ondo States were the same and their mean scores were low when compared

with the maximum score obtainable.

6. Significant differences were found between teachers in the treatment and

control groups as the enhancement package was effective in fostering a

caring community of learners.

7. There was a significant difference between teachers in the treatment and

control groups as the enhancement package was effective in teaching to

enhance development and learning.

8. The enhancement package was effective in implementing appropriate

curriculum as the treatment group performed better than the control group.

9. Significant differences were found between teachers‟ performance in the

treatment and control groups because the enhancement package was

effective in improving teachers‟ skills in assessing pupils‟ learning and

development.

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4:4 Discussion of Findings

The result of research question one revealed that teachers with NCE qualification

constituted the largest number with 66.1% of the teachers in early childhood

classrooms in the two states. Fourteen percent of the sampled teachers were first

degree holders, 15.5% of the teachers were School Certificate holders while only a

negligible 3.7% had postgraduate qualifications. This finding confirms the provision

in the National Policy on Education which indicates the least requirement for

teaching as the Nigerian Certificate of Education.

On the other hand, this finding is contrary to the expectations of scholarly opinions

which is in favour of higher educational qualification for teachers of young children.

For example; Arnett (1989), Whitebook, Howes and Phillip (1989) in a report

presented by Fiene (2002) in quality indicators of Early Childhood Education

confirm that caregivers with bachelor‟s degrees with or without specialised training

behave more sensitively and less harshly, engage in more positive interaction and

display less detachment (more involved with and interested in the children) and

with less primitivity (less hostile, less threatening and less critical of children).The

National Child Care Association (NCCA) (2007) advocates in one of its principles

that high quality Early Childhood Education requires a highly skilled and specialised

workforce that is supported by ongoing professional development. National

Association for the Education of Young Children (2008) supports the opinion that

children benefit most when their teachers have higher levels of formal education

235

and specialized early childhood professional preparation. Teachers who have

specific preparation, knowledge and skills in child development and early childhood

education are more likely to engage in warm, positive interactions with children.

They are more likely to offer richer language experiences and create more high-

quality learning environments.

The findings of the study also reveal that majority of the teachers are not experts

where they function. This finding confirms the assertion of Ekwueme (1998) that

teacher training institutions for ECE teachers are not in existence and where they

exist, specialized subjects that will make them experts in the field are not taught

nor emphasised in the curriculum. The scholarly research findings of Ingersoll

(2001) brings to limelight the consequence of having Non-ECE experts manning

early childhood classrooms. He attests to the fact that when teachers function in

the areas where they have not been trained, they do more harm to themselves and

to the students. From the foregoing, it is deduced that teachers who man ECE

classrooms as stated in the study are actually doing more harm to the children than

good. This situation from observation of the researcher and discussions with

experts and colleagues from other states at conferences replicates in other states in

Nigeria. This aberration brings to the lime light the need for the intervention

package developed in the study.

The study also found that teachers rarely had access to in-service training and

professional development. This finding negates the authoritative claim of the

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High/Scope Education Research Foundation (2010) which emphasises that

systematic in-service training for early childhood practitioners produces desired

quality, improves the quality of early childhood programmes and promotes

children‟s development. Regular self improvement results in the individual

empowerment to cope with emerging challenges. This empowerment will certainly

translate to the children and the multiplier effects will show in their improved

quality of life and that of the society.

Quoting the assertion of Passos (2009), he said that investing in human capital is

the key to increasing the quality of achieving educational outcomes. Therefore,

teachers‟ failure to improve themselves professionally is also contrary to the

teaching ethics as expressed by Taylor in McComicks & James (1983) who stated

that one of the essential purposes of organizational provision is to establish,

maintain and enhance teacher‟s commitment to his own education; for any teacher

who abdicates his personal and professional growth to the excessive demand of an

organisation is ultimately denying the organisation and its students the very

knowledge, skills and understanding which are his professional responsibilities to

offer.

In addition, the finding of this study also negates the opinion of John Mason (2003)

who said that “yesterday‟s formula for success is often tomorrow‟s recipe for failure

and that a man who uses yesterday‟s methods in today‟s world won‟t be in business

tomorrow”. For teachers to be consistently relevant, they need to update their

237

knowledge base. Drunker (1997) pointed out “The productivity of knowledge and

knowledge workers will not be the only factor in the world economy. It is however,

likely to become a decisive factor”. Dove (2010) confirms that professional

development helps teachers to stay up to date with new trends and learn new

strategies, techniques and methods for classroom challenges. The poor

performance of the teachers in the implementation of DAP could be traced to lack

of exposure to in-service training and professional development.

The result of research question two revealed that the behaviours of the ECE

teachers in Ondo and Lagos States are reflections of Developmentally Inappropriate

Practice (DIP) rather than Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP). In the

observation carried out by the researcher, the general practices of teachers in most

of the classrooms were characteristic of Developmentally Inappropriate Practice

(DIP) as enumerated by Copple and Bredekamp (1997). The findings in these

classrooms negate the assertion of Gestwicki (2007) who states that early exposure

to academics has in fact jeopardized later success and that delaying exposure has

beneficial effect. In the same vein, Lillian kartz vehemently states in Gestwicki

(2007) that “while there is no compelling evidence to suggest that early

introduction to academic work guarantees success in school in the long term, there

are reasons to believe that it can be counterproductive.”

In the same vein, Katz assertion (as reported by Gestwicki, 2007) is that when

adults expect children to engage in activities that are beyond their developmental

level, an unnecessary sense of failure is created. Another risk that may attend

238

implementing inappropriate practice by introducing young children to academic

work prematurely is that those children who cannot relate to the content or tasks

required are likely to feel incompetent. Greeenberg (as cited by Gestwicki, 2007)

warns that if we expect a young child to master tasks that are meaningless to

him/her as an individual, he/she has little satisfaction or feeling of self-worth in

doing the chore, even if she succeeds.

The result of research question three which investigated the reasons that account

for the weaknesses in the implementation of DAP revealed that the teachers were

handicapped by the lack of facilities to implement DAP. They enumerated their

constraints that range from lack of space, limited time to work with children, lack of

provision of developmentally appropriate resources and materials by the School

Operators, inability to update their skills, etc. These constraints negate Jegede‟s

assertion (as cited by Olojede, 2009) who states that teachers need to be equipped

with adequate knowledge and materials. The findings also negate the views of

Cumming (1990) who states that schools must provide not only information and

training but also materials and time for teachers to plan and solve problems.

Denying children all the fun and access to materials that enhance total

development leads to unbalance education which Pifer (as cited by Osanyin, 2002)

pointed out could turn children into “crippled adults” in later life as they would

contribute little or nothing to their society.

239

The result of research question four revealed that some of the School Operators

lack the knowledge to provide developmentally appropriate materials. The result

also revealed that the supply of professional resources and instructional materials

were grossly inadequate. The disparities between the urban and rural provision of

DAP materials and the provision of professional resources confirm the assertions of

Lawless (2009) that one of the significant challenge facing rural schools is that the

finance and the opportunities are not readily available. They lack the facilities and

the resources and this make the pupils achieve less.

In addition, Gardiner (2008) confirms that many rural schools still lack clean

running water, electricity, libraries, laboratories and computers. These are not easy

conditions in which to provide a sound education for young children. In material

terms, urban schools are usually in better conditions than those in the countryside.

In the same vein, Moulton (2001) confirms that far fewer teachers want to serve in

rural schools. Most individuals who have the education credentials that would

qualify them as teachers have had some urban or quasi-urban experience are

reluctant to be posted to remote rural areas, especially in communities that are not

their own. He equally affirms that professional support for rural teachers is often

missing in the rural schools.

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The findings of hypothesis one show that Ondo and Lagos States‟ Early Childhood

Education teachers‟ performance in the observed competency indicators were the

same and their mean scores were below expectation. This finding is contrary to

the assertion of Storey (2006) who states that competencies are essential for the

well-being of teachers and that those teachers who are less competent will be less

satisfied with their jobs, less efficient and with lower well-being. This will definitely

impact on the teaching/learning process with its adverse outcomes on pupils and

the future society. The finding also negates the work of Logan, Ellet and Nail (as

cited by Oke, 1990) who posited that the entrance of teachers with inadequate

knowledge base into the teaching and learning enterprise (that is those that are

unable to perform pre-active, interactive and post active task of teaching in a

competent manner) may place learners at risk of educational failure. Hence, the

poor performance in the implementation of DAP can be attributed to lack of

competence which could have resulted from the poorly trained educational

personnel who are lead instructors in early childhood classrooms.

The results of the testing of Hypotheses two, three, four and five (DAP variables)

revealed that the development of teacher enhancement package succeeded in

improving teachers‟ competence to work with younger children. The various

aspects of the DAP package opened to the teachers the optimum utilization of

resources, materials and the environment to the benefits of the children. The

success of this training also revealed that specialized and focused in- service

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training is needed in Nigeria for nursery school teachers to improve their

performance. The teachers‟ enhancement achieved by this package is in agreement

with Mohammed (2006) who stated that the rationale for continuing professional

development of teachers is that as key agents in changes, teachers face high

expectations, new roles and demands for which they require new skills and

knowledge which they can get through Continuous Professional Development. More

so, we live in a rapidly changing world such that whatever knowledge and skills

teachers acquired in their pre-service training becomes stale very fast as new

challenges and realities emerge in the socio-economic and political environments.

This is also in conformity with Jegede (as cited by Olojede, 2009) who stated that

opportunities for continuing professional development must be created to re-skill

the potential teacher, re-motivate the interested teacher, retrain the dedicated

teacher and retrain the practicing teachers. According to Lawal and Adeosun

(2007), it is non debatable that the high quality of professional development is an

essential component of any effective educational programme.

