Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders1
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders; A Trauma-
informed Life-Span, Life-Space model
Sarvenaz Moshfegh Asiedu
Goddard College
January 15, 2015
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders2
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders
Introduction
The incarceration rate in the United States has increased
700% in the past 34 years, with around 2.4 million people
currently incarcerated (The Sentencing Project, 2014a, n.p.;
Public Safety Performance Project, 2007, ii; Wagner & Sakala,
2014, n.p.). The overcrowding of the prison system is causing
rapid expansion despite evidence that increasing imprisonment is
not effective in achieving public safety (The Sentencing Project,
2014a).
Over 60 billion dollars go into the prison system per year
and recidivism rates show no significant improvement; more than
half of released prisoners returning to prison within three years
(Public Safety Performance Project, 2007, v). The movement from
indeterminate to determinate sentencing; lower parole grant
rates; passage of “three-strikes” laws, the establishment of
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders3
sentencing guidelines and the deinstitutionalization of the
mentally ill are all factors that drive mass incarceration in the
United States (Public Safety Performance Project, 2007, v; Draine
& Solomon, 2001, p. 262; Lansberg, Rock & Lawerence, 2002, p.9).
More than 10,000 individuals are released from state and
federal prison every week, over 650,000 each year (United States
Department of Justice, 2014, n.p.). At the end of 2013, there
were 4,751,400 adults under community supervision, approximately
1 in 51 adults (Bonzar & Herberman, 2014, n.p.). The United
States Department of Justice (2014) states, “Assisting ex-
prisoners in finding and keeping employment, identifying
transitional housing, and receiving mentoring are three key
elements of successful re-entry into our communities”
(n.p.).Various international researchers, such by the Scottish
Centre for Crime and Justice Research and the Probation Service
and Central Statistics Office in Ireland have found compelling
evidence that community treatment programs which provide career
counseling significantly decreased recidivism (Armstrong &
McNeill, 2012; The Probation Service, 2012). Despite the obvious
needs of ex-offenders concerning employment, career development
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders4
researchers have done little to focus on the specific needs of
this populations (Shaefer, Friedlander, Blustein, & Maruna, 2004,
p.226; Vernick & Reardon, 2001, p.265). Much of career
advancement programming in Correctional Institutions does not
focus on career development efforts such as helping individuals
become aware of their interests, needs, values and abilities;
prison employment programs are often one-size-fits-all vocational
training programs (Shivy et al., 2007, p.467).
Employment is one of the major eight risk-factors in
recidivism according to the research of Andrews, Bonta & Wormith
(2004), the creators of the LSR-R assessment (p.8). Employment
not only meets basic survival needs, but also increases self-
esteem, self-actualization and social belonging (Brown & Lent,
2012, p.3). For ex-offenders, particularly those that have spent
significant time in institutions, work provides important
structure in their lives (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.5).
Challenges toward Employment
Counselors, case workers, therapists, and probation/parole
officers need to understand the particular factors that effect
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders5
ex-offenders in order to best support and guide them in finding
employment. Ex-offenders have particular needs as well as
barriers to successful re-entry.
Although there is considerable variability within the ex-
offender population, there are circumstances that must be
considered in order to view them individually from a psychosocial
perspective. Many ex-offenders have had little or no legitimate
work history and lack vocational skills (Lynch & Sabol, 2001;
Railey & Peterson, 2000 as cited by Shivy et al., 2007, p.467;
Government of Alberta, 2010, p.1). Ex-offenders often obtain
low-wage, low-skill jobs that are in jeopardy during times of
economic downturn (Shivy et al., 2007, p.467). Many ex-offenders
are in debt, owing court fees, monthly probation fees, and other
supervision-related costs; many also face overwhelming amounts of
money for child support and or restitution for their offense
(Shivy et al., 2007, p.467). These economic pressures present a
very real barrier to higher education or vocational training.
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders6
Age is also a factor in employment opportunities as
individuals may face discrimination based on their age, and may
lack confidence to acquire new skills (Shivy, 2007, p.472).
Many ex-offenders suffer from mental illness and or
substance abuse (Government of Alberta, 2010, p.1; Shivy et al.,
2007, p.467).
People on probation or parole are under mandated
supervision, which can have various conditions, such as
abstaining from intoxicants, disclosing finances, attending
psychiatric counselling, reporting for random drug testing or
attending community corrections (Government of Alberta, 2010,
p.2; ). These conditions may have an effect on their employment
options.
