Career Counseling for ex-offenders

Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders1

Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders; A Trauma-

informed Life-Span, Life-Space model

Sarvenaz Moshfegh Asiedu

Goddard College

January 15, 2015


Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders

Introduction

The incarceration rate in the United States has increased

700% in the past 34 years, with around 2.4 million people

currently incarcerated (The Sentencing Project, 2014a, n.p.;

Public Safety Performance Project, 2007, ii; Wagner & Sakala,

2014, n.p.). The overcrowding of the prison system is causing

rapid expansion despite evidence that increasing imprisonment is

not effective in achieving public safety (The Sentencing Project,

2014a).

Over 60 billion dollars go into the prison system per year

and recidivism rates show no significant improvement; more than

half of released prisoners returning to prison within three years

(Public Safety Performance Project, 2007, v). The movement from

indeterminate to determinate sentencing; lower parole grant

rates; passage of “three-strikes” laws, the establishment of


sentencing guidelines and the deinstitutionalization of the

mentally ill are all factors that drive mass incarceration in the

United States (Public Safety Performance Project, 2007, v; Draine

& Solomon, 2001, p. 262; Lansberg, Rock & Lawerence, 2002, p.9).

More than 10,000 individuals are released from state and

federal prison every week, over 650,000 each year (United States

Department of Justice, 2014, n.p.). At the end of 2013, there

were 4,751,400 adults under community supervision, approximately

1 in 51 adults (Bonzar & Herberman, 2014, n.p.). The United

States Department of Justice (2014) states, “Assisting ex-

prisoners in finding and keeping employment, identifying

transitional housing, and receiving mentoring are three key

elements of successful re-entry into our communities”

(n.p.).Various international researchers, such by the Scottish

Centre for Crime and Justice Research and the Probation Service

and Central Statistics Office in Ireland have found compelling

evidence that community treatment programs which provide career

counseling significantly decreased recidivism (Armstrong &

McNeill, 2012; The Probation Service, 2012). Despite the obvious

needs of ex-offenders concerning employment, career development


researchers have done little to focus on the specific needs of

this populations (Shaefer, Friedlander, Blustein, & Maruna, 2004,

p.226; Vernick & Reardon, 2001, p.265). Much of career

advancement programming in Correctional Institutions does not

focus on career development efforts such as helping individuals

become aware of their interests, needs, values and abilities;

prison employment programs are often one-size-fits-all vocational

training programs (Shivy et al., 2007, p.467).

Employment is one of the major eight risk-factors in

recidivism according to the research of Andrews, Bonta & Wormith

(2004), the creators of the LSR-R assessment (p.8). Employment

not only meets basic survival needs, but also increases self-

esteem, self-actualization and social belonging (Brown & Lent,

2012, p.3). For ex-offenders, particularly those that have spent

significant time in institutions, work provides important

structure in their lives (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.5).

Challenges toward Employment

Counselors, case workers, therapists, and probation/parole

officers need to understand the particular factors that effect


ex-offenders in order to best support and guide them in finding

employment. Ex-offenders have particular needs as well as

barriers to successful re-entry.

Although there is considerable variability within the ex-

offender population, there are circumstances that must be

considered in order to view them individually from a psychosocial

perspective. Many ex-offenders have had little or no legitimate

work history and lack vocational skills (Lynch & Sabol, 2001;

Railey & Peterson, 2000 as cited by Shivy et al., 2007, p.467;

Government of Alberta, 2010, p.1). Ex-offenders often obtain

low-wage, low-skill jobs that are in jeopardy during times of

economic downturn (Shivy et al., 2007, p.467). Many ex-offenders

are in debt, owing court fees, monthly probation fees, and other

supervision-related costs; many also face overwhelming amounts of

money for child support and or restitution for their offense

(Shivy et al., 2007, p.467). These economic pressures present a

very real barrier to higher education or vocational training.


Age is also a factor in employment opportunities as

individuals may face discrimination based on their age, and may

lack confidence to acquire new skills (Shivy, 2007, p.472).

Many ex-offenders suffer from mental illness and or

substance abuse (Government of Alberta, 2010, p.1; Shivy et al.,

2007, p.467).

People on probation or parole are under mandated

supervision, which can have various conditions, such as

abstaining from intoxicants, disclosing finances, attending

psychiatric counselling, reporting for random drug testing or

attending community corrections (Government of Alberta, 2010,

p.2; ). These conditions may have an effect on their employment

options.

