Andrews University

Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary

INTRODUCING CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY: A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

By

JENELL WILLIAMS PARIS AND BRIAN M. HOWELL

A Reading Report

Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for MSSN731

Seminar in Cultural & Religious Analysis I

AUA Cohort 2012

by

Diói Cruz

July 4, 2012

Chapter 1 – The Discipline of Anthropology

Jannel and Brian begin by telling their journeys as anthropologists both motivated by faith.

While Janell’s research was about ghetto formation and resident activism like racial and

economic issues, Brian specialty is Global Christianity, short-term mission and church

organization. A few technical terms were introduced like anthropos which is the Greek word

for human and cultural anthropology as the description, interpretation and analysis of

similarities and differences in human cultures.

The four fields of anthropology are: a) Archeology: the study of material artifact to

understand a people’s culture or society, b) Linguistics: it is the study of languages, c)

Physical/biological anthropology: it is the study of human anatomy, nonhuman primates

(primatology), and human origins and, d) Cultural Anthropology. It is also explained the

methods intrinsic to cultural anthropology like anthropological perspective and ethnographic

fieldwork, and how they differ from other disciplines.

What is the difference between Anthropology and Sociology? Sociology focus mainly on

Western societies and uses quantitative research methods: that is, measurement-based

approaches that depend on mathematics, statistics, and hypotheses for producing and

interpreting data. While Anthropology is the approach to small communities outside the West

and it uses qualitative methods to develop holistic portraits of cultural life. Qualitative

methods are interpretive approaches that use participant observation, interviews, documents

analysis, and other methods to understand the nature and meaning of phenomena.

Maurice Leenhardt (1878-1945) was an anthropologist who conducted anthropological

research in conjunction with missionary work. Later, other missionary anthropologists and

linguists made significant contributions to the discipline from their experiences working as

Bible translators and evangelists. A scholarly journal was established called Anthropos and

Missiology.

I agree with the non-Christian Anthropologists who criticize the work of the missionaries as

an activity to destroy the local culture. However, the gospel of Jesus needs to bring changes

in our practices, otherwise Christ’s sacrifice will be in vain and the process of sanctification

will be ignored. In fact, the culture of sin must be replaced by a culture based on biblical

principles that are eternal which is the criteria through which all people from all times will be

judged by God.

Having worked as a cross-cultural missionary for the last ten years helps me to recognize that

anthropology and mission go together despite a few conflicts. One needs always to do

anthropological research on a particular group or place before arriving there in order to

understand the history, customs, traditions, beliefs, and values.

I understand that my church members need to be experts in cross-cultural evangelism so that

anyone visiting will feel integrated and part of a community. It is true that simply being a

Christian is a cross-cultural experience, but a cross-cultural experience without fruits is just

like an armchair anthropologist.

This chapter has helped me to understand that in my ministry, anthropology develops the

abilities to ask the right questions, observe more critically, and think more deeply about the

difference and similarities I will encounter as the church continues to grow and diversify.

Chapter 2 – The Concept of Culture

In this chapter, the authors provide a thorough explanation as “the total way of life of a group

of people that is learned, adaptive, shared, and integrated” (p. 36), utilizing the concept of

“conversation” as an ongoing process that always includes stability as well as change,

negotiation and adaptation. (p. 40).

By comparing the idea of organizing a Philippine and an American ethnic fair, the authors

explain that this approach to culture has several problems: a) it implies that culture is

primarily expressed through decorative material item like food, clothing and holiday

ornament, b) it leads us to think of culture as a fixed and bounded entity and, c) it implies that

each individual belongs to only one culture, when in fact many are bicultural or multicultural.

The word culture comes from the German Kultur and means to develop or grow. Immanuel

Kant, Georg Hegel and Johahn Herder were philosophers in the eighteenth century who used

the term that was previously used in Greek philosophy. Theses first anthropologists were

called armchair anthropologists as they gathered data from books rather than theirs own

direct research.

Unilinear cultural evolution is the understanding that all cultures evolve from simple to

complex along a single trajectory of progress. For example, to refer to someone as cultured

means that he has expensive, fancy and rarified tastes. There was this idea of cultural

superiority bases on race and origin.