Basic Needs.
Food, housing, transportation, clothing, bank accounts,
identification and access to communication such as cell phones
and internet have been cited as basic needs by ex-offenders
(Shivy et al., 2007, p.471; Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders7
Transportation: Ex-offenders may have lost their driver’s
license due to suspension and/or outstanding fines and may
need funds for public transportation (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,
p.3).
Identification and documentation: Ex-offenders may not have
a state i.d., driver’s license or birth certificate (Gov. of
Alberta, 2010, p.3; SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).
Work apparel and tools: Clients may not have proper clothing
for interviews or for work (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).
Shelter: Clients may be homeless, living with relatives or
in a shelter or halfway house (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).
Communication: Clients may not have a telephone or internet
services (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.3).
Bank accounts: Clients may not have bank accounts, or may
not meet requirements to open a bank account (Gov. of
Alberta, 2010, p.3; SAMHA, 2000, p.5).
Social Factors
stigmatization. Misinformation that employers hold about
ex-offenders may also create barriers to employment (Gov. of
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders8
Alberta, 2010, p.12; SAMHSA, 2000, p.6). Employers may believe
that all ex-offenders are uneducated and have no useful skills
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.12). They may think that they will not
be accepted by their co-workers and require special monitoring on
the job (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.12). Many employers view ex-
offenders as unreliable, morally deficient and potentially
violence (SAMHSA, 2000, p.6). Compounded with these prejudices,
ex-offenders without marketable skills, and work experience will
struggle to find employment (SAMHSA, 2000, p.6). For this reason
it is extremely important to encourage and support the training
of ex-offenders.
racism. The concentration of drug law enforcement in inner
cities, harsher sentencing policies and an emphasis on the
enforcement of the law above focus on prevention and treatment
has resulted in a disproportionate number of African Americans
being incarcerated (The Sentencing Project, 2014b). One in every
ten African American males in their thirties is incarcerated and
60% of people in prison are racial and ethnic minorities (The
Sentencing Project, 2014b). Two thirds of all people
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders9
incarcerated for drug offences are people of color (The
Sentencing Project 2014b). A person of color with a criminal
record may experience employment discrimination compounded by
racism (SAMHSA, 2000, p.1; Riley Guide, 2014, n.p.).
Education
Many ex-offenders that have a long history of substance
abuse starting in their youth, often did not do well in school
and may never had opportunities to learn work-related skills
(SAMHSA, 2000, n.p.). Some research suggests higher rates of
ADHD and learning disabilities in the ex-offender population;
educational, mental and social problems are generally not
addressed in prison (Eyestone and Howell, 1994; Mannuzza et al.,
1989; U.S. Department of Justice, 1998 as cited by SAMHSA, 2000).
Many ex-offenders have had involvement in the juvenile
system in their youth, were expelled from High School or dropped
out. Negative childhood experiences in education may impact their
academic motivation and self-efficacy.
Parenting
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders10
Female ex-offenders are more likely to be responsible for
their children, although many men are as well (SAMHSA, 2000,
p.5). Since the passage of the Federal Welfare-To-Work
legislation, women have increased risk of recidivism (SAMHSA,
2000, p.5).
Male and female ex-offenders report that child care is a
major responsibility and that it can limit or impact their
ability to participate in programs and complicate employment
searching (Shivy et al., 2007, p.471).
Psychological Factors
substance abuse. Sentencing policies brought about by the
"war on drugs" resulted in a dramatic growth in incarceration for
drug offenses (The Sentencing Project, 2014). At the Federal
level, prisoners incarcerated on a drug charge comprise half of
the prison population, while the number of drug offenders in
state prisons has increased thirteen-fold since 1980 (The
Sentencing Project, 2014). Most of these people are not high-
level actors in the drug trade, and most have no prior criminal
record for a violent offense (The Sentencing Project, 2014).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders11
Eighty percent of the state prison population reports a history
of alcohol and substance abuse; more than half report being under
the influence when they committed their offense (Travis &
Reardon, 2001, p.25).
Trauma
trauma. Research indicates that a high percentage of men
and women involved in the criminal justice system have
experienced serious trauma throughout their lifespan (Gains
Center, 2011, p.1; SAMHSA, 2014a, p.1) Most trauma survivors in
the criminal justice system do not seek treatment for trauma-
related symptoms and are more often re-traumatized within the
Correctional system than given help (SAMHSA, 2014a, p.1).
