Chapter 7, collecting qualitative data

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e

© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Collecting Qualitative Data

Chapter 7

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Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912

© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.7-2

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Identify the five process steps in collecting

qualitative data Identify different sampling approaches to

selecting participants and sites Describe the types of permissions required to gain

access to participants and sites Recognize the various types of qualitative data

you can collect Identify the procedures for recording qualitative

data Recognize the field issues and ethical

considerations that need to be anticipated in administering the data collection




Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection Identify participants and sites Gain access to individuals and sites Identify what types of information will answer your research questions

Design protocols or instruments for collecting and recording information

Administer the data collection




Who Will Be Studied: Purposeful SamplingRandom “Quantitative” Sampling

Select representative individualsTo generalize from sample to population

To make “claims” about the populationTo build/test “theories” that explain the

population

Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling Select people/sites who can best help us understand our phenomenon

To develop detailed understandingThat might be “useful” informationThat might help people “learn” about the

phenomenonThat might give voice to “silenced” people




Types of Purposeful Sampling

When Does Sampling Occur?Before Data Collection After Data Collection

Has StartedWhat is the intent?To develop

manyperspectives

ExtremeCase

Sampling

To describeparticularlytroublesomeor enlighteningcases

TypicalSampling

To describe whatis “typical” to those unfamiliarwith the case

What is the intent?To take advantageof whatever caseunfolds

OpportunisticSampling

SnowballSampling

To exploreconfirming ordisconfirmingcases

Confirming/Disconfirming

Sampling

MaximalVariationSampling

To generate a theory or concept

CriticalSampling

To describe somesubgroup in depth

HomogenousSampling

To describe acase that illustrates “dramatically” the situation

Theory or ConceptSampling

To locate people or sites to study




Sample Size Small for in-depth perspective 1 individual 4 cases 20–30 interviews




Permissions That Are Needed

Gain permission from Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Gain permission from “gatekeepers” at the research site Gatekeepers are individuals at the site who provide site access, help researcher locate people and identify places to study.

The gatekeeper may require written information about the project.




Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Permissions Qualitative studies are usually conducted at the research site.

The researcher has personal contact with the participants through in-depth interviewing and prolonged observing.

Qualitative studies are personal in nature and are not centered on variables or measures.

Qualitative researchers use video cameras or audio recorders to record in-depth interviews for transcription.




Information for the Gatekeeper

Why their site was chosen What time and resources are required What will be accomplished at the site

What potential there is for your presence to be disruptive

What individuals at the site will gain from the study

How you will use and report the results




The Information You Will Collect Observations Interviews Documents Audiovisual materials




Observations An observation is the process of gathering first-hand information by observing people and places at a research site.

Observational roles Participant observer: An observational role adopted by researchers when they take part in activities in the setting they observe

Nonparticipant observer: An observer who visits a site and records notes without becoming involved in the activities of the participants

Observational roles can be changed.




The Process of Observing

Obtain the required permissions needed to gain access to the site

Ease into the site slowly by looking around, getting a general sense of the site, and taking limited notes, at least initially

Identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe

Determine, initially, your role as an observer




The Process of Observing (cont’d)

Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best understanding of the site and the individuals

Design some means for recording notes during an observation Descriptive field notes describe the events, activities, and people

Reflective field notes record personal reflections that relate to their insights, hunches, or broad themes that emerge

When complete, slowly withdraw from the site




Interviews Types: One-on-one, phone, e-mail, focus group

General open-ended questions that are asked allow the participant to: Create options for responding Voice their experiences and perspectives

Information is recorded, then transcribed for analysis.




Interview Procedures Identify the interviewees Determine the type of interview you will use (e.g., focus group, one-on-one)

Take brief notes during the interview

Locate a quiet, suitable place Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study




Interview Procedures (cont’d)

During the interview, have an interview plan using your interview protocol, but be flexible

Use probes to follow up on areas of interest Include possible probes in your interview protocol

During the interview, design probes as you listen to what the participant is talking about

Be courteous and professional when the interview is over




Structured, Unstructured

and Semi-Structured Interviews

Approach toData

Collection

Type ofResponse Options toQuestions

Types of Interviews

Leading toData

Quantitative Closed-Ended

Structured/Semi-StructuredInterviews

Scores toAnswers

Qualitative Open-Ended

UnstructuredInterviews

Transcriptionof Words




Documents Public and private records Good source for text data Obtain permission before using documents

Optically scan documents when possible




Audiovisual materials Determine the material that can provide evidence to address your research questions

Determine if the material is available and obtain permission to use it

Check the accuracy and authenticity of the material if you do not record it yourself

Collect the data and organize it




Recording Data Using Protocols Interview protocols: A form designed by the researcher that contains instructions for the process of the interview, the questions to be asked, possible probes associated with each question, and space to take notes on responses from the interviewee

Observation protocols: A form designed by the researcher before data collection that is used for taking fieldnotes during an observation




Interview Protocols The header: Essential information about the interview

Open-ended questions “Ice-breaker” Questions that address major research questions

Probes that clarify and elaborate Include space between each question for notes

Closing comments thanking the participant




Observational Protocols In the header, record information about the time, place, setting, and your observational role

Divide the rest of the protocol into two columns: Left column to record descriptive notes about the activities at the site

Right column to record reflective notes about themes, quotes, and personal experiences at the site

Include a sketch of the site




Field Issues in Data Collection

Sufficient access to the site for data collection Sufficient time for data collection Limit initial collection to one or two observations or interviews

Time is needed to establish a substantial database

Observational role Building rapport with participants Obtaining permission to use documents and audiovisual materials




Ethical Issues Informing participants of purpose Refraining from deceptive practices Sharing your role as researcher Being respectful of the research site

Giving back or reciprocity Using ethical interview practices Maintaining confidentiality Collaborating with participants

Chapter 7, collecting qualitative data

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