By the beginning of the nineteenth century, anthropologists moved out of their armchair and

began to promote ethnographic fieldwork as the best method to understand societies. They

found out that the differences between groups were not linked to biological predisposition

and that it was not the manifestation of culture at different stages of development, but

evidence of fully developed cultures that had taken different paths based on their history and

environment. This is called historical particularism.

The foundation for understanding cultural relativism is that cultures can only be understood

relative to the historical, ecological and social context in which they develop. Moral and

epistemological relativism are not compatible with Christian ethics and morality as cultures

can best be understood in relation to themselves. The kinds of Ethnocentrism are: a)

xenophobia, b) cultural superiority and, c) tacit ethnocentrism.

It is true that culture is like water in which we swim and the lenses through which we see the

world. It is like a conversation where we exchange our histories, meanings and perspectives.

As minister in a multicultural district, I need to understand the meanings behind all the forms

and allow the Holy Spirit to transform the culture from within (Rom. 12:2). Jesus’ ministry is

the best example on how to encourage people to follow God’s will and abandon their sinful

cultural customs.

As I am a part of a changing culture and I am a minister of a church where individuals are

constantly changing in our rapidly globalizing world, I need to understand that there is no

inferior or superior culture so that I will be protected against the selfishness of my own way

of doing things and will honor other’s cultures as I seek the meaning and values of their

history, environment and development.

Chapter 3 - Language

In this chapter it is presented the singularities of language and its relationship between culture

and society. Language is a system of verbal and nonverbal symbols used to communicate

which can develop and change over time and have a relationship to other languages as shown

in the Indo-European language family tree. (p.47)

The focus on language change over time and this is called dichronic research, which is called

today philology. One of the most influential thinkers in the development of language theory

was the Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure.

Saussure’s emphasis on the systemic structures of language gave rise to the term

structuralism to refer to his theory of language which says all languages share an underlying

binary structure. This theory language has greatly influenced anthropology as scholars began

using the ideas of surface and deep structure to understand culture as well as language.

Descriptive linguistics is the study of specific features of individual languages, such as

patterns of grammar and sound. It is what many missionary linguists do, particularly those

affiliated with SIL International and Wycliffe Bible Translators. It relies on phonetics and

phonemics. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis sustains that language shapes people’s perception,

thoughts, and views of reality. In other words, Sapir and Whorf supported the idea that

language use, as it is modified and shaped in real social contexts, potentially shapes how

people think and behave. It means that culture is not only a reflexive of language but actually,

culture changes language.

Sociolinguists concentrate their study in social setting with the goal of improving human

relationships by enhancing communication. Sociolinguistics view stresses how interactions

between culture and language shape the creation of meaning. When people from different

places speaking different languages live together in a same place they develop a language

called creole, a type of language formed when speakers combine their languages. Pidgin

languages are often developed as a result of colonial rule.

For us as Christians it is crucial to understand the creation of a language and its meaning as

reflected in God’s revelation throughout history and revealed in Scriptures. It is important to

understand that in the Bible we read the words of God and Jesus is the eternal Word of God.

This makes the Bible a very different book compared to the Koran which teaches that the

angel Gabriel dictated the words in classical Arabic to the prophet Mohamed who wrote them

down word by word and a translation will decrease the sacredness of the revelation. While in

Christianity there is no sacred language, no language is more appropriate for Scripture that

any other.

By understanding the history and development of language, my preaching and

communication of the Gospel can be more powerfully used by the Holy Spirit. I will avoid

elements of language which can be a barrier to understand the will of God. Words can be

cruel and hateful and can destroy a relationship.

The adequate use of language is an important element in my daily ministry and it is a vital

component in the process of emotional healing and discipleship of the members. I pray that

the Holy Spirit will guide my thoughts, refine and polish my words so that it may positively

shape and encourage my members to continuing following Jesus.

Chapter 4 – Social Structure and Inequality in Race, Ethnicity, and Class

This chapter deals with unequal distribution of social resource which can be called social

stratification. This means that people are organized in ranks of groups or hierarchies, based

on specific characteristics.

Social structure is the way how people coordinate their lives in relation to one another at the

level of society. The sociologist Max Weber identified three related areas or social

stratification: wealth, or economic status; power, or the ability to influence other; and

prestige, or the social affirmation and approval given to some members of society.