Basic Needs.

Food, housing, transportation, clothing, bank accounts,

identification and access to communication such as cell phones

and internet have been cited as basic needs by ex-offenders

(Shivy et al., 2007, p.471; Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).


Transportation: Ex-offenders may have lost their driver’s

license due to suspension and/or outstanding fines and may

need funds for public transportation (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,

p.3).

Identification and documentation: Ex-offenders may not have

a state i.d., driver’s license or birth certificate (Gov. of

Alberta, 2010, p.3; SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).

Work apparel and tools: Clients may not have proper clothing

for interviews or for work (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).

Shelter: Clients may be homeless, living with relatives or

in a shelter or halfway house (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).

Communication: Clients may not have a telephone or internet

services (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).

Bank accounts: Clients may not have bank accounts, or may

not meet requirements to open a bank account (Gov. of

Alberta, 2010, p.3; SAMHA, 2000, p.5).

Social Factors

stigmatization. Misinformation that employers hold about

ex-offenders may also create barriers to employment (Gov. of


Alberta, 2010, p.12; SAMHSA, 2000, p.6). Employers may believe

that all ex-offenders are uneducated and have no useful skills

(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.12). They may think that they will not

be accepted by their co-workers and require special monitoring on

the job (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.12). Many employers view ex-

offenders as unreliable, morally deficient and potentially

violence (SAMHSA, 2000, p.6). Compounded with these prejudices,

ex-offenders without marketable skills, and work experience will

struggle to find employment (SAMHSA, 2000, p.6). For this reason

it is extremely important to encourage and support the training

of ex-offenders.

racism. The concentration of drug law enforcement in inner

cities, harsher sentencing policies and an emphasis on the

enforcement of the law above focus on prevention and treatment

has resulted in a disproportionate number of African Americans

being incarcerated (The Sentencing Project, 2014b). One in every

ten African American males in their thirties is incarcerated and

60% of people in prison are racial and ethnic minorities (The

Sentencing Project, 2014b). Two thirds of all people


incarcerated for drug offences are people of color (The

Sentencing Project 2014b). A person of color with a criminal

record may experience employment discrimination compounded by

racism (SAMHSA, 2000, p.1; Riley Guide, 2014, n.p.).

Education

Many ex-offenders that have a long history of substance

abuse starting in their youth, often did not do well in school

and may never had opportunities to learn work-related skills

(SAMHSA, 2000, n.p.). Some research suggests higher rates of

ADHD and learning disabilities in the ex-offender population;

educational, mental and social problems are generally not

addressed in prison (Eyestone and Howell, 1994; Mannuzza et al.,

1989; U.S. Department of Justice, 1998 as cited by SAMHSA, 2000).

Many ex-offenders have had involvement in the juvenile

system in their youth, were expelled from High School or dropped

out. Negative childhood experiences in education may impact their

academic motivation and self-efficacy.

Parenting


Female ex-offenders are more likely to be responsible for

their children, although many men are as well (SAMHSA, 2000,

p.5). Since the passage of the Federal Welfare-To-Work

legislation, women have increased risk of recidivism (SAMHSA,

2000, p.5).

Male and female ex-offenders report that child care is a

major responsibility and that it can limit or impact their

ability to participate in programs and complicate employment

searching (Shivy et al., 2007, p.471).

Psychological Factors

substance abuse. Sentencing policies brought about by the

"war on drugs" resulted in a dramatic growth in incarceration for

drug offenses (The Sentencing Project, 2014). At the Federal

level, prisoners incarcerated on a drug charge comprise half of

the prison population, while the number of drug offenders in

state prisons has increased thirteen-fold since 1980 (The

Sentencing Project, 2014). Most of these people are not high-

level actors in the drug trade, and most have no prior criminal

record for a violent offense (The Sentencing Project, 2014).


Eighty percent of the state prison population reports a history

of alcohol and substance abuse; more than half report being under

the influence when they committed their offense (Travis &

Reardon, 2001, p.25).

Trauma

trauma. Research indicates that a high percentage of men

and women involved in the criminal justice system have

experienced serious trauma throughout their lifespan (Gains

Center, 2011, p.1; SAMHSA, 2014a, p.1) Most trauma survivors in

the criminal justice system do not seek treatment for trauma-

related symptoms and are more often re-traumatized within the

Correctional system than given help (SAMHSA, 2014a, p.1).