The findings of Hypothesis two which focused on creating a caring community of

learners corroborates with the guidelines of NAEYC that early childhood setting

must function as a caring community of learners that supports the development of

relationship between adults and children, among children, teachers and families

which allows for bonding between a child and a caregiver. The finding also supports

the views of Bredekamp and Copple (1997) who emphasized that early childhood

242

setting must function as active learning centre in which all participants contribute to

the well-being and learning of one another.

The findings of hypothesis three which established the effectiveness of teaching to

enhance development in the treatment group agree with the statement of

Bredekamp (1997) that children‟s learning and development depends ultimately on

teacher‟s ability to create an intellectually engaging responsive environment to

promote children‟s learning and development. When teachers develop wide

repertoire of teaching strategies through play, learning and development are

enhanced.

Similarly, the findings of hypothesis four on implementing appropriate curriculum

agrees with the findings of Bredekamp and Rosegrant (1995) that when curriculum

has intellectual integrity and reflect the key concepts and tools of inquiries that are

achievable for young children, they directly participate in school work. This finding

also supports the words of Barnett (1995) that implementing appropriate

curriculum produces short and long term effects on children‟s cognitive and social

development. The finding also supports the assertion of Scheweinhart and Weihart

(1997) that children learn more in a programme where there is a well-planned and

implemented curriculum.

243

The findings of hypothesis five aligns with the NAEYC (1995) guidelines on

assessment of children‟s development and learning. The guideline stipulates that

assessment of children‟s development and learning should span across all the

domains of the curriculum. The association confirms that if children are assessed

across the curriculum in areas such as Arts and Music, there are maximal

opportunities for them to demonstrate what they know and can do in ways beyond

the boundaries of language.

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CHAPTER FIVE

IMPLICATIONS, CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE,

RECOMMENDATIONS, CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

OF THE STUDY

5.1 Implications of the findings

These findings have brought into focus a number of implications for Nigerian

government who saddled the private individuals with the responsibility of providing

early childhood education for her citizenry. Major among them are:

1. The qualifications of the teachers of these young children leave much to be

desired. Much may not be expected from teacher population where teachers

with WASC qualification ranked second and only a few had first degree

qualifications. Many studies have confirmed that staff members with more

formal schooling or specialised training are more attentive and more

nurturing in their behaviour towards children.

2. The fact that only a few numbers of Early Childhood Education teachers are

found in the nursery section of the schools is an indication that the

government may not be leaving up to its expectation and promise of training

qualified pre-primary school teachers in adequate numbers or that these

teachers do not stay longer on their jobs because of poor remunerations by

school owners. This in turn has implications for the knowledge being made

available to these children.

245

3. The National Policy on Education recognised the primary education as the

foundation on which the rest of the educational system is built and that it is

the key to success or failure of the whole system. This has implication for

abandoning the preschool education to the private sector. Failure to

recognise the important role of early year education as the most important

aspect of life that determines the success of latter life has great implication

for the priority the Government of this country placed on the education of its

young ones.

4. Going by the frequency and scope of in-service training programmes and the

numbers of teachers that have access to such programme, the school

proprietors seemed to lack the knowledge or the benefits that their teachers

would derive from in-service training and professional development

programmes.

5. The fact that the School Operators did not provide developmentally

appropriate materials in the schools is an indication that the State

Inspectorate Teams that approved such schools also lack the knowledge of

what is appropriate for young children. This also calls for the Ministries of

Education to re-skill their officers.

6. Going by the report of the competency displayed by the teachers in the

implementation of DAP, it will be wrong to regard the preschool teacher

education curricula as good enough and to assume that they are very

suitable and appropriate for producing effective teachers for preschools,

246

since there are strong indications to suggest that these teachers lack

sufficient content knowledge and up-to-date skills to teach effectively. This

makes it imperative that regular in-service training programmes be

employed to constantly address different areas of teachers‟ deficiencies.

7. As a body that is responsible for providing professional development

programmes for Nigerian Nursery and primary school teachers, the States‟

Universal Basic Education Board should go beyond the current skill

development programme for public school teachers to incorporate private

school teachers in their training schemes. More so, other organizations like

VAN Leer, Organisation Mondiale Pour L‟Education Prescolaire (OMEP),

[World Organization for Early Childhood Education] should wake up to their

responsibility to motivate, re-skill, retrain and re-equip the teachers with the

best practices for effectiveness.

8. For the launching of DAPEP to be effective, the nation, the States and Local

Governments and other stakeholders need to redefine the importance of

early childhood education.

5.2 Contributions to Knowledge

1. The study launches the Developmentally Appropriate Practice Enhancement

Package (DAPEP) as an Intervention Model for Nursery School teachers in

Nigeria. This intervention when properly applied to teaching in Nursery

Schools would positively influence children‟s learning and development.

2. The intervention package provided by this study succeeded in enhancing

247

teachers‟ competence to work with younger children. The various aspects of

the DAP package opened to the teachers the optimum utilization of

resources, materials and the environment to the benefits of the children.

3. The findings in this study make it imperative for School Operators to update

their level of knowledge of Developmentally Appropriate Practice as well as

providing the necessary human and material resources needed for

Developmentally Appropriate Practice. It is also a reminder to School

Operators and teachers that professional development is an indispensable

requirement of their work ethics.

4. The findings of this study reveal a paradigm shift in the qualification

expectation of ECE teachers. The opinion of NAEYC (2008) which supported

the fact that children benefit most when their teachers have higher levels of

formal education and specialized early childhood professional preparation,

will benefit the society and the children if more qualified teachers are

equipped to function at this level of educational sector.

5. The success of this training revealed that specialized and focused in-service

training is needed in Nigeria for Nursery school teachers to improve their

performance. This is also a pointer to the fact that the general education

that the teachers acquire in various colleges may not be adequate to keep

them on the job because we live in a rapidly changing world such that

whatever knowledge and skills teachers acquired in their pre-service training

become stale very fast as new challenges and realities emerge in the socio-

248

economic and political environments.

6.The study also revealed the weaknesses of the private Nursery schools

who are saddled with the responsibility of providing education for younger

generation. From this finding, it is obvious that majority of the materials

provided for children were inadequate.

5.3 Recommendations

In order to improve the competency level of Early Childhood Education teachers in

Nigeria, the study has made the following recommendations.

1. First and foremost, it is recommended that the developed and validated

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Enhancement Package be used as a

training manual for the training of Nursery school teachers.

2. Teacher training institutions should be more focused on the training of ECE

experts to provide an up-to- date information to the practising teachers.

3. DAPEP should be recommended as a handbook for all teachers of young

children (both public and private) who want to implement appropriate

practice. Since the teachers in this study are drawn from the larger

population of teachers in Nigeria, they are taken as a representative

proportion of the teachers in Nigeria. In order to improve the quality of

education provided at our nursery school level, teachers in the Nursery

school sector in Nigeria should be re-orientated towards developmentally

appropriate practice implementation.

249

4. The inspectorate team of each LGEA should play a crucial role in the quality

control of the schools. The fact that teachers with WASC rated second in the

categories of ECE teachers is a pointer to the fact that the entry

qualifications of the teachers leaves much to be desired. Moreso, the fact

that teachers with elementary education endorsement are far more than

early childhood experts, shows that not too many early childhood education

teachers are trained in the educational institutions or that after training, they

do not remain in the profession because of poor remuneration.

5. Private School Operators should raise the standard of recruitment of

teachers into their workforce and also improve the level of financial

commitment to teachers‟ welfare. The former recommendation for teachers

with higher qualification will ensure high quality standard in children‟s

learning outcome, while the latter will ensure that the teachers become

better motivated to put their best into the development and learning of the

nation‟s future leaders.

6. Licensing and approval of schools should be based on availability of

developmentally appropriate infrastructural facilities, highly skilled workforce

who can implement appropriate methodologies that address the

developmental needs of children.

7. Qualification level of entry into the teaching profession should be raised to

first degree and that teaching the young children should be made attractive

250

in such a way that it will endear more teachers with higher qualifications into

early years classrooms.

8. Inspectorate Department should make it compulsory for School Operators to

hire experts in the preschool sector. School Operators should be enlightened

on the need to employ teachers who have relevant specialization areas that

will add value to their businesses.

9. There should be awareness campaigns against developmentally

Inappropriate Practice among teachers of ECE. When DIP is deemphasized

and monitored, teachers will be encouraged to imbibe DAP.

10. School Operators should make annual budgetary allocation for professional

development programmes which can grant the teachers access to constant

in- service training and staff development programmes. Teachers in the

nursery schools have a professional disadvantage of spending their entire

working career with learners that are much below them in terms of skills and

abilities. Without regular trainings therefore, they have the tendency to

stagnate. When in-service training programmes are fragmented and

disconnected, in time and content, they lose their impact on classroom

practice.

11. In addition, School Operators or proprietors and the inspectorate teams of

States‟ Ministries of Education should make it mandatory to make provisions

for space and equipment/resources as most of the classrooms observed lack

adequate space and equipments to implement DAP.

251

12. Early Childhood Education programme should be more focused at equipping

teachers with best practices and the content should be reviewed from time

to time so as to keep them abreast of facts. The monitoring team of States‟

Inspectorate should also be trained from time to time so that they can be

more effective in their supervisory roles and be able to provide relevant and

adequate information to the schools whenever they go out for inspection.

5.4 Summary and Conclusion

5a Summary

This study was out to assess the knowledge and skills of ECE teachers in Lagos and

Ondo States of Nigeria with a view to providing an intervention package to improve

teachers‟ competence to work with young children. In order to achieve these, the

following instruments were used to gather information.