This stratification becomes more distinct in communities integrated into states, kingdoms and

chiefdoms that in tribes and bands. In all societies, differences in age, gender, race, ethnicity,

and many other categories become social statuses arrange in hierarchical systems

Status refers to any position a person may occupy in a social structure. Everybody had a

multiple statuses at any time, and people usually change statuses frequently during their lives.

A role is the behavior, expected or required, for those who occupy a specific status.

Race is a cultural category that divides the human race into subspecies based on supposed

biological difference. We humans are different from each other depending on the geography,

culture and ‘breeding pools’. The scientist Carl Linnaeus thought that the biological

categories that applied to butterflies and birds could be applied to human beings as well.

Ethnicity is a category based on the sense of group affiliation derived from a distinct heritage

of worldview as a people. Some anthropologists defend that the experience of ethnicity is a

basic human impulse, calling it primordialism which is the view that ethnic identity, like

race, is a naturally occurring and immutable feature of human life.

Class is a cultural category describing how people are grouped according to their positions

within the economy. In societies in which class is particularly fixed, anthropologists use the

term caste as a system that assigns individuals to a position at birth, and mobility between

castes is restricted. Sociologists study the degree of mobility in various societies, looking

primarily at variables such as education, race, religion, sex, and income.

By understanding and practicing cultural anthropology, my ministry can be empowered by

enabling me to address social inequalities. People have broken relationships and they need

emotional and spiritual healing. I need to perceive the invisible structures that give form to

the social life of my church members in order to be an instrument of healing.

God did not created racial categories but according to various texts in the Bible, ethnic

identity and ethnic diversity are part of God’s good creation. Unfortunately, sin has destroyed

the richness and benefits of ethnicity and my challenge is to be a facilitator for the dialogue

and interaction between the three culturally different groups in my district.

I grew up in a country permeated with the liberation theology and I believe that if we follow

the example of Jesus we will work within the political and cultural structure in place. We

need to be submissive to the authorities, whom God has established, and be a positive

influence to transform the culture and not be conformed to its inequalities.

Chapter 5 – Gender and Sexuality

The authors start this chapter by saying that sex and gender are often used interchangeably to

refer to various aspects of maleness and femaleness. For anthropologists, sex and gender are

distinct concepts. Sex refers to biological maleness or femaleness, or dimorphism, usually

given at birth. While Gender describes what it means to be male or female in a particular

culture.

A gender status is a position a person can occupy in the social order that is directly related to

maleness or femaleness. Gender roles in the United States, for example, have changed over

the past century, particularly for women. Before it was almost unthinkable for a woman to

wear pants in public, work in construction, or be a professional boxer, these are now common

situations.

Most Christians today agree that sexual dimorphism and a binary system of gender statuses

corresponds to the creational intent of God. It is presented by Paul in I Corinthians where he

says that women should wear head coverings and have long hair, and men should not cover

their heads while praying.

The authors say that in the Philippines, it is common to find a man on public transportation or

in church dressed as a woman. They are known as bakla, a gender status that involves a natal

man dressed as a woman. What looks like highly socially aberrant behavior from one

perspective is understood as making perfect sense in another.

The process of learning how to act according to the gender norms of society is called gender

socialization. Gender ideals are often expressed in shared stories. As children grow, gender

socialization continues and the ideals of womanhood and manhood are usually expressed in

rituals, like rites of passage from childhood to adulthood. Gender socialization occurs also

through the economic life of society. Sexuality includes biological sex but also refers to

sexual thought, feelings, and behaviors. Anthropologists study the many ways in which

human sexuality is shaped by cultural norms and values.

I believe that cross-cultural understanding of Christian practices related to gender and

sexuality are key elements to communicate values and principles as presented in Scriptures.

I am not comfortable with Janell’s conclusion when talking about her research on the LGBtQ

community in D.C. She argues that anthropological fieldwork “requires cultural relativism—

a suspension of one’s own prejudgments for the sake of really understanding the perspective

of the research informants” (p. 101) I think it is a big mistake to accept cultural relativism

especially in a cross-cultural ministry situation. A biblical principle will always be a divine

and unchangeable principle.

We need to dialogue more as a global church with believers from all over the world in order

to make sure that the forms may have meanings accepted by the principles presented in the

Bible so that we succeed in our attempt to pursue unity, purity, holiness, and justice in our

churches and traditions.

