BIBLICAL

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

C H A R L E S FO S T E R KE N T . FIL D .

WO O ” ! PB O ’N O B O l‘ m um m m : 11: u m m m

W I T H MA P S

N EW Y O RK

C HA R LE S S C R IB N ER’

S S O N S

1916

PR EFACE

G noowm' haswithin the past fewyearswon a neW plsce

among the sciences. It is no longer regarded as simply a description of the earth’s surface, but as the foundation of all historicalstudy. Only in the light of their physicalsetting can thegreat characters, movements, and events of human history be

now defined as a dwcription not on ly of the earth and of its influence upon man’s development, but also of the solar, atmos

and purpose express ing itself through natural forces, in the

physiwlcontour of the earth, in the animate world, and, aboveall, in the life and activities of man. Biblical geography, therefore, is the first and in many ways the most important chapter

brewrace and recorded in the Bible. Thus interpreted it hasa profound religious meaning, for through the plains and mountains, the rivers and seas, the climate and flora of the biblicalworld the Almighty spoke to men as plainly and unmistakablyas he did through the voices of his inspired seers and sages.No other commentary upon the literature of the Bible is so

practical and luminous as biblical geography. Throughouttheir long history the Hebrews were keenly atten tive to the voiceof the Eternal speaking to them through nature. Their writings abound in references and figures taken from the pictu

v

PREFA C E

resque scenes and pecu liar life of Palestine. The grim enciredesert, the strange water-courses, losing themselves at times intheir rocky beds, fert ile C armel and snow-clad Hermon, thesounding sea and the storm- lashed waters of Gali lee are but afewof the many physica l characteristics of Palestine that haveleft their indelible marks upon the Jewish and C hristian Scriptures. T he same is true of Israel's unique faith and institutions. Biblical geography, therefore, is not a study by itself,but the natural introduction to allother biblical studies.In his H {storied G eography of the H oly Land and in the two

volumes on Jerusalem, Principa l George Adam Smith . of Aberdeen, has given a bri lliant and luminous sketch of the geographical divisions and cities of Palestine, tracing their history fromthe earliest times to the present. Every writer on Palestine oweshim a great debt. The keenness and accuracy of his observap

tions are confirmed at every point by the traveller. At the present time, the need of a more compact manual, to present firstthe physical geography of the biblical lands and then to tracein broad outlines the history of Israel and of early C hristianityin close conjunction with their geographica l background, hasnevertheless been fel t . In the present work unimportant details have been omitted that the vi tal facts may stand out clearlyand in their true significance. The aim has been to furnishthe information that every Bible teacher should possess in orderto do the most effective work, and the geographical data withwhich every student of the Bible should be fami liar, in order iatelligently to interpret and fully appreciate the ancient Scriptures.This volume embodies the results of many delightful months

spen t in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean, and especiallyin Palest ine, during the years 1892 and 1910. Owing to improved conditions in the Turkish Empire it is now possible, withthe proper camp equipment, to travel safely through the remot

Vl

PR EFAC E

est places east of the Jordan and to visit Petra, that most fascinating of Eastern cities. By securing his equipment at Beirutthe travellermay cross northern Gali lee and then, with comfort,go southward in the early Spring through ancient Bashan,Gilead, Moab, and Edom . Thence, with great economy of timeand effort, he may return through central Palestine, making fraquent detours to points of interest. In thisway he will find thequaint, fascinating old Palestine that has escaped the invasionsof the rai lroads and western tourists, and he will bear away exactand vivid impressions of the land as it reallywas and sti ll is.The difficulties and expense of Palestine travel, however, ren

der such a journey impossible for the majority of Bible students.

Fortunately, the marvellous development of that most valuableaid to modern education, the stereoscope and the stereograph,make it possible for every one at a comparatively small expenseto visit Palestine and to gain under expert guidance in many waysa clearer and more exact knowledge of the background of biblicalhistory and literature than he would through months of

travel. Through the courtesy of my publishers and the co

operation of the well-known firm of Underwood Underwood,

of N ewYork and London, I have been able to realize an idealthat I have long cherished, and to place at the disposal of thereaders of this volume one hundred and forty stereographs (or,if preferred for class and lecture use, stereopticon slides) thati llustrate the most important events of biblical geography and

history. They have been selected from over five hundred viewstaken especially for this purpose, and enable the student to gain,as he alone can through the stereoscope, the distinct state of

consciousness of being in scores of historic places rarely visitedeven by the most venturesome travel lers. Numbers referringto these stereographs (or stereopticon slides) have been insertedin the body of the text. In Appendix II the titles correspondingto each number are given.

VII

PREFAC E

The large debt that I owe to the valiant army of pioneers andexplorerswho have penetrated every part of the biblical world andgiven us the results of their observations and study is suggestedby the selected bibliography in Appendix I. I am under es

pecialobligations to the officers of the Palestine ExplorationFund, who kindly placed their l ibrary and maps in London atmy service and have also permitted me to use in reduced formtheir Photo-R elief Map of Palestine.

C . F. K.

Y A L E Ue nRsrrx,

1911.

C O N T E N T S

PAR T I— PHYSIC AL GEOGRAPHY

T H E GENERA L C nAaAcraars'rrcs orm BramCAL WORLDExtent of the Bibl ical World .

—Condi t ions Favm bie

to Early C iviuzat iona t'

a Climate and Resources- I ts Isolat ion and tattone—Condit ions in the

T igri s-Euphrates Vailey.— Forces Developing Its Civil

ization —Civil ization of Arabia—Physical Characteristics of Syria and Palest ine —Their Central Positionand Lack of Unity.—Asia Mi nor.

—Mycene .—O reece.

Italy.—Si tuat ion oi Rome —Reason Why R ome Went

Forth to Conquer.—R !sum6.

II. T HE GENER AL C HA aAc'

rsms'rrcs or PA LE S

History of the T erms Palestine and a nu m—Boundsof Palest ine —Geologi calmutant

— Alluvial and SandDeposi ta—General Divisions.

—Variety in P hyrdcal

Cantoun—E flects of This Variety.—O penneaa to the

Arabian Desert.- Absence of Navigable R ivers and GoodB arbara — Incentives to Industry.— Incentives to

Fait h and Moral Culture—Central and Exposed to A ttack on Every S ide—S ignificance of Palestine

'a Char

Extent and Character.—Fertflity .

—D ivisiona.—P ialn of

Tyre — T he Plain of Acre — C armei .— Plain of S haron.—T he Philist ine Flam—T he S hephelah or Lowland.

IV. T H E P L ArxAU or G A L rL E E A N D m PL ArN or

Physicaland Political S ignificance of the Central Plateau.

—N aturai and Polit ical Bounds.—Its Extent and N at

ural Divisions.—Physical Characterist ics of Upper C al

iiee.— i ta Fert ili ty.

—(maracterist ica of Lower Galilee.

Situation and Bounds of the Plain of M raelon.—Piain

of Ja n et—Water Supply and Fert ility of Plain of E s

draelom—C entral and Commanding Positlom—Importance ot the Plain in Palsstlniat tory.

ix

P L O .

C ONTENTS

T H E HrL Ls or SAuA ruA A N D

Character of the Hills of Samaria—Northeastern 8a

maria—Northwestern Samaria — T he ViewfromMountEbai .—Bounds and General Charac terist ics of SouthernSamaria—Southwestern Samaria —T he Central Heightsof Judah —Lack of Watersupply .

—Wilderness of Judea.

—Western Judah —Valley of Alaloa—Wady Ali —Vaiiey of Smelt —Valley of E lah.

—Valiey of ZephathahWady awash — S ignificance of These Valleya—T heS outh Coun try .

—i ts Northern and Western Divisions.-lts Central and Eastern Division —T he Striking C ontrssts between Judah and Samaria—Effect upon T heirInhabi tants.

T ar: JonD A N A N D DEA D S E AGeological History.—Evidences of Volcanic Action.

Natural D ivisions —Mount H ermon —Source or the

Jordan at Denies — A t T ellel-Kadl.—T he Two WesternC onfluents.

—T be Upper Jordan Valiey .—T he Rapid D e~

scent to the Sea of Galilee —T he Sea of Galilee — i tsS hores —From the Sea of G alilee to the Dead S ea.

Character of the Valley .—T he Jordan l imi t—Fords of

the Lower Jordam—Ancient N ames of the Dead S ea.

I ts Unique Characteristics — i ts Eastern Bank —T heSouthern E nd —T he Western Shores.—Crim A ssoct»tions of the D ead Sea.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

Form and Climate of the East-Jordan Land —WellWatered and Fertile —T he FourGreat Natural Divisions.

-C harscterlst ics oi the Northern and Western Jaulan.

—Southern and Eastern Janin a—Character of the

Haum —Borde of the Hauran.—G ilead .

—T hsJabbok and Jebel —Southernof the Plateau of N oah — i ts Fert il ity and Water Supply.—lts Mountains—I ts Views—T he Amen —SouthernMosh and Edam—S ignificance of the East-Jordan

T HE Two C A rrrA Ls: Jsans/mamA N D SAMA R IAImportanceof Jerusaien and Samaria—S ite of Jerusalem.

—T he Kidron Valley.—T he T e pmon Valley. - T he

Original Ci ty.— I ts Extent.—T he Western Hui —T he

Nort hern Extension of the City.— Josephus's Descript ion

of Jerusalem—T he Geological Format ion —T he WaterS upply.—Jerusalem’

s Mili tary Strength —Strength of

I ts Posi tion.—Samaria’

s Name.— Its Situation—Ito

Military S trength — I ts Beauty and Prosperity.!

C ON TENT SP A G E

T HE GRE A T Hroawu s or T H E B IBLICALWOR LDImportance of the Highways.

— Lack of the R oad-building Inst incts among the Semites.

— Evidence that ModernRoads Followthe Old Ways.

—Ordinary Palest inianRonda—Evidence that the Hebrews Built R oads.T he Four Road s fromEgypt .

— T ralls into Palest ine fromthe South.

—Highway Through Mosh —T he Great D esertHighway.—Character of the Southern Approaches to

Palestine—T he Coast Road .— T he Way of the Sea.

I ts Commercial and Strategic Importance—T he C en

tral Road and Its Cross-roads in the South.— In the

North.—T he R oad Along the Jordan .

—Roads Eastwardfrom Damascus —T he Highway from Ant ioch to

Ephesus.—T he Road from A sia Minor to Rome — From

Ephesus to Rome—FromSyria to Rome by Sea.—From

Alexandria to Rome by Sean—S ignificance oi the GreatHighway

PART II—H IST O R IC A L GEOGRAPHY

T he A im and Value of Historical Geography.—S ources

of Informat ion Regard ing Ancient Palestine—Evidence ofthe Excavat ions.

—T he Oldest Inhabitants of Palestine.

T he Semit ic Invasions from the D esert .—Influence of

the Early Amorite Civilizat ion Upon Babylonia.—Prob

able S ite of the Oldest Semit ic Civilization —Remains ofthe Old Amorite Civilizat ion .

— Babylonian Influence inPalestine—Egyptian Influence in the Cities of the Plain .

—D iflerent Types of Civilizat ion in Palestine — Conditions Leading to the Hyksos Invasion of Egyp t .—Fortunes of the Invaders.

— T he O ne Natural Site in Syriafor a Great Empire — Influences of the Land Upon the

E arly Forms of Worship.—Upon the Beliefs of I ts In

habitants.

PA LEST IN E UNDER T H E RULE or

R easonswhy Egypt Conquered Palest ine—CommandingPosi tion of Megiddo.

— I ts Military Strength.— Thotmose I I I

's Advance Against Megiddo.

—T he D ecisive

Battle—Capture of Megiddo.— T he Cit ies of Palest ine.

- D isastrous Effects of Egypt ian Rule—Lack of Unionin Palestine—Exposure to Invasions from the D esert .—Advance of the Habiri .—Ri se of the Hitt ite Power.

Palest ine between 1270 and 1170 a.o.—T he Epoch-mak

ing Twelfth Century.xi

C ONTENTS

T HE NOMA DIC A N D EGY PT IAN P ERrO D or HE

BREW H i ST O R Y . .

T he Entrance of the Foreiathers of the Hebrews Into

—T he Trend Toward Em t .—T be Land of Cached .

T he Wad T umilat .—Rarnses I I '

s Policy.—Building the

S tore C i t of Ramses and Pithom.—Condit ion of the

HebrewSerra—Training of H osea—T he HistoricalFac tsUnderlying the Plague Stat ion—Method of T ravel inthe Desert —Maser Equipment as a La den—T heScene oi the Emma—Probability that the Passagewas

T HE HEB REWS rN THE WmD ERN Ess A N D E AsTor T HE JO B D A N . .

Identificat ion of Mount S inai —Latencss of the T radit ional Identificat ion —Probable Route of the Hebrews.—Kadesh-barnea.

—E iiect of the W ilderness upon theLife of the Hebrews.

—Evidence that the Hebrews Aimedto Enter Canaan from the South —Reasons Why TheyD id N ot Succeed .—Tribes that Probably Entered Canaanfrom the South —T he Journey to the East of the Jordan.

—Stations on theWay .—Conquests East orthe Dead Sea.

—8 i tuation oi Hsshbon .—Soiourn or the Hebrews East

of the Jordan—i ts S igni ficance.

T HE SET T LEMENT rN C ANAAN .

T he Approach to the Jordan —Crossing the Jordan.

S trateglc Importance of Jericho —Results of RecentExcavations.—Capture of Jericho—Evidence that theHebrews Were Still Nomads.

—Roadl Lead ing West

ward trom Jericho.—Conquests in the South — C on

quest ot Aland Bethei .— i ncompleteness oi the InitialConquest . —Mlgration of the D ani tes.

—T he Moabite In~vaston .

- T he Rally of the Hebrews Against the Canaanitea—T he Battle-heid .— E flect of a Storm Upon thePlain —Results oi the Victory .

—T he East-JordanT ribes —T he T ribes in Southern Canaan —T he Tribes inthe North —Effects of the Settlement Upon theHebrews.

! V. m FO R CE s THA T L E D T o T HE ES TABLISHMENT

T he Lack of Unity Among the HebrewT ribes.—T hs

S cenes oi Gideon ‘

s Exploits—G ideon ‘

s Kingdom.

Reasons for the Superiori ty oi the P h illst inea—Scenesof the Samson Starlet —T he D ecisive Battle-field .

Fortunes of the Arie—T he Sanctuary at Shiloh —Samuel 's Home at Ramah .

—T be S i te of Gibeah .—S ituation

of Jabesh-Gi lead.—T he (S anctuary at Gilgal .- T hs

P hiilst ine Advance —T he Pass of N icholson—T hoGreat Victory Over the Ph ilistlnea.—8aul’aWars.

I I!

C ONTENTS

T HE SCENES or D Avm’s Exrwrrs

David '

s Home at Bethlehem.—T he Contest in the Val

ley oi Elan—S i tuat ion or N ah —T he S tronghold or

Adullam.—Kellah.—Scenes oi David '

s OutlawLife inSoutheastern Judah —David at O ath —A i Ziklag.Reasons Why the P hillstines Invaded Israel in the North.—8aul’s Journey to Enrica- T he Battle on G ilboa.

T he Remnant oi Saul's Kingdom.—Hebron.David '

s FirstCapitai .—Fortunes oi the Two HebrewKingdoms —T heFinal Struggle with the P hilistinea—David '

s Victories.

PALES T INE UNDER T HE RULE or DAVID A N D

M ablishment of Jerusalem as Israel's Capital.— Is

Moabites and Ammonltes .— S ltuat ion oi Rahbath-Am

mom—T he Water City.- Extent oi D avid ’

s Empire.

Absalom'

s Rebellion —David East oi the Jordan — R ebellion of the Nort hern Tribes —Scenes oi Adonijah'sConspiracy and Solomon'

s A ccessiom—Capture 0! Gea r.

—S olornon '

s Fortresses.—80 lomon '

s Strategic and C ommercial Policy.

—Si te of Solomon ’

s Temple — Significanceoi the Reigns of D avid and Solomon — Influences oi theUnited KingdomUpon Israel ‘s Faith —S olomon’

s FatalMistakes—Forces that Made for Barium—S ituat ion ofS hechem.

—S igni ilcance oi the Division.

T HE NORTHERNT he Varied Elements in the North —Capitals oi North‘

ern Israel.—T he Aramean Kingdom—T he Ph ilist ineStronghold oi G ibbethon .

—Omri's Strong Rule.

Ahab's Aramean Wars — Strength and FatalWeakneuof A hah

’

s Policy.—Rhiab'aHome —T he Scene on Mount

—El isha'

s Home—Jehu '

s Revolution - Rule oi the

House of Jehu—T he Advance of Amyria— Amos'sHomeat Tekoa.

—Influence oi His Environmen t Upon theProphet . -Evidence Regard ing Hoseas Home.

—ViewfromJebel Cuba—Conquest oi Galilee and (Min d .

- T heExi led Northern Israelim - The Fate oi Northern Israel.

Effect of Environmen t Upon Judahh H h tory —Sh iahak’

s

Invasion —War Between the Two Kingdoms.—Amaziah 's

Wars—Uzziah ‘

s Strong Reign - Isaiah of Jerusalem.

H ts Advice to A ha: in the Crisis of 734 n.c.-T he Great

Rebellion of 703 s .o.—Home oi the Prophet Mi cah .

Judah's Fate in 7oi ran —Isaiah ‘

s Counsel in a LaterC risis —T he R eactio Reign of H ann a h —TwoProphet ic Reformera nation or Anathoth.