Traumatic experiences significantly increase risk of substance
abuse and criminal involvement (Policy Research Associates, 2014,
n.p.; Gains Center, 2011, p.1).
Identity, worldview and social relationships are all
impacted by trauma (Harris & Fallot, 2001 as cited by Gains
Center, 2011, p.1). When trauma is repeated it results in
physiological changes in the brain when confronted with a
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders12
perceived threat (Gains, 2011, p.1). Trauma has been associated
with linked with many mental health disorders, such as
depression, suicidal tendencies, chronic anxiety, hostility and
social impairment (SAMHSA, 2014a, p.1).
mental health. There are three times as many people with
mental illness in prisons and jails than there are in mental
hospitals, due to widespread deinstitutionalization of the
mentally ill (Berzin and Trestman, 2004 as cited by Whitely,
Bloom & Friedman, 2014, p.11). 70-80% of state, federal and
county inmates and 50-70% of detained youth meet criteria for
mental health or substance abuse issues (SA MHA, 2014, n.p).
According to a study by the Office of National Drug Control
Policy (2014), only 4 in 10 inmates reported receiving treatment
while incarcerated with quality of service varying from state to
state (as cited by SAMHA, 2014). A Seven-Year study of
adolescent offenders in Los Angeles found that only half of all
group homes employ mental health professionals to access mental
illness, and only a few receive treatment (Ramchand, Morral &
Becker, 2009, p. 863). Depending on the State, many individuals
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders13
leaving correctional facilities have long waiting periods for
health benefits (SAMHA, 2014). Waiting periods can be
devastating for those that need to connect to treatment providers
as their successful re-entry is dependent on recovery or
management of mental illness (SAMHA, 2014). Barriers to mental
health are particularly challenging for people of color as they
are ranked highest among the uninsured and may not have access to
culturally competent providers (SAMHA, 2014, n.p.).
Disculturation
“Disculturation” was defined by Goffman (1961) as the
failure “to acquire some of the habits currently required in the
wider society” (as cited by SAMHSA, 2000). Institutionalization
in a prison is “incompatible with the development of the social
skills needed to succeed in society at large” (SAMHSA, 2000,
n.p.). In prison, an inmate completely loses autonomy, from
where she lays her head at night, what time she wakes up in the
morning, when she can shower, eat, and speak to loved ones.
Survival in prison requires accepting the loss of autonomy
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.2).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders14
In addition to loss of autonomy, prisoners are punished
arbitrarily and they must accept that “everyday rules of cause
and effect and reward and punishment have been suspended”
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Groups of inmates are punished for the
actions of one; correctional officers abuse and mistreat inmates
with little recourse (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Correctional Officers
also destroy personal property such as photographs and letters
from loved ones during cell searchers (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). All
of this can cause an individual to stop believing that there is
anything in their control or that anything that they do matters
at all (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). This is counter-intuitive to the
skills that individuals need upon their release: to make
decisions about their life, plan for the future and follow
through (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2; Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6).
Culture shock
For those offenders that have spent many years in prison,
technological advances and cultural changes are like returning to
a different world (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3). Simple things like taking
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders15
a bus or ordering in a restaurant can be anxiety provoking
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).
Individuals long for their freedom and may idealize life on
the outside before their release (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). The
reality of the personal and financial problems that find them on
the outside can be overwhelming (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Changes in
the dynamics between family and friends in their absence can be
difficult to adjust to (SAMHSA, 2000, p.2). Ex-offenders may
return to friends that use drugs and alcohol. Ex-offenders that
are struggling with sobriety may feel alienated from family and
friends that have trouble accepting their new lifestyle (SAMHSA,
2000, p.2). Substance use and pro-criminal friends may be a way
of coping with the difficulty of adjustment (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).
Ex-offenders may have many failures in their past and may feel
that there is little hope that their lives can change. SAMHSA,
2000
Post Incarceration Syndrome (PICS)
Post Incarceration Syndrome (PICS) is a cluster of symptoms
that has been observed in many incarcerated or formerly
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders16
incarcerated prisoners as a result of “prolonged incarceration in
environments of punishment with few opportunities for education,
job training, or rehabilitation” (Gorski, n.d., n.p.). Many
factors impact the severity of PICS symptoms; “coping skills
prior to incarceration”, “length of incarceration”,
“restrictiveness of the incarceration environment”, “the number
and severity of institutional episodes of abuse, the number and
duration of episodes of solitary confinement, and the degree of
involvement in educational, vocational, and rehabilitation
programs” (Gorski, n.d., n.p.).