In my ministry I need to understand the needs, aspirations and frustrations of male and

female, adult and young members and use the appropriate language in order to be a blessing

to all when presenting God’s revelation from the Bible.

Chapter 6 – Production and Exchange

‘Everyone eats and sleep’. In this chapter we learn that there is an area of study called

economic anthropology which is the study of how people meet needs through production,

exchange, and consumption. Because economics is always linked to culture, anthropologists

study economics in a holistic perspective.

Since everyone must eat, people everywhere have developed cooperative ways to provide for

themselves and their groups. A subsistence strategy is a culturally created means of securing

food. Despite all the variation, all cultures are classified as being rooted in one of four modes

of food production: a) foraging, b) horticulture, c) pastoralism and c) agriculture.

Foraging can also be called hunting or gathering. It is a subsistence strategy bases on

gathering plants that grow wild in the environment and hunting available animals. Production

refers to any human action intended to convert resources in the environment into food. It has

been a primary subsistence strategy during all the human history. Adam and Eve before the

fall had this style of subsistence. After the fall the Bible says that they should eat from the

fruit of their own work.

Horticulture is a subsistence strategy in which people cultivate varieties of wild or

domesticated crops using relatively little technology. Some horticulturalists depend specially

on the wild resources, cultivating slow-growing trees such as bananas, coconuts, or

breadfruit.

Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy based on the use of domesticated herd animals. They

use animals for wild variety of purpose, such as transportation, trading, plowing, meat

consumption and dairy provision, and for making cultural artifacts from wool, hair, skin,

bone, and horn. Nomadic pastoralism is one form of pastoralism. Transhumant pastoralism is

the practice of moving herds seasonally between high meadows in the summer and human

settlement in the winter.

Agriculture is a subsistence system that requires constant and intensive use of permanent

fields for plant cultivation. The effects of globalization have improved the agricultural

systems for production and fewer people are needed in rural areas producing a massive flow

of urban migration.

The most relevant information for my ministry in this chapter is that after fall, God in his love

to the fallen humanity provided a system of exchange for the survival of human race. We

need to value the vast cultural diversity of economies because they promote human survival

and dignity. This provision is another way how God can heal our hearts.

One of the tasks of our ministry is to instruct the young people to choose a profession that

will maintain them active, alive and healthy. God does not say that we should all live

according to one unique system of exchange but we should create and share systems that

ensure human survival in accord to our ecological and historical environments.

God calls us to be generous to one another and be thankful for all His daily provisions. He

requires me to be a good steward of what he allows me to possess so that I may be generous

and not develop an emotional attachment to material wealth. Because I am blessed by him, I

need to be a blessing to my neighbor by sharing and assisting the needy and broken hearted.

Chapter 7 – Authority and Power

In this chapter the authors start by declaring that political anthropology is the study of power

and authority and systems of organizing social life. People exercise power when they

influence or control the behavior of others. Anthropological theories rely on three major

categories of power: a) coercive, b) persuasive and, c) hegemonic.

Coercive power is the use of force, legitimate or illegitimate, by individuals or groups. It may

be legitimate when for instance, a father force his child to walk in a determined direction for

his own good. Persuasive power is even more common and often more effective. It involves

the use of o words, relationships, and actions that influence others. Hegemony means control

or dominion. To be successful it requires support from widely shared cultural belief.

Power and authority are configured in a variety of ways as political systems that guide entire

societies. For example, the band is the most ancient political system, used by many of our

human ancestors and still by some groups today. Leadership in band societies is usually

temporary and informal.

Tribe usually brings to mind images of non-European, indigenous groups in Africa or South

America. But tribe is a decentralized political system that may be associated with any

economic form. A number of tribes may be united as a society by culture, language, or

heritage such as the twelve tribes of Israel. A conflict resolution within a tribe is more

informal, handled though talking, joking and other forms of interpersonal interactions.

Chiefdom or kingdom is a system of political organization involving an inheritable office,

often passed through a family line, in which power adheres to the occupant of the office.

People living under this regime continue to resolve interpersonal conflict by using informal

sanctions.

State is a highly centralized form of political organization in which authority rests in

institutions and offices. The dividing line between the chiefdom/kingdom and the state is less

about structure and more about ideology and culture. In many countries where a state system

was imposed by a colonial power, the official government system is a modern state even as

many people at the local level continue to operate according to persuasive leadership in a

tribal system, an inheritable system of chiefs, or even the consensus of band systems.