Traumatic experiences significantly increase risk of substance

abuse and criminal involvement (Policy Research Associates, 2014,

n.p.; Gains Center, 2011, p.1).

Identity, worldview and social relationships are all

impacted by trauma (Harris & Fallot, 2001 as cited by Gains

Center, 2011, p.1). When trauma is repeated it results in

physiological changes in the brain when confronted with a


perceived threat (Gains, 2011, p.1). Trauma has been associated

with linked with many mental health disorders, such as

depression, suicidal tendencies, chronic anxiety, hostility and

social impairment (SAMHSA, 2014a, p.1).

mental health. There are three times as many people with

mental illness in prisons and jails than there are in mental

hospitals, due to widespread deinstitutionalization of the

mentally ill (Berzin and Trestman, 2004 as cited by Whitely,

Bloom & Friedman, 2014, p.11). 70-80% of state, federal and

county inmates and 50-70% of detained youth meet criteria for

mental health or substance abuse issues (SA MHA, 2014, n.p).

According to a study by the Office of National Drug Control

Policy (2014), only 4 in 10 inmates reported receiving treatment

while incarcerated with quality of service varying from state to

state (as cited by SAMHA, 2014). A Seven-Year study of

adolescent offenders in Los Angeles found that only half of all

group homes employ mental health professionals to access mental

illness, and only a few receive treatment (Ramchand, Morral &

Becker, 2009, p. 863). Depending on the State, many individuals


leaving correctional facilities have long waiting periods for

health benefits (SAMHA, 2014). Waiting periods can be

devastating for those that need to connect to treatment providers

as their successful re-entry is dependent on recovery or

management of mental illness (SAMHA, 2014). Barriers to mental

health are particularly challenging for people of color as they

are ranked highest among the uninsured and may not have access to

culturally competent providers (SAMHA, 2014, n.p.).

Disculturation

“Disculturation” was defined by Goffman (1961) as the

failure “to acquire some of the habits currently required in the

wider society” (as cited by SAMHSA, 2000). Institutionalization

in a prison is “incompatible with the development of the social

skills needed to succeed in society at large” (SAMHSA, 2000,

n.p.). In prison, an inmate completely loses autonomy, from

where she lays her head at night, what time she wakes up in the

morning, when she can shower, eat, and speak to loved ones.

Survival in prison requires accepting the loss of autonomy

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.2).


In addition to loss of autonomy, prisoners are punished

arbitrarily and they must accept that “everyday rules of cause

and effect and reward and punishment have been suspended”

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Groups of inmates are punished for the

actions of one; correctional officers abuse and mistreat inmates

with little recourse (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Correctional Officers

also destroy personal property such as photographs and letters

from loved ones during cell searchers (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). All

of this can cause an individual to stop believing that there is

anything in their control or that anything that they do matters

at all (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). This is counter-intuitive to the

skills that individuals need upon their release: to make

decisions about their life, plan for the future and follow

through (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2; Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6).

Culture shock

For those offenders that have spent many years in prison,

technological advances and cultural changes are like returning to

a different world (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3). Simple things like taking


a bus or ordering in a restaurant can be anxiety provoking

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).

Individuals long for their freedom and may idealize life on

the outside before their release (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). The

reality of the personal and financial problems that find them on

the outside can be overwhelming (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Changes in

the dynamics between family and friends in their absence can be

difficult to adjust to (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Ex-offenders may

return to friends that use drugs and alcohol. Ex-offenders that

are struggling with sobriety may feel alienated from family and

friends that have trouble accepting their new lifestyle (SAMHSA,

2000, p.2). Substance use and pro-criminal friends may be a way

of coping with the difficulty of adjustment (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).

Ex-offenders may have many failures in their past and may feel

that there is little hope that their lives can change. SAMHSA,

2000

Post Incarceration Syndrome (PICS)

Post Incarceration Syndrome (PICS) is a cluster of symptoms

that has been observed in many incarcerated or formerly


incarcerated prisoners as a result of “prolonged incarceration in

environments of punishment with few opportunities for education,

job training, or rehabilitation” (Gorski, n.d., n.p.). Many

factors impact the severity of PICS symptoms; “coping skills

prior to incarceration”, “length of incarceration”,

“restrictiveness of the incarceration environment”, “the number

and severity of institutional episodes of abuse, the number and

duration of episodes of solitary confinement, and the degree of

involvement in educational, vocational, and rehabilitation

programs” (Gorski, n.d., n.p.).