According to Gorski (n.d.), the four clusters of symptoms are
comprised of the following:
(1) Institutionalized Personality Traits resulting from the
common deprivations of incarceration, a chronic state of
learned helplessness in the face of prison authorities,
and antisocial defenses in dealing with a predatory
inmate milieu,
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders17
(2) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) from both pre-
incarceration trauma and trauma experienced within the
institution,
(3) Antisocial Personality Traits (ASPT) developed as a coping
response to institutional abuse and a predatory prisoner
milieu, and
(4) Social-Sensory Deprivation Syndrome caused by prolonged
exposure to solitary confinement that radically restricts
social contact and sensory stimulation.
(5) Substance Use Disorders caused by the use of alcohol
and other drugs to manage or escape the PICS symptoms.
PICS often coexists with substance use disorders and a
variety of affective and personality disorders.
Gorski, n.p.
Sensory Deprivation Syndrome
Individuals that have been in solitary confinement for
extended periods of time, such as months or years, experience
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders18
long-term psychological effects that if untreated may prevent
them from successfully readjusting to society (Grassian, 2006,
p.332 as cited by Shalev, 2008, p.22). Long-term symptoms are
characterized by extreme and chronic social anxiety (Grassian,
2006, p.332 as cited by Shalev, 2008, p.22).
Supporting Re-integration and Recovery: Trauma-informed Life-
span, Life space model
Considering the prevalence of complex-trauma among
individuals involved in the criminal justice system, it is
logical to implement a trauma-informed approach in addressing all
aspects of their care, including career development. Career
counseling for ex-offenders should focus on helping individuals
achieve stability and grounding as they adjust to a new way of
living. The context that ex-offenders live in is most often
complex, therefore the process of career counseling must take on
more than just career matching, but attention to all aspects of
life experience. Life-span, life-space theory of career
counseling is centered on the content, process and outcome of
career choice from developmental, psychosocial and self-concept
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders19
perspective (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.83). By combining these two
approaches, Life-span, Life-space theory and trauma-informed
care, career counseling, or “life-career planning” for ex-
offenders takes on a holistic model that acknowledges trauma and
addresses the developmental impact of incarceration as well as
supporting clients as they navigate new identities (Brown & Lent,
2012, p.6).
Trauma-informed Approach
SAMHSA (2014a) outlines “Key Assumptions and Principles” of
a trauma-informed approach (p.9):
1. Realization: People’s experience and behavior are
understood in the context of coping strategies designed
to survive adversity and overwhelming circumstances,
whether these occurred in the past (i.e., a client
dealing with prior child abuse), whether they are
currently manifesting (i.e., a staff member living with
domestic violence in the home), or whether they are
related to the emotional distress that results in
hearing about the firsthand experiences of another.
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders20
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.9
Ex-offenders often have primarily negative experiences with
mainstream institutions such as school, health care facilities,
welfare and child welfare offices, lawyers, police and courts.
Ex-offenders are facing many demands such as those between their
families, requirement of substance abuse treatment and those of
parole/probation. From the individual’s point of view, it may
seem like instead of helping, demands are just being piled onto
them (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).
Resistance should not be interpreted as “willful
disobedience” but considered as coming from other sources, such
as trauma, fear, anxiety or disculturation (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).
Treating a client with respect entails working together to find
out why they are resistant and helping them to overcome barriers
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.3). Confidentiality should be respected by
holding conversations privately and addressing clients directly
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).
2. Recognize: People in the organization or system are also able
to recognize the signs of trauma… Trauma screening and
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders21
assessment assist in the recognition of trauma, as do
workforce development, employee assistance and supervision.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.9
Identifying signs of trauma are important, as untreated
trauma is a barrier to growth and may impede a client’s success
in obtaining and sustaining employment.
3. Responds: The program, organization, or system responds by
applying the principles of a trauma-informed approach to all
areas of functioning. The program, organization, or system
integrates an understanding that the experience of traumatic
events impacts all people involved, whether directly or
indirectly.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.10
Understanding how trauma impacts clients can help counselors
develop ways of addressing the stresses of job searching and the
interview process that are trauma-informed.