As the Bible presents several examples on how Christian must relate to politics, my ministry

need to follow the same principles. As an organization we Seventh-day Adventists are

apolitical and will by principle to respect authorities “giving to Caesar what is to Caesar and

to God what is to God”. Despite this position, as a minister I need to encourage and explain

how members of my church must be individually involved in political actions exercising their

rights and obligations with responsibility for the benefit of the society.

God has called us to be a light in this world and as true disciples we cannot hide ourselves as

we see the atrocities that sin brought to this world. I need to exercise power as a persuasive

tool and in a loving way in order to direct people to listen and to obey the Word of God.

I can be a blessing to the community where I live when I help them to realize that our God

can heal their emotional and spiritual infirmities and can bring joy to their lives through the

positive influence of our church members as they serve in social services and evangelism.

Chapter 8 – Kinship and Marriage

Kinship is the way in which people selectively interpret the common human experiences of

reproduction and nurturance. It is the basis of a band and tribal societies and carries through

all aspects of life, nor just family life. A person’s kin identity is salient in religion,

economics, and politics.

Descent is a social rule that assigns identity to a person bases on her or his ancestry. It varies

widely and may be organized in matrilineal, patrilineal and dual. Unilineal descent links

relatedness exclusively through one parent and are patrilineal. OT Hebrew culture gives us a

good example of a patrilineal kinship system.

The second major unilineal system is matrilineal descent, in which descent is traced through

the female line. It is found in West Africa, Asia and North America. Just as patrilineal

kinship does not link to patriarchy; neither does matrilineal kinship necessarily correlate with

matriarchy.

Dual descent traces descent through both the mother and the father’s lines. An example is the

Yakö of Nigeria. They think of themselves as having two sides of one family, members of

this group think of themselves as belonging to two different families.

Cognatic descent reckons identity through both maternal and paternal ancestors. In the

bilateral descent, kinship is understood to exist equally through both the mother’s and

father’s lines. In the ambilineal descent, individuals choose a lineage when reaching

adulthood. Kinship connects with other areas of life like inheritance, territory and conflict

resolution.

Marriage is a publicly recognized social or legal union that crates a socially sanctioned

context for sexual intimacy, establishes the parentage of children, and crates kinship. For

most human history and today, in many cultures, marriage is primarily a social, economic,

and political connection between two families rather that nth freer choice of tow individuals.

Anthropologists have found that every society has incest taboos but cross-cousin marriage is

widely accepted. Scripture contains numerous examples of cousin marriage. Marriage

exchange involves exchanging of material resources between families before, during and

after the wedding. Plural marriage can be named as polyandry, which is the marriage of one

woman to two or more husbands or polygyny, which is the marriage of one man to two or

more wives.

God created marriage. All variations of what He created has never been of His will but He

tolerated it because He is merciful and a loving God. After the cross we were adopted into the

family of God and we are all brothers and sisters. By understanding this, we will not need to

arrange weddings having in mind the idea to keep properties and honor inside the same

family or in order to protect other interests of the families. This would be an act of cultural

selfishness.

To minister to families in urban areas carries the challenge to convince postmodern people

that materialism and accumulation of goods will not usually contribute for the joy and

harmony in a Christian family. We must not live in the traditions of the world but live

according to the principles of God and His eternal law.

Chapter 9 – Religion and Ritual

Brian says that “Christianity is not Religion it is a Relationship”. Christian believers

sometimes find the study of religion strange because they are used to approaching religion as

a way of life rather that a social phenomenon.

One of the definitions of religions is a ‘worldview in which people personify cosmic forces

and devise ways to deal with them in way that resemble the way they deal with powerful

people in their society.’ No anthropological definitions of religion are without controversy.

Geertz proposed the following definition for religion: ‘A system of symbols which acts to

establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating

conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing theses conceptions with such an aura

of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic’.

Using anthropology to study our own religion can help us to have a positive understanding of

God and ourselves: a) we can learn to see that our symbols work in similar way to others

people’s symbols, b) the study of religion can help us perceive and critique how Christians

symbols intersect with other parts of social and cultural life, c) and anthropological approach

to Christianity can help us understand how symbols and practices change over time and

across cultures and, d) the anthropological view will help us to understand how all religions

reflect a common humanity.