1. Developmentally Appropriate Practice Observation Schedule (DAPOS)

2. Behaviour Anchor Rating Scale (BARS)

3. Structured Oral Interview Schedule (SOIS)

4. School Operators‟ Questionnaire (SOQ)

5. Developmentally Appropriate Practice Package Evaluation Questionnaire

(DAPPEQ)

The total numbers of subjects used for the study were two hundred and forty

five teachers drawn from the private nursery schools of Lagos and Ondo States

and 100 School Operators of the same private schools.

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Evidences yield by the study revealed that DAPEP was effective in enhancing

teachers‟ competence in creating a caring community of learners, teaching to

enhance development and learning, constructing/implementing and assessing of

children‟s learning and development.

5b. Conclusion

Teachers are often referred to as key contributors in preparing future generations

for the changing world of work as well as acting as models for the young ones.

Their abilities to implement appropriate practice determine how well the children

will grow to contribute meaningfully to their societies as pilfer pointed out that lack

of good preschool education would impair children‟s development and turn them to

crippled adults. If our preschool beneficiaries are to witness best practices, the

teachers are going to be the innovators of such practices. Developmentally

Appropriate Practice should be the bedrock on which our educational goals should

be built. Therefore, competency based training should be entrenched as the new

paradigm in the training of preschool teachers in Nigeria.

This study also focused on the effect of training of teachers on implementing

appropriate practice which in turn has gains for the children and the society at

large. When teachers implement inappropriate practice, children face the risk of

educational failure. Narrow focusing on academic skill is problematic during the

years of 3 to 6, not only because it is potentially damaging to children‟s social, and

emotional development but also because it is intellectually limiting and does not

value the knowledge of living experience which the children bring to school.

253

This study concludes with the assertion by the National Policy on Education (2004,

Revised) that the quality of any educational system cannot rise above the quality of

its teachers. Therefore, if we hope to have good educational foundation, we must

concentrate on improving the quality of teachers at the early childhood education

sector by exposing them to best practices in their field.

5.5 Suggestions for further study

Based on the findings and the limitations of the study, the following suggestions

have been made for further research.

1. There is the need to replicate this study in the public preschools (called

linkage schools) to investigate the competency level of the teachers and to

ascertain whether they have the knowledge and skills to implement DAP in

their classrooms.

2. There is also the need to investigate how to better repackage the

programme of ECE in the nation‟s colleges and faculties of education. There

is no doubt that the courses are not achieving the goals of enhancing the

quality of the training of the pre-service teacher trainees. Moreso, research

is needed to identify where the problem areas are: whether in the course

content, time, materials and manpower provisions for the teaching of the

courses or in other areas.

3. There is need to assess the influence of DAP on pupils‟ achievement.

4. Further research could also investigate why ECE teachers do not stay in the

profession.

254

5. Future research could equally investigate the reciprocal relationships that

exist between parents and teachers, families and the schools.

5.6 Limitations of the Study

A major limitation of this study was the sampling pattern. The size and the spread

of the sample in terms of the number of schools and the teachers involved were

limited owing to the challenges faced by the researcher which included:

I. the difficulty of securing the consent of school proprietors and school-heads

before the commencement of the observation exercise;

II. the problem of inability to complete observation in a day because some

items on the research instruments did not take place on the first day of the

observation;

III. the cost of remunerating the research assistants and providing light

refreshments on each training day as well as well as the cost of research

materials.

Despite these limitations, the characteristics of the sampled teachers still

represented the entire private school teachers‟ population in Lagos and Ondo States

thus making it possible to realise the objectives of the study and to generalise the

result to the two States studied.

255

There is also a limitation of this study in terms of the researcher‟ inability to study

the fifth key practice areas of ECE which is the reciprocal relationship with families.

The fact that the researcher was not able to observe the types of relationships that

exist between teachers and parents, parents and schools and parents‟ contributions

to their children‟s education; she could not extend the generalization of DAP

implementation to this particular key practice area.

256

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APPENDIX 1

TEACHER’S QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS

SECTION A: TEACHER’S DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY

(Please tick () the appropriate boxes provided below) 1. What is your religion? Christian [ ] Traditionalist [ ] Muslim [ ] Others (please state): __________________________ 2. What is your highest qualification?

WASC or Equivalent [ ] NCE [ ] B.Ed/B.A/B.Sc/ or Equivalent [ ] M.Ed/M.A/M.Sc./or Equivalent [ ] Others (please state): _______________________________________

3. What is your major/area of specialization? 1. Early Childhood Education [ ]

2. Elementary Education [ ] 3. Others (please state): _______________ 4. What is your age group?

Below 20 [ ] 21 – 25 [ ] 26 – 30 [ ] 31 – 35 [ ] 36 – 40 [ ] 41 – 45 [ ] 46 – 50 [ ] 51 – 55 [ ] 56 – 60 [ ] Above 60 [ ]

5. What is your marital status?

Single [ ] Married [ ] Widowed [ ] Divorced [ ]

6. What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ] 7. How long have you worked for your organization (name of school)

Up to 1 year [ ] Over 1 yr to 5 yrs [ ]

Over 5yrs to 10yrs [ ] Over 10yrs to 15yrs [ ]



Over 35yrs. [ ] 8. How long have you worked as a teacher?

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Up to 1 year [ ] Over 1 yr to 5 yrs [ ] Over 5yrs to 10yrs [ ] Over 10yrs to 15yrs [ ] Over 15yrs to 20yrs [ ] Over 20yrs to 25yrs [ ] Over 25yrs to 30yrs [ ] Over 30yrs to 35yrs [ ] Over 35yrs. [ ]

9. How long have you been working with children? (E.G ages 0-8)? Up to 1 year [ ] Over 1 yr to 5 yrs [ ] Over 5yrs to 10yrs [ ] Over 10yrs to 15yrs [ ] Over 15yrs to 20yrs [ ] Over 20yrs to 25yrs [ ] Over 25yrs to 30yrs [ ] Over 30yrs to 35yrs [ ] Over 35yrs. [ ]

10. How often does your school provide in-service training for the teaching staff?

Always [ ] Sometimes [ ] Seldom [ ] Never [ ]

11. How often do you attend staff development programme?


12. How often do you enjoy support provided for staff to attend courses,

conferences, workshops not provided by your school? (e.g release time, travel costs, conference fees)


13. How often do you subscribe to professional resource materials available on

site? (Ex. Books, magazines, or other materials on child development, cultural sensitivity, and classroom activities-may be borrowed from library).


14. How often do you undertake self improvement programme?


15. How often do you utilize varieties of technological tools to maximize

children‟s engagement in active learning? Always [ ] Sometimes [ ] Seldom [ ] Never [ ]

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APPENDIX 2

Developmentally Appropriate Practise Observation Schedule (DAPOS)

Name of School: _____________________________________ No of Staff in class: _____________________________________ Age of children: _____________________________________ Date of Observation: _____________________________________ Name of Observer: _____________________________________ No of children on roll: _____________________________________ No of children present: ________ No of children absent: __________ Time observation began: ________ Time observation ended: __________ The following are a number of statements that describe the Developmentally Appropriate Practice in early childhood classrooms. These numbers stand for:

1 = Very Poor 2 = Poor

3 = Fair 4 = Good 5 = Excellent

1. CREATING A CARING COMMUNITY OF LEARNERS 1 2 3 4 5

A. STAFF-CHILD INTERACTIONS

1.1

Teacher‟s disposition to practice of greeting most children warmly on arrival to school.(Example: staff welcome children with smile, use pleasant tone of voice, each child is greeted individually such as staff saying “hello” and using child‟s name).

1.2

Teacher‟s disposition to using greeting and departure as information sharing time

1.3

Teacher‟s ability to help children develop constructive relationship with other children and adults.

1.4

Teacher‟s ability to know the children well and design activities based on their level of individual differing abilities.

1.5

Teacher‟s ability to build a sense of community and purpose through book reading, story telling, asking for who is missing in the class.

1.6

Teacher‟s tendency to respond sympathetically to help children who are upset, hurt, or angry (e.g. talk with children about their

277

concern and assist frustrated children)

1.7

Teacher‟s propensity to encourage the development of mutual respect between children and adults (ex. when staff wait till children finish asking questions before answering encourage children in a polite way to listen

when adults speak).

B. INTERACTION AMONG CHILDREN

1.8

Teacher‟s disposition to peer interaction (Ex. children allowed to move freely so natural groupings and interactions can occur).

1.9

Teacher‟s disposition to encourage children to pursue their own initiatives, make choices and decisions throughout the day.

1.10

Teacher‟s ability to engage children as active participants in problem solving process rather than solving problems for them.

1.11

Teacher disposition to staff helping children develop appropriate social behaviour with peers (Ex. help children talk through conflicts instead of fighting; encourage socially isolated children to find friends; help children understand feelings of others).

1.12

Teacher‟s disposition to provision of some opportunities for children to work together to complete a task (Ex. a group of children work to cover a large mutual paper with many drawings; make a soup with many ingredients; cooperate to bring chairs to table).

C. CLASS ORGANISATION:

Furniture for routine care, play, and learning

1.13 Sufficiency of basic furniture for routine care, play, and learning

1.14

Safety of children‟s furniture (Example: splinters or exposed nails, wobbly legs on chairs).

1.15 Age-appropriateness of most furniture.

1.16 Condition of most furniture.

Indoor space

1.17 Adequacy of space for children

1.18 Adequacy of space for furnishings.

1.19 Adequacy of classroom lighting,

1.20 Adequacy of classroom ventilation,

1.21

State, or condition of floors and walls (Example: peeling of paintwork on walls and ceiling, or rough damaged floors)

1.22

Maintenance of Floor space (Example: reasonably clean and well maintained, floors left sticky,).