According to Gorski (n.d.), the four clusters of symptoms are

comprised of the following:

(1) Institutionalized Personality Traits resulting from the

common deprivations of incarceration, a chronic state of

learned helplessness in the face of prison authorities,

and antisocial defenses in dealing with a predatory

inmate milieu,


(2) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) from both pre-

incarceration trauma and trauma experienced within the

institution,

(3) Antisocial Personality Traits (ASPT) developed as a coping

response to institutional abuse and a predatory prisoner

milieu, and

(4) Social-Sensory Deprivation Syndrome caused by prolonged

exposure to solitary confinement that radically restricts

social contact and sensory stimulation.

(5) Substance Use Disorders caused by the use of alcohol

and other drugs to manage or escape the PICS symptoms.

PICS often coexists with substance use disorders and a

variety of affective and personality disorders.

Gorski, n.p.

Sensory Deprivation Syndrome

Individuals that have been in solitary confinement for

extended periods of time, such as months or years, experience


long-term psychological effects that if untreated may prevent

them from successfully readjusting to society (Grassian, 2006,

p.332 as cited by Shalev, 2008, p.22). Long-term symptoms are

characterized by extreme and chronic social anxiety (Grassian,

2006, p.332 as cited by Shalev, 2008, p.22).

Supporting Re-integration and Recovery: Trauma-informed Life-

span, Life space model

Considering the prevalence of complex-trauma among

individuals involved in the criminal justice system, it is

logical to implement a trauma-informed approach in addressing all

aspects of their care, including career development. Career

counseling for ex-offenders should focus on helping individuals

achieve stability and grounding as they adjust to a new way of

living. The context that ex-offenders live in is most often

complex, therefore the process of career counseling must take on

more than just career matching, but attention to all aspects of

life experience. Life-span, life-space theory of career

counseling is centered on the content, process and outcome of

career choice from developmental, psychosocial and self-concept


perspective (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.83). By combining these two

approaches, Life-span, Life-space theory and trauma-informed

care, career counseling, or “life-career planning” for ex-

offenders takes on a holistic model that acknowledges trauma and

addresses the developmental impact of incarceration as well as

supporting clients as they navigate new identities (Brown & Lent,

2012, p.6).

Trauma-informed Approach

SAMHSA (2014a) outlines “Key Assumptions and Principles” of

a trauma-informed approach (p.9):

1. Realization: People’s experience and behavior are

understood in the context of coping strategies designed

to survive adversity and overwhelming circumstances,

whether these occurred in the past (i.e., a client

dealing with prior child abuse), whether they are

currently manifesting (i.e., a staff member living with

domestic violence in the home), or whether they are

related to the emotional distress that results in

hearing about the firsthand experiences of another.


SAMHSA, 2014a, p.9

Ex-offenders often have primarily negative experiences with

mainstream institutions such as school, health care facilities,

welfare and child welfare offices, lawyers, police and courts.

Ex-offenders are facing many demands such as those between their

families, requirement of substance abuse treatment and those of

parole/probation. From the individual’s point of view, it may

seem like instead of helping, demands are just being piled onto

them (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).

Resistance should not be interpreted as “willful

disobedience” but considered as coming from other sources, such

as trauma, fear, anxiety or disculturation (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).

Treating a client with respect entails working together to find

out why they are resistant and helping them to overcome barriers

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.3). Confidentiality should be respected by

holding conversations privately and addressing clients directly

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).

2. Recognize: People in the organization or system are also able

to recognize the signs of trauma… Trauma screening and


assessment assist in the recognition of trauma, as do

workforce development, employee assistance and supervision.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.9

Identifying signs of trauma are important, as untreated

trauma is a barrier to growth and may impede a client’s success

in obtaining and sustaining employment.

3. Responds: The program, organization, or system responds by

applying the principles of a trauma-informed approach to all

areas of functioning. The program, organization, or system

integrates an understanding that the experience of traumatic

events impacts all people involved, whether directly or

indirectly.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.10

Understanding how trauma impacts clients can help counselors

develop ways of addressing the stresses of job searching and the

interview process that are trauma-informed.