- Jomah’

a

Reign.—T he B riei Rule of Egypt.—Jeholalt im'

s Reign.- T he First Captivit -

‘

l‘

he S econd Captivity.—T hs

End oi the Southern lngdom.

ml

C ONTENTS

AP PENDI! I. SELEC TED B IBLIOGRAPHY

AP PENDI! II. STEREOGRAPHS A N D ST E REOPTICONSLIDES IL LUsT R AT IN O BIBLICALGEOG RAPHY A N D HIST ORY

IND E! OF NAM ES AND PLAC ES

P A G I

L IST O F MA P S

I. MOD ERN PALEST IN E, WIT H ANCIENT TOWNS A N D

II . T H E O L D T ESTAME NT WORLD to face page

III. PHOTO-R ELIEF M A P O F PALESTINE . . to face page

IV. T H E MAIN HIGHWAY S O F T H E ANCIEN T SEM ITICWORLD to face page

V. T H E MAIN H IGHWAY S O F T H E R O MA N EMPIREA N D T H E SC ENES O F PAUL’SWORK to face page

VI . P R E -HEBREW C ANAAN IN T H E LIGHT O F T H E

EGY PTIAN MONUMEN TS A N D T H E AMARNALET TERS to face page

VII. T H E LAND O F T H E E! OD US A N D WILD ERNESSWAND ERING to face page

VIII. T ERRITORIAL D IVISION O F C ANAAN AFTER T H E

FINAL SETT LEMENT O F T H E HEBREW TRIBESto face page

IX. T H E HEBREW EMPIRE UND ER D AVID to face page

X. PL A N O F SOLOMON’S PALACE to face page

XI. ISRAEL AFTER T H E D IVISION O F T H E HEBREWEMPIR E . . to face page

xvii

13

73

82

97

127

147

164

168

LIST O F MAPS

! II. B ABY LONIAN, PERS IA N, A N D GREEK EMPIRESto face page 194

! III. T HE JEWISH C OMMUNI TY IN PALEST INE DUR INGT HE PERS IA N A N D GREEK PE RIOD S

to face page 199

XIV. T HE JERUSA LEM O F NE HEMIA H to face page 203

XV. PALEST INE IN T HE MA C A B E A N PERIOD .to facepage 207

! VI. PALEST INE IN TIME O F JES US to facepage 236

xvi ii

PA R T I

PHY S IC A L G E O G R APHY

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T H E

O L D T E S T A M E N T

W O R L D .

Ferti le Land D esert A rid Steppe

M E 07 fi ll.“an a» m w

THE GENERAL C HARAC TER ISTIC S OF THE

BIBLIC AL WOR LD

Extent of the Bibl icalWorld. In its widest bounds, thebiblical world included practically allthe important centres of

early human civi lization . Its western outpost was the t ni

cian city O fTarshish In southern Spain (about 5°West longitude)

and its eastern outpost did not extend beyond the C aspian Seaand Persian Gulf (about 55

°east longitude) . Its southern

horizon was bounded by the land O f Ethiopia (about 5°south

latitude) and its northern by the Black Sea (about 45° north

lati tude) . Thus the Old and New Testament world extendedfu lly sixty degrees from east to west, but at the most not morethan fifty degrees from north to south . With the exception ofArabia, all of these lands gather about the Mediterranean, foralthough the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates ultimatelyfind their way into the Indian Ocean , the people living in thesefertile valleys ever looked toward the Mediterranean and forthe most part found the ir field for conquest and commerce inthe west rather than in the east and south.C ondi tions Favorable to Early C ivi l izations. The greaterpart of this ancient world consisted O f wastes of water, of buming sands or O f dry, rocky, pasture lands. Less than one-fifthwas arable soil, and yet the ti llable strips along the river valleyson the eastern and northern Mediterranean were extremelyferti le. Here In four O f five favored cen tres were supplied invarying measure the conditions requisite for a strong primitivecivilization : (1) a warm, but not enervating climate ; (2) a

3

fierh'

l'

e and easi ly cultivated territory which enabled the inhabitants to store up a surplus of the things necessary for life ; (3) ageographical unity that made possible a homogeneous andclosely knit poli tical and socia l organization ; (4) a pressurefrom without which spurred the people on to constant activityand effort ; (5) an opportunity for expansion and for intercommun ication

'with other strong nations. T he result was thatthe lands about the eastern Mediterranean were the scenes O f

the world’

s earliest culture and history. From these centresemanated the great civic, poli tical, inte llectual, artistic, moral,and re ligious ideas and ideals that sti ll strongly influence thelife and faith of the nations that rule the world . The characterof each O f these early civi lizations was in turn largely shapedby the natural environment amidst which it arose .Egypt’s C l imate and Resources. The land of the Nile was

peculiarly favorable for the development of an exceedinglyearly ci vilization. Lying near the equator and between extended areas of hot, dry desert, it possessed an almost perfectcl imate . While warm , it was never excessively hot, thanks tothe fresh north winds which blew from the sea. The desertkept the atmosphere dry and cloudless through at least clovenmonths in the year. The narrow strip O f alluvial soil whichconstituted the real land of Egypt was pract ically inexhaustible .T he Nile, which rose during the hot summer months, furnishedabundant water for irrigation . At the same time the necessityfor constant activity in ord er to develop the full resources of theland was a valuable incentive to industry. Finally , the uniformity of the Nile val ley furnished an excellent basis for aunified social and politica l O rganization .

Its Isol ation and Limi ta tions. At first Egypt's isolationfavored, but in the end fatally impeded the development of itscivi lization . On every side it was shut in, not only by mi les O frocky desert on the east and west, but also on the north andsouth by almost impassable barriers. In the south the fertileterritory narrows to a mere ribbon , with no natural highwaysby land, whi le several great cataracts cut oilapproach by water.

4

ITS ISOLATION AND LIMITATION S

On the north the Nile broadens out into a great immssablemarsh with on ly two narrow gateways. One of these is themain western arm of the Nile , which reaches the Mediterraneannear Alexandria ; the other is the Wady T umilat, which runsfrom the Isthmus of Suez through the biblical land of Goshento the Nile valley. In early centuries these few narrow and un

inviting avenues of approach on the north and south wereeasi ly guarded . The result was that the Egyptians, at a veryearly date, atta ined a high stage of cu lture , but they lacked thatst imulus from wi thout which is essen tial to the highest development. Once or twice, as in the days of the Hyksos and Ethiopian invasions, fore igners prmsed into the land , and as a resultthe centuries immediate ly following were the most glorious inEgypt’s history. In general, however, the civi lization of theNile valley was deficient in depth and idealism . It was grosslymaterial ; it developed too easi ly and the people were too conten ted . Even on the art istic side the bri ll iant promise of theearlier cen turies fai led of fruition . Moreover, the protectingnatural barriers proved constricting, so that there was littleopportunity for expansion. Hence Egypt’8 civi lization was always provincia l and by 500 B .0 . had ceased to develop . Fromthis time on the people of the Nile tamely submitted to thesuccession of foreign conquerors who have ever s ince ruled overthis garden land of the eastern world .

C ond i tions in the T igris-Euphrates Valley . Physicalconditions in the Tigris-Euphrates valleysimi lar to thwe along the Nile. A warm but invigoratingclimate, fertile, alluvial soi l, deposi ted by the great rivers andrenewed eachyear by the floods, and the protect ion of the deserton the west favored the developmen t of a viri le civi lization, asearly if not earlier than that of Egypt. Starting from the samenorthern mountains, the two great ri vers find their way to thePersian Gulf by widely different ocumes . The Tigri s flowssou theast in a comparatively direct course of eleven hundredmiles . Its name,

“T he Arrow,

” suggests the rapidity of itsdescent. T he Euphrates, on the contrary, makes a long de

5

THE BIBLIC AL WORL D

tour westward toward the Medi terranean and then turns tothe southeast, where for the greater part of the last half of itsone thousand eight hundred miles it flows through the desert.The lands lying between the lower waters of these great riverswere by nature fitted to become the home of the earliest civi liastion. At a very early period these level plains attracted thenomadic tribes from the neighboring desert. Here they foundsoil that was exceedingly ferti le, but covered to a great extent bythe overflow of the great rivers. To be made productive it hadto be drained in the flood and irrigated in the dry season by an

extensive system of canals and reservoirs. Hence this regionfurnished powerful incentives to develop an energetic, enterprising civi lization. T he absence of natural barriers in thelevel plains of Babylonia and the uniformity of its physicalcontour meant that in time all the Tigris-Euphrates valleywould inevitably be brought under one rule.Forces D eveloping Its C ivi l izat ion . Unlike Egypt, Baby

lonia was constantly subject to those thrusts fromwithout whichwere essential to a great civi lization. From the Arabian desertcame nomadic invaders and from the mountains to the east andnorth and probably from northern Syria powerfu l, warlikepeoples who either spurred the river dwellers on to strenuousactivity in order to repel the hosti le attacks or else as conquersors infused new blood and energy into the older races. Onthe other hand, the absence of constraining barriers gave am

ple opportunity for naturalgrowth and expansion. The greatrivers were the highways of commerce and conquest. Thenecessi ty of defence also suggested the advantages of conquest.The result was that at a very early period the armies of Babylonia had penetrated the mountains to the east and north andhad carried their victorious rule as far as the shore of theMediterranean on the west . Traders followed the armies, bearing the products of Babylonian art and in turn enriching thehome-land with thom of other nations. It was thus that Babylonia in time became not only the mistress of the ancientworld, but also one of the chief centres from which emanated

6

FORC ES DEVELOPING ITS C IVILIZATION

political, legal, artistic, and re ligious ideas and institutions thatinfluenced all the peoples living about the eastern Mediter

C ivilization of Arabia. Very differentwas the site of thethird Semitic civi lization. The eastern shores of the RedS ea are rocky and barren . No important streams or harborsare found along this cheerless coast. The eastern slope of therange of mountains that runs parallel to the R ed Sea is, however, one of the garden lands of the East. T he clouds, chi lledby the mountains, deposit their rains here, while mountainstreams make it possible by irrigation to transform this partof Arabia into a rich agricultural land . Here from an earlyperiod was found a high type of civi lization . C limate, so i l

,

and the spur of foreign invasion fostered its developmen t. Its

products were famous throughout the ancient world. But itwas in the highest degree iso lated from the stream of the world’

s

progress. I ts one means of communication with outs ide nations was by the caravans which crossed the deserts. Hence acertain halo of mystery always surrounded this distant civi lization . Like that of Egypt, it lacked opportunity for expansion andcommunication and so fai led to rise above a certain leve l or tomake any deep or significant impression upon the other Semitic

P hysical C haracteristi cs of Syria and Palestine. In

marked contrast with Arabiawas the strip of hill and mountaincountry lying on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, known inlater times as Syria and Palestine. The dominant feature in thispart of the Semitic world was the southern spurs of the Taurusmountains, which here run parallel with the coast in two rangesknown as the Lebanons and the Anti-Lebanons. A warm ,

equable climate and ferti le soi l, especia lly in the broad valleysbetween the mountains, furnish the first necessities for a strongcivi lization . Frequent rain during the winter and many perennialsprings and brooks supply throughout most of this re

gion the water needed for a prosperous, agricu ltural population.

The desert on the east and the mountains in the north were the

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ITALY

the beautiful clear lakes on the heights the descent is suddento the malarial marshes in the lowlands.S i tuati on of R ome. This western slope is cut midwayfrom north to south by the Tiber, next to the Po the largestriver in Italy. To the east the Apennines ri se to their greatestheigrt, insuring a heavy annual rainfall. T he Tiber valley itselfwas one of the earliest highways from eas t to west and was inancien t times the natural division between the highly civi lizedEtruscans on the north and the Latins and the Greek colonieson the south. Here the varied life of ancient Italy met andmingled and the result was a viri le race and a strong, aggressivecivi lization. Its centre was the Palatine bill, a low volcanicmound beside the Tiber, fourteen miles from its mouth . Theuniformity of the Italian territory favored the union of its mixedpopulation under the leadership of R ome its central city.

R eason Why R ome Went Forth to C onquer. Even moreimportant in the development of its culture were the attacksfrom without to which it was constantly exposed. Even thelofty Alps did not prove impassable barriers to the barbarianhordes who were attrac ted by th is ferti le land. Anc ient Italy,encircled by the sea and plentifully provided with open harborson the east and south,was never free from the dread of fore ignattack. N ot untilR ome had conquered the powerful nationsliving on even the most distant shores of the Mediterraneancould she feel secure in her cen tral position . It was this constant fear, as well as the influen ce of her commanding position,that made R ome in time the mistress of the Mediterranean.From the East she received a century or two later than Greeceallthat the old civi lizations cou ld give, both of good and evil.This inheritance she in turn gave to the western world towardwhich she faced and to which she be longed . Thus Romewasthe great connecting link between the East and the West, between the ancient and the modern world .

R esume. The bibl ical worldwas, bo th in extent and pointof time, identical with the anc ient civilized world . T he cut

look of the biblical writers was at first limited to the eastern Med11

THE BIBLIC AL WORLD

iterrancan, but was gradually broadened until it included practically all the peoples living about the great inland sea. Simi larlythe life and faith of the Hebrews, at first local, became in timeworld-wide. Each of the ancient races followed the lines of developmentmarked out by theirgeographical environment. Twocivi lizations— that of the Hebrews and that of the Greekslacking a suitable background for local growth and expansion,went forth to conquer and transform the life and and

faith of allthe

T HE GENERAL C HAR AC TER ISTIC S OFPALESTINE

History of the T erms Palestine and Canaan . T he termPalestine, originally applied to the home of Israel’s foes, thePhi listines,was used by the Greeks as a des ignation of southernSyria, exclusive of Phcenicia. T he Greek historian Herodotuswas the first to employ it in this extended sense. T he R omansused the same term in the form Palest ina and through them the

term Palest ine has become the prevai l ing name in the westernworld of the land once occupied by the Israelites and theirimmediate neighbors on the east and west. The history of theolder name C anaan (Lowland) is similar. In the Tell el-AmarnaLetters, written in the fourteenth century B . c ., C anaan is limitedto the coas t plains ; but as the C anaanites, the Lowlanders,began to occupy the inland plains the use of the term was ex

tended un ti l it became the designation of allthe territory fromthe Mediterranean to the Jordan and D ead S ea valley. Itdoes not appear, however, to have ever been applied to the

Bounds of Palestine. Palest ine lies between the easternshore of the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian desert. Its

northern boundary is the southern slope of Mount Hermonand the R iver Litany, as it turns abruptly to flowwestward intothe Mediterranean. Palestine begins where the Lebanons and

Anti-Lebanons break into a series of elevated plateaus . Its

southern boundary is the varying line drawn east from the

southeastern end of the Mediterranean a litt le south of theDead Sea at the point where the hi lls of Judah and the South

13

C HARACTERISTIC S OF PALESTINE

C ountry descend to the desert. Palestine therefore lies between33° 30’ and 31° north latitude and 34° and 37° east longitude.Its approximate width is about a hundred mi les and its lengthfrom north to south only about a hundred and fifty miles . Itis, therefore, about the size of the State of Vermon t.G eological History. The geological history of Palestine

is somewhat complex, but exceed ingly i lluminating. The underlying rock is granite. This is now almost completely concealedby later layers of sandstone (which appears in Edom and theeast ordan), dolomitic and nummulitic limestone and marl.During the earlier geological periods the land was en tirelycovered by the waters of the sea. Probably at the close of thePliocene period came the great volcanic upheaval which gave toSyria and Palestine their distinctive character. It left a hugerift running from north to south throughout Syria. This riftis represented to-day by the valley between the Lebanons and

its continuation, the valley of the Jordan and Dead S ea. Fur

ther south it may be traced through the Wady Arabah and theGulf of Akaba. This vast depression is the deepest to be foundanywhere on the earth’s surface. T he same great volcanic upheavalgave to the mountains along the western coast their decided northern and southern trend and the peculiar cl iff- l ikestructure which characterizes their descen t to the western shore.Through the centuries frequent and severe earthquakes havebeen felt along the borders of this ancient rift, and they are

sti ll the terror of the inhabitants, even as in the days of theHebrew prophets .

Alluv ia l and Sand Deposi ts . Until a comparatively lategeological period the sea came to the foot of the mountains.T he coast rose gradually and has later been built up by theprocess of erosion that has cut down the moun tains, es peciallyon the western side, where the rainfallwas heaviest. T he plainsalong the shore have thus been enriched by vast alluvial deposits . Very difl

'

erentwas the deposit of Nile sed iment, whichwas blown in from the sea by the western winds, leaving a wideborder of yellow sand along the coast of Palestine.

14

GENERAL D IVISIONS

G eneral D ivis ions . Palestine is sharply divided by natureinto four divisions or zones, which extend in parallel lines fromnorth to Along the Great Sea lie the narrow coastpla ins which broaden in the south into the plains of Sharonand Philistia. The second zone is the central plateau

,with

hills three to four thousand feet in height in the north, whichsink by stages to the large Plain of Esdraelon. South of thisgreat plain lie the fertile hills of Samaria which in turn mergeinto the stern hills of Judah . These again descend into the

low, rocky, rolling hills of the South C ountry . T he third zoneis the Jordan and D ead Sea valley which begins at the foot ofMount Hermon and rapidly sinks, untilat the D ead S ea it isone thousand two hundred and ninety-two feet below the sur

face of the ocean . T he fourth zone inc ludes the elevatedplateaus which extend east of the Jordan and Dead Sea out intothe rocky Arabian desert.Variety in Phys ical C on tour. T he first striking charac

teristic of Palest ine is the great variety in physical contour,climate, flora, and fauna to be found wi th in its narrow compassof less than fifteen thousand square miles. C oast pla ins, inland valleys, elevated plateaus, deep, hot gorges, and glimpsesof snow-clad mountains are all included within the closestpossible bounds. In a journey of from two to three days thetraveller from west to east passes from the equable, balmyc limate of the Mediterran ean coast to the comparatively co ldhighlands of the central plateau and then down into the moist,tropical climate of the hot Jordan and Dead Sea valley. Thencehe mounts the highlands of Gilead or Moab, where the sun

beats down hot at noonday, while the temperature falls lowat

night and deep snows cover the hilltops in winter. The hillsof the central plateaus, covered with the trees of the temperatezone, overhang the palms and tropical fru it trees of the coastplains and Jordan valley.