1.23

Ample indoor space that allows easy room traffic (Ex. Furnishings do not limit children‟s movement; sufficient space for equipment needed by children with disabilities) by children with disabilities)

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Indoor space /arrangement for play/learning

1.24 Teacher‟s knowledge about Learning/interest centers.

1.25

Teacher‟s disposition to defining quiet and active centers, placed to not interfere with one another (Example: reading or listening area separated from blocks or housekeeping.

1.26

Teacher‟s ability to make use of available space for several activities to go on at once and uninterrupted (Example: floor space for blocks, table space for manipulative, easel for art).

Outdoor Space

1.27

Teacher‟s disposition to availability of outdoor space for gross motor activities with a variety of surfaces permitting different types of play. Example: sand, blacktop, wood chips‟ grass).

1.28

Teacher‟s attitudes to demarcation of plays surface areas so that different types of activities do not interfere with one another (Example: play with wheel toys separated from climbing equipment and ball play).

D. PERSONAL HYGIENE/HEALTH

1.29

Teacher‟s inclination to maintenance of sanitary conditions in food preparation and eating (Example: most children and/or adults do not wash hands before handling food; tables not sanitized; toileting/diapering and food preparation areas not separated).

1.30

Teacher‟s disposition to practice of staff and children washing their hands all the time after toileting.

1.31

Teacher‟s knowledge of toileting schedule that meets individual needs of children.

1.32

Teacher‟s disposition to adequate hand-washing by staff and children which takes place after wiping noses, after handling animals or when otherwise soiled.

1.33 Teacher‟s tendency to use of procedures to minimize spread of contagious disease (Ex. ensuring children have immunizations; exclusion of children with contagious illness

1.344 Teacher‟s ability to present herself as a model of health practices (Ex. Eat only healthful foods in front of children; check and flush toilets in children‟s bathroom)

1.355 Teacher‟s disposition to children‟s appearance (Ex. faces washed, soiled clothes changes, aprons used for messy play).

E NUTRITION: MEALS/SNACKS

1.36 Teacher‟s disposition to appropriateness of meal/snack schedule (Example: child is made to wait until hungry).

1.37 Teacher‟s disposition to practice of serving children food of acceptable nutritional value

1.38 Teacher‟s disposition to sitting with children during meals and

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snacks.

1.39 Teacher‟s tendency to practice of making children help themselves during meals/snacks (Ex. set table, serve themselves, clear table, wipe up spills).

1.40 Teacher‟s disposition to practice of using child-sized serving- utensils by children to facilitate their self-help skills (Example: children using small pitchers, serving bowls and spoons).

F SAFETY

1.41 Teacher‟s disposition to supervision to protect children‟s safety indoors and outdoors.

1.42 Teacher‟s disposition to availability of essentials needed to handle emergencies (Ex. telephone, emergency numbers, substitute for staff, first aid kit, transportation, written emergency procedures).

1.43 Teacher‟s disposition to arrangement of play areas to avoid safety problems (Ex. younger children play in separate playground or at a separate time; outdoor play equipment proper size and level of challenge).

1.44 Teacher‟s disposition to children‟s obedience to safety rules (Ex.no crowding on slides, no climbing on bookcases).

1.45 Teacher‟s disposition to safety of gross motor space (Example: access requires long walk on busy street; same space used for play and parking lot; unfenced area for preschoolers).

2 TEACHING TO ENHANCE DEVELOPMENT & LEARNING

A TEACHER’S TEACHING METHODOLOGY

2.1 Learning is teacher facilitated but child centre.

2.2 Teacher‟s ability to interact with individuals and small groups at their level in all contexts. ( e.g working on a low level furniture with children most of the time.)

2.3 Teacher‟s knowledge of the characteristics of intelligence and utilization of children‟s learning styles to achieve success in class.(children with logical, visual, linguistic, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence.)

2.4 Teacher‟s disposition to children with special needs (isolated or punished for failure to meet group expectation rather than being provided with learning experiences).

2.5 Teacher‟s ability to choose materials, equipment and activities that are suitable for the developmental level of the children.

2.6 Teacher‟s ability to use different strategies to facilitate learning (acknowledging, encouraging, give specific instruction and feedback, demonstrate, add or create challenge, e.t.c)

2.7 Teacher‟s disposition to using scaffolding to help children make progress.

2.8 Teacher‟s ability to using a variety of learning format to facilitate learning.(using small groups, large group, daily routine)

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2.9 Teacher‟s disposition to children being part of a self- selected small group.

B CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

2.10 Teacher‟s disposition to staff being actively involve in solving children‟s conflict problems (Ex. help talk out problems and solutions; sensitize feelings of others).

2.11 Teacher‟s ability to using several choices of the types of discipline to correct misbehaviour. (stating expectation, modeling good behaviour, time-out strategy, etc)

2.12 Teacher‟s disposition to setting limits and establishes rules that help in class control and management.

3 CONSTRUCTING APPROPRIATE CURRICULUM

A LANGUAGE-REASONING/COMMUNICATION

3.1 Teacher‟s ability to use books, pictures, language materials and activities to facilitate learning

3.2 Teacher‟s disposition to imbibing reading culture in children by arranging books at the children‟s eye level in a reading centre.

3.3 Teacher‟s ability to teach age appropriate concepts for ages and abilities of children in groups using words and concrete experiences.(Ex. guide children with questions and words to sort big and little blocks)

3.4 Teacher‟s ability to encourage children to reason throughout the day using actual events and experiences as a basis for concept development (Ex. children learn sequence by talking about their experiences in the daily routine or recalling the sequence of a cooking project).

3.5 Teacher‟s disposition to making materials that encourage children to communicate accessible in a variety of interest centers (Ex. small figures and animals in block area; puppets and flannel board piece in book area; toys for dramatic play outdoors or indoors.)

3.6 Teacher‟s ability to encourage, children to choose their experiences reflect and discuss their findings with their teachers.

3.7 Teacher‟s ability to balance listening and talking appropriately for age and abilities of children during communication activities (Ex. leave time for children to respond; verbalize for child with limited communication skills).

B MATH/NUMBER

3.8 Teacher‟s disposition to many developmentally appropriate materials of various types accessible (Ex. materials for counting, measuring, learning shape and size).

3.9 Teacher‟s ability to use activities to promote math/number learning (Ex. setting table, counting while climbing steps, using timers to take turns).

3.10 Teacher‟s disposition to teach logical relationships while children

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play with materials that stimulate reasoning (Ex. sequence cards, same/different games, size and shape toys, sorting games, number and math games).

C ARTS & CRAFT

3.11 Teacher‟s ability to varied art materials and activities accessible for a substantial portion of the day.

3.12 Teacher‟s disposition to individual expression in use of art materials (Ex. projects that follow an example are rarely used; children‟s work is varied and individual).

3.13 Teacher‟s ability to help children make models out of clay ,blocks, and other materials.

D MUSIC/RHYMES

3.14 Teacher‟s ability to make children develop an appreciation for music that reflect the cultural values and norms of the immediate community.

3.15 Teacher‟s disposition to make available variety of musical instruments for children to move to at small and large group times.(e.g percussions, gong, flute,tambourine, tape player, dance props)

3.16 Teacher‟s disposition to develop melody and creating simple movement sequences to music with children.

E BLOCKS

3.17 Teacher‟s disposition to enough space blocks, and accessories accessible for children play and to build at the same time.

3.18 Teacher‟s disposition to special block area set aside out of traffic, with storage and suitable building surface (Ex. Flat rug or other steady surface).

3.19 Teacher‟s propensity to arranging to blocks and accessories on open, labeled shelves (Ex labeled with picture or outline of blocks).

F FINE & GROSS MOTOR EQUIPMENT

3.20 Teacher‟s disposition to many developmentally appropriate fine motor materials of each type accessible for a substantial portion of the day. (Ex. materials for counting, measuring, learning shape and size).

3.21 Teacher‟s ability to making materials of different level of difficulty accessible to children.(Ex. Pegs and pegboards stored together, building toys set stored separately)

3.22 Teacher‟s disposition to age appropriate gross motor equipment accessible to all children for at least one hour daily.

3.23 Teacher‟s knowledge of equipment that stimulates a variety of skills.(Ex. balancing, climbing, ball play, steering and pedaling wheel toys.)

3.24 Teacher‟s ability to make children use the materials provided to

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develop fine and gross motor skills.

G SAND/WATER

3.25 Teacher disposition to variety of toys accessible for sand and water play (Ex. containers, spoons, funnels, scoops, shovels, pots and pans, molds, toy people, animals, and trucks).

3.26 Teacher‟s knowledge of different activities done with sand and water (Ex. bubbles added to water, materials in sand table changed, i.e. rice substituted for sand)

3.27 Teacher‟s ability to make provision for sand and water activities; both indoor and outdoor.

H NATURE/SCIENCE

3.28 Teacher‟s attitudes to many developmentally appropriate games, materials, and activities accessible for play.

3.29 Teacher‟s disposition to nature/science materials being organized and in good condition (Ex. collections stored in separate containers, animals‟ cages clean).

3.30 Teacher‟s disposition to everyday events used as a basis for learning about nature/science (Ex. talking about the weather, observing insects, or birds, discussing the change of seasons, blowing bubbles or flying kites on a windy day, watching snow melt and freeze.

I ICT – USE OF TV, VIDEO, AND/OR COMPUTERS

3.31 Teacher‟s ability to using computer as one of many free choice activities.

3.32 Teacher‟s disposition to staff being actively involved in use of TV, video, or computer (Ex. watch and discuss video with children; do activity suggested in educational TV program; help child learn to use computer program).

3.33 Teacher‟s ability to use computer programmes to support and extend classroom themes and activities (Ex. CD ROM or video on insects adds information on nature theme; video on farms prepares children for fieldtrip).

J SOCIAL STUDIES - PROMOTING ACCEPTANCE OF DIVERSITY

3.34 Teacher‟s disposition to many books, pictures, and materials accessible showing people of different cultures, ages, abilities to facilitate learning.