4. Resist re-traumatization: A trauma-informed approach seeks to

resist re-traumatization of clients as well as staff… Staff

who work within a trauma-informed environments are taught to


recognize how organizational practices may trigger painful

memories and re-traumatize clients with trauma histories.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.10

Talking down to clients, shaming and threatening behavior

are all re-traumatizing tactics often used in correctional

environments and must be avoided.

SAMHSA (2014a) outlines SIX KEY PRINCIPLES of a trauma-informed

approach:

1. Safety : Throughout the organization, staff and the

people they serve, whether children or adults, feel

physically and psychologically safe; the physical setting

is safe and interpersonal interactions promote a sense of

safety. Understanding safety as defined by those served

is a high priority.

(p.11)

Learning strategies for managing anger in job search and

employment situations is very beneficial as clients learn to use

anger constructively as well as practice self-control techniques

(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7).


Counselors can help clients identify sources of stress and

recognize the negative and positive effects of stress (Gov. of

Alberta, 2010, p.7). Learning strategies for managing stress

such as relaxation exercises as well as diet and exercise

education can help clients reduce stress for job interviews and

employment (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7).

2. Trustworthiness and Transparency: Organizational

operations and decisions are conducted with transparency

with the goal of building and maintaining trust with

clients and family members, among staff, and others

involved in the organization.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11

Individuals need to have clear information about the

process, rules and consequences of a program (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).

Consequences should be fair and consistent or they will not be

taken seriously (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).

3. Peer Support: Peer support and mutual self-help are key

vehicles for establishing safety and hope, building

trust, enhancing collaboration, and utilizing their


stories and lived experience to promote recovery and

healing.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11

Ex-offenders benefit from hearing from other ex-

offenders that have success in building their careers through

employment and training. Employing program graduates as

counselors, or asking graduates to speak to ex-offenders may give

ex-offenders hope that they can also be successful (SAMHSA, 2000,

p.4). Keeping track of clients that have advanced successfully

can be done by collecting letters or writing and creating a

book to share with clients (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).

Ex-offenders may not have had the experience of success in

the past and may be used to receiving negative reinforcement in

the form of incarceration or punishment while incarcerated.

Praising small achievements is especially important for ex-

offenders. (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4) .

4. Collaboration and Mutuality: Importance is placed on

partnering and the leveling of power differences between

staff and clients and among organizational staff from


clerical and housekeeping personnel, to professional

staff to administrators, demonstrating that helping

happens in relationships and in the meaningful sharing of

power and decision-making.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11

They have always been in the position of “wrongdoer” and are

most often told rather than asked what their needs are. Being

treated this way may cause an ex-offender to anticipate negative

treatment; feelings of being disrespected and powerlessness are

often interpreted as being anti-social. (SAMHSA, 2000, n.p.)

People in positions to support ex-offenders must respect them

as unique individuals. Rather than telling them what they need,

ex-offenders should be asked what needs they prioritize and offer

to help them meet those needs (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).

5. Empowerment, Voice and Choice: Throughout the

organization and among the clients served, individuals’

strengths and experiences are recognized and built upon…

Organizations understand the importance of power

differentials and ways in which clients, historically,


have been diminished in voices and choice and are often

recipients of coercive treatment… They are supported in

cultivating self-advocacy skills…This is a parallel

process as staff need to feel safe, as much as people

receiving services.

Learning to differentiate between assertive in, a healthy

and appropriate way rather than, aggressive, passive and passive-

aggressive behavior, is also vital to maintaining employment and

sustaining relationships (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7). This can

be explored through role-play, describing their personal

situations (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7) and most importantly

modeled by counselors in the manner they relate to clients.

Focus on decision-making skills is especially important for

ex-offenders as they have not been able to make many decisions

while incarcerated (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8). Counselors can

use the following strategies to help clients with decision making


6. Cultural, Historical, and Gender Issues: The

organization actively moves past cultural stereotypes and


biases (e.g. based on race, ethnicity, sexual

orientation, age, religion, gender-identity, geography,

etc.); offers, access to gender responsive services;

leverages the healing value of traditional cultural

connections; incorporates policies, protocols, and

processes that are responsive to the racial, ethnic and

cultural needs of individuals served and recognizes and

addresses historical trauma.

SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11

The basic beliefs of a counselor, or any person that works

with ex-offenders about their clients influence how they relate

to them (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.5). Counsellors cultural

backgrounds may differ from those of the ex-offenders they serve;

they must be aware of how their beliefs may impact how they may

be able to help clients (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.5). In order to

be affective in supporting ex-offenders, it is helpful when those

in the helping professions take a humanistic approach by building

a trusting relationship (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.50, 4).

Life-Span: Developmental Stages


The Life-Span, Life-Space theory views career development as

it evolves through developmental stages (Brown & Lent, 2012,

p.83). Incarceration as a form of institutionalization

systematically breaks human beings psychologically through

isolation, dehumanization, shaming, abusing power and dictating

all basic needs. Developmentally, incarceration reduces

individuals to an infantile state by attacking all aspects of

psychosocial development. It is useful to look to Erickson’s

stages of psychosocial development when considering the

challenges faced by ex-offenders (Erickson, 1998, p.58).

Development is not fixed; it is changeable throughout the

lifetime. By understanding the needs and challenges of ex-

offenders and the impact of incarceration from a developmental

perspective, we can construct a better rehabilitative framework

to help them to achieve “career maturity” and reduce recidivism.

“Career maturity”, one of the core constructs of life-span, life-

space theory, is defined as “an individual’s readiness to cope

with developmental career stage tasks” (Brown & Lent, 2012,

p.86).


Trust vs. Mistrust

Incarceration has a profound effect on individual’s

perception of self by promoting dependency and withdrawal as well

as inhibiting the expression of feelings (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,

p.6). Trust in society has been destroyed, or never present in

some ex-offenders. It is important to build new support systems

that model consistency, fairness and emotional safety in order

for clients to begin repairing their sense of trust and belonging

in society. Erikson (1998) stated, “Hope…emerges from the

conflict of basic trust vs. basic mistrust” (p.79). Hope is also

in jeopardy behind prison walls.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Taking responsibility for themselves is a challenge for ex-

offenders because during incarceration, their decision making

ability was limited (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6).

Institutionalization and the forceful breaking of individual

autonomy may bring individuals to a state of dependency. In

Erikson’s (1998) second psychosocial stage of development,

“Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt”, children are learning to be


autonomous through the gradual and firm encouragement of parent;

when autonomy is oppressed, “compulsion and impulsivity… can

paralyze it” (p.77) . As adults re-entering society, ex-

offenders also need support in re-discovering their autonomy. It

is very common for probation/parole officers to use shaming and

threatening tactics to control ex-offenders. This is counter-

intuitive to helping them become autonomous and productive

members of society; instead, abuse often causes individuals to

act out in order to regain a sense of control.

Many programs for ex-offenders include “life skills

training” that addresses “appropriate attitudes and behavior”,

“money management”, “time management” and “problem-solving” (Gov.

of Alberta, 2010, p.6). All of these skills are vital to being

an independent member of society. It is important that these

skills are taught in an encouraging and not shaming manner. It

is important for ex-offenders to be given choices in order for

them to become more confident in their ability to make good

decisions in daily life.


By helping ex-offenders to identify their own strength, they

build autonomy within a client-focused collaborative relationship


This can be done by asking particular interview questions:

o Survival questions: Given what you have gone through in

your life, how have you managed to survive so far?

o Support questions: What people have given you special

understanding, support and guidance?

o Possibility questions: What are your hopes, visions and

aspirations?

o Esteem questions: What are your hopes, visions and

aspirations?

o Exception questions: When things were going well in

your life, what was different?

(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6)

Initiative vs. Guilt: Communication skills

During the third stage of psychosocial development as

outlined by Erickson, children model adults in communicating in


order to get their needs met. In correctional settings, inmates

are dehumanized, their sense of initiative thwarted.

Communication in these settings is often one-sided, as inmates

are rarely able to influence their environment.

Effecting listening and speaking are important for gaining

and keeping employment. Ex-offenders may need to reculturate to

communication on the outside, or may have never learned how to

communicate effectively in professional settings. Building on

these skills may involve: teaching them to speak from the “I”,

practicing clarifying and paraphrasing thoughts and ideas,

discussing and demonstrating non-verbal communication and

encouraging clients to try out new skills on their own (Gov. of

Alberta, 2010, p.6).

Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth stage of psycho-social development as expressed

by Erickson (1998), industry vs. inferiority, is when competency

and adaption to the concept of cooperation comes into play

(p.129). An individual’s beliefs about their own capabilities


can change based on their experience and environmental conditions

(Brown & Lent, 2012, p. 118).

Expectations about outcome of academic and career paths come

from direct and vicarious learning experiences; an individual’s

perceptions about their past outcomes and stories they may have

heard from friends and family (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.119).

“Personal goals may be defined as one’s intention to engage in a

particular activity or to produce a particular outcome” (Bandura,

1986 as cited by Brown & Lent, 2012, p.119). Goals come in two

categories according to SCCT; choice-content goals (what am I

going to do?) and performance goals (how well am I going to do

it?) (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.119). Self-efficacy and outcomes

affect their choice and performance goals (Brown & Lent, 2012,

p.119).

Ex-offenders may have low self-efficacy in relation to

education and/or career advancement due to lack of exposure and

encouragement in their past. Social Cognitive Career Theory’s

model of “interest, choice, performance and satisfaction” states

that individuals develop interest in certain activities when they


view themselves as competent (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.121).

Although self-efficacy is highly influenced during childhood,

adults can still grow new interests (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.121).

According to the Social Cognitive Counseling theory model, shifts

in interest during adulthood occur with a shift in self-efficacy

and outcome expectation (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.121).

An ex-offender may not have had exposure to many activities

and academic subjects due to poverty, family problems in her

youth or expulsion. Ex-offenders should have the opportunity to

learn new things and be encouraged to develop new interests.

Life-Space

Life-Space is about the structure of social roles that an

individual performs in their life and finding a balance between

core roles (Brown & Lent, 2012, p. 98). Counselors help clients

to determine what roles are more important to them as well as how

social factors influence the amount of energy given to a

particular role (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.98). Roles may complement

each other or be in conflict with each other (Brown & Lent, 2012,

p.98).


Individuals in re-entry from incarceration are in a time in

life when social roles may be changing. Career counseling can

support them in understanding how the various roles they identify

with interact with each other, such as the role of “junky” and

that of “working man”. The roles they performed in prison may

conflict with new roles they are trying out in society.

Self-Concept

Through the understanding of human development and social

role theory, life-span life-time theory describes how individuals

manage and adapt their work, personal and social roles throughout

their development (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.88). Self-concept

theory is used as “a third keystone to frame life-span, life-

space theory” which draws from Humanistic psychology in order to

explain “how individuals develop ideas about who they are in

different roles and situations based on self-observations of

their own unique personal characteristics and experiences, as

well as on social interactions and feedback from others” (Brown &

Lent, 2012, p.88).


Successful re-entry and employment depends on many changes

in an individual’s life, ultimately affecting their concept of

self. This may be anxiety provoking as if an ex-offender has

doubts about his ability to sustain a new lifestyle. In

addition, the changes in self-concept affect many relationships

in their lives with family, friends and acquaintances.

Strategies for career planning

In order to increase their earning potential and

responsibility, ex-offenders should be educated about finding

jobs that have advancement opportunities as well as access to

educational/training (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4). Career counseling

should help clients develop strategic career plans based on their

interests, values, skills and the opportunities available to them

(Ryan, 1974).

Phase 1: Career-building plan for core needs

parenting. Clients should receive guidance in finding

childcare as well as offer parenting classes when needed (SAMHSA,

2000, p.6).


money management. Many ex-offenders have not acquired

sufficient money management skills. Skill-building groups on

budgeting and money management can help individuals set up bank

accounts and plan for monthly expenses (SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).

financial needs. Clients may need help applying for income

support and other community services (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,

p.8).

housing. Clients may need referrals to housing assistance

or low-income housing. (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8)

education: Encourage clients to achieve High School

Equivalency or enter a training program and help them find

educational funding to help them gain skills required to re-enter

the workforce. (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8; SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).

Having marketable skills allow an ex-offender to face less

resistance to his criminal record by prospective employers

(Bennight, 1975, as cited in Enocksson, 1980, as cited by Vernick

& Reardon, 2001).


networking. “Brainstorm additional strategies to meet new

people. Special interest clubs may provide another alternative”


communication with probation or parole officers.

Communicating with probation/parole officers may help in

coordinating a training plan for the client (Gov. of Alberta,

2010, p.8).