‘ T he numbers in parentheses refer to the stereographs or stereopt iconpictures that illust rate the sect ion in which the reference is found . C f.,for detail descript ions, A ppendix II.

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OPENNES S TO THE ARABIAN DESERT

institutions of the desert. Lo ve of freedom, suspicion of allcentralized government and fierce rivalry between tribes andpetty peoples— these are but a fewof the characteristics of

Palestine’

s history that are primari ly due to its openness toArabia.A bsence of N avigable R ivers and G ood Harbors. Pal

estine, on the other hand, is shut off from close commercialcontact with other peoples. N0 great waterway invited thetrader and warrior to go out and conquer the rest of the world.

Instead, in the early periods when men depended chiefly uponcommunication by river or sea, Palestine shut in its inhabitantsand tended to develop an intensive rather than an extensivecivilization. I ts one large river, the Jordan, flows, not into theocean, but into a lowinland sea, whose only outlet is by evaporation. The coast l ine of Palestine is also characterized by thelack of a single good harbor. At Joppa, at the northwesternend of C armel, and at Tyre the otherwise straight shore linecurves slightly inland ; but at each of these po ints there is no

natural protection from the severe western gales. T he P hoeni

cians, shut in by the eastern mountains, dared the peri ls of thedeep ; but to the early peoples of Palestine the Great S eawas,on the whole, a barrier rather than an invitation to commerceand conquest.Incent ives to Industry. T he physical characteristics of

Palestine were well fitted to develop active, industrious inhabitants. The constant pressure on their borders by Arabs,who could be held back only by a strong, organized civilization,was a powerfu l spur. T he natural division of the land amongindependent and usually hosti le races made eternal activityand watchfu lness the price that must be paid for l ife and freedom. Popular tradition, based on a fact that pre-eminently impresses every traveller in the land to-day, states that the fabledTitan, whowas sent to scatter stones over the face of the earth ,distributed them equally over Europe and Africa, but thatwhen he came to Asia and was passing through Syria, his bagbroke, depositing its contents on Palestine. Throughout most

17

C HARAC TER ISTIC S OF PALESTINE

of its territory the rich soil can be cultivated only as the stonesare gathered either in huge heaps or fences. The ferti lityof the plains can be utilized only as the waters of the mountainbrooks are used for irrigation. It is, therefore, a land that bredhardy men, strong of muscle, resourceful, alert, and, ac tive inmind and body.Incen tives to Fa i th and Moral C ulture. Another sti ll

more significant characteristic of Palestine was the powerfulincentive which it gave to the development of the faith of its inhabitants . The constant presence of Arab invaders powerfullyemphasized their dependen ce upon their God or gods. Thechanging climate of Palestine deepened that sense of dependence.N o great river like the Nile or the Euphrates brought its unfailing supply of water, and water was essential to life. Thewaters came down from heaven, or else burst like amiracle fromthe rocky earth . If the latter rains fai led to fillthe cisterns andenrich the springs and rivers, drought, with all its train ofwoes, was inevitable. Little wonder that the ancient C anaanites revered nature deities, and that they, l ike the Greeks,worshipped the spirits of the springs, and especially those fromwhich came their dashing rivers. Locusts, earthquakes, andpesti lence in the lowland frequently brought disaster. Inallof these mysterious calamities primitive peoples saw thedirect manifestation of the De ity. In the fourth chapter ofhis prophecy, Amos clearly voiced this wide-spread popularbe lief

I also it was who withheld from you the rain,And I sent rain upon one city,While upon another I did not let it rain,Y et ye did not return to me,

” is the oracle of Jehovah.

I smote you with blight and mildew,

I laid waste your gardens and v ineyards,Your fig and your o live trees the young locust devouredYet you did not return to me, is the oracle of Jehovah.

18

INC EN TIVES TO FAITH AND MORAL C ULTUR E

I sent among you a pestilence by theway of Egypt,I slew your youths by the sword, taking captive your horses,And I caused the stench of your camps to rise in your nostri ls,Y et ye did not return to me,

”is the orac le of Jehovah (Am.

Hence in a land like Palestine itwas natural and almost inevitable that men shou ld eagerly seek to know the will of the D eityand should strive to live in accord with it. Itwas a fitting schoo lin which to nurture the race that attained the deepest sense of

the divine presence, the most intense spirit of worship and devotion, and the most exalted moral consciousness.

C en tral and E xposed to A ttack on Every S ide. Palestine,in common with the rest of Syria, held a central position inrelation to the other ancient civilizations. Through it ran the

great highways from Babylon and Assyria to Egypt. Alongits eastern border passed the great road from D amascus and

Mesopotamia to Arabia. Itwas the gateway and key to threecontinents— Africa, Asia, and Europe. From each of these inturn came conquerors— Egyptians and Ethiopians, Babyloniansand Assyrians, Greeks and R omans— against whom the dividedpeoples of Palestine were practically help less. Palestine, because of its physical characteristics and central position wasdestined to be ru led by rather than to ru le over its powerfu lneighbors. And yet this close contact with the powerful nationsof the earth inevitably enriched the civilization and faith of

the peoples living with in th is much contested land. It produced the great political, soc ial, and religious crises that calledforth the Hebrew prophets . It made the Israelites the transmuters and transmitters of the rich heritage received from theircultured neighbors and from their inspired teachers. In turnit gave them their great opportunity, for repeated foreign con

quests and exile enabled them in time to go forth and con

quer, not with the sword of steel, but of divine tru th, and to buildup an empire that knew no bounds of time or space.

S ign ificance of Palest ine’s C haracterist ics. Thus the

more important characteristics of Palestine are richly suggestive19

C HARA CTER ISTIC S OF PALESTINE

of the unfolding of Israel’s life and of the rele that Judaism andC hristianity were destined to play in the world’s history. Palestine is the scene of the earlier stages of God’

s supreme revelation of himself and his purpose to man and throughman.

The more carefu lly that revelation is studied the clearer it appears that the means whereby it was perfected were natural andnot contra-natural. The stony hills and valleys of Palestine,the unique combination of seaand plain, ofmountain and desert,placed in the centre of the ancient world, were allsi lent buteffective agents in realizing God’

s eternal purpose in the life

of man.

THE C OAST PLAINS

E x tent and C haracter. The eastern shore of the Mediter

ranean is skirted by a series of low- lying coast pla ins , from one

to five miles wide in the north to twenty-five miles wide in thesouth. At two po ints in Palestine the mountains come downto the sea ; the one is at the ao-called Ladder of Tyre, aboutfifteen miles south of the c ity from wh ich it is named. Herethe precipitous clifi

'

s break direct ly over the sea . The otherpoint is at C armel, which, however, does not touch the sea directly, but is bounded on its western end by a strip of plainabout two hundred yards wide. The soil of these coast plainscons ists of alluvial deposits, largely clay and red quartz sandwashed down in the later geo logical periods from the mountainsof the central plateau and constantly renewed by the annual

Fert i l i ty. Because of the nature of the soil and their position,these plains are among the most fertile spots in allPalestine.

Numerous brooks and rivers rush down from the eastern headlands. Some of these are perennial ; others furnish a supplyof water, which, if stored during the winter in reservoirs on the

heights above, is amply sufficient to irrigate the plains below .

T he average temperature of these coast plains is sixty-e ightdegrees. The cool sea-winds equal ize the climate so that thetemperature changes little throughout the year and there is butslight variation between the north and the south . Under thesefavorable conditions the so il produces in rich abundance a gre atvariety of tropical fruits. Here grow side by side oranges,lemons, apricots, figs, plums, bananas, grapes, olives, pome

21

THE C OAST PLAINS

granates, almonds, citrons, and a great variety of vegetables,aswell as the cereals of the higher altitudes.D ivi s ions. The coast p lains of Palest ine fall naturally into

four great divisions, broken by two mountain barriers. Thenorthern is the Plain of Tyre, which is the southern continuation of the rich plains about Sidon. The second division is thePlain of Acre, which lies d irectly south of the Ladder of Tyreand extends to C armel. T he third is the P lain of Sharon,which begins at the south of C armeland merges opposite Joppainto the ever widening Plain of Phi listia.Plain of T yre. Throughout the Plain of Tyre the low

foot-hi lls come down with in a mile of the sea ; but for five orsix mi les back from the coast they must be reckoned as a partof the same division, for their natural and political associationsare all with the coast rather than with the uplands . T he c ityof Tyre was originally built on an island (2) andwas suppliedwith water from the Spring of Tyre, near the shore about fivemiles to the south . The four great perennial rivers of t n ic ia

were the Litany (the present Nahr el-Kasimiyeh, a fewmilesnorth of Tyre) , the ZaherAn i, south of Sidon, the Nahr el

Auwal i, which was the anc ient B ostrenus that watered theplain to the north of Sidon, and the Nahr cd-Damur which wasthe T amyras of the ancients . Many springs in the plain andon the hi llsides contribute to the ferti lity of this land, whichwas the home of the Phcen icians . At the best the narrownessof the terri tory, which supported only a very limi ted popula tion,made it necessary for th is enterprising race to find an outletelsewhere. Long before the days of the Hebrews their colonieshad extended down the coast plains to Joppa and northward tothe Eleutherus (the present Nahr cl-Kebir, north of Tripo li) .The n ineteenth chapter of Judges refers to the Sidonian colonyat Laish (later the Hebrew Dan) at the foot of Mount Hermon ; but, with this exception, there is no evidence that theyever attempted to plant colonies in land. Instead they foundtheir great outlet in the sea to the west. Launching their smal lcraft from the smooth sands that extend crescen t~shaped to the

22

PLAIN O F T Y RE

north and to the south of their chief cities, Tyre and Sidon,they skirted the Mediterranean, co lonizing its islands and shoresunti l a line of P hten ician settlemen ts extended from one endof the Great Sea to the o ther. Thus they were the first to openthat great door to the western world through which passed not

on ly the products of Semitic art and industry, but also in timethe immortal messages of Israel’s inspired prophets , priests, andsages, and of h im who spoke as never man spoke before .

T he Plain of Acre . For ten miles to the sou th of the Plainof Tyre the coast plain is almost completely cut off by the mountains, which at Ras el-A bjad, the Wh ite Promontory of theR oman wri ters, and at Ras en-N akurah push out into the sea.

The great coast road runs along the cl iffs h igh above the watersin the rock-cut road made by Egyptian, Assyrian, and R omanconquerors. T he Plain of Acre, less than five miles wide inthe north, widens to ten miles in the south . Four perennialstreams water its fertile fields. On the west the sand fromthe sea has swept in at places for a mile or more, blocking upthe streams in the south and transforming large areas intowetmorasses. In ancient times, however, most of the sou thernpart of the plain (like the northern end at present)was probablyin a h igh state of cu ltivation. Many large tells or ruined moundstestify that it once supported a dense population. During mostof i ts history this plain was held by the P hcenicians or theirGreek and R oman conquerors, but at certain times the Hebrews appear to have here reached the sea.

C arme l . T he most striking object on the western side of

centra l Palestine is the bo ld elevated plateau of C armel. Except for the little strip of lowland on its seaward side, it completely in terrupts the succession of coast plains. Its formationis the same as that of the central p lateaus. V iewing Palestineas a whole, it would seem that C armel had s lipped out of itsnaturalpos ition, leaving the open Plain of Esdraelon and destroying the otherwise regu lar symmetry of the land. Its long,slightly waving sky- l ine, as it rises abruptly above the plains of

Acre and Esdraelon, commands the landscape for miles to the23

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PLAIN O F SHARON

are found on this plain ; but its res ources were never fu lly developed, for it was the highway of the nations. Across it ranthe great coast road from Egypt to Phoenicia in the northand to Damascus and Babylonia in the northwest. Phoenician,Philistine, and Israelite held this plain in turn, but on ly in partand temporarily, for having no natural defences , it was open toall the world.

The Ph i l is tine Plai n . The only natural barrier that separates the plains of Sharon and Phi listia is the riverwhich comesdown in two branches from the eastern hills, one branch leadingwestward past the Beth-herons and the other through the Valleyof Ajalon. After much twist ing and turning, and under manylocal names, this, the largest ri ver south of C armel, finds thesea a l ittle north of Joppa. Southward the P lain of Philistia,about forty mi les in length, broadens unti l it is twenty mileswide. The lowhills of the P lain of Sharon change first intolong, rolling swells and then throughout much of the distancesettle into an almost abso lutely leve l pla in . In the sou thwestthe sands of the sea have come in many miles. Ashkelon nowlies between a sea of water and a sea of sand . At many otherpoints the yellow waves are steadily engu lfing the cultivatedfie lds. Three perennial streams, with sprawling confluen ts,cut the ir muddy course across this rich alluvial p lain. It is oneof the important grain fields of Palestine, for the subsoi l is constantly saturated with the moisture which falls in abundance inthe winter and spring. No barns are necessary, for the grainis thrashed and stored out under the rain less summer skies. Itis a land well fitted to support a rich and powerfulagriculturalcivi lization. Like all the coast p lains, it is wide open to thetrader and to the invader. Its possessors were obliged to beever ready and able to defend their homes from allfoes. Its

inhabitants necessari ly dwelt in a few strongly guarded ci ties .

Here in ancient times, especially on the eastern side , were foundthe city-dwel ling C anaanites. Later the valiant, energeticPhi listines established their title to these fruitfu l plains and

maintained it for centuries by sheer enterprise and force of

25

THE C OAST PLAINS

arms . The chief Phi listine ci ties were E kronaand Ashdod in

the north, Askelon by the shore, qui te close to the Judean foothills and Gaza (5) in the southwest. Except during the heroicMaccabean age, the Israe li tes never succeeded and apparentlynever seriously attempted to dispute this title. Lying on thehighway that ran straight on along the coast to Egypt, this partof Palestine was most exposed to the powerfu l influences thatcame from the land of the Nile. The oldest Egyptian inscriptions, as wellas the results of recent excavations, all reveal thewide exten t of th is influence.The Shephelah or Lowland. Along the eastern side of the

Phi listine plain, from the valley of Ajalon southward, runs aseries of low- lying foot-hills, which are separated from the centralplateau of Palestine by broad, shal low valleys running northand south.

(5) This terri torywas called by the biblical wri ters,the S hephelah or Lowland. These low chalk and limestonehi lls, with their narrow glens, their numerous caves and brokenrocks, was the debatable ground between pla in and hill country.Sometimes it was held by the inhabitants of the plain, sometimesby those of the hill country ; always i t was the battle-field between the two. Even to-day it is spamely inhabited, the hauntof the Bedou in tribes, whose presence is clearest evidence of

the difficulties that the localgovernment experiences in controlling this wild border land. Like the Scottish lowlands, th isregion is redolent with the memories of ancient border warfare .

It is also richly suggestive of one phase of that severe trainingwhich through the long centuries produced a race with a mission and a message to all the world.

THE PLATEAU OF GALILEE AND THE PLAIN OFESDRAELON

Physi caland Pol i t icalSign ificance of the C entralPlateau .

The backbone of Palestine is the great central plateau . Itwasin this important zon‘e that the drama of Israel’s history waschiefly enacted . Here was the true home of the Hebrews.By virtue of its position this central zone natu rally commandedthose to the east and west. For one brief period the Philistinesfrom the western coast pla in nearly succeeded in conqueringand ruling allPalest ine ; but otherwise, until the world powersou tside began to invade the land, the centre of power lay amongthe hi lls. This significant feature of Palestinian history is dueto two facts : (1) that inwar the great advantage lies with thepeop le who hold the higher em inences and so can fight fromabove ; and (2) that the rugged uplands usually produce morevirile, energetic, liberty- loving people. At the same time itmay be noted that, while the centre of power lay among thehi lls, the hill-dwellers never succeeded in conquering completelyor in holding permanently the zones to the east and west. 80

firmly were the invisible bounds of each zone established thatthe dwellers in one were never able wholly to overleap thesereal though intangible lines and to weld together the diversetypes of civi lization that sprang up in these different regions, sonear in point of distance, yet really so far removed from each

N atural and P oli ti cal Bounds. A part of the northernplateau bore even in early Hebrew days the name of Galilee,the C ircle or the Region (I Kings, II Kings, Josh.