3.35 Teacher‟s disposition to inclusion of diversity as part of daily routines and play activities (Ex. ethnic foods are a regular part of meals/snacks; music tapes and songs from different cultures included at music time).

3.36 Teacher‟s attitudes to activities that promote understanding and acceptance of diversity (Ex. parents encouraged to share family customs with children; many cultures represented in holiday

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celebration).

K SCHEDULE OF CURRICULUM

3.37 Teacher‟s disposition to schedule which provides balance of structure and flexibility (Ex. regularly scheduled outdoor play period may be lengthened in good weather).

3.38 Teacher‟s disposition to smooth transition between daily events (Ex. materials ready for next activity before current activity ends; most transition handled a few children at a time rather than whole group).

3.39 Teacher‟s attitude to variations made in schedule to meet individual needs (Ex. shorter story time for child with short attention span; child working on project allowed to continue past scheduled time; slow eater may finish at own pace).

4 ASSESSING CHILDREN’S LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

4.1 Teacher‟s ability to use growth measuring equipment and developmental milestones to assess and monitor children development.

4.2 Teacher‟s disposition to using different observation techniques to inform parents about child‟s progress.

4.3 Teacher‟s ability to use observational assessment of children‟s progress to plan and adapt curriculum to meet individual children‟s need.

4.4 Teacher‟s ability to combine other assessment techniques with paper & pencil skills to determine children‟s progress.

4.5 Teacher‟s disposition to using children‟s interest and life experience to plan meaningful curriculum.

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APPENDIX 3

BEHAVIOUR – ACHORED RATING SCALE (BARS) These competencies represent the researcher‟s expectations for all early childhood educators and form the basis for all evaluations. Scales for evaluating competencies

1 = Ineffective

2 = Slightly effective

3 = Effective

4 = Highly effective

5 = Superior

COMPETENCY INDICATOR 1: CONTENT MASTERY

1 2 3 4 5

1 Selects contents & learning activities that are appropriate for age of children.

2

Teaches lessons that reveal a clear understanding of the organization and structure of the discipline.

3 Teaches lessons that connect new concepts to children prior knowledge.

4 Uses multiple representations to illustrate crucial concepts.

5 Evaluates curriculum materials for accuracy, depth, pupils‟ appeal, and comprehensiveness.

6 Uses supplementary materials that go beyond the text to upgrade curriculum contents & extends learning.

7 Teaches interdisciplinary lessons. E.g using thematic approach.

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COMPETENCY INDICATOR 2: PEDAGOGICAL EXPERTISE

COMPETENCY INDICATOR 2: PEDAGOGICAL EXPERTISE

1 Utilizes a variety of instructional strategies and demonstrates knowledge of how, when and why to implement them in order to promote evaluative thinking among children.

2

Integrates a variety of technological tools to maximize pupils‟ engagement.

3 Develops instructional plans that are aligned with standards and recommendations from professional discipline organizations.

4. Uses supplementary materials that go beyond the text to upgrade curriculum contents & extends learning.

5. Teaches interdisciplinary lessons. E.g using thematic approach.

6. Applies appropriate closure in a lesson presentation e.g. engages pupils in the summation of lesson content.

1 Utilizes a variety of instructional strategies and demonstrates knowledge of how, when and why to implement them in order to promote evaluative thinking among children.

2

Integrates a variety of technological tools to maximize pupils‟ engagement.

3 Develops instructional plans that are aligned with standards and recommendations of the state‟s regulatory body.

4 Uses a variety of formal and informal assessments.

5 Uses assessment data to plan and evaluate instruction.

6 Communicates assessment criteria, performance standards, and assessment results to parents.

7 Uses assessment data to document impact on pupils learning and reviews learning programmes.

8. Maintain classroom control by: a. Establishes, discusses and periodically reviews

classroom rules and procedures with pupils.

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b. Consistently follows through with pupils discipline and special behaviour programmes

c. Requires respect for the opinions of others in classroom discussions and activities.

d. Discusses with pupils alternative means of dealing with conflict.

e. Sets guidelines for appropriate language in the classroom.

f. Supervises pupils conduct in all school areas and activities.

9 Demonstrates supportiveness in order to achieve a positive learning environment.

10 Uses instructional time effectively and monitors pupils‟ participation and interactions.

11 Implements procedures and routines to enhance a positive learning environment.

12 Monitors time and manages transitions.

13 Organizes space, materials and activities to maximize teaching and learning.

14 Interacts with pupils in a manner which is free from threats, put downs or other personally negative expressions.

15 Communicates expectations to pupils accountable for expectations.

16 Uses reinforcement to influence positive behaviour. Eg give pupils positive feedback about appropriate behaviour responses and choices.

17 Observes and recognizes pattern of behaviour.

18 Chooses developmentally appropriate curricular materials and activities.

19 Demonstrates awareness of individual pupil‟s developmental status by modifying lessons to meet children‟s developmental needs.

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COMPETENCY INDICATOR 3: CRITICAL THINKING/CREATIVITY

1 Implements instructional units that promote critical thinking.

2

Creates instructional units that promote problem solving and inquiry.

3 Supports children‟s concept development.

4 Integrates engaging problems that are connected to the real-world in order to increase children‟s motivation.

5 Utilizes effective questioning methods that encourage cognitive skills.

6 Uses wait time and scaffolding to support thoughtful pupils‟ responses.

7 Guides individualism and discovering learning.

8 Fosters creativity by encouraging children to think and draw.

COMPETENCY INDICATOR 4: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1 Speaks clearly and adjusts to learner‟s levels.

2

Explains clearly: step-by-step; logical; understandable; makes connections; uses visual as well as verbal cues when teaching.

3 Uses specific and relevant details when teaching.

4 Demonstrates the ability to communicate effectively in person and in writing.

5 Displays writing samples that are grammatically correct and convey information effectively.

6 Utilizes active listening skills.

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COMPETENCY INDICATOR 5: CHILDREN ENABLER

1 Enjoys working with children, and treats each child with respect.

2 Articulates variables that define diversity and creates a caring learning community that is responsive to the diverse needs of learners.

3

Demonstrates the belief that all children can learn by differentiating instruction to meet the needs of all learners.

4 Respects the cultures, and languages of pupils and uses the knowledge of these factors to help children learn.

6 Identifies children‟s learning styles and uses the information to differentiate instruction.

7 Values all children‟s efforts and provides appropriate positive reinforcement and feedback.

KEY COMPETENCY 6: PROFESSIONALISM AND LEADERSHIP

1 Demonstrates professional attitudes and conducts including: a. Regular and punctual attendance b. Thorough preparation for teaching including

written lesson plans/ note c. Professional work habits that respects

confidentiality of children‟s records, performance, and personal issues.

d. Assumes responsibility and demonstrates good judgment concerning classroom routines and children learning.

e. Demonstrates care and concern for the welfare of children, the school, family and the community.

f. Dresses and behaves in a professional manner.

2 Familiarizes with trends in early childhood education and shows understanding of professional and historical influences on its current practices.

3 Works toward early childhood credential or degree.

4

Collaborates with other school colleagues and parents to support and enhance children‟s learning

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and well being.

5 Demonstrates enthusiasm for lifelong learning and encourages children to do likewise.

6 Effectively functions in real school environments and with diverse school populations.

7 Participates in teacher-in-service workshops, staff meetings, and professional organizations to achieve continued professional growth.

8 Treating parents and other caregivers with courtesy and attention.

9 Seeks ways to improve and innovate.

10 Protecting and respecting the right of the child.

11 Modeling professional behaviour.

Adapted from the University of Alabama in Huntsville (Teacher Candidate Competency Indicators) Australian Overview of Competencies and USD

Teacher Evaluation Tool

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APPENDIX 4

STRUCTURED ORAL INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. Why do teachers fail to greet children on arrival to school?

2. Why are children not allowed deep interaction with their peers in class?

3. Why are there no learning corners/interest corners setup in class?

4. Why do teachers do not go out with the pupils during outdoor play?

5. Why are the preschoolers sharing the same gross motor equipment with

primary schools pupils?

6. Why are the children not practising simple self-help skills like sweeping their

crumbs after meals or setting tables?

7. Why are teachers not working with children from low level furniture?

8. Why are there no individualised instructions in your class?

9. Why is there no mini-library in your class to inculcate the reading culture in

the children?

10. How do you encourage reflection and critical thinking in the pupils?

11. Why are local music and musical instruments not used in the class/school?

12. Why are Creative arts and Physical/ Health education not given equal

attention as other subjects?

13. Why are there no activities done with sand and water?

14. Why is computer not being used as one of the free choice activities in class?

15. How do you determine the weight and height of the children in order to

account for their physical development?

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APPENDIX 5

School Operator’s Questionnaire for Developmentally Appropriate Practices In Early Childhood Classrooms

SECTION A: SCHOOL OPERATORS’ DEMOGRAPHIC SURVEY (Please tick (√) the appropriate boxes provided below) 1 . What is your highest qualification?

WASC or Equivalent [ ] NCE [ ] B.Ed/B.A/B.Sc/ or Equivalent [ ] M.Ed/M.A/M.Sc./or Equivalent [ ] Others (please state): __________________________________________

2. What is your major/area of specialization? 1. Early Childhood Education [ ]

2. Elementary Education [ ] 3. Others (please state): _____________ 3. What is your age group?

Below 30 [ ] 30-40 [ ] 41-50 [ ] 51 – 60 [ ] 61-70 – 40 [ ] Above70 [ ]

4. What is your marital status?

Single [ ] Married [ ] Widowed [ ] Divorced [ ]

5. What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ] SECTION B 6. How often does your school provide in-service training for the teaching staff?