4. Resist re-traumatization: A trauma-informed approach seeks to
resist re-traumatization of clients as well as staff… Staff
who work within a trauma-informed environments are taught to
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders22
recognize how organizational practices may trigger painful
memories and re-traumatize clients with trauma histories.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.10
Talking down to clients, shaming and threatening behavior
are all re-traumatizing tactics often used in correctional
environments and must be avoided.
SAMHSA (2014a) outlines SIX KEY PRINCIPLES of a trauma-informed
approach:
1. Safety : Throughout the organization, staff and the
people they serve, whether children or adults, feel
physically and psychologically safe; the physical setting
is safe and interpersonal interactions promote a sense of
safety. Understanding safety as defined by those served
is a high priority.
(p.11)
Learning strategies for managing anger in job search and
employment situations is very beneficial as clients learn to use
anger constructively as well as practice self-control techniques
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders23
Counselors can help clients identify sources of stress and
recognize the negative and positive effects of stress (Gov. of
Alberta, 2010, p.7). Learning strategies for managing stress
such as relaxation exercises as well as diet and exercise
education can help clients reduce stress for job interviews and
employment (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7).
2. Trustworthiness and Transparency: Organizational
operations and decisions are conducted with transparency
with the goal of building and maintaining trust with
clients and family members, among staff, and others
involved in the organization.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11
Individuals need to have clear information about the
process, rules and consequences of a program (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).
Consequences should be fair and consistent or they will not be
taken seriously (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).
3. Peer Support: Peer support and mutual self-help are key
vehicles for establishing safety and hope, building
trust, enhancing collaboration, and utilizing their
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders24
stories and lived experience to promote recovery and
healing.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11
Ex-offenders benefit from hearing from other ex-
offenders that have success in building their careers through
employment and training. Employing program graduates as
counselors, or asking graduates to speak to ex-offenders may give
ex-offenders hope that they can also be successful (SAMHSA, 2000,
p.4). Keeping track of clients that have advanced successfully
can be done by collecting letters or writing and creating a
book to share with clients (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4).
Ex-offenders may not have had the experience of success in
the past and may be used to receiving negative reinforcement in
the form of incarceration or punishment while incarcerated.
Praising small achievements is especially important for ex-
offenders. (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4) .
4. Collaboration and Mutuality: Importance is placed on
partnering and the leveling of power differences between
staff and clients and among organizational staff from
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders25
clerical and housekeeping personnel, to professional
staff to administrators, demonstrating that helping
happens in relationships and in the meaningful sharing of
power and decision-making.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11
They have always been in the position of “wrongdoer” and are
most often told rather than asked what their needs are. Being
treated this way may cause an ex-offender to anticipate negative
treatment; feelings of being disrespected and powerlessness are
often interpreted as being anti-social. (SAMHSA, 2000, n.p.)
People in positions to support ex-offenders must respect them
as unique individuals. Rather than telling them what they need,
ex-offenders should be asked what needs they prioritize and offer
to help them meet those needs (SAMHSA, 2000, p.3).
5. Empowerment, Voice and Choice: Throughout the
organization and among the clients served, individuals’
strengths and experiences are recognized and built upon…
Organizations understand the importance of power
differentials and ways in which clients, historically,
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders26
have been diminished in voices and choice and are often
recipients of coercive treatment… They are supported in
cultivating self-advocacy skills…This is a parallel
process as staff need to feel safe, as much as people
receiving services.
Learning to differentiate between assertive in, a healthy
and appropriate way rather than, aggressive, passive and passive-
aggressive behavior, is also vital to maintaining employment and
sustaining relationships (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7). This can
be explored through role-play, describing their personal
situations (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.7) and most importantly
modeled by counselors in the manner they relate to clients.
Focus on decision-making skills is especially important for
ex-offenders as they have not been able to make many decisions
while incarcerated (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8). Counselors can
use the following strategies to help clients with decision making
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8).
6. Cultural, Historical, and Gender Issues: The
organization actively moves past cultural stereotypes and
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders27
biases (e.g. based on race, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, age, religion, gender-identity, geography,
etc.); offers, access to gender responsive services;
leverages the healing value of traditional cultural
connections; incorporates policies, protocols, and
processes that are responsive to the racial, ethnic and
cultural needs of individuals served and recognizes and
addresses historical trauma.
SAMHSA, 2014a, p.11
The basic beliefs of a counselor, or any person that works
with ex-offenders about their clients influence how they relate
to them (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.5). Counsellors cultural
backgrounds may differ from those of the ex-offenders they serve;
they must be aware of how their beliefs may impact how they may
be able to help clients (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.5). In order to
be affective in supporting ex-offenders, it is helpful when those
in the helping professions take a humanistic approach by building
a trusting relationship (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.50, 4).