At first this region appears to have been confined to a27

THE PLATEAU OF GALILEE

small area about Kedesh, where the Hebrew and older Gentilepopulationmet and mingled. Gradually the name was extended ,unti l in the Maccabean and Roman period Gali lee includedall of the central plateau north of the Plain of Esdraelon as far asthe Litany itse lf. Its western boundary lay where the centralplateau descends to the foot-hills and coast plains of Tyre andAcre, and its eastern was the abrupt cliffs of the Jordan valley.These were its natural boundaries ; but Josephus, whose knowledge of Gali lee was peculiarly personal, includes in it the townsabout the Lake of Gennesaret (commonly designated in theNew Testamen t as the Sea of Gali lee) , the P lain of Esdraelonand even Mount C armel (cf. Jewish Wars, II, II I,Its Extent and N aturalD ivisions. Defined by its narrower

natural bounds, Galilee is about thirty miles wide from east towest, and nearly fifty m iles long from north to south . It comprises an area, therefore , of a little less than fifteen hundwdsquare miles . It falls into two clearly marked divisions : (1)Upper Galilee with its rolling elevated plateaus, bounded onthe east and west by hills which rise rapidly to the height of between two thousand and four thousand feet ; and (2) LowerGalilee, lying to the south of an irregular line drawn westwardfrom the northern end of the Lake of G ennesaret to Acre onthe shore of the Mediterranean . This division line is marked bythe Wady Amud and the Wady et-T ufl

'

ah, which flow into thenorthwestern end of the Lake of Gennesaret, and the series ofplains which cut from east to west through Galilee to a pointopposite Acre. This second division includes the lower hi lls,which extend southward from the high plateaus of northernGali lee, making an irregu lar terrace, never over n ineteen hundred feet high and gradually sloping to the Plain of Esdraelon,which sends out several low valleys to meet and intersect thedescending hills. Th is clear-cut l ine of division was recognizedboth by Josephus and the Talmudic wri ters.Physica l C haracterist ics of Upper G al ilee. The elevated

hil ls of upper Gali lee constitute, there fore, the first terrace thatflanks the southern part of the Lebanons. The deep clefts be

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C HARACTERISTIC S OF UPPER GALILEE

tween the higher Lebanons and Anti-Lebanons to the north heredisappear. Even the Litany turns abruptly westward on thenorthern border of Gali lee, leaving a broad mass of roundedlimestone hills, greatly weathered by frost and rain. At a distance this mass looks like a mountain range, but it cons ists inrea lity of a high roll ing plateau, cut by irregular valleys. Thisplateau of upper Gali lee reaches its highest elevation in a linedrawn northwest from Safed, which was probably

“the cityset on a hi ll” of the Gospel record .

(7) The mountain on whichSafed stands is two thousand seven hundred and fifty feet abovethe sea, whi le to the northwest Jebel Jermak, the highest mountain of Galilee, rises to the height of three thousand nine hundredand thirty-four feet. From this point many fertile upland val

leys radiate to the northwest, the north, the northeast, and theeast, but m e to the south. Thus upper Galilee presents itsboldest front to the south, towering high above lower Galileeand slop ing to the north un til it meets the mounta ins of thesouthern Lebanons. On the southeast it s lopes gradually downto the Jordan and Lake Huleh, where two brooks come downfrom the plain of Hazor. Farther north the hills rise veryabruptly from the Jordan and present a front unbroken by anyimportant streams. At many points on this eastern slope lavastreams have left their bo ld deposit of trap-rock. On the northwest the descent to the coast plains is very gradual and regu lar,but farther south the hills jut out abruptly to the sea. UpperGali lee is an open region with splendid vistas of the blue coastline of the Mediterranean on the west, of C armel and the Samariahills on the south, of the lofty almost unbroken line of the plateauof the Hauran and Gilead on the east ; whi le the Lebanonstower on the north, and above them allrises the massive peak ofHermon, long into the springtime clad rn cold, dazzling whiteness. Galilee, as a whole, was a land well fitted to bre ed en

thusiasts and men of vision, intolerant al ike of the inflexiblerule of R ome and of the constricting priestcraft of Jerusalem .

The Talm‘

ud states that the Gal ileans were ever more anxiousfor honor than for money.

29

T HE PLATEAU or GALILEE

Its Fert i l i ty. Upper Gali lee was also a land of great fertility. The one limitation was the profusion of rocks strewn es

pecially over the northern part. But if the Lebanons havepoured their stones over northern Gali lee, they have com

pensated with the wealth of waters which run through the valleys and break out in springs or else are scattered in dashingshowers and deposited in heavy dews upon its rich so il. Wherewars and conquest have not denuded the land, trees grow tothe summits of the hills and grass and flowers flourish everywherein greatest profusion . It is a land of plenty, sunshine, beauty,and contentment. Significant is the fac t that it figures so li ttlein Israel’s troubled history, for happy is the land that has nohistory. Josephus’s statement that in h is day Galilee had a

population of nearly three millions is undoubtedly an exaggera

tion. Even though, as in some parts of the land to-day, the

vi llages almost touched each other and no part of the land layidle, Galilee could not have supported more than four or fivehundred thousand inhabitants (of.Masterman, S tudies in G alilee,131

C haracterist ics of Lower G ali lee. Lower Galilee possessesthe fertility of upper Gali lee in even greater measure . Witha lower elevation and slightly warmer climate it bears a largevariety of trees and fru its . Its valleys are also broader and

lower and enriched with the soi l washed down from the hills.

The broad , lowplain of A soch is (the present Sahel el-B uttauf)lies a little north of the heart of lower Galilee and from it valleys radiate to the northeast, southwest, and southeast. Anotherbroad plain runs northeast from the Plain of Esdraelon to theneighborhood of Nazareth and Mount Tabor, and east ofTabor sti ll another extends down to the Jordan R iver. T he

rounded top of Mount Tabor commands a marvellous view oflower Gali lee. Across the fertile fields to the northeast lies theS ea of Gali lee, shut in by its steep banks, and beyond it themountain plateau of the Jaulan .

(3) Across the valley to the southis the Hill of Moreh and the Samari tan hills beyond“) Twoperennial brooks, the Wady Fejjas and the Wady cl-Bireh,

30

C HARACTERISTIC S OF LOWER GALILEE

flowdown through southeastern Gali lee into the Jordan . T he re

sult is that lower Galilee is made up of a series of irregu lar hills(of which the Nazare th group, a li ttle south of the centre , is the

chief) separated by a network of broad , rich, intersecting plains.

It combines the vistas and large horizons of the north with thefruitfulness of the plains. Here many difl

’

erent types of civilization meet and mingle. Instead of being remote and provincial, as is sometimes mistakenly supposed, lower Galilee isclose to the heart of Palestine and open to all the varied infineness which radiate from that little world . It is also intersected by a network of little wadys running in every directionfrom its open valleys and through its low- lying hills. Thus itwas bound closely not only to the rest of Pales tine, but also tothe greater world that lay beyond .

S i tuati on and Bounds of the Pla in of Esdraelon . T he

Plain of Esdraelon is the last of the great terraces by whichthe Lebanons descend on the south to the sea- leve l. The plainitself lice only about two hundred feet above the level of theMediterranean and to the east sinks toward the Jordan to belowthe sea-level. Its shape is that of an equiangular triangle. Itsbase lies close under the northeast side of Mount C armel and istwen ty miles long running from Tel l el-Kasis to Jenln . I ts northern line runs along the foot of the Nazare th bills for fifteen milesto a point oppod te Moun t Tabor. The eastern boundary,from Tabor to Jenln is also about fifteen miles in length butless regular. Moreh or Little Hermon and Mount Gilboa jutout into the plain, which sends down toward the Jordan twobroad valleys, of which the most important is the plain of Jez

reel to the north of The watershed between thesetwo plains is near the modern village of Zerin which stood notfar from the ancien t Jezreel.Plain of Jam ] . The Plain of Jezreel extends like a great

broad valley almost due cast for about fifteen miles un til itreaches the Jordan . Through it runs the Nahr Jalod with itsperennial paral lel streams . Where the Plain of Jezreel jo insthe low- lying Jordan valley stands the guard ian of the gate

31

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C EN TRAL AND C O MMA N DING POSITION

C entral and C ommand ing Posit ion . The Plain of E sdraelon, like the Plain of Sharon, was a great highway of the

nations. Through the broad valleys which lead into it camefrom every quarter the invaders, whether for peaceful or vio lentconquest, for here allthe important roads converged . On itswestern border ran the great coast road fromEgypt to Phoenicia.

T he eastern branches of the road also entered the plain from the

south through three different avenues. The one was throughthe valley which led from the Plain of Sharon to the southeasternend of Mount C armel. Still more direct and easywas the approach through northwestern Samaria along the Wady Arah,past the famous old fortress of Megiddo . T he thirdwas farther east along the broad Plain of D othan to Engann im, the

present Jenin, and thence along the eastern side of the Plain of

Esdraelon. These h ighways in turn connected with those whichran past Mount Tabor to the popu lous cities on the Lake of

Gennesare t and thence to D amascus and the East. Another important artery of trade ran along the wide, level Plain of Jezreel,

past Bethshean that guarded its eastern gateway (12 ) to the

Jordan and thence northward to D amascus or directly eastwardto Gilead and the desert (cf. chap. IX) .Importance of the P lain in Palestin ian H istory. The

Plain of Esdraelonwas both the door and the key to Palestine.Through it came the ancient conquerors to possess the land . T he

Midianites in the days of Gideon were but a part of that everadvancing Arab horde, wh ich surged up through the Plain of

Jezreel whenever the government of central Palestinewas weak.

On its gently sloping hi l ls from the days of T hotmes III to Na

poleon were waged the great battles that determined the possession of the land . Here, under the leadership of D eborah, theHebrews fought the valian t fight that left them masters of

C anaan and free to pass over the barrier of plain that had h itherto kept apart the tribes oi the north from those of the south.

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T HE HIL L S O F SAMA R IA AN D JUD AH

C haracter of the H ills of Samaria . T he hills of Samariaand Judah are the southern extens ion of the central plateau ofPalestine, and yet, like Galilee and Esdraelon they constitute anindependen t natural unit. N o sharply defined boundary separates them ; rather the one gradual ly merges into the other. Theheights of Samaria and Judah are commonly called mountainsand the term is not entirely inappropriate when applied to therange as a whole ; but the individual peaks are in reality li ttlemore than rounded hills. None of themrise over three thousandfour hundred feet above the sea- level. T he highest rest uponelevated plateaus, so that only two or three of them convey theimpression of towering height and majesty that is ordinari lyassociated with the word mountain . Rather they are a chainof hills which, viewed from the shore of the Mediterranean or

from the heights east of the Jordan , give the impress ion of a boldmountain range. This is especially true as one looks up towardthem from the deep depression of the Jordan and D ead Seavalley, for they completely fi l l the western horizon . The watershed lies on the eastern side of the range. The result is thatthe western bills have been worn down into gradually descendingterraces ; while on the east the deep Jordan valley is exceedinglyabrupt, becoming more so in the south . At certain points thedescent is over twenty-eight hundred feet in n ine miles, and downby the western side of the Dead S ea there is often an almostsheer fal l of between fifteen hundred and three thousand feet.N ortheastern Samari a . T he hills of Samaria fall natu

rally into two great divisions. T he first extends from the plains34

NO R T H EAS T E R N SAMAR IA

of Esdraelon and Jezreel to the one great valley which, following the Wady cl-Ifsim, cu ts through Samaria from the northwestto the sou theast, running between Mount Ebal and Mount G erizim . The territory north of this line resembles lower Galileein many ways. On the east it consists of four ranges of bills,divided by a series of broad valleys fi lled with rich basaltic so iland plentifu lly supplied with water. These valleys and rangesof bills, like Mount C armel, have a general trend from northwest to southeast. The northernmost is Mount Gilboa whichrises with a broad gradual slope on every side, to a height ofbetween one thousand two hundred and one thousand six

hundred and fifty feet. The bare limestone rock crops out atmany points, but villages and cultivated fields are found on itsbroad top. Viewed from this poin t the hills of Samaria rise

gradua lly in great terraces.‘13) T o the east and south ofGilboa

the wide plain about-Bethshean cuts far into central Palestine.Farther sou th the hills of Samaria, as bold rocky headlands,jut far out in to the Jord an val ley. The next great valley southof the Plain of Jezreel is that through which theWady Farah l“)

discharges its plen teous waters into the Jordan. This streamand the Nahr Jalud are the chief western confluents of thelower Jordan.

N orthwestern Samaria . In the northwest the h il ls of Sapmaria descend gradually and are in tersected by wide valleyswhich open into the Plain of Sharon on the west and E s

draelon on the north. None of its hills are over twenty-fivehundred feet in height. Verdure and often trees crown theirsummi ts, while in the valleys are the rich fields of grain or oliveorchard s, watered by springs and rivulets . The chief of thesevalleys is the Plain of D othan, (15) which is connected by lowpasses with the Plain of Sharon on the west and the Pla in of

Esdraelon on the north. Farther south are the moist uplandmeadows known to-day as the “Meadow of Sinking in .

” Thesein turn are connected by an easy pass with the network of plainsthat run southward past Ebal and Geriz im and on the southwest to the city of Samaria and the Wady esh-S hairfl ‘”

35

T HE HILL S OF SAMARIA

The Viewfrom Mount E bal . The one real mormtain ofnorthern Samaria is Ebal, which rises to the height of threethousand and seventy-seven feet. It is a broad rounded mass of

limestone rock running from east to west parallel to Gerizim,

its companion on the south. Its sides, almost to the top, arecovered with gard ens and olive orchards, enclosed by picturesquecactus hedges. It commands the most comprehensive view ofany po int in Palestine. Immediately to the south is the broadcu ltivated back of Mount Gerizim, which lies only a few feetlower than Ebal, while down in the narrow valley between thetwomountains is Nablus, the ancient Shechem. In themore distant horizon is the ascending mass of the southern Samaritanand Judean hillsim On the east the Gilead hills present a lofty,bold sky

- line. Nearer but concealed by the rapidly descendingc l iffs, is the deep valley of the Jordan ; whi le in the foregroundfol lowing the sky- line to the northeas t lies the level plateau of theHauran, which extends to the east of the Sea of Gali lee, and beyond, if the air is c lear, the broad peak of Mount Hermon towers, seventy-five miles away. In the immediate foregro und“)

to the north is the network of open valleys of northern Samariaintersected by the ridges of hills which sweep down from the

northwest toward the Jordan . Beyond is the depression wherelies the Plain of Esdraelon, while still farther to the north risein regu lar terraces lower and upper Gali lee. The broad lowl ine of highlands in the northwest is C armel running out to thesea. In the west the irregular Samaritan hil ls, with theirmanyintersecting valleys, descend leisure ly to the coast plains . B e

yond, only about twenty-five miles away, is the blue Mediterrao

nean with its fringe of yellow sands.Bounds and G eneral C haracteristics of S outhern Samaria. Southern Samaria, which lies to the south and westofMoun t Ebal, extends as far as the Wady Kelt and its northernconfluent, the Wady es-S uwein it, which comes up from ancientJericho to the vicinity of Michmash and Geba. On the southwest it reaches to the Wady Malakeh, which, a l ittle north of

the pass of Beth-boron, under the name Wady ‘Ain ‘A rlk, pene

36

C HARAC TER ISTIC S OF SOUTHER N SAMAR I A

trates nearly to the top of the watershed . In many ways southern Samaria resembles northern Gali lee. It is an elevatedplateau rising gradually from the western coast p lains and cul

minating in the southeast. Baal-Hazor, five miles north of

the pass of Michmash, rising to the height of three thousand, threehundred and eighteen feet, is the highest point in Samaria, andlacks only a few feet of being the highest po int south of the

Plain of Esdraelon.

The descent in the east to the Jordan valley is exceedinglysteep and rocky. Two or three rush ing brooks have cut deepchannels through the barren limestone rocks, which are coveredwith on ly a scanty herbage. Northwest of Jericho rises, as a

terrace leading up to the heights above, the semi-detached massof barren rock known as the Quarantana (Jebel Kurun tul), andsti ll higher up to the west lies the wilderness of Bethaven, andbeyond the rocky h i lls of Mount E phraimfl gl On the highcentral p lateau north of Baal-Hazor are a network of small butopen plains, which run up past Shi loh to the east of MountGerizim. These are fringed by rocky h i l ls, but are themselvesexceedingly well-watered and fruitfu l and are covered to-daywith waving grain fields.Sou thwestern Samaria. T he western part of southern

Samaria is the land of deep but open valleys. Trees and grass,with many well-tilled fields, cover the hills and valleys. C h iefof these valleys which lead up from the plain are the Wadyesh-Shair (the Barley Vale), west of Shechem,

(16) the BrookKanah, the Wady Jib, which first flows south and then westward in to the Wady D eir Ballut, and the Wady ez-Zerka,which, like the Wady Malakeh, finds its outlet into the sea

a little north of Jaffa. Prosperous villages, some capping thesummits of rounded hills, and others far down in sheltered spotsin the deep valleys, are scattered throughout this entire region.

T he site of each was evidently chosen with a viewto defenceagainst the many foes that, from earliest times, have passed up

through the valleys which stand wide open to the west. Likethe rest of Samaria, itwas a land where peace cou ld be secured

37

THE HILL S OF JUDAH

only by the sword and by strong battlements. It was also aland where nature gave rich gifts to those who were strongenough to maintain themselves against allinvaders.T he C entralHeights of Judah . The cen tral plateau of

southern Palestine culminates rn Judea . It rs amass of roundedhills averaging only about fifteen miles wide and not more thanforty miles long. Here erosion has worn away all bold, imposing peaks. T he highest po ints , Mizpah,(20’ the modern NebySamwi l (two thousand, eight hundred and thirty-five feet high),in the north and the heights immediately north of Hebron (thre ethousand, three hundred and seventy feet) , where the southernplateau reaches its maximum elevation, are but rounded hills onthe top of a great plateau . Between these are narrow, rockyval leys, dry during most of the year and strewn with stoneslaid bare by the winter freshets . The landscape lacks distinotive character. The prevailing impression is that of grayand yellow limestone ;umand yet these fields of Judah are not

altogether unproductive, as is amply demonstrated by the

verdant fields in the vicinity of Jerusalem , B ethlehem,(2 2land

Hebron. Occasionally the native soil has been re tained in a little upland plain,(23) as that east of Bethlehem or at Maon andC armel, south of Hebron, or in certain favored valleys, such asHinnom, to the south of Jerusalem. T he soil, which is heldupon the hillsides by the terraces or piles of stone, is exceedinglyfruitful and supports patches of grain, or luxurious vines, or

verdant o live trees, which stand out in striking contrast to thegrim, rocky background.