7. Do you have training package for your induction programmes? Available [ ] Not available [ ] 8. How often do you subscribe to professional resource materials available on

site?


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9. How often do you provide technological tools to maximize children‟s engagement in active learning?


10. Which of these curriculums do you use?

(a) Nigerian Curriculum (b) Nigerian, British & American curriculum

(c) Self made curriculum (d) all of the above

(e) Nigerian & British curriculum

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Section C: School Environment checklist

The following are a number of statements that describe the developmentally appropriate materials in early childhood environment. These numbers stand for:

1 = Inadequate

2 = Adequate

1 Furniture for routine care, play and learning 1 2 1.1 Basic furniture for routine care, play, and learning

1.2 Age-appropriateness of most furniture

1.3 Condition of most furniture

1.4 Most soft furnishings are clean and in good repair

1.5 Soft furnishings for children

1.6 Many clean, soft toys accessible to children

2 Space

2.1 Space for children

2.2 Space for adults

2.3 Space for furnishings

2.4 Maintenance of Floor space

2.5 Ample indoor space that allow easy room traffic

2.6 Availability of outdoor space for gross motor activities/physical play

2.7 Accessibility of space for children in group

2.8 Safety of gross motor space

2.9 Demarcation of play surface areas so that different types of activities do not interfere with one another

2.10 Outdoor gross motor space with a variety of surfaces permitting different types of play

3 Classroom atmosphere/temperature

3.1 Classroom lighting

3.2 Classroom ventilation

3.3 Classroom temperature control

3.4 Condition of floors and walls

4 Gross motor equipment

4.1 Accessibility of gross motor equipment to all children for at least one hour daily.

4.2 Gross motor equipment that stimulate variety of skills.

4.3 Availability of both stationary and portable gross motor equipment

4.4 Age appropriateness of outdoor play equipment for gross motor activities.

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5 FINE MOTOR ACTIVITIES

5.1 Availability of developmentally appropriate fine motor materials for a substantial portion of the day.

5.2 Materials of different levels of difficulty accessible

5.3 Containers and accessible storage shelves have labels to encourage self-help.

6 TOILET FACILITIES

6.1 Availability of child-sized toilets and low sinks provided.

6.2 Maintenance of good sanitary condition of the toilets

6.3 Toilet schedule meet the individual needs of the children.

6.4 Maintenance of hand washing practice

7 Other DAP Materials

7.1 Availability of instructional materials at learning corners

7.2 Variety of musical instrument (e.g flute, tambourine, tape, dance props

7.3 Art materials acecssible to children

7.4 Toys accesible to children

7.5 Availability of computer as one free choice activities

7.6 Avaiability of appropriate, TV, CD ROMS or Videos

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APPENDIX 6

Developmentally Appropriate Practice Evaluation Questionnaire

(DAPPEQ) Reactionnaire Dear Participant, As an essential part of the organiser‟s goal of delivery quality training, kindly comment as fully as possible on all relevant items and where scoring ranges are given, circle the score that most closely represents your views. SECTION 1: GENERAL 1. To what extent have the objectives of the programme been achieved? Fully Not at all If you have scored 2 or 1, please comment why you have given this rating. 2. To what extent have your personal objectives for attending the programme been achieved? Fully Not at all If you have scored 2 or 1, please comment why you have given this rating. 3. To what extent has your understanding of the subject improved or increased as a result of the programme? Fully Not at all If you have scored 2 or 1, please comment why you have given this rating. 4. To what extent have your skills in teaching young children improved or increased as a result of the programme? Fully Not at all If you have scored 2 or 1, please comment why you have given this rating. 5. To what extent has the training helped to enhance your appreciation and understanding of your job as a whole? Fully Not at all

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

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If you have scored 2 or 1, please comment why you have given this rating. 6. What is your overall rating of this training? Excellent Very poor Make any comments on your ratings that you feel will be of help to the designers of this programme. 7. To what extent would you recommend others with similar needs to your own to attend this programme? Fully Not at all Please state fully why you have given the above ratings.

SECTION 2: TRAINING LOCATION

8 . How do you rate the training location? Excellent Poor If you have rated 2 or 1, please state why. 9. How do you rate the training accommodation (training room, etc)? Excellent Poor 10 . How would you rate the refreshments provided during the training? Excellent Poor SECTION 3: TRAINING ADMINISTRATION 11. To what extent was material necessary for the training provided for you prior to the programme? Fully Not at all

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

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12 . What was the level of the instructions given to you to, a) attend the programme, b) complete pre-programme material, c) bring relevant material with you to the programme, d) travel to the training location?

a) Excellent Poor b) Excellent Poor c) Excellent Poor d) Excellent Poor Please make any comments you feel would help the designers and administrators of this programme. 13. Did you think that the number of participants on the course was

too few [ ] Just right [ ] too many [ ]

SECTION 4: PROGRAMME CONTENT

14. What did you like best about the programme?

Excellent 5 4 3 2 1 Poor

If you scored in the range 2 to 1, please comment why you have given this rating?

15. What did you like least about the programme?



16 To what extent have you learned on the training about establishing a caring

community of learners in early childhood classrooms? A lot 5 4 3 2 1 Nothing


5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

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17 To what extent have you learned on the training about teachers‟ teaching

strategies and learning format? A lot 5 4 3 2 1 Nothing


18 To what extent have you learned on the training about constructing and

implementing appropriate curriculum? A lot 5 4 3 2 1 Nothing


19 To what extent have you learned on the training about assessment of

children‟ learning and development? A lot 5 4 3 2 1 Nothing


20 To what extent have you learned on the training about reciprocal

relationship with parents? A lot 5 4 3 2 1 Nothing


21 What is your overall rating of developmentally appropriate programme? Excellent 5 4 3 2 1 Poor


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22. What did you not learn from the training that you were expecting to learn?



23. What do you think should be added to the training?



24. What do you think should be dropped from the training?



25. To what extent did the training duplicate what you had learned previously?



26. What are your views on the handouts issued? too many [ ] Just right [ ] too few [ ]

very relevant [ ] Satisfactory [ ] Not satisfactory [ ] Excellent quality Poor quality 27. What are your views on the visual aids used?

OHP/Powerpoint slides: Excellent quality Poor quality too many [ ] Just right [ ] too few [ ]

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

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Well used Badly used

SECTION 5: BALANCE OF PROGRAMME

28. How do you rate the balance between input sessions, activities, discussions, and videos?

Good balance Poor balance Why do you give this rating?

29. How did you feel about the length of the programme? too short [ ] Just right [ ] too long [ ] 30. To what extent was the programme logically sequenced? Well sequenced Poorly sequenced

In what way? 31. How did you feel about the pacing of the programme? too short [ ] Just right [ ] too long [ ] 32. How effective were the practical activities? Very effective Ineffective 33. What was the level of time given for (a) the activities and (b) the follow-up

discussion? Sufficient Insufficient Sufficient Insufficient What level of time would you like to have seen? 34. How knowledgeable and/or experienced are you in the techniques and

approaches of training? Very Not at all

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

5 4 3 2 1

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SECTION 6: TRAINERS’ EVALUATION

35. Please rate each trainer by placing his/her initials under the relevant score and for each aspect, from (a) to (f).

Ineffective slightly eff effective highly eff Superior

(a) Knowledge of subject 1 2 3 4 5

(b) Organization of session 1 2 3 4 5

(c) Obvious preparation 1 2 3 4 5

(d) Style and delivery 1 2 3 4 5

(e) Responsiveness to group 1 2 3 4 5

(f) Producing a good learning climate 1 2 3 4

Any other comments:

SECTION 7: ACTION PLAN IMPLEMENTATION AID

Complete this sheet for each item included on the action plan:

1. Which of the aspects of DAP items do you intend to implement immediately you

get back to work?

2. By which targets will you measure progress?

3. What barriers might impede your implementation?

4. How will you avoid or negate these barriers?

5. Time: when do you intend to start implementing the items?

6. Time: by when do you intend to complete the implementation of the item?

7. Resources: what resources (people, equipment, extra skills, etc.) will you need to

complete the implementation of the item?

8. How do you intend to transfer the knowledge and skill gained to other colleagues

at work after the training?

9. Benefits: what benefits do you hope will result from your actions (including

financials if possible to assess)?

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Appendix 7

Map of Lagos State Showing the Urban and Rural Classifications

Source: Department of Geography, University of Lagos

303

Appendix 8

Map of Ondo State Showing the Urban and Rural Classifications

Source: Department of Geography, University of Lagos

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APPENDIX 9

EXTRACTS FROM DAPEP

Basic facts about how young children develop and learn

Children at 5 What children are like How adults can help

Physical development

Children can skip, walk backwards quickly,

balance securely on a two-inch beam, jump down several steps, hop confidently, and usually

have developed mature throwing and catching skills. They love to show off their physical

prowess.

Children enjoy catching games, which can be

adapted for varying ability levels by using bigger or smaller balls and varying throwing styles.

They still need close supervision, especially when attempting daring tricks with their newfound

abilities.

Interest in activities involving fine motors skills

increases with children‟s refined abilities. Children become increasingly skilled in activities

such as drawing and cutting and pasting.

Manipulation of writing instruments improves with increased hand-eye coordination.

By this age it is usually obvious whether children

are right-or left-handed.

Art activities are popular with 5-year-olds. Allow

children to experiment with art forms and materials; do not make critical comments on the

“right” way to represent something. Continue to

offer many kinds of art materials; introduce a variety of art processes, such as collage,

watercolours, and printing.

Offer both right-and left-handed scissors.

Children can help with food preparation and

setup, and can largely dress themselves. Many children will master shoe lacing by age 5.

Children enjoy being able to do such things on their own.

Allow children to serve themselves at the table.