Life-Span: Developmental Stages
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders28
The Life-Span, Life-Space theory views career development as
it evolves through developmental stages (Brown & Lent, 2012,
p.83). Incarceration as a form of institutionalization
systematically breaks human beings psychologically through
isolation, dehumanization, shaming, abusing power and dictating
all basic needs. Developmentally, incarceration reduces
individuals to an infantile state by attacking all aspects of
psychosocial development. It is useful to look to Erickson’s
stages of psychosocial development when considering the
challenges faced by ex-offenders (Erickson, 1998, p.58).
Development is not fixed; it is changeable throughout the
lifetime. By understanding the needs and challenges of ex-
offenders and the impact of incarceration from a developmental
perspective, we can construct a better rehabilitative framework
to help them to achieve “career maturity” and reduce recidivism.
“Career maturity”, one of the core constructs of life-span, life-
space theory, is defined as “an individual’s readiness to cope
with developmental career stage tasks” (Brown & Lent, 2012,
p.86).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders29
Trust vs. Mistrust
Incarceration has a profound effect on individual’s
perception of self by promoting dependency and withdrawal as well
as inhibiting the expression of feelings (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,
p.6). Trust in society has been destroyed, or never present in
some ex-offenders. It is important to build new support systems
that model consistency, fairness and emotional safety in order
for clients to begin repairing their sense of trust and belonging
in society. Erikson (1998) stated, “Hope…emerges from the
conflict of basic trust vs. basic mistrust” (p.79). Hope is also
in jeopardy behind prison walls.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Taking responsibility for themselves is a challenge for ex-
offenders because during incarceration, their decision making
ability was limited (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6).
Institutionalization and the forceful breaking of individual
autonomy may bring individuals to a state of dependency. In
Erikson’s (1998) second psychosocial stage of development,
“Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt”, children are learning to be
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders30
autonomous through the gradual and firm encouragement of parent;
when autonomy is oppressed, “compulsion and impulsivity… can
paralyze it” (p.77) . As adults re-entering society, ex-
offenders also need support in re-discovering their autonomy. It
is very common for probation/parole officers to use shaming and
threatening tactics to control ex-offenders. This is counter-
intuitive to helping them become autonomous and productive
members of society; instead, abuse often causes individuals to
act out in order to regain a sense of control.
Many programs for ex-offenders include “life skills
training” that addresses “appropriate attitudes and behavior”,
“money management”, “time management” and “problem-solving” (Gov.
of Alberta, 2010, p.6). All of these skills are vital to being
an independent member of society. It is important that these
skills are taught in an encouraging and not shaming manner. It
is important for ex-offenders to be given choices in order for
them to become more confident in their ability to make good
decisions in daily life.
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders31
By helping ex-offenders to identify their own strength, they
build autonomy within a client-focused collaborative relationship
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6).
This can be done by asking particular interview questions:
o Survival questions: Given what you have gone through in
your life, how have you managed to survive so far?
o Support questions: What people have given you special
understanding, support and guidance?
o Possibility questions: What are your hopes, visions and
aspirations?
o Esteem questions: What are your hopes, visions and
aspirations?
o Exception questions: When things were going well in
your life, what was different?
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.6)
Initiative vs. Guilt: Communication skills
During the third stage of psychosocial development as
outlined by Erickson, children model adults in communicating in
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders32
order to get their needs met. In correctional settings, inmates
are dehumanized, their sense of initiative thwarted.
Communication in these settings is often one-sided, as inmates
are rarely able to influence their environment.
Effecting listening and speaking are important for gaining
and keeping employment. Ex-offenders may need to reculturate to
communication on the outside, or may have never learned how to
communicate effectively in professional settings. Building on
these skills may involve: teaching them to speak from the “I”,
practicing clarifying and paraphrasing thoughts and ideas,
discussing and demonstrating non-verbal communication and
encouraging clients to try out new skills on their own (Gov. of
Alberta, 2010, p.6).
Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth stage of psycho-social development as expressed
by Erickson (1998), industry vs. inferiority, is when competency
and adaption to the concept of cooperation comes into play
(p.129). An individual’s beliefs about their own capabilities
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders33
can change based on their experience and environmental conditions
(Brown & Lent, 2012, p. 118).