L ack of Water Supply. Even greater than the lack of soilis the lack of water in Judah . Not a single perennial streamis found within its immediate boundaries . Ezekiel’s vision of

the broad stream running from the temple and irrigating theentire land clearly indicates what he recognized to be its greatneed . Throughout the entire land not a dozen copious springsburst from the dry rock. Jerusalem and Hebron are thus blastand, as a re sult, are sti ll the chief cities of the land. Southwest of Bethlehem are the ao-called Poo ls ofSolomon, the pleate

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LAC K OF WATER SUPPLY

ous waters of which are treasured in huge, ancient, rock-cutreservoirs, from which , in R oman times , they were conductedby high and low level aqueducts to Jerusalem. No snow-c ladLebanons tower above the parched hills of Judah to supplythe much needed waters. To-day the rains of winter rush downthe rocky hills and valleys, where there is little so i l and vegetationto absorb and retain the moisture, leaving the land more denudedthan before. Undoubtedly, when the hills of Judah were properly cultivated, as the pre sence of ru ined terraces and watch-towerseven in the most deserted places indicate they once were, theaspect of the landscapewas very different ; and yet, compared withother parts of Palestine, it was ever barren . Its inhabitantshave always had to struggle for soil and water. In the past, asat present, the chief water supplywas from the rocky cisterns.These were cut on the ins ide in the shape of a huge Orientalwater-jug and placed in a depression in the rock so that theywould be filled by the wash from the winter rains, which are

usually very copious throughout Palestine.W ilderness of Judea . T he eastern slope of the southern

plateaus of Palestine is rightly called a wilderness. Like the

S hephelah or lowland on the west it is a distinct physical division of the west-Jordan land . T he cultivated fields extend onlyfour or five mi les east of the central watershed . Near Jerusalem the barren wilderness comes up and touches the ferti lefields about Bethany.

(24) T he descent on th is eastern side ofJudea to the low- lying D ead S ea is so prec ipitous that the waterfrom the winter rains runs off rapidly and has cut deep channelsthro ugh the soft c lay and limestone cliffs so that irrigation isimmssible .

<25) N o important villages are found in this desolate region except at Engedi, where a beautiful spring burstsout of the cliffs overhanging the Dead Sea and transforms thebarren desert into what seems by contrast a little paradise of

trees and gardens. Otherwise it is a land of dry, rocky, roundedhi lls which descend in a series of three great terraces to the

depths below. Some vegetation is found between the rocks on

the higher uplands. It is the land of the shepherd and of the.39

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VALLEY OF AJALON

several roads lead up to the plateau north of Jerusalem. Ofthese the most important is the one that ascends the pass of theUpper and Lower Beth-borons, along which ran the most directand, in early times, the main highway from Jerusalem toJoppaj

llwWady Ali . A little south of the Valley of Ajalon is the

narrow Wady Ali, along which runs tod ay the carriage road fromJerusalem to Joppa. Apparently because of the deepness and

narrowness of this valley it does not figure in biblical historyuntil the Maccabean period .

Valley of Sorek. T he th ird important gateway to Judahwas the Valley of Sorek, the present Wady es-Surar. Here themodern railway from Joppa to Jerusalem penetrates the centralplateau . Just before the Valley of Sorek reaches the steepascent to the highlands it receives two important confiuents,the Wady el-Ghurab, from the northwest, and the Wady en

N agilfrom the south . Here the valley opens into a broad fer'tile plain, closely connected with the larger Plain of Ph i listia andyet encircled by the hills of the S hephelah. Immediately to thenorth was the home of the Danites and about th is picturesquepoint gather the Samson stories. Along a winding and steepascent the narrow pass thence runs directly eastward towardJerusalem, approaching the city across the Valley of R ephaimfrom the southwest.Valley of E lah . T he fourth val ley is that of Elah, theValley of the Terebinth, which is known to-day as the Wadyes-Sunt. This valley abounds in memories of D avid’

s earlierexploits.

(83’ Its eastern branch, theWady el-Jindy leads througha narrow defi le up toward Beth lehem . Its more importantbranch, the Wady es-S ur, runs directly southward past whatare probably to be identified as the ancient Adu llam and Keilah,and thence turning eastward, reaches the uplands near the famousMaccabean fortress of Bethzur, a l ittle north of Hebron .

Valley of Zephathah . T he fifth valley is that of Zephathah,which is known to—day in its upper course as theWady el-A franj .Its western gateway is guarded by the present important city of

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THE HILL S OF JUDAH

Beit-Jibrin, the Eleutheropolis of the Greek and Roman period.Recently opened caves near by reveal the importance of theEgyptian influence which, at a very early period entered Palestine along this important highway. The valley itself leads upthrough wind ing, narrow walls past the Plain of Mamre, directlyto Hebron. Along it ran the great road from Jerusalem toPhi listia and Egypt.Wady el-JizAir. The southernmost valley of western Judah

is a continuation of the Wady cl-B esy, which runs past thefrontier town of Lachish and is to-day known in its extensioninto the Judean highlands as the Wady el-Jizair. Pass ing the

ancient city of Adoraim, it also led to Hebron and ultimately toJerusalem .

Significance of T hese Valleys . Of these six western valleys,unquestionably the three most important were the Valley of

Ajalon, with its main gateways opening toward Jerusalem , the

Valley of Sorek, with its broad entrance, also leading straightup to the capital ci ty, and the Valley of Elah, rich with historicmemories. Each of these, however, could be easily defendedat certa in strategic po ints by a few determined men on the heightsabove. When these natural gates were closed, Judahwas practically unassai lable on the west and could look with a strongsense of security down from its frowning heights upon the hostile armies which swept along the broad coast plains.

The S ou th C oun try. The central plateau of Palestine extends south of Judah fully seventy miles. At first it graduallydescends in a series of terraces, and then breaks into a confu

sion of barren, rocky, treeless ridges , runn ing for the most partfrom east to west and cut by deep waterless gorges . A s inJudah, the eastern hi lls which overhang the Wady Arabah are

more abrupt and the winter torrents have cut deep channels inthe gray limestone rocks . On the west the descent is moregradual, running out into the level wilderness, bounded on thewest by the Wady el-Arish, known to the biblical writers as theBrook of Egypt. This wild, deso late region, fifty miles wideand seven ty long, is the famous South C ountry, which figured so

42

THE SOUTH C OUNTRY

h rgely in early Israelite history. Its name, N ayeb, D ry Land,well describes its general character.

‘1’

Its N orthern and Western D ivisions. The hi ll countryimmediately to the south of Judah is fairly fertile. C ultivatedfields are found in the valleys and terraces on the hillsides,even as far as the Wady Sheba and the famous desert sanctuaryof Beersheba. T o the south and west of Beersheba are foundthe ruins of many cities, which evidently enjoyed high prosperityduring the later R oman period . Here, as throughout most ofthe South C ountry, rain falls during the winter season, so thatwhere the water is stored, irrigation is possible. A fewspringsalso furnish a perennial supp ly of water. Thus under a strongstable government, the northern and northwestern port ions ofthe South C ountry are capable of support ing a large, semi-agricultural population. By nature , however, it is the land of the

nomad. Throughout most of i ts history, the Bedouin havedominated it as they do to-day. When undeveloped by irrigation, its hills and valleys are covered in springt ime by a greenherbage, which disappears, except in some secluded glens, before the glaring heat of summer. T o the sou th, the Negeb at

last descends to the great barren desert of T lh , across whichran the highways to Egypt, to Arabia, and to Babylonia.

Its C en tral and Eastern D ivis ions . T he central and

eastern part of this South C ountry is dry and barren and ocenpied only by fierce Bedou in tribes . T he absence of water, theruggedness of its mountain ranges, and the fierceness of its population have rendered it almost impassable throughout most ofits history. Many portions of it are stillunexplored . Thus,its southernboundary, Judahwas thoroughly protected from

the advance of hostile armies. At the same time, from thisSouth C ountry there came a constant infi ltration of the population and ideas of the desert, which left a deep imprint uponthe character of the sou thern Israelites.

T he Striking C ontras ts Between Judah and Samaria.T he contrasts between the hills of Judah and Samaria are

many and s ign ificant. The hills of Samaria are a collection of

43

THE HILLS OF JUDAH

distinct groups, divided by broad valleys, which intersect theland in every direction . The hills of Judah, in contrast, constitute a great, elevated , so lid plateau , cut by no great valleysrunning throughout the land from east to west or from northto south . Judah is a mountain fortress, with strong naturalbarriers on every side. Samaria, on the contrary, stands withdoors wide open to the foreign trader and invader. I ts inhabi

tants are compelled to resort to the hilltops, or else to build strongfortresses for their defence. The great highways of commercepass on either side of Judah, while they ran through the heartof Samaria . Judah was secure, not on ly because of its naturalbattlemen ts of rock, but because of its barre nness. Its grimlimestone hills, its stony moorlands, and its dry valleys offeredfewattractions to the invader. On the other hand, the richfields of Samaria and its opulent c ities were a constant loadstone, drawing toward them conquerors from the north, south,and east.E fiect Upon T he ir Inhabi tants . Judah , with its few springs

and its rock-strewn fields, offered a frugal livelihood to men whowere will ing to toil and to live without the luxuries of life. Itbred a sturdy, brave race, intensely loyal to their rocks and hills,tenacious of their bel iefs, even to the point of bigotry and martyrdom. Like their limestone hills, they were grim and unattractive, but capable of resisting the wearing process of thecenturies. In contrast, the ferti le hills of Samaria, with theirplen tiful springs and rush ing streams, bred a luxury- loving,care-free, tolerant race, who were ready, almost eager, for fore ignideas and cults, as wel l as customs. Thus that great schismbetween north and south, between Jew and Samaritan, wasnot merely the result of later rivalries, but found its primalcause in the physical characteristics that distingu ished the landof Judah from that of Samaria.

T HE JOR DAN AND DEAD SEA VALLEY

G eologicalH istory. The great gorge of the Jordan and

Dead S ea valley is the most striking natural phenomenon inPalestine. N0 place on the face of the earth has had a moredramatic geo logical history. A s has already been notedthis great rift which runs from northern Syria to the R ed S eawas probably formed in the latter part of the Pliocene Age.At the northern end of the D ead S ea its bed reaches a depth of

nearly one-half a mile beneath the ocean level . It is thus byfar the deepest depression on the face of the earth. During thePluvial period this huge rift was fi lled with water, making a

large in land sea, fully two hundred miles long, with its surfacenearly one hundred feet above the ocean level. Apparently thehigher land to the south of the present D ead S ea cut off the

ocean, so that at the first itwas a fresh-water lake. During theInterglacial period, possibly in part as the result of vo lcanicchanges, it fell to a level of not more than three hundred feetabove the present surface of the D ead S ea. It was duringthis period and the ice age that followed that the deposits weremade on the side of the val ley, which have given it its presentterraced form.

Evidences of Volcan ic A ct ion . From the Pluvial periodto the present the valley has been the scene of frequent volcanic disturbances. T he water, sinking through the greatrifts and subterranean passages, and being transformed bythe heat into steam, forced up great masses of lava, which maybe traced at many points on the heights both to the east and to

the west of the Jordan val ley. Earthquakes, many of themsevere, are still common in th is vo lcanic region. That of 1837

45

THE JORDAN AND DEAD SEA VALLEY

destroyed the city of Safed, killing one thousand of its inhabitants . In recent years severe shocks were felt in June, 1896,January, 1900, March and December, 1903. Many copious,hot

,mineral springs sti ll hear testimony

'

to the presence of volcanic forces. Those near Tiberias, on the western side of theSea of Gali lee and in the Wady Zerka Ma

‘ in , east of the DeadSea

,have a temperature of about while the waters of El

Hammah in the Yarmuk Valley vary in temperature from about93° to 110 ° These springs are strongly impregnated with mineral salts and it is from these and simi lar sources that the saltshave come that make the waters of the Dead Sea what they areto-day, heavy and far more saline than the ocean itself.N aturalD ivis ions. The Jordan and D ead Sea valley fallsinto four natural divis ions : (l) the upper Jordan, fromMountHermon to the Sea of Gal i lee, (2) the Sea of Galilee, (3) thelower Jordan, and (4) the Dead Sea . At its northernmostpoint rises Mount Hermon, called by the natives Jebel ire -Sheik,that is, Mounta in of the White-haired .

Moun t Hermon . Hermon rs in reality a massive mounta inplateau, twenty miles long from northeast to southwest. Likemost of the mountains of Palestine, it is of hard limestone,covered at places with soft chalk. On its northern side thevineyards run up to a height of almost five thousand feet.(2 7>Above are found scattered oaks, almond and dwarf juniper trees.

T he mountain rises to the height of nine thousand and fifty feetand is crowned by three peaks.

(2 8l T he northern and southernpeaks are about the same height, while the western, separatedfrom the others by a depression, is about one hundred feet lower.Mount Hermon commands a marvellous view of almost the entire land of Palestine. From the masses of snow which coverits broad top far into the summer and lie in its ravines throughout the year, come the copious waters of the upper Jordan.

I ts sources spring from the western and southern bases of MountHermon fully developed streams. Three-fourths of the watersof Mount Hermon thus find theirway down the deep gorge ofthe Jordan.

46

SOUR C E OF THE JORDAN AT BANIAS

Source of the Jordan at B an ias. O ne of the two mainsources of the Jordan is at Banias, the C aesarea Philippi ofN ewTestament times. About one hundred feet beneath an

ancient grotto in the side of a sheer cliff, the stream poursforth from the rocks and goes rushing down through thickets oftrees and the gardens which are irrigated by its waters.

(2 9) ByJosephus and other anc ient writers the springs at Banias wereregarded as the true source of the Jordan . Here the ancientC anaanites apparently reared a sanctuary to the god of thestream and later the Greeks built a temple to Pan, from whencecomes, with the change of the initial letter, the modern nameof Banias, or C ity of P an . Here also Herod reared a templewhich was one of the glories of the R oman c ity.

A t T e l l el-Kad i . T he largest source of the Jordan is on

the western side of the mound nowknown as Tel l el-Kadi. Astream about ten feet wide flows directly from the rock and isjoined by a smaller confluent a l ittle to the south, forming theso-called E l-L eddan . T he imposing mound of Tell el-Kadi,lying at the head of the Jordan Valley and commanding the

highway that leads to Banias, and thence across the easternspurs of Moun t Hermon to D amascus, is probably the site of

the C anaanite Laish, later the Hebrew D an .

T he Western C onfiuen ts. A mile and a half further to thesouth the two eastern sources of the Jordan are joined by theHasbany. This stream springs from a pool on the westernside of Mount Hermon and thence flows southward throughthe broad plain on the west of the mountain from wh ich itsprang. The fourth source of the Jordan, the Nahr B areighit,the least important of the four, rising not far from the R iverLitany, comes down through a valley to the northwest.T he Upper Jordan Val ley. D uring the first part of its

descent to the D ead S ea, the Jordan winds leisurely through a

valley about five miles wide, flanked by h i lls rising to betweenfifteen hundred and two thousand feet.(30) Its northernmost

part, under the shadow of Mount Hermon, is p lentifu lly strewnwith stones, but a fewmiles below Tell el-Kadi fertile grain

47

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SHOR ES OF THE SEA OF GALILEE

Its Shores. On the east rise the steep, nowbarren butpro bably once tree-c lad, limestone hills of the Jaulan, cappedby vast layers of black basalt, towering in the distance likehuge battlements. T hey stand back, however, from the lake,leaving a shore averaging one-half mile in width . On the

north the Jordan has worn down the hills, wh ich here descendgradually in wild, stony moorlands, covered with thorns and

rough grasses. T o the northwest opens the fertile plain of

Gennesaret,(33) four miles wide, watered by dashing mountainbrooks and flanked by the high hi lls of upper Galilee. T he

industry of German colonists is again beginning to demonstrate the marvellous fertility of this fair p lain, where the

fruits and grains of tropical and temperate climes growsideby side. On the western side of the lake the hills descend interraces, leaving a narrow strip of shore, connected with theuplands by one or two shallow valleys. T o the south the

shore broadens and the h i lls recede until they are four milesapart at the southern end,(34) where the Jordan leaves the S eaof Galilee.From the S ea of G al i lee to the D ead S ea. T he distance

from the Sea of Galilee to the D ead S ea in a straight line is onlysixty-five miles, but, owing to its constant turnings, the actualcourse of the river measures nearly two hundred miles. In th islast plunge the river descends more than one thousand feet.Its descent is more rapid in the upper part of its course. Alittle below the S ea of Galilee it receives its largest confluent,the R iver Yarmuk, wh ich breaks through the heights of the

Hauran to the east. T he volume of the water thus poured innearly equals that of the Jordan itself at this po int. Furthersouth the Brook Jalud comes down on the west from the Plain ofJezreel past Bethshean. About twenty miles from its mouth,the Jordan receives the waters from the Jabbok

,wh ich descends

from the heights of Gilead on the east, and from the WadyFarah, which comes from the vicin ity of Shechem on the west.C haracter of the Val ley. B elow the S ea of Galilee the

Jordan valley, at first but four miles wide, gradually broadens49

THE JORDAN AND DEAD SEA VALLEY

unti l it is eight miles in width opposite Bethshean, where thevalley of Jezreel jo ins that of the Jordan . Most of the landin this part of the Jordan valley, immediately below the Sea ofGali lee, is tillable. The ruins of anc ient aqueducts indicatethat the streams that come down from the hil lsides were onceused for irrigation. The valley is again being in part reclaimedby Jewish colonists. Ten mi les south of Bethshean the Samaritan headlands crowd close to the Jordan , so that the valley isonly three miles in width . Where the Jabbok and Wady Farahjo in the Jordan the valley again broadens un til, opposite Jericho,it is fourteen mi les in width .