Phase Two: Continuing the career-building process

develop career goals. Counselors should help individuals

identify their preferred futures, understand their career path,

and what employment they can obtain with little or no work

history, as well as how their prospects will grow with more

experience (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7,4). Focus on occupations and

employers who do not bar ex-offenders (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7).

recognize special skills. Ex-offenders may have special

skills that they do not recognize that can be transferred to non-

criminal enterprises, such as the management skills of a gang


leader, or the business skills of a drug dealer (SAMHSA, 2000,

p.4).

address criminal record checks and the impact of the

criminal record: It is important to discuss disclosing criminal

records to employers and the impact it may have (Gov. of Alberta,

2010, p.12). Facilitate discussions concerning the pros and cons

of disclosing or not disclosing information as well as handling

situations when an employer or co-worker becomes aware of their

record (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.13).

It is recommended by the Gov. of Alberta (2010) to talk

about the criminal records in the middle of the interview, as the

raising the subject in the beginning of the interview may make a

bad impression and addressing it at the end of the interview can

leave a negative last impression (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.13).

Clients should be encouraged to prepare a statement that

acknowledges their criminal history, explains what is necessary

without giving too much detail, and gives evidence of positive

life changes (SAMHSA, 2000, p.8; Gov. of Alberta , 2010, p.13).

They should also be prepared to tell the prospective employer why


they are interested in the job and what makes them qualified

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.8).

Employers are free to ask individuals about convictions, but

not arrests (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7). It is important for ex-

offenders to know what information the employers will have access

to so that they can formulate strategies for addressing the

concerns of employers (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7). Certain charges on

official criminal histories received by employers may be removed

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.7).

The 2012 update to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

addresses employer discrimination of employees with arrest or

conviction records (Riley Guide, 2014, n.p.). This update was

made due to the high rates of incarcerated for African American

(32.2 %) and Latino people (17.2 %) (Riley Guide, 2014, n.p.).

Although this is not an actual law, it is an “official

declaration from the federal government, and can thus carry

weight in anti-discrimination lawsuits” (Riley Guide, 2014,

n.p.).


collaboration. Encourage clients to stay in contact with

probation/parole officers and make certain that career choices

comply with their release conditions (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,

p.9).

work search. Ex-offenders will benefit from help in writing

resumes and finding references as well as learning how to

consider the disclosure or nondisclosure of criminal records

(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.10). Discuss required qualifications

and assist in filling applications. If needed, connect clients

with agencies that can help them obtain appropriate clothing for

interviews and work (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.11).

resume development. Using strength-based questions, help

clients identify skills and list certifications (Gov. of Alberta,

2010, p.11)

references. Encourage clients to choose references that

recognize and support the positive life changes they are making,

such as previous employers, a religious leader, an Elder, an

instructor, a former teacher, or a probation/parole officer (Gov.

of Alberta, 2010, p.12).


Employment support

In order to maintain employment clients may need support in

issues related to self-esteem, communication, assertiveness,

anger management, stress management and decision-making (Gov. of

Alberta, 2010, p.13). These issues may only emerge during

employment and not during the career-building process (Gov. of

Alberta, 2010, p.13). Resolving disputes with co-workers or

employers, understanding workplace culture and routine, as well

as learning to leave employment appropriately are all skills that

clients may need assistance with (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.13).

Mentors or peers can assist clients with coping with workplace

conflict (SAMHSA, 2000, p.5). Empowerment workshops can help

individuals who are emotionally not ready for returning to work.

(SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).

Conclusion

Many ex-offenders face immense barriers to successful re-

entry which is reflected in the high rates of recidivism in the

United States. There is not sufficient support for them, many

being released from prison with no money or shelter. Agencies


they come into contact with more often treat them with suspicion

rather than compassion.

There are efforts being made by agencies such as SAMHSA to

bring trauma-informed approaches to people working with justice

involved individuals, but there is still overwhelming resistance

and ignorance from professionals in the field.

Confronting trauma in this population means exposing the

criminal justice system for its oppressive tactics that so deeply

effect individuals and their ability to become self-actualized,

healthy and productive members of their communities.

Sustaining a living wage and building a career is a

challenge for many in this country; for those that have a

criminal background it is an even greater challenge. Career

development programs for ex-offenders must be holistic to support

their mental, spiritual and physical health in the face of an

unforgiving society.


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[may be slightly different from final published chapter]

Career Counseling for ex-offenders

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