Expectations about outcome of academic and career paths come
from direct and vicarious learning experiences; an individual’s
perceptions about their past outcomes and stories they may have
heard from friends and family (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.119).
“Personal goals may be defined as one’s intention to engage in a
particular activity or to produce a particular outcome” (Bandura,
1986 as cited by Brown & Lent, 2012, p.119). Goals come in two
categories according to SCCT; choice-content goals (what am I
going to do?) and performance goals (how well am I going to do
it?) (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.119). Self-efficacy and outcomes
affect their choice and performance goals (Brown & Lent, 2012,
p.119).
Ex-offenders may have low self-efficacy in relation to
education and/or career advancement due to lack of exposure and
encouragement in their past. Social Cognitive Career Theory’s
model of “interest, choice, performance and satisfaction” states
that individuals develop interest in certain activities when they
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders34
view themselves as competent (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.121).
Although self-efficacy is highly influenced during childhood,
adults can still grow new interests (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.121).
According to the Social Cognitive Counseling theory model, shifts
in interest during adulthood occur with a shift in self-efficacy
and outcome expectation (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.121).
An ex-offender may not have had exposure to many activities
and academic subjects due to poverty, family problems in her
youth or expulsion. Ex-offenders should have the opportunity to
learn new things and be encouraged to develop new interests.
Life-Space
Life-Space is about the structure of social roles that an
individual performs in their life and finding a balance between
core roles (Brown & Lent, 2012, p. 98). Counselors help clients
to determine what roles are more important to them as well as how
social factors influence the amount of energy given to a
particular role (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.98). Roles may complement
each other or be in conflict with each other (Brown & Lent, 2012,
p.98).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders35
Individuals in re-entry from incarceration are in a time in
life when social roles may be changing. Career counseling can
support them in understanding how the various roles they identify
with interact with each other, such as the role of “junky” and
that of “working man”. The roles they performed in prison may
conflict with new roles they are trying out in society.
Self-Concept
Through the understanding of human development and social
role theory, life-span life-time theory describes how individuals
manage and adapt their work, personal and social roles throughout
their development (Brown & Lent, 2012, p.88). Self-concept
theory is used as “a third keystone to frame life-span, life-
space theory” which draws from Humanistic psychology in order to
explain “how individuals develop ideas about who they are in
different roles and situations based on self-observations of
their own unique personal characteristics and experiences, as
well as on social interactions and feedback from others” (Brown &
Lent, 2012, p.88).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders36
Successful re-entry and employment depends on many changes
in an individual’s life, ultimately affecting their concept of
self. This may be anxiety provoking as if an ex-offender has
doubts about his ability to sustain a new lifestyle. In
addition, the changes in self-concept affect many relationships
in their lives with family, friends and acquaintances.
Strategies for career planning
In order to increase their earning potential and
responsibility, ex-offenders should be educated about finding
jobs that have advancement opportunities as well as access to
educational/training (SAMHSA, 2000, p.4). Career counseling
should help clients develop strategic career plans based on their
interests, values, skills and the opportunities available to them
(Ryan, 1974).
Phase 1: Career-building plan for core needs
parenting. Clients should receive guidance in finding
childcare as well as offer parenting classes when needed (SAMHSA,
2000, p.6).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders37
money management. Many ex-offenders have not acquired
sufficient money management skills. Skill-building groups on
budgeting and money management can help individuals set up bank
accounts and plan for monthly expenses (SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).
financial needs. Clients may need help applying for income
support and other community services (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,
p.8).
housing. Clients may need referrals to housing assistance
or low-income housing. (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8)
education: Encourage clients to achieve High School
Equivalency or enter a training program and help them find
educational funding to help them gain skills required to re-enter
the workforce. (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8; SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).
Having marketable skills allow an ex-offender to face less
resistance to his criminal record by prospective employers
(Bennight, 1975, as cited in Enocksson, 1980, as cited by Vernick
& Reardon, 2001).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders38
networking. “Brainstorm additional strategies to meet new
people. Special interest clubs may provide another alternative”
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.8).
communication with probation or parole officers.
Communicating with probation/parole officers may help in
coordinating a training plan for the client (Gov. of Alberta,
2010, p.8).