(35) Most of this lower Jordan valley is a parched desert covered by lowbushes and desert plants,except where the streams from the highlands are used for irri

gation . Fertile fields are thus reclaimed where the WadyNimrin and the Wady el-Kefrein come from the eastern hillsopposite Jericho. At Jericho itself the waters of the WadyKelt and those of the famous Fountain of Elisha are uti l izedto-day as they were in ancient times. South of Jericho, however, the soi l is heavily impregnated with saline and alkalinesalts, so that it extends in an almost barren waste to the northern end of the D ead S ea.

T he Jordan Itse lf . Through this broad valley the Jordanwinds, frequently changing its course, and ploughing a great furrow, called by the natives the ZOr.(36) In flood time the riveris from five hundred feet to a mile wide, whi le in the summerit is at places not more than seven ty-five or a hundred feet inwidth and varies in depth from three to twelve feet. At alltimes it is a muddy, cofl

'

ee-co lored stream, partaking of thecolor of the sl imy, al luvial soil through which it flows. Its banksare covered by thickets of trees, bushes, and reeds, in whichare found many wild beasts and birds. This flood channel ofthe Jordan is a scene of wreckage and ruin, mingled with tropicalluxuriance. T he lowest bed of this ancient inland lake isgiven up to-day, as it alwayswas in the past, to wild beasts , to

onal fugitives, to squalid Bedou in, and to the muddy,sprawling river which here rules supreme.

50

FORDS OF THE LOWER JORDAN

Fords of the Lower Jordan . The lower course of the Jordan is nowspanned by four bridges. In ancient times thedwellers in Pales tine were obliged to depend entirely upon itsfords, of which there are between twenty and twenty-five.

One of the more important is at the point where the river leavesthe Sea of Gali lee and is still used as a ferry. Another is thefamous ford of A barah, a little northeast of Bethshean . Thethird is a litt le farther south, opposite the ancient Pella. A n

other, the D Amieh ford, is at the mouth of the Jabbok. Thefifth is northeast of Jericho just below the point where theWadyNimrin enters the Jordan. The most famous is the Pilgrim Ford,southeast of Jericho, just below the place where the Wady Keltjoins the Jordan . Owing to the alluvial character of its banks,its rapid current, and the frequency of the floods, fed by themelting snows from the Lebanons and by the heavy storms of

the w inter and spring, the Jordan has always proved a riverdifficu lt to cross. Its rOle thro ughout all of its h istory hasbeen that of a divider rather than that of a binder together oftribes and races . Throughout its course of one hundred and

seven miles it is rare ly navigable. Flowing, as it does, intothe barren waters of the Dead Sea, the Jordan was, therefore ,

a check upon rather than an encouragement to commerce.Ancient N ames of the D ead S ea. T he residue of the ancient in land lake is represen ted by the present D ead Sea . Th isname is comparatively modern . In the Bible it is called byvarious names, such as simply the Sea, the Sea of the Plain , theEastern S ea, or the Salt S ea. T o-day it is known among theArabs as the Sea of Lot.Its Un ique C haracteristi cs. The Dead Sea lies onethousand two hundred and ninety-two feet below the surfaceof the ocean .

(37) It is forty-seven and a half miles long and

ten miles across at its widest po int. At its northeastern end,

under the heights of Moab, the lake reaches to the vast depthof one thousand two hundred and sevent

y-eight feet. In

striking contrast, the southern end of the sea is only ten to fifteen feet rn depth. Its waters are so thoroughly impregnated

51

THE JORDAN AND DEAD SEA VALLEY

with po isonous chemicals that no fish can live in them andonly the lowest organisms survive. Its bitter taste is due tothe presence of chloride of magnesium and the oily fee ling rs

produced by the chloride of calcium, which it holds in solution. As is well known, the density is so great that it is practically impossible for man or beast to s ink beneath its waters.In time of storm the waves beat on the shore with a heavy,metallic sound . The waters of the sea are frequen tly lashedby heavy thunder-storms, which linger here sometimes forhours, held in by the high, towering c liffs on either side. Withfewexceptions the shores of the Dead S ea are barren and strewnat places with the wreckage of trees . I ts water, however, islimpid, varying from l ight blue to green . Owing to the proximity of the desert and the intense heat— the temperature ris

ing in summer as high as 118°— it is the scene of a stupendousprocess of evaporation. It is

computed that between six and

eight mi llion tons of water rise in vapor from this great naturalcaldron each day. Often the vapor is so dense that it oh

scures the landscape, but at other t imes it imparts a marvellous prismatic color to the huge clifi

'

s that encircle the lake,(38)so that the combination of the blue waters, the cloudless skies,and the rich, blended reds, grays, and purples of the opalescentlandscape make it one of the most sublime views in allthe world .

Its Eastern Bank . On the eastern side the cliffs of Moabrise at some points almost sheer to the height of betweentwenty-five hundred and three thousand feet . These l imestone hills aremottled with huge blotches of black limestone andbasalt and are frequently capped with white, chalky rocks.They are cut by several important streams, which have worndeep canyons that extend back many miles into the Moabitehills . A few miles south of the northeastern end the WadyZerka Ma‘ in flows into the sea. On its northern bank, near thesea, the famous baths of C allirrhtie burst from the rock. Far

ther south the R iver Amon, cutting a canyon three thousandfeet deep through the plateau of Moab, reaches the sea througha broad opening. Here a fewscattered palms and acacias te

52

THE EASTERN BANK OF THE DEAD SEA

lieve the utter desolation of th is eastern wall of rock. Stillfarther south the promontory of E l-Lisan, T he Tongue, as itis called by the natives , pushes out into the sea, extending towithin three miles of the weste rn shore. It is a bold mass of

calcareous marl, forty to eighty feet in height, treeless and

barren. In pleasing contrast with this barrenness is the oasislying beh ind it, wate red by theWady el-Kerak. Here are foundthe fou r Bedouin vil lages which are the only towns along thecoast of this des olate sea.

The Sou thern E nd. At the southern end of the Dead S eais a slimy mud marsh , lowand malarial, covered with tropica lthickets which are fil led with the birds and the beasts of the

southern clime. Farther south is the ferti le G hbr es-Safieh.

In this little oasis, lying betwwn the sea and the wildernes s,a little wheat, barley, and tobacco are grown and a dense tropical vegetation abounds . Southward for a hundred and twelvem iles to the Gulf of Akaba extends the Arabah,(39) the continuation of the great rift of which the Jordan and the Dead Seavalleys are a part. Low sand-hills lie across the centre of thisbroad , shallow valley, making direc t travel impossible. Sixtyfive miles to the sou th the watershed‘ is

'

reached . This is sixhundred and sixty feet above the level of the ocean, that is, nearlytwo thousand feet above the level of the D ead Sea . It is a landof stones, grave] , and sand, (40) with only a few trickling springs—~a lonesome, forbidding region where heat, dust, and theBedou in rule supreme to-day as they have for thousands ofyears .

The Western Shores. The hills on the western side of theDead Sea, except at two points, do not come close to the margin of the water. A beach from a hundred yards to a mi le mwidth frin

ges the sea on thiswestern side. Beyond this shore the

hills rise in terraces to the height of from two thousand to twothousand five hundred feet. These are white, rounded, and barren ,except at Engedi , where the waters of its famous spring have

developed an which marks the side of the plateau witha pleasing mass of dark green . Many small wadies cut down

53

THE JORDAN AND DEAD SEA VALLEY

through these western hills. In their beds are found a fewtrees and bushes, but otherwise the landscape is as bold andunrelieved by vegetation as on the east. On the southwest, atJebel Usdum, there is a remarkable range of salt cliffs, six hundred feet high, three and thre e-fourth mi les in length and a

half mile in width . Here local tradition fixes the scene of thedeath of Lo t’s wife. Along th is western shore are also founddepos its of bitumen. Frequen tly portions of it are foundfloating in the waters ; sometimes they catch on fire, adding tothe lurid impressiveness of this mysterious valley.G rimAssoc ia tions of the D ead Sea. These are a fewof the

many reminders that fully justify the modern name of the DeadSea. Its historic associations, the destruction of the wickedcities of the plain, the murder of John the Baptist at Machaeruson the eastern heights, and the later massacre at Masada are

allharsh and appalling. In common with the Jordan valley,th is region is richly suggestive of the destructive forces of nature. Life is here grim, severe , and relentless. It is not difficult to detect in Jewish character the deep impressions madeby this constant contact with the symbols of death and withthese suggestions of the presence of a stern, austere God.

T HE EAST- JOR DA N LAND

Form and Climate of the E ast-Jordan Land. The eastJordan land of biblical history is in form an irregu lar triangle,with its base skirting the Jordan Valley, its northern angle at thefoot of Mount Hermon, its southern a little beyond the sou thernend of the Dead Sea, while its third angle lies in the D ruse

Mountains, about seventy miles east of the S ea of Galilee.

Damascus,(42) to the northwest, is just beyond the bounds ofPalestine. This famous ancient c ity lies in the midst of a ver

dant oasis made by the waters of the Abana R iver, (43) whichbreaks through the eastern Lebanons and finally loses itself inthe Arabian desert. The heart of the east-Jordan land is thewide, level plain watered by the tributaries of the YarmukR iver. The east-Jordan territory is a great elevated plateau,averaging fully two thousand feet in height. This southerncontinuation of the Anti-Lebanon mountains is a land thatlies open to the sunshine and to the strong breezes that blowfrom the dry desert or fresh from the western sea. Its temperature, as a whole, ismuch colder than that of western Palestine.

Frosts at night begin as early as the first of November and con

tinue into March. Deep snows cover a large portion of it inwinter. I myself have travelled in the middle of March forhours through blinding snows, two or three feet deep, up amongthe highlands of Gilead. In summer frequent mists sweep overthe heights. At night the temperature often falls very low,and, as a result, heavy dews are deposited. Even during theday cool sea-breezes make the air thoroughly invigorating.

Thus it richly deserved the reputation which it enjoyed in55

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THE NORTHERN A N D WESTERN JAULAN

mon. In some of these bo ld peaks the outlines of the ancientcrate rs are sti ll visible. Tell Abu Neda, of the western range,rises to the height of nearly four thousand feet. Its crater isbroken at one side and its interior is cultivated, producing avariety of vegetables and grains . Another peak farther south ,Tell el-Faras, about three thousand one hundred feet high, hasa well-preserved, round crater, which incl ines to the north.

From these craters in early times successive waves of lava flowedtoward the Jordan valley, covering th is entire region. T he northern part of the Jaulan is a great rocky pasture land , strewn withblack basaltic boulders. In the spring it is a mass of green,which attracts thousands of Bedouin with their flocks . In thesummer it becomes dry and deso late except where a fewperennial springs develop little oases . T he vi llages are small andfar apart . In land a few wad ies supply water for irrigation, butas they run wes tward toward the Jordan they soon cut deeptorrent beds through the rocks and thus become practically useless for purposes of agriculture.Sou thern and Eastern Jaulan . The southern part of the

Jaulan, from a point opposi te the northern end of the S ea of

Galilee, is a lofty plateau . Here the vo lcanic rock is morebroken. In th is rich, dark red so il much grain is raised, es

pec ially wheat and barley. Two important streams, the WadySemakh and the Wady Ftk, here descend to the Sea of Galileethrough long deep gorges . T he southeastern Jaulan is piercedby two parallel streams, the Nahr er-R ukkad and the Nahr el

AllAn, which run almost due south. In their upper courses theyflowon the surface of the ground, but soon sink into deepgorges which lead to the Yarmuk . T he Yarmuk itself is themost commanding river of allthe east-Jordan land . Its tributaries water the fertile lands of the Hauran. Like allthe greatrivers east of the Jordan ,

it has cut a deep channel through thebasaltic rocks . To-day the railroad from D amascus to Haifatwists along its to rtuous course between wal ls of rock five hundred to one thousand feet in height. The climate in this deepgorge is that of the Jordan valley itself. Oleanders, palms, and

57

THE EAST- JORDAN LAND

figs grow here, overshadowed by the pines and oaks of the upland plateau . T he variety of twisted and tilted limestoneand volcanic rocks laid bare on its rugged sides makes it oneof the wildest and most picture sque valleys in allPalestine.C haracter of the Hauran . The most productive grain

fields of the eastern Mediterranean are found in the Hauranor Hollowfl ) With the exception of an occasional low hill, thisregion is as level as a floor. The soil is a rich volcanic loam,

well watered and superlatively fruitful. Unlike the Jaulan,which was once large ly wooded, it is treeless, except amongthe mountains to the east. It is also one of the fewspots inPalestine practically free from stones. Here wheat and barleyand the other grains of Palestine grow in rankest profusion.

T he landscape is comparatively monotonous except as an oc

casionalwady furrows its way down toward the Yarmuk or

some of its tributaries. Like many regions in Palest ine it isdominated by the snowy heights of Hermon, which stand outin bril liant contrast to the monotony of the plain.

Borderl and‘

of the Hauran . To the north rises, thirtyor forty feet above the plain, the great lava plain of El-L ejah.

It is a so lid, gently undulating mass of lava, containing an areaof three hundred and fifty square miles . No rivers, and onlyoccas ional springs, are found throughout this barren waste,which is penetrated only by a few footpaths . It is the ancientTrachonitis, the refuge of outlaws and robbers to-day as in thepast. To the east the plain of the Hauran rises to Jebel Hauran ,

also known as the Druse Moun tains . Three of the peaks ofthese eastern sentinels are between four and six thousand feethigh. On the south, the Hauran gradually merges into theyellow steppes of E l-Hamad and farther west in to the limestone hills of E z-Zumleh .

G ilead. South of the Yarmuk the black basalt of the Jaulanyields to the l ight limestone of the west-Jordan. The entireterritory of Gilead more close ly resembles the western hills ofPalestine than does any other part of the east-Jordan region.On the broad roll ing uplands of eastern Gilead there are large

58

GILEAD

grain fields and the soil is cultivated at many other points . Inthe R oman period great cities, of which Gerasa“0 was the chief,testified to the rich productivity of this region, but for the mostpart it is the paradise of the herdsman and the shepherd . It isa land of deep valleys, rounded hills, and frequent springs.On the northwest many small streams cut their way to the

Jordan valley. The roads run up and down steep inclineswhere the flocks and the herds cling to the sloping hi l lsides .

Groves of noble oaks cover the hilltops and reveal the strengthinherent in the soil.The Jabbok and Jebel O sh a. The dominant factor in

southern Gilead is the R iver Jabbok.(45) It rises among the

hills not far from the Moabite bo rd er, only eighteen miles fromthe Jordan , and then flows northeast, past the old Ammonitecapital . Thence it completes the half circle, cutting its waythrough the Gileadite hi lls to the Jordan. At some points itschannel is between mo and three thousand feet below the

level of the plateau. It is a joyous river, rippling in flashes ofsun light over the rocks, through green glades and tangles ofoleanders and rushes, a type of this happy, picturesque land of

the shepherd. T he centre of the half circle described by theBrook Jabbok is the Jebel Osha, the highest peak in Gilead.

From its height of three thousand five hundred and ninety-fivefeet, practically allof Gilead is spread to the north and southand east like a great variegated carpet.Sou thern G ilead. In southern G ilead the trees become

fewer and fewer unti l south of Jebel Osha they almost disapo

pear. In spring-time the fields are green wi th grass and grain,but in summer they become parched and brown . The wadiesin the south, such as Wady Nimrin and Wady Hest n, availlittle for irrigation, since their channels are far beneath the levelof the surrounding plateau . The region as a whole begins totake on something of the sombre color of the Dead Sea regionwhich lies in the depths below.

C haracter of the Plateau of Moab. In its largest boundsMoab is a territory sixty miles long and thirty miles wide.

59

THE EAST- JORDAN LAND

From across the Dead Sea it looks l ike a high moun tain range,but in reality it is simply a lofty upland plateau (40) toweringabove the deep gorge of the Dead Sea. Throughout most ofits extent it is between two thousand five hundred and threethousand three hundred feet above the ocean level, and therefore from three thousand eight hundred to four thousand six

hundred feet above the blue waters of the Dead Sea. It isa gently roll ing, treeles s pla in ; its low hilltops are crownedwith the ru ins of ancien t cities. Only a few bushes are to

be found upon these bare moors. The prevailing rock issoft cretaceous limestone, which crops out at many points.The soi l of the central zone, however, which runs from northto south, averaging about ten miles in width, is exceedinglyfert ile. Many grain fields are found throughout th is terri tory ;but like G ilead , Moab is pre eminently the land of the herdsman and the shepherd . In the wadies which run down to theDead Sea thousands of came ls are bred , while on the hillsabove are seen at every po int flocks of cattle, sheep, and goats.Its Fert i l i ty and Water Supply . In the spring-time the up

land fields are masses of green , which almost conceal the stonesand outcrop of rock . The marvel is that any vegetation isfound in a land thus bounded, on the west by the Sea of Deathand on the eas t by the rocky desert. Most of the streams run

through deep glens and no springs are found on the surface.The explanation of the marvel is found in the high elevation of

the plateau and the great process of evaporation which is evergoing on in the Dead Sea basin below . T he west winds fromthe Mediterranean and the D ead Sea come laden with moisture,which they deposit m the winter and spring in drenching rains,and throughout the year in heavy dews at night.Its Moun ta ins. T he mountains of Moab are little more

than hi l ls ris ing a few hundred feet above the ro ll ing upland .