Magic is the ritual to practice what is believed to have effect on particular situation that

cannot be scientifically verified and are not directly related to the ritual. Witchcraft is evil

done by a person without her or his awareness. Sorcery is evil done by a person who intended

for it to happen. A sorcerer has access to spiritual power and is able to activate the power to

harm others. Animism, from the Latin soul, is the idea that souls exist not only in humans but

also in plants, animals and the elements of nature. Myth is any story with sacred significance.

This chapter is relevant to my ministry because it reminds me that making a religious

commitment and living a spiritual life requires faith, devotion, community and theology.

It is very easy to be conformed within our traditions and not appreciate the sincerity of

Christians practicing other faith. As a minister I have to understand other’s religious values

and be able to dialogue and share my faith with sincerity and in a positive way so that their

minds will be open to see a more historical Biblical point of view in order to clarify whatever

cultural issue may be impeding them to accept the full gospel of Jesus.

Living what we preach is the result of a constant communion with Jesus. This is the most

powerful sermon that I can preach as a pastor. My daily goal is to live in a close relationship

with God in such a way that others will see God’s healing power in me and will be compelled

to abandon meaningless traditions and rituals that separate them from the Healer Jesus Christ.

Chapter 10 - Globalization and Culture Change

Globalization is an ancient phenomenon in our word as we study the history of the Mexicans,

Alexander the Great and the Arab and Muslim empire. Globalization today affects basically

everyone on the planet. It shapes how people around the world live, think, and act. It is the

integration of local, regional, and national production, exchange, and culture intro a global

system. It is marked by multidirectional flows of goods and services like the Donaldization.

Commodification is the transformation of concepts, creations, and even cultures into goods

that can be bought and sold, given and received.

There are three important theories that try to explain globalization: a) modernization theory

teaches that all societies move through stages of economic, political, and cultural

development toward becoming industrialized, democratic and modern societies. b)

dependency theory argues that nations necessarily move from agricultural to industrial modes

of production as global trade grows and some states become dependent on other states, and

the, c)world-system theory defends the dependency of theory, arguing that globalization may

be conceptualize as a system of nations placed in the core, semi-periphery and periphery of

an interconnected global economy.

Today’s globalization is rooted in colonialism. Some scholars distinguish colonialism from

imperialism to differentiate direct rule (colonialism) from indirect rule (imperialism).

Colonialism created classifications it could use to categorize and govern the population as

was the case of the Belgians and the Tutsis.

Postcolonialism is the cultural and economic legacy of the colonialism, including ongoing

relationships between former colonies and colonizers. Neocolonialism describes a nation or

group of people that is essentially a colony of another nation, despite the absence of direct of

political control.

Cultural hybridity refers to the cultural practice of combining and assigning new meaning to

previously separate beliefs, practices, or ideas. Anthropologists study culture change, rather

than simply cultural difference, as globalization has become an overarching context for most

anthropological research.

I agree that as Christians we respond to globalization because we share some common

concerns for human rights, social justice, and care for the environment. As Adventists, we are

part of a global religious movement where every minister needs to deal with cross-cultural,

linguistic, economic, and political boundaries.

It is necessary for me to understand that my involvement with globalization issues in the

church context must be seen as an opportunity to point the injustices that result when one

culture dominates another. It is also an opportunity to emphasize the possibility of

righteousness in the face of evil.

By nature, human beings are resistant to changes as we do not want to leave our comfort

zone. Globalization can bring traumatic changes in people’s lives, and traumas make people

sick emotionally and spiritually. Working as a pastor in a globalized and multicultural district

demands a ministry for emotional healing and reconciliation with self, with God and with

others.

Chapter 11- Theory in Cultural Anthropology

In this chapter the authors argue that anthropologists were among the first scientist to

conceptualize culture and describe its dynamics by organizing a theory. Theory means it is a

guess or just a one person’s opinion. A theory is a formal description of some phenomenon in

the world that explains how that thing works.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that all objects want to return to their natural place.

Later Isaac Newton used the data from Aristotle, Avicenna, Copernicus and Galileo and

developed his universal theory of gravitation.

Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are three philosophers whose work provided

foundational philosophy for cultural anthropology. Marx argued that every society and every

form of social and cultural life in history could be understood in terms of the economic

system and conflict they produce. He said that human beings are, at root, socially created,

neither inherently good nor bad. In contrast to Marx and Durkheim, Weber gave more

credibility to the power of idea in shaping social organization.

There are five important early anthropological theories: a) Unilinear cultural evolution saying

that all cultures evolve from simple to complex along a simple trajectory of progress, b)

Diffusionism, stated that cultural artifact or activities spread from more advanced to less

advanced societies, c) Historical particularism argues that each culture is a unique

representation of its history and context, d) Functionalism, argues that culture develops in

response to human needs and e) Structural-functionalism says that the functions of particular

belief or behaviors should not be understood as meeting individual needs but as supporting a

social need for order and cohesion.

Cultural materialism is a culture that is driven by the material, ecological, and economic

adaptions human make. Sociobiology is a theory that takes materialist explanations of

culture to an extreme. It teaches that culture is rooted in human drive to evolutionary

advantage and genetic survival. Cultural Marxism presents Karl Mars’s concepts of power,

inequality and class struggle to understand cultural change.

I realize that the authors do not inform the role of theology in anthropological research,

including the notion that some cultural practices will necessarily be judged sinful if Jesus

stands over all cultural reality.

I disagree with the authors when they say that “the various theoretical approaches can aid in

understanding the data without contradicting or erasing faith commitments”. (p. 244) We

cannot reconcile Christianity with every methodological approach to cultural anthropology

like materialist, ecological, feminist, cultural Marxist, and other postmodern theories.

In such case, it is unacceptable to suggest the existence of harmony between cultural

practices and Christianity with the claim that these and faith commitments do not cancel each

other out. The gospel is not compatible with every practical approach to research and it is not

compatible with all cultural practices.

Any anthropological approach in the context of my ministry needs to be done through the

lenses of the Bible and the understanding of its contextual meanings under the light of the

Holy Spirit and the Spirit of Prophecy.

Chapter 12 – Anthropology in Action

The last chapter starts by saying that anthropology is unique in being centered on diversity,

culture, and human difference. That is why anthropology is relevant for everyone and

especially for Christians.

The author’s answer for the question “what difference does anthropology make?” is

summarized in four parts: It will help someone looking for a job (i.e. Xerox looking for a

professional with anthropology studies), the importance of anthropology in everyday

activities, the grown of the church in a globalized world and the importance for church

mission strategy.

A case study is quoted from Fadiman on her book “The spirit Catches You and You Fall

Down”. It is a story of a Hmong family and misunderstanding by medical professionals who

wanted to help their daughter with epilepsy. It is said that cultural relativism was the reason

for the confusion, which is the anthropological tenet that people’s ideas and behaviors make

sense when viewed from their culture’s perspective.

Because I am married to someone outside my culture, I fully agree with the authors when

they say that fieldwork skills, anthropological values, knowledge of theory and, ethnographic

analysis are practically useful in many ways in everyday life.

Church is more complex today than ever before. Therefore, anyone ministering as a

professional or as a lay leader will definitely need to learn how to deal with the challenges

and opportunities to minister in diverse contexts. Many ministries involve connecting with

subcultures or groups within a larger culture that define themselves as distinct or opposed to

the majority.

The use of Scriptures in the global church has an advantage over the Islam and their use of

the Koran which mandates a holy language and officially preaches cultural practices rooted in

Arabian societies. The first work of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost was to translate the gospel in

to the languages of the world making it meaningful for their cultural context.

This activity of translation of the Bible continues today with still many languages and dialects

to be explored. We also continue this work when we learn from other cultures and gain

insight on how our own culture shapes our understanding of the gospel.

My ministry will be enhanced and more effective when I understand the nature of language,

the cultural construction of concepts, the material and ecological reasons for cultural

practices, and the processes of cultural change in my church and community.

As a missionary, anthropology helps me to focus on improving my cross-cultural

communication and the translating of the gospel or contextualizing the gospel. But I must be

careful to avoid any syncretism in my intent to accommodate or inculturate the eternal gospel

of Jesus.

Anthropology inspires us to ask more questions about what is going on, to investigate more

deeply, and to embrace the unfamiliar instead of criticize without understanding. As we study

anthropology, we can make available our insights to the global Seventh-day Adventist church

and help everyone to be more effective in the coming changes.