Continue to offer assistance as needed with dressing if children need occasional help, such as

with shoe lacing. Offer children some privacy with toileting, but remind them to wash their

hands.

Intellectual development

Children often engage in activities with a result

or end product in mind. They are gaining in ability to plan ahead.

Involve children in brainstorming class projects

and activities. Allow them to revisit earlier work and to judge for themselves when something is

finished. Ask children about the activities they are involved with. Challenge them to experiment

and to solve problems, to think about what will

happen next, and to review their work.

Children continue to enjoy hands-on-exploration

and learning. Their observational skills are

Provide a stimulating environment with many

hands-on activities. Give children time and space

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increasing, and they are more likely to connect

related information.

for exploration. Foster children‟s initiative and

sustained engagement. Support age-appropriate risk taking, within safe boundaries.

Children‟s understanding of shapes is still rather global. They can learn about the different parts

of shapes and how they fit together, and some older 5-year-olds may be able to grasp isolated

geometric attributes (e.g., “a square has four

equal sides”). Children have a good understanding of basic colours.

Provide varied examples of shapes, colours in different contexts, and textures. Offer art

experiences such as collage so children can experiment with different textures, colours, and

shapes. Model how shapes can be slid, flipped,

and rotated yet remain the same shape. Have children make shapes using toothpicks or straws

for sides. Provide shape puzzles, such as tan grams, for children to experiment with.

Encourage children to make patterns with shapes

and colours.

Children can count flexibly to solve a variety of problems, including those that involve number

(counting), addition, and subtraction.

Continue to incorporate number into everyday activities, such as setting the table with the

correct number of plate settings, or counting the

number of spaces to move in a game. Play games that compare small groups of objects or

symbols.

Vocabularies continue to increase; children can

use between 5,000 and 8,000 words. Children use fuller, more complex sentences and take

turns in conversation. Children‟s questions become more relevant to topics at hand. They

have mastered most of the grammatical

structures to which they are regularly exposed.

Answer children‟s questions when possible;

encourage them to find out more through other means. Ask them questions in turn to expand

their thinking.

Children are gaining ability to match letters to

sounds. Some will begin to read during this year. Writing skills varies with experience; most

children will be able to string a few actual letters together, creating a few short words such as

mom, dad, or their own first names. Children

often continue to use letter-like forms and scribble writing as well.

Taking advantage of opportunities to highlight

letters and sounds in the environment. Plenty of paper and marking tools throughout the

classroom will encourage spontaneous exploration. Children may ask for help in creating

individual letters; your writing out each line

segment of a letter in a different colour may help children understand how letters are formed.

With practice, children can tell and retell stories. They enjoy repeating stories, poems, and songs,

as well as acting out plays or stories.

Encourage children to record and enact their stories in different ways. Children‟s stories can be

written down by an adult, children can act out

stories in the dramatic play area, and favourite stories can be illustrated.

Children know the words to many poems and songs and enjoy singing. They love to play with

words.

Enjoy singing silly songs and exploring funny poetry that plays with language. Provide a wide

range of music activities, including exposure to an array of rhythm instruments. Children will

enjoy playing “orchestra”.

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Social development

Children in this age group like cooperative play,

often enjoying the company of one or two special friends at a time. Children love dramatic

play with others; they also like to act out others‟ roles and show off in front of new people. They

may also joke and tease to get attention. But,

they may become shy at times.

Plan the day and the classroom environment to

encourage cooperative play opportunities – i.e., provide ample time for creative and dramatic

play as well as a variety of play props and cooperative activities. Plan many opportunities

for flexible small-group work.

They can maintain friendships. They yearn for

friendship and respect from their peers, made all the more precious by their new found social

powers of exclusion and snubbing.

Pairs and small groups of children enjoy playing together for extended periods of time. They

may, however, exclude peers. Children

understand the power of rejecting others and may verbally threaten to end friendships or

select others.

Developing the social skills needed to maintain

relationships is not automatic; children do need coaching, supervision, and modelling of pro-

social behaviours.

Check in with children from time to time, guiding them to use positive ways of dealing with others.

Model inclusive and friendly language. If

particular children are continually picked on, it may be because they lack play skills – perhaps a

child is bossy, or not very observant as to the play themes others are engaged in. in these

cases you may be able to coach children in social

skills.

Children can cooperate well, take turns, and share, although there may be times they do not

wish to. They also recognize the rights of others

to a turn and may stand up for them. On occasion, children will take others‟ things and

then lie about it. They are so eager to be good that they don‟t like to admit when they‟ve done

wrong.

Use verbal encouragement to foster and recognize pro-social behaviour. When children

have difficulty resolving conflicts on their own,

wait until they have calmed down and, at an appropriate time, coach them on specific

language and strategies to use.

Emotional development

Children continue to explore differences and

similarities between themselves and others. They are still primarily egocentric, however,

understanding the world through their own point

of view. Same-sex friendships become stronger (especially for boys), and children may choose

gender-stereotypical activities.

Model acceptance of others‟ differences, and

expose children to information about different kinds of people. Provide a variety of activities,

and challenge children‟s thinking. Encourage the

play styles of both girls and boys, and accept individual differences.

Children enjoy others and can behave in a warm

and empathetic manner.

Continue to model kindness and empathy. When

children exclude or snub others, work with the group to foster understanding of how it feels to

be hurt. In one-to-one situations, or with a few children, invite the snubbed child to describe her

feelings.

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Children of this age take responsibility seriously.

Within limits they are independent, competent, and reliable and can usually assess their own

capabilities with accuracy.

They enjoy being helpers and are proud to have

special roles and tasks in the classroom. Allow children to choose activities, when possible.

Having significant blocks of time for child-

initiated activities will allow children to complete projects to their satisfaction and thus foster a

sense of accomplishment and competence.

Children are capable of being quite well-

behaved and polite. They are more self-controlled and show more control. They

generally are good judges of what they can and cannot do.

Your attentive listening and responsiveness will

reinforce their good behaviour. When children do lose control, a short period away from other

children may help them regain composure, but time-out as a punishment is not an effective

approach.

Children also have strong feelings, and fears

may increase with increased imaginative skills. They still confuse fantasy with reality on

occasion. Increasing awareness of the world

may introduce scary realities.

Reassure children when they are afraid, and take

their concerns seriously. Adults need to limit children‟s exposure to media that may be

overwhelming or inappropriate. When traumatic

events occur – whether in a child‟ family or in the world at large – children need to be reassured

that it is in no way the child‟s fault.

Source: Bredekamp, S.& Copple, C (2006):Developmentally Appropriate

Practice in Early Childhood Programme.An introduction for Teachers Of

Children 3-6

MODULE 5

Organisation of Space and Materials in Ece Class

The adults in the pre-schools are saddled with the responsibility of organizing space

for children so that children can have many opportunities for active learning and as

much control over their environment as possible.

Arrangement of Children’s Furniture

Children‟s furniture is expected to be bright, clean and easy to clean. When they

are light, they are easy for children to move from one area to another. Age

appropriateness of the furniture should be of uttermost concern to the teachers and

school administrators. Arrangement of the furniture should allow easy room traffic.

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Researches have confirm that the younger the children the more space they need

to move around to develop their gross motor skills.

The lightning and the ventilation of the classroom must be adequate.

Guidelines and Strategies for changing and equipping spaces for children

In organizing space, the following guidelines must be considered

1. The space is inviting to children. It includes:

Softness

Rounded corner

Pleasing colours and textures

Natural materials and light

Cosy places

2. The space is divided into well-defined interest areas to encourage

distinctive types of play.

What are interest/ learning centres?

These are spaces divided into well-defined interest areas to encourage distincting

play and learning or offer changing range of options for engagement. This includes

the combination of the following:

The interest areas include some combination of the following:

1. Sand and water area

2. Block area

1. Language and literacy area

2. Number area

3. Science and nature corner

4. Music and movement area

5. Computer area

6. Outdoor area

Factors to consider in establishing interest areas

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The interest areas are arranged to promote visibility and easy movement between

areas:

The sand and water area is close to water.

The block and house area are close to each other.

The art area is close to water.

The toy and book areas are located away from vigorous play areas.

The woodworking area is outdoors or near the art area.

The computer area avoids screen glare.

The outdoor area is close to indoor areas

Classroom Checklist

How well does your classroom or center reflect children‟s home settings? To

evaluate your setting, here is a checklist that is organized by several interest areas.

Art area

These include paint, crayons, paper and printing materials that can be found within

the school community. Other art materials representing the art and crafts of the

community are available

- Modelling and moulding materials

- Collage materials

- Drawing and cutting materials

Block area

Building materials

Take-apart-and-put-together materials

Fill-and-empty materials

Pretend-play materials

Reference photos

Toy, people are multiracial and without sex-role stereotyping.

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Animal figures simulate those found in the environment of the children (for

example, house pets). Toy vehicles represent those found in the community.

Book area

Books written in children‟s home languages are included.

Books depict a variety of racial, ethnic, and cultural groups, focusing on modern

lifestyles and including natural-looking illustrations of people.

House area

There are multiracial girl and boy dolls with appropriate skin colours, hair textures

and styles, and facial features.

Contents and arrangement of house area reflect homes found in community

Kitchen utensils, empty food containers reflect what children see their family

members using.

Dress-up clothing is reflective of the community, including occupations of the

children‟s parents.

Music and movement area

Percussion instruments

Simple wind instruments

Recording equipment and recordings (records, CDs, cassettes)

Props for dancing

Music tapes and instruments are reflective of children‟s cultures.

A variety of instruments are available for children‟s use.

Movement games that are characteristics of the culture are played.

Computer area

Computers that are multimedia and up-to-date

Colour screen

Software programs appropriate for young children

Printer

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Outdoor area

Stationery structures like commercial slides, merry –go –round, jig- saw,

Wheeled toys. E.g. wagons, wheelbarrow, strollers.