The so-called mountains of the Abarim are simply the wild,rocky hills and promontories which rise rapidly from the D eadSeam) Seen from across the Dead Sea they have the appearance of mountains . They skirt the eastern side of the lowerJor

60

THE MOUNTAINS OF MOAB

dan and D ead Sea, runn ing eastward n ine or ten miles to meetthe fields of Moab on the heights. This region corresponds tothe wi lderness of Judea across the sea on the wes t. Moun tNebo, which now bears the name Neba, is a flat tongue of landtwo thousand six hundred and forty-three feet above the oceanlevel, running out two miles westward from the ma in plateau.

It overlooks the northern end of the Dead Sea, which is nearlyfour thousand feet below. It commands a marvellous viewup the Jordan valley, between the lofty heights of G ilead onthe right and the hills of Samaria and Judah on the left. Far

ther inland and to the south is the loftier peak of JebelA ttarus. The chief mountain south of the Arnon is JebelSh ihan,which rises to the height of two thousand seven hundred and

eighty feet above the ocean level.Its R ivers. T he most striking features in the landscape of

Moab are the deep canyons which plough from east to westacross the plateau. Those in the north run back only a fewmi les, leaving northeastern Moab a comparatively unbrokenplateau, but in the south they cu t deep furrows eastward evento the borders of the desert. The Wady Zerka Ma

‘ in hasworn a broad channel through the l imestone, basaltic, and sandstone rocks of northwestern Moab, so that ten miles from the

point where it flows into the Dead Sea it is fu lly two milesacross. Along the bottom of this great chasm runs a limpidbrook, winding thro ugh beautifu l groves of o leanders and beside ferti le patches of land, which are in marked contrast tothe utterly barren and desolate clifis above.The A rnon . Farther south the Arnon, the chief river of

Moab, rises on the border of the desert. Rapidly cutt ing itsway down into the plateau, it receives its first important confluentfrom the south, and farther on theWady Waleh from the north .

At the po int where the central highway through Moab from the

north crosses the Arnon the canyon is three thousand feet deepand two miles from bank to bank . It is by far the most stu

pa rdons and picturesque chasm in all Palestinefim T he

steep red cliffs, variegated and richly colored by white, gray, and61

THE EAST—JORDAN LAND

yellow strata, extend in wavy billows east and west as far asthe eyes can reach . T he descen t is almost sheer into the depthsbelow, where the river, easily fordable at many points and withan actual channel only a fewfeet wide, rushes over the smoothrocks or winds leisurely through its fringe of oleanders and

green bushes. Where the tributary wadies have cu t down thesoft limestone, nature

’

s cast les stand out, guarding the broadnatural h ighway from the desert to the sea. T he Arnon onlyin a lesser degree separated the land of Moab and destroyedits political unity, even as did the Jordan the land of Israel.Sou thern Moab and E dom. Farther south the Wady el

Kerak, narrow and deep, runs past both sides of the naturalcitadel, whose name it bears,(49) and finds its way to the DeadSea back of the barren promontory of El-Lisan . Thus thethree zones of Moab, the western promontories, the central fields ,and the dry pasture lands on the cast, are repeatedly intersectedby the deep gorges that make it a land easy to approach fromthe desert and difficult to defend . Farther south the plateauof Moab merges into the wild, picturesque mounta ins of MountSeir, the home of the Edomites . The valley becomes narrowerand the moun ta ins bolder, more jagged , and abrupt. The culmination of these natural wonders is the Wady Muss , whichcuts a deep, narrow channel through the heart of the mountains .(50) In the midst of th is valley, surrounded by gorgeouslycolored sandstone cliffs, out of which have been carved homes,streets , tombs, theatres, temples,<5 l) and well-preserved highplaces,(52 ' 53> stands that most astonishing and marvellous of alloriental cities— Petra.

Sign ifican ce of the East -Jordan Land. Health, beauty,and fertil ity have ever been the three rich possessions of theeast-Jordan land. It was effectually cut ofl’, however, fromcontact with the teeming, highly civilized l ife of the Mediter

ranean seaboard by the deep chasm of the Jordan and D eadSea valley and by the barren hills that flanked this great gorge onits southern end . It was a land that faced the desert and theeast rather than the west. It was itself the loadstone that

62

SIGNIFIC ANC E OF THE EAST—JOR D AN LAND

constantly attracted the wandering dwellers of the desert.T he life and institutions of the desert have here prevailedthrough all the centuries. Here the wandering nomads firsttasted and learned to appreciate the advantages of settled agricu ltural life and made the gradual and natural transition fromthe nomadic to the agricu ltural state. Here also the mightyenergies of the powerful western nations were put forth in a

mighty effort to conquer and to hold this land, for they real izedthat it was their natural eastern outpost against the desert. Itwas here, therefore, that the militant civilization and life of theEast and West met, struggled, and mingled. Here the sameconfl icts and processes are going on to-day as in the past.Th is close contact with the desert has always been the strength,the significance, and the weakness of the east-Jordan land.

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THE KID RON VALLEY

less, although many olive trees find sufficient moisture in thebottom and on sides of the valley. At its sou thern end the

Kidron is jo ined by the broad valley of B en Hinnom,(55) wh ich

runs due west nearly half a. mile and then turns northward,thus, with the Kidron, enc losing on three sides a nearly regu larrectangle half to three-quarters of a mile in width .

T he T yropmon Val ley. The southern promontories or

hills thus enclosed were in ancient times divided by a smal lshallow val ley, the T yropceon or C heesemongers’ Valley, whichran northward from the Valley of Hinnom, separating the

rectangle into two unequal parts . T he city has been so oftenbesieged and razed to the ground that its original site has beenlargely obscured by the masses of dé bris scattered everywhereand especially in the T yropceon Valley. At many points thenative rock lies from forty to one hundred feet beneath the

pre-ent level . East of the temple area a shaft was sunk one

hundred and twenty feet before the virgin rock was reached .

Hundreds of such shafts have been sent down at different pointsthroughout the city so that the exact site of the ancient town isnowwellknown . T he T yropoeon Valley, wh ich cuts throughthe heart of Jerusalem, is the key to the understanding of the

ancient city. From the po int where it joins the Kidron and

Hinnom valleys in the south to its northern end, a little outsidethe present D amascus Gate, this valley is about sixteen hundred yards in length. T he hills on either side originally rose to

the height of between one hundred and one hundred and fiftyfeet above the bottom of the val ley, which becomes broader andshallower toward the north . Opposite the present templearea a western branch extends about three hundred yards,nearly cutting off the southwestern hill from the northernplateau .

T he O riginal C i ty. T he rounded ridge of rock between theT yropceon and Kidron val leyswas clearly the original site of Je

rusalem. It is the so-called Ophe l, onwh ich the ancient Jebusitefortresswas reared . T he southern end rises rapidly from thevalley below where the T yropceon and Kidron jo in. Its north

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THE SOUTHERN C APITAL

ern continuation is the temple area . Excavations have shownthat immediately north of the present temple area there was a

rock cutting, from the T yroposon Valley on the west to theKidron Valley on the east , leaving a precipice of native rocktwen ty-five feet high as a barrier against attack from the north .

At the so utheastern corner of the temple area traces have alsobeen found of the well-built wall which ran along the edge of

the Kidron Valley, probably encircling the ancient Jebusite city.

Thus itwas surrounded on th ree sides with rapidly descendingvalleys from one to three hundred feet deep, wh i le immediatelybelow was the perennial spring, essential to the life of its earlyinhabitants. It is easy, therefore. to understand why the earlyJebusites regarded their city as impregnable .I ts Exten t. The bi ll Ophel contains an area of between six

teen and eighteen acres, whichwas amply sufficient for a crowdedvillage of ancient times. This was also, without reasonabledoubt, the site of David’

s c ity. A s the Israelite city grew itprobably extended almost to the level of the valley in the south,near the modern Pool of Siloam . At present the northern endof the hill Ophel is higher than the southern . It also broadensinto the temple area, wh ich is two thousand four hundred andforty feet above the sea-level . It is not improbable, however,that the site of the old Jebus ite fortresswas once higher than thetemple rock to the north . If the fortress of Acra, which figuresprominently in Maccabean history,was identical with the ancientcitadel of Ophel, then, accord ing to the testimony of Josephus(Jets. Wars, V, Simon the Maccabean ruler cut down thissouthern eminence to make it lower than the adjoining templearea .

The Western Hil l . It is not clear when the western hillwas included with in the bounds of Jerusalem ; possibly in thedays of Solomon ; certainly some time before the Babylonianexile. On the south and west this billdescends rapidly to theValley of Hinnom, on the east to the T yropteon Valley ; whileon the north it is connected by a narrow neck of rock with thenorthern hillof Jerusalem . It is about seven hundred yards

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THE WESTERN HILL

long from north to south and four hundred from east to west.It is highest on the west, where it is two thousand five hundredand twenty feet above the sea-level. It is therefore about eightyfeet h igher than the temple area to the east.T he N orthern E xtension of the C i ty. As the city grewin later times, it extended naturally to the north and includedthe little hill or knob directly north of the so-called westernhill, with wh ich it was connected by a neck of rock. Thisnorthern hillwas bounded on the west by a depression runn ingfrom the Hinnom Valley and on the south and east by the upperT yropoeon . On the north it had no natural Itshighest po int, about two thousand four hundred and ninety feet,was nearly on the same level as the temp le area. The northernextension of the city also included another section of the ridgeof rock which runs northward from the temple area, parallel tothe Kidron Val ley. A scarp twenty feet deep was cut acrossthis ridge from east to west and to-day forms the northeasternlimits of the city. In contrast to the ancient city, which extended far down into the valleys to the south, the modern cityhas climbed up the plateau toward the north.

Josephus’

s D escript ion of Jerusalem. The late Jewishhistorian, Josephus, has given the most graphic description ofthe topography of Jerusalem. In the light of the precedingstudy of its site, his vivid picture becomes clearly intelligible.While he had in mind the city of his own day (the middle of

the first C hristian century) his words describe equally well theancient town : “The city of Jerusalem was fortified with threewal ls, on such parts as were not surrounded with impassablevalleys ; for in such places it had but one wall. The citywasbuilt upon two hills, which are opposite to one another, and

have a valley to divide them asunder, at which valley the corresponding houses on both hills end. Of these hills, that wh ich

‘

contains the upper city is much higher, and in length moredirect. But the other bill, whichwas cal led the Acra, and sus

tains the lower city, is of the shape of a moon when it is horned ;over against this there was a third h i ll, but naturally lower

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THE NORTHERN C APITAL

than the Acra, and parted formerly from the other by a broadvalley. However, in those times, when the Asmoneans re igned,they fi lled up that valley with earth, and had amind to jo in thecity to the temple. They then took off part of the height ofAcra and reduced it to a less elevation than it was before, thatthe temple might be superior to it. Now the Val ley of theC heesemongers, as it was called , which separated the hi llof the upper city from that of the lower, extended as far as Siloam ; for that is the name of a fountain which has sweet waterin it, and this also in great plenty. But on the outs ide thesehills are surrounded by deep valleys, and by reason of the precipioes belonging to them, they are on both sides everywhere inaccessible.

T he G eologi calFormat ion . The geological formation ofthe hills of Jerusalem also throws much light upon its history.The strata is incl ined toward the southeast at an average angleof ten or twelve degrees. T he surface rock is hard , siliciousl imestone with bands of fl int. This crops out on the top of thetemple mount, on the west side of the Kidron Val ley, and in thequarries to the north of Jerusalem . Below is a bed of soft, whitel imestone, easy to cut and good for bu ild ing, since it hardenswith exposure. The presence of th is underly ing rock madepossible the extensive system of c isterns and undergroundpassages with which Jerusalem is honeycombed and which hasplayed such a large part in the tragic history of the city. Be

neath this layer is a hard , dolomitic limestone, white but streakedwith pink . While the upper layers of rock are porous, thislower stratum ho lds the water, with the resu lt that at the one

point where it comes to the surface on the western side of the

lower Kidron Valley there is a spring. T he southern incl inationof this hard rock also carries the drainage of the city to thesouth, to the point where the Kidron and Hinnom valleys meet.The Water Supply. Jerusalem, l ike most of the cities ofJudah, was inadequately supplied w ith springs. The Virgin’

s

Spring, which is in allprobability identical with the ancien tspring of Gihon, is intermittent. Its waters issue from a nat

68

uralsiphon in the rock, flowing according to the local rainfal l,sometimes for only an hour or more, and at others for severaldays. It is entered by steps which lead into a natural cave, halfway down the side of the Kidron Val ley. From this point, inearly times, the waters were conducted through the ridge of

rock on which the city rested by a rock-cut tunnel, which isone of the wonders of ancient engineering. Thence they werecarried to a point at the southern end of the T yropceon Valley,where was once the famous Pool of Siloam, whichwas probablyinside the ancient city wal ls . Here was built in later times a

great basin, fifty-two feet square, from which the inhabitants of

the city drew their chief supply of Still another conduit carried the overflow from this pool to the ao-called Job’

s

Well, four hundred and fifty yards to the southeast, where theKidron and the Hinnom val leys meet. West of the temple athere was apparently in ancient times a pool which received thewaters from the upper basin of the T yropceon , but there is no

clear geological or historical evidence of a living spring in thenorthern or western part of the city. Aside from their one

perennial spring and these poo ls the inhabitants of ancient Jerusalem were whol ly dependent upon ro ck-cisterns for theirwater supply. Modern excavations have re vealed the remainsof the aqueducts , by which the plentiful waters of the so-calledPoo ls of So lomon, sou thwest of Bethlehem, were later conductedthrough the valleys and along the hills ides to Jerusalem . Thewater was then distributed by means of high and lowlevelaqueducts in different parts of the city, but especially in thetemple area, for use in connection wi th the sacrificial ri tual.From the same Pools of So lomon water is still brought by pipesto the southwestern side of the c ity.

(5 7)

Jerusalem’8 M ili tary Strength . Jerusalem’

s strength consisted not in its elevation, but in the deep ravines which en

circled it on the east, south, west, and m part on the north.

T he native rock lay only a few feet beneath the surface, andthe soft limestone cou ld be cut with comparative case. Avertical cutting of twenty or twenty-five feet into the steep side

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THE NORTHERN C APITAL

there was ample space for a large and powerfu l city. S ur

rounded, like Jerusalem, by a strong wall, it was practicallyimpregnable.Its Beauty and P rosperity. The view fromSamaria is one

of the most picturesque and attractive in all Palestine. Isaiahwell describes th is city as “the splendid ornament wh ich crownsthe fertile valley.” Green fields, o live and vine-c lad hi lls delight the eye ou every side. Between the hills may be seenglimpses of green, peacefu l valleys. Plenty and prosperity arein evidence at every turn . Samaria itself lies one thousand fourhundred and fifty-four feet above the sea- level and is surroundedby higher hi lls on nearly every side. Two miles to the northis a h i ll between nine hundred and a thousand feet higher thanthat of Samaria, while to the southeast other bills lead up to

the rocky heights of Mount Ebal, over three thousand feet abovethe sea-level. Thus Samaria was a symbol of the beauty, theprosperi ty, the openness to foreign influence, the inherentstrength and the fatal weakness of northern, as contrastedwith southern Israel.

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T HE GREAT HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLIC AL WORLD

Importance of the H ighways. Upon the direction andcharacter of the highways depend to a great extent the growthand history of early civilization. By the great roads wh ich en

tered Palestine the Hebrews came as immigrants. A long thesame roads those later waves of both hostile and peacefulinvasion swept in upon them that largely shaped their history.These highways were to them the open doors to the life andcivilization of the outside world . Over these same roads theHebrews later fled as fugitives or were dragged as captives.Along these channels of communication and commerce themissionaries and apostles at a still later day went forth to theirpeacefu l conquest of the R oman empire. Thus, next to the

land itself, the highways of the ancient world have exerted themost powerful influence upon biblical history, literature, and

re

Lack of the R oad-bu i ld ing Inst incts among the Semites.The Semitic races, as a ru le, were not road-builders. Theirearlier nomadic experiences had accustomed them to long and

arduous marches over rough, rocky roads. The ox, the came],the horse, and the donkey furnished the common means oftransportation. Most of the people went from place to placeon foot, and in Palestine the distances were so short that thismode of travelwas easy and practical . To—day in well-travelledroads large bou lders lie in the middle of theway, worn smoothby the hoofs of pack-animals and by the feet of countless passersby, who through the centuries have stumbled over them ratherthan put forth the effort of a few moments in removing them.

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THE HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLIC AL WORL D

T he Aryans were the first to develop good roads in southwestern Asia . T he royal Persian post-roads, that connected remoteparts of the vast empire, introduced a new era in road-building.

The greatest road-builders of antiquity were the R omans ; butmost of the superb highways, which to-day arouse the wonderand admiration of the trave ller, were constructed by them inthe second and third C hristian centuries, later, therefore, thanthe biblical period .