Phase Two: Continuing the career-building process
develop career goals. Counselors should help individuals
identify their preferred futures, understand their career path,
and what employment they can obtain with little or no work
history, as well as how their prospects will grow with more
experience (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7,4). Focus on occupations and
employers who do not bar ex-offenders (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7).
recognize special skills. Ex-offenders may have special
skills that they do not recognize that can be transferred to non-
criminal enterprises, such as the management skills of a gang
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders39
leader, or the business skills of a drug dealer (SAMHSA, 2000,
p.4).
address criminal record checks and the impact of the
criminal record: It is important to discuss disclosing criminal
records to employers and the impact it may have (Gov. of Alberta,
2010, p.12). Facilitate discussions concerning the pros and cons
of disclosing or not disclosing information as well as handling
situations when an employer or co-worker becomes aware of their
record (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.13).
It is recommended by the Gov. of Alberta (2010) to talk
about the criminal records in the middle of the interview, as the
raising the subject in the beginning of the interview may make a
bad impression and addressing it at the end of the interview can
leave a negative last impression (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.13).
Clients should be encouraged to prepare a statement that
acknowledges their criminal history, explains what is necessary
without giving too much detail, and gives evidence of positive
life changes (SAMHSA, 2000, p.8; Gov. of Alberta , 2010, p.13).
They should also be prepared to tell the prospective employer why
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders40
they are interested in the job and what makes them qualified
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.8).
Employers are free to ask individuals about convictions, but
not arrests (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7). It is important for ex-
offenders to know what information the employers will have access
to so that they can formulate strategies for addressing the
concerns of employers (SAMHSA, 2000, p.7). Certain charges on
official criminal histories received by employers may be removed
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.7).
The 2012 update to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
addresses employer discrimination of employees with arrest or
conviction records (Riley Guide, 2014, n.p.). This update was
made due to the high rates of incarcerated for African American
(32.2 %) and Latino people (17.2 %) (Riley Guide, 2014, n.p.).
Although this is not an actual law, it is an “official
declaration from the federal government, and can thus carry
weight in anti-discrimination lawsuits” (Riley Guide, 2014,
n.p.).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders41
collaboration. Encourage clients to stay in contact with
probation/parole officers and make certain that career choices
comply with their release conditions (Gov. of Alberta, 2010,
p.9).
work search. Ex-offenders will benefit from help in writing
resumes and finding references as well as learning how to
consider the disclosure or nondisclosure of criminal records
(Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.10). Discuss required qualifications
and assist in filling applications. If needed, connect clients
with agencies that can help them obtain appropriate clothing for
interviews and work (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.11).
resume development. Using strength-based questions, help
clients identify skills and list certifications (Gov. of Alberta,
2010, p.11)
references. Encourage clients to choose references that
recognize and support the positive life changes they are making,
such as previous employers, a religious leader, an Elder, an
instructor, a former teacher, or a probation/parole officer (Gov.
of Alberta, 2010, p.12).
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders42
Employment support
In order to maintain employment clients may need support in
issues related to self-esteem, communication, assertiveness,
anger management, stress management and decision-making (Gov. of
Alberta, 2010, p.13). These issues may only emerge during
employment and not during the career-building process (Gov. of
Alberta, 2010, p.13). Resolving disputes with co-workers or
employers, understanding workplace culture and routine, as well
as learning to leave employment appropriately are all skills that
clients may need assistance with (Gov. of Alberta, 2010, p.13).
Mentors or peers can assist clients with coping with workplace
conflict (SAMHSA, 2000, p.5). Empowerment workshops can help
individuals who are emotionally not ready for returning to work.
(SAMHSA, 2000, p.5).
Conclusion
Many ex-offenders face immense barriers to successful re-
entry which is reflected in the high rates of recidivism in the
United States. There is not sufficient support for them, many
being released from prison with no money or shelter. Agencies
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders43
they come into contact with more often treat them with suspicion
rather than compassion.
There are efforts being made by agencies such as SAMHSA to
bring trauma-informed approaches to people working with justice
involved individuals, but there is still overwhelming resistance
and ignorance from professionals in the field.
Confronting trauma in this population means exposing the
criminal justice system for its oppressive tactics that so deeply
effect individuals and their ability to become self-actualized,
healthy and productive members of their communities.
Sustaining a living wage and building a career is a
challenge for many in this country; for those that have a
criminal background it is an even greater challenge. Career
development programs for ex-offenders must be holistic to support
their mental, spiritual and physical health in the face of an
unforgiving society.
Holistic Career Counseling for Ex-Offenders44
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[may be slightly different from final published chapter]
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