Loose materials. E.g. rope, basket ball, bean bag, etc

Toy area

Puzzles reflect the community atmosphere (for example, rural or urban).

Puzzles represent occupations of the parents and others in the community.

Toy figures, puzzles, and so forth, depict multiracial people and avoid sex-role

stereotyping.

Number area

Counting objects

Provide sets of countable objects.

- Blocks

- Collections of small things

- Messy things

- Computer software

- Materials with numerals

- Board games,multiplicatoio

Sand and water area

Fill-and-empty materials

Floating materials

Pretend-play materials

Alternatives to sand and water

Waterproof gear and cleanup materials.

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MATHEMATICS Money Make available Nigerian currency

denominations e.g N5,N10, N20, N50, N100,N200,N500, N1000.

Let the children interact with the currency by touching and feeling.

Let them identify each currency by colour and specific features like the pictures on each of them.

Create shopping corner where children could buy and sell with the currency.

Lead the children into addition and subtraction of money using banking game.

children interact with the currency by touching and feeling.

Children identify each currency by colour and specific features like the pictures on each of them.

Children engage in buying and selling at the shopping corner.

Nigerian currency denominations e.g N5,N10, N20, N50, N100,N200,N500, N1000.

Objects that children can

buy and sell.e.g pencils, erasers, biscuits, packects of cornflakes,etc

Addition. Provide variety of materials that children can count.

Create two sets of materials and allow two children to collect same number of objects.

Teach the children the names of the symbols addition and equal to ( + and = )

Children engage in counting of objects.

They put objects down separately and then count the two sets of materials

together. E.g 3 counters and 4 counters.

A box of small number rods, spindles, counters, etc

Subtraction Let the children be aware that Subtraction equally means take away and that it is one set of number that is required for this exercise unlike addition where two sets of numbers are put together to get larger number.

Encourage children to play subtraction game with materials.

Encourage songs that emphasises subtraction e.g ten green bottles standing on the wall, if one green bottle should accidentally fall down, nine green bottles standing on the wall.

children play subtraction game with materials.

They sing songs that emphasise subtraction e.g ten green bottles standing on the wall, if one green bottle should accidentally fall down, nine green

bottles standing on the wall.

A box of small number rods, spindles, counters, etc

PHYSICAL EDUCATION Age 3-5 Vocabulary associated with movement.

* Encourage children to move with controlled effort, and use associated vocabulary such as „strong‟, „firm‟, „gentle‟, „heavy‟,

*Move freely with pleasure and confidence in a range of ways, such as slithering, shuffling, rolling, crawling,

*Plan opportunities for children to tackle a range of levels and surfaces including flat and hilly

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Exercising different parts of the body through body postures

Judging body with available space

„stretch‟, „reach‟, „tense‟ and

„floppy‟. * Use music to create moods and talk about how people move when they are sad, happy or cross. * Demonstrate to children diffferent postures,e.g.sit up, stand up and balance on various parts of the body. * Mount stairs, steps or climbing equipment using alternate feet. *Negotiate an appropriate pathway when walking, running or using a wheelchair or other

mobility aids, both indoors and outdoors. * Take time to review individual needs for space and equipment for a child who may require modifications to either or both.

walking,

running, jumping, skipping,sliding and hopping. * Use movement to express feelings. Encourage children to exercise their parts of the body by sitting down, standing, balancing on their parts of the body, mounting stairs and climbing equipment.

* Negotiate space successfully when playing racing and chasing games with other children,adjusting speed or changing direction to avoid obstacles.

ground, grass, pebbles,

asphalt, smooth floors and carpets. *Ensure that equipment is appropriate to the size and weight of children in the group and offers challenges to children at different levels of development. * Plan activities where children can move in different ways and at different speeds. *Provide balancing challenges, such as a straight or curved chalk line for children to

follow. * Mark out boundaries for some activities, such as games involving wheeled toys or balls, so that children can more easily regulate their own activities. *Provide sufficient equipment for children to share, so that waiting to take turns does not spoil enjoyment.

SOCIAL RELAIONSHIP

Age 3-4 Friendship

Help children to understand who is a friend. Allow children to mention the rules of friendship. * Encourage children to choose to play with a variety of friends, so that everybody in the group experiences being included. Encourage children to share their materials with their friends.

* Feel safe and secure, and show a sense of trust. * Form friendships with other children. * Demonstrate flexibility and adapt their behaviour to different events, social situations and changes in routine.

* Provide stability in staffing and in grouping of the children. * Provide time, space and materials for children to collaborate with one another in different ways, for example, building constructions.

Age 4-5

Cultural and religious differences

* Introduce children to a range of

cultures and religions, for example, tell stories, listen to music, dance and eat foods from a range of cultures. *Use resources in role-play that reflect a variety of cultures, such as clothes, symbols, candles * *Use appropriate resources at circle time to enable children to learn positive attitudes and behaviour towards people who are different to themselves.

* Gain an awareness of the

cultures and beliefs of others. * Feel a sense of belonging to own community and place. * Begin to know about their own cultures and beliefs and those of other people.

*Provide opportunities for

children to sample food from a variety of cultures, such as a traditional Yoruba .Igbo and Hausa food. * Provide books that show a range of languages, dress and customs.

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Samples of Practical Activities at the training centres

S/N Regularly Now and then Never

1 Do you provide specific pictures/drawing for

children to colour/paint?

2 Is the art lesson open ended?

3 Do you engage the children in rote learning and

memorization?

4 Do you provide hands on experiences with real

objects?

5 Do you expose the children to self help skills or

provide opportunity for them to use their

initiative?

6 Do you provide activities with right and wrong

outcomes?

7 Are children given ownership of the room by

allowing them to put up their own decoration?

8 Do you adhere strictly to the time table?

9 Do children have to wait for adult instruction all

the time?

10 Are the children allowed to solve problems and

resolve conficts?

In the development appropriate classrooms children

Create…rather than duplicate

Move…rather than wait

and toys.

Age 4-5 My community

Introduce children to their community workers such as police officers, traffic warders, fireman, and nurses.

Arrange visits to some places and bring in professionals to visit the school

*Children mention other community workers they know.

*They mention the occupations of their parents.

Charts displaying community workers, excursion to the community town hall, community hospital market.

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Attempt to solve their own problems…rather than tell the teacher, to have

her solve them

Speak…rather than listen pasively

Explore their interests…rather than just learning about what the teacher

thinks they should learn

Make choices…rather than just being told

Make their own lines…instead of colouring within the teacher‟s lines

Write their own books…rather than fill in workbooks

Create art…rather than do pre-planned crafts.

Decide…rather than pasively submit

Learn through experience…rather than the end product

Ask questions…rather than being told facts by adults

Then figure out the answer…rather than being told facts

Learn and use skills that are of interest and meaningful…rather than vague,

abstract concepts that have no real significance to them

Adopted from “the Butterfly Garden” by Sandra

8 THINGS YOU CAN DO TO MAKE YOUR CLASSROOM MORE

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE

1. Have the Art area open throughout the day, including a variety of collage

materials available.

2. Place a child-size broom (or a brush and dust pan) by the sand table to allow

children to be responsile for any mess they make and to increase self-help

skills.

3. Play dough should always be a choice for children.

4. make sure tissues and paper towels are accessible to children, so that they

do not have to rely on adults for them.

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5. Use conflicts between children as opportunities for learning through

problem-solving.

6. Offer choice for children to participate in learning.

7. Do activities in small groups Vs. large groups

8. Bring in “real” objects for exploration.

A developmentally appropriate early childhood programme emphasizes

the following:

1. Active, sense-based exploration of the environment

2. Self-directed, hands-on learning activities balanced with teacher-directed

activities

3. A balanced between individual and group activities

4. Supportive adult child interaction

5. Regular and supportive interaction with teachers and peers

6. A balance between active movement and quiet activities

7. Ongoing observation and assessment, which informs the programme.

Discussion

How can early childhood settings practice or implement the 7 strategies in their

curriculum development and teaching practice?

What you will see in a developmentally appropriate classroom

1. Respectful, frequent and responsive interactions

2. Children offered choices, given opportunities to make decisions, and are

active particpants

3. A print-rich envronment with many opportunities for children to interact and

explore the written word (including a writing area)

4. A stimulating, interactive science area, with real objects

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5. Media/sensory tables do open daily

6. Pictures of “real” objects and people (vs.cartoons)

7. Children employing prblem-solving skills

8. Learning areas that are well-defined and inviting

9. Adults capitalizing on “teachable moments”, and what the children express

an interest in learning about

10. Age-appropriate expectations but mistakes and accidents ok

11. Children‟s individual needs and skills levels taken into account

12. Many opportunities for children to experienced success

SHIFTING TO BETTER CHOICES:

S/N Example Better Activity

Children colour picture of a car, apple, each/ditto

etc

1. Shells placed in the sand table, children are

allowed to play with real applles before asking

them to represent it whichever way they like

through drawing, moulding or painting

1 All must memorise the 2 times table

2 The teacher has cut frogs out of construction

paper for art, and instructs children on how to

paste the cut-out parts on their paper.

3 Children have lost interest in the book, but there

are 6 more pages to read.

4 Children are expected to do at least one page of

writing letters, they can play when they finished.

5 All children must learn how to write 1-10 by the

end of the term so the teacher holds each childs

hands to practise writing the numbers.

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Itemise at least 10 benefits of implementing appropriate

practice in early years’classrooms

Benefits of Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Review of Developmentally Appropriate Practice Concepts

1. What does the phrase “developmentally 3. List 5 things you wouldn‟t see in

an appropriate practice” (DAP) mean? Appropriate classroom: 2. Why are developmentally appropriate practices better for children?

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