Evidence that Modern R oads Fol lowthe O ld Ways .There is stre ng evidence that the later roads usually fo llowedthe ancient paths. Both were connecting links between thesame important centres. Both necessari ly crossed the samefords and the same mountain passes . The later roads wereheld within the same limits by natural barriers and by that tendeney to follow established traditions which has ever

.charac

terized the East. In rid ing over the roads of Palestine to-daythe traveller is constantly reminded that he is fo llowing in thefootsteps of the early inhabitants of the land . Often thepath, instead of following the most direct course, climbs over apass or steep hill, past a rocky ru in once a famous city, but nowa mere chaos of scattered rocks. The road sti ll follows thisawkward detour simply because a thousand years ago it ledto a populous town . Where the roads have changed theircourse it has been because the centre of popu lation or of political ascendancy has changed, or else because the Romans,d isregarding old traditions or physical obstacles, flung theirmighty highways over the mountains and across the deepvalleys.

O rd inary Palestin ian R oads. The common Hebrew wordfor road is W ith, whichmeans literally a trodden path, madeby the feet of men and animals. It well describes a majority ofthe roads of Palestine to-day. It suggests to the experiencedPalestinian traveller in most cases a narrow path, so thicklystrewn with rocks that it is to him a never-ceasing wonder thathis horse or mule is able, without mishap, hour after hour topick its way over these rough piles of stone. Somet imes the

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ORDINARY PALESTINIAN ROADS

path runs over a steep mountain hil lside, where the animal isobliged to lift itself and rider by sheer strength up rocky stepsa foo t and a half to two feet in height or to hold itself withmarvellous skill on the sloping side of a slippery rock. Oftenthe horse flounders blindly among scattered bou lders while itbraces itself against the rush of a mounta in stream. At firmsthe traveller must balance himself on his horse as it strugglesand often swims through fords whose waters reach almost tothe top of its back.

Evidence that the Hebrews Bui l t R oads. There are in

dications, however, that road construct ion was not en tirelyknown to the ancient Hebrews. MEsillah, another commonHebrew term for road, means literal ly tha t which is heapedup, that is, a raised way. T he common translation, highway,is exact. In Judges 20W ” there are references to highwayswhich ran to Bethel and to Gibeah. In I Samuel 6“is an inc idental reference to the road which ran from the Philist ine cityof Ekron up through the Valley of Sorek toward Jerusalem.

Along this road the arkwas sent, drawn on a cart by two cows.

T he ancient narrative alludes, however, to the roughness of theroad . From I Kings 12“ it is clear that in the days of the

united kingdom a highway for chariots ran from Shechem to

Jerusalem . The allus ions in II n 3 7 also indicate that inthe later days of the northern kingdom there was a road fromDamascus to Samaria, over which the chariots of the Arameanspassed . As early as the re ign of David royal chariots become

common in Israel (e. g., I Kings This fact does not provethe existence of great highways like those bui lt by the R omans ,for the ancient charioteers were able to drive over roads whichwould seem to a westerner utterly impassable ; but it does implythe rude beginnings of road construction, probably under royalsupervision . Apparently the Israelites inherited from the morehighly civi lized C anaanites a few well-worn highways and a

certain knowledge of the art of road-making.

The Four R oads from Egypt . Four great roads led eastward from the land of Egypt. The northernmost, wh ich was

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THE HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLIC AL WORLD

called “the way of the land of the Philistines (Ex.

issued from the northern end of the Nile delta and passednorth of the marshy Lake M enzaleh. Thence it ran alongwith in a few miles of the coast of the Mediterranean, throughR aphia to Gaza. There it met the great coast road to thenorth and the local roads running through the heart of Palestine.T he second roadwas called theway to Shur

"

(Gen. 167, I Sam.

It seems to have first passed through the present WadyT umilat, thence turning northward to the southern end of LakeMenzaleh, to have run past the Egyptian fortress of Taru,now Tell Abu Sefeh . Taru may be identical with the wordShur, which appears in the Hebrew name of this h ighway.From this point the road struck almost directly across the

undulating desert to Beersheba and thence along the Wady asSeba and the Wady cl-Kuli l to Hebron . The third highwayled from the eastern end of the Wady T umilat almost due eastunti l it crossed the Brook of Egypt. Then one branch turnednortheast past the anc ient R ehobo th, to join the second road atBeersheba. T he other branch went on eastward across theArabah to Petra and thence across the Arabian Desert toBabylonia. The fourth road from Egypt also started fromthe Wady T umilat, thence past the Bitter Lakes directly acrossthe northern end of the Sinaitic peninsu la to the anc ient Elath,at the end of the northeastern arm of the Red Sea.T rails into Palestin e from the Sou th . Five roads led upinto Palestine from the south . One,

“the way of the R edSea ”

(Yam S aph, Nu. D t. starting from Elath,ran northwest, unti l at Aboda i t joined the th ird highway fromEgypt, which ran northeast to Beersheba and Hebron . A sec

ond more arduous and less used trail ran directly north fromElath through the Arabah to the southwestern end of the DeadSea. Thence the traveller might proceed to Jerusalem by awestern dé tour through Rl-FOkaand Hebron, or else keep alongthe shore of the D ead S ea and then turn inland at Engedi.A third trail led from Elath along the desert to the old Edomiteand later Nabatean capital of Pe tra. With C amels and a

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TRAILS INTO PALESTINE FROM THE SOUTH

sufficien t supply of water it was possible thence to cross the

Arabah and the heart of the South C ountry in a northwesterlydirection to Beersheba.

Highway T hrough Moab. The fourth road ran directlynorth from Petra across deep gorges and over rocky roadsthrough Shobek, et-T ufileh, Kerak and northward, fo l lowing a

straight course about e ighteen m iles to the east of the D ead S ea.

Thiswas the main ‘

highway through the heart of Moab. Far

ther north it ran past the famous Moabite towns of D ibon and

Medeba . At Heshban , opposite the northern end of the D eadSea , a branch turned westward to the lower ford of the Jordan,while the main road ran north along the eastern side of the Jordanunti l it jo ined the D amascus road south of the Sea of Gali lee .

At H eshban another important branch turned to the northeast and, pass ing through R abbath-Ammon , jo ined the desertroad to Damascus. In later times the R omans, to protecttheir east-Jordan border cities, bu ilt a magnificent road fromRabbath-Ammon to Petra, fo llowing the ancient highwaythrough the heart of Moab . Mile-stones, great rock-cuttings,ru ins of stone bridges , and miles of stone pavement still remainto bear testimony to R ome’

s stre ngth in the distant provinceseven during the period of the empire’s decline.The G reat D esert H ighway. T he ch ief highway from the

south to the north was the present pilgrim road from Damascusto Mecca , along which nowruns the modern Turkish rai lway.

This road was the main connecting link between Arabia and

the lands of the eastern Mediterranean . Making a wide dé tourwestward to touch the port of Elath, it then turned to the northeast of Petra and ran along the desert highland between thirtyand forty miles to the east of the Jordan and Dead S ea valley.

It crossed the dry, open des ert, strewn at many points withdebris of black basaltic rocks. Like most desert roads itsprawled out over the hot plains, unconfined by fields or mountain passes. The stations were simply stopping-places fortravellers and traders, for it everywhere avoided the cultivatedland, except where its western branch passed through the heart

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THE HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLIC AL WORLD

of the Hauran on itsway to D amascus. Here it ran close to theimportant c ities of Edrei, the famous fortress on the upper Y armuk, and Ashteroth-Karnaim. A little northeast of Rabbath-Ammon one branch, deflected to the northeast, and passing through the desert town of Bozrah, and thence skirt ing theeastern side of the lava tract of E l-L ejah, reached D amascus.From Edrei and Bozrah a caravan route ran southeast to theancient Duma, the present B ums t el-Jandal, and on to theoas is of Tema.C haracter of the Sou thern Approaches to Pales tine.

It is significant that the chief en trances to the west-Jordanland from the south are not through the South C ountry butby the way of Moab. T he roads which lead directly intoJudah are deflected by the grim, barren ranges of the SouthC ountry either to Beersheba on the southwest or to the Arabahon the southeast. T he roads themselves l ie through a rough,wi ld, dry, Bedouin- invested country, over which it is impossible for large tribes or armies to advance. Of the two east-Jordan highways, that through the heart of Moab passes oversteep mountains and down in to deep wadies, and in ancienttimes led through a thickly populated and well-guarded region.

T he great and easy highway is along the bord ers of the desert,and itwas probably by thisway that most of the invaders fromthe south found theirway to theweste Jordan land .

T he C oast R oad. In western Palestine four main highways,connected by cross-roads, led from the south to northern Syriaand eastward to Assyria and Babylon ia . The first was the

direct coast road which connected Egypt with Phoenicia and

Asia Minor. Throughout its course it kept close to the sea.

Only in Phi listia was it driven inland by the drifting sands .

Along an artific ially constructed causeway it rounded the endof Mount C armel and proceeded northward along the Plainof Acre over the difficult clifl

'

s of the Ladder of Tyre to the

plains of t n icia. Thence it ran along the open way pastBeirut, until it reached the difficult pass of the D og R iver.There the baa-reliefs and inscriptions on the rocks indicate not

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THE C OAST ROAD

only that from the days of Ramses II the great conquerors of

antiquity had passed along th is highway of the nations, butalso that many of them shared in the task of cutting the roadacross these difficult cliffs.

T he “Way of the Sea.

” The second great northern highway, the famous Via Maris of the Romans, branching from the

coast road either at Ashdod or Joppa, ran on the eastern sideof the Pla in of Sharon, c lose to the foothills of Samaria. Nearwhere it was jo ined by the important road which came downthrough the Barley Vale from Shechem and Samaria, this greathighway divided into three branches . One ran to the northalong the eastern and northern side of Mount C armel andjoined the coast road . Ano ther, apparently the main branch ,turned to the northeast, passed through the Wady A rab, andemerged upon the Plain of Esdraelon beside the famous old

fortress of Megiddo . From here it ran directly across the

plain, past Mount Tabor through L ubieh and down the steepdecline from the plateau to the northwestern end of the Sea of

Gali lee . Owing to the soft, loamy charac ter of the Plain ofEsdraelon, this was often impassable in the winter and spring.C aravans and armies would then take the third branch from the

Plain of Sharon, which at first ran almost due east over thePlain of D othan and past the old C anaanite city of Ibleam.

Thence it crossed the Plain of Esdraelon at Jezre el and joinedthe direct road that ran past Mount Tabor to the S ea of Galilee . m the northwestern end of the Sea of Galilee this muchtraveled Way of the S ea ascended the heights to the north andcrossed the Jordan a little below Lake Huleh at the ford nowspanned by the old stone bridge known as the

“Bridge of theDaughters of Jacob.

” From the Jordan the road fo llowed an

almost straight l ine northwest, past El-Kuneitra in easternJaulan, across the desert to D amascus.

Its C ommerc ial and Strategi c Importance . From the

po int where it crossed the Jordan a branch of this main h ighway went westward through the valley between upper and

lower Galilee,to ancient Accho, the chief seaport of Damascus.

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IN T HE NORTH

this point it ran through northern Mesopotamia past Harranand across the level plains between the Tigris and the Eu

phrates to Nineveh and Babylon . It was along this broadhighway that the Assyrian and Babylonian conquerors re

peatedly advanced against Palestine and later carried awayHebrew captives from both northern and southern Israel.T he R oad Along the Jordan . The fourth main highway to

the north, starting from Jerusalem, passed northeast throughthe barren, picturesque wilderness of Judea to Jericho. Thencei t followed the western side of the Jordan Valley and the S ea of

Galilee to Khan M inyeh, where it joined the other great roadswhich led to northern Syria and D amascus. From this fourthhighway many cross-roads led eastward and westward. FromJericho a western road ran up the Wady S uwein it to Michmashand thence across southwestern Samaria. Farther north,three others led up from the Plain of the Jordan to Shechem andthence by the B arley Vale to the Plain of Sharon. At Bethsheanthe road to the north was crossed by another h ighway, whichran from Gilead westward across the Plain of Jezreel. Thencea highway crossed the northwestern side of the Plain of E sdraelon, reaching the great coast road at Haifa and Accho.

Also from the southwestern end of the S ea of Galilee anotherimportant road ran northwest past the Plain of A sochis toAccho. From the upper Jordan valley a highway led northeast past ancient D an and Banias along the eastern spurs ofMount Hermon to D amascus.R oads E astward from D amascus. From D amascus a

great caravan route struck off due east across the northern endof the Arabian D esert, reach ing the Euphrates in the vicinityof Sippar. Thence it turned southward to Babylon and thecities of lower B abylonia. Another route, popular in latertimes and probably also in use during the A ssyrio-Babylonianperiod, made a larger circle to the north, touching at Palmyraand other desert stations. Palestine, and espec ially the central p lain of Esdraelon, was therefore the focus of the greathighways which connected all po ints in the ancient world.

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THE HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLIC AL WORLD

T he Highway from Antioch to Ephesus. The main highway which skirted the coast of the eastern Mediterraneancrossed the Amanns Mounta ins through the Syrian Gates a l itt lenorth of Antioch. At this point one branch ran northwardto connect with the great trade routes which came from Babylonia and the East. The main road to the west, however, aftertouching at Alexandria (the pre sent Alexandretta) rounded theeastern end of the Mediterranean, where it was jo ined by oneof the great trade routes which came from the Euphrates Valley. After passing through Tarsus, it abruptly turned almostdue north, crossing the Taurus Moun ta ins by the C i lician Pass,and then with much twisting and winding went westward , following rn general the divid ing line between the central plateauof Asia Minor and the rugged southern mountains. At Kybistra it forked, the northern branch crossing the plateau directly to Laodicea. The southern and more commonly usedbranch made a long detour through the important cities ofDerbe and Iconium. At Julia to the northwest the greatwestern highway again parted . O ne main branch ran in asouthwesterly direction through A pameia, C olossre, and thenceby the broad and fertile valley of the R iver Maeander to E phesus, the commercial and later the po litical capital of AsiaMinor.Another straighter but less used highway followed the valleyof the C ayster to Ephesus .T he R oad from As ia M inor to R ome. The other great

branch of the main h ighway from Julia westward was the oldoverland route to R ome. It ran first due east. Two importantbranches came down from D orylaion in the north, connecting itwith Nicrea and C onstantinople. T he old overland route continned eastward through Philadelphia and Sardis. From Sardisa branch ran straight to Smyrna, the commercial rival ofEphesus.

T he main road, however, turned to the northwest from Sardis,pass ing through Thyatira, Pergamus, the earl ier capital ofAsia Minor, to Troas, from whence the travel ler could takeship directly to Neopo l is and Philippi . A highway, however,passed northward across the Hellespont and thence through

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THE ROAD FROM ASIA MINOR TO ROME

southern Thrace to Phi lippi . From this point the great ViaE gnatia led due west through Thessalonica and Pella to A n

lonia and D yrrachium . From these Adriatic ports a short seavoyage brought the traveller to Brundisium, whence a wellwom highway led directly across southern Italy to R ome.This long and arduous road through southern Europe and

central Asia Minorwas the main thoroughfare for travel, trade,and official communication between Rome and her easternprovinces.

From E phesus to R ome. Travel lers who preferred a

shorter land and a longer water journey took ship from E phe

sus to C orinth . Thence they were transferred across the

isthmus to a sh ip which skirted the shores of Epirus and landedthem at Brundisium . If they preferred a sti ll longer waterjourney, they cou ld take sh ip at Ephesus around the southernend of Greece, either to Brundisium or else through the straitsof Messina ; thence to Puteoli, or to Ostia, the port of Romeitself.From Syria to R ome by Sea. Travel lers or merchants

making the journey from Palestine wholly by water had before them the choice of two ways. T he most common coursewas to take sh ip at some one of the ports of Syria: C aesarea,Accho, Tyre, or Sidon. Thence they skirted the shores ofSyria and Asia Minor to R hodes, seeking a harbor each nightor whenever the weatherwas unfavorable. From R hodes theordinary course was to the eastern end of C rete and thencealong its southern shores, where favorable harbors cou ld befound . From the western end of C rete the anc ient marinersskirted the southern shores of Greece, and then, with the aid

of the northern winds, which came down through the Adriatic,made theirway to the eastern shores of Sic i ly and thence throughthe straits of Messina. From here they sailed to Puteo li orelse to the mouth of the Tiber.From Alexandria to R ome. The second method of reach

ing R ome from Syria by seawas by way of Alexandria, wh ichcould be reached either by local ship or by the coast road.

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THE HIGHWAYS OF THE BIBLIC AL WORLD

From this great seaport of Egypt, during the R oman period,fleets of large grain vessels made frequent trips, bearing Egyptian grain to the capital city. Accord ing to the Latin wri ter,Vegetius (IV, 39, V, 9) the open season for navigation on theMediterranean extended fromMarch tenth to November tenth,although the favorable season was limited to the four shortmon ths between May twenty-sixth and September fourteenth.From about the twentieth of July to the end of August thefamous Etesian winds ord inari ly blew steadily from the west.These winds made it possible for the fleets of eas t-bound merchantmen to make the trip from R ome to Alexandria in whatseemed to the ancients the marvellous ly short period of fromtwenty to twenty-five days. The west-bound trip, however,was much more difficult. Owing to the prevai ling west windsthe mariners were obliged to cross the Mediterranean to somepoint on the southern shores of As ia Minor and thence to run

westward from port to port along the usual route on the southern side of C rete and Greece."t

Sign ificance of the G reat H ighways . Over these greathighways across and around the eastern Mediterranean thec ivi lization of the ancient world spread to the ends of the earth.Thme were the paths which the Jewish exiles followed in theirwestern exodus. By the beginning of the C hristian era Jewishcolonies and groups of converts to Judaism were to be foundin all the ci ties touched by these great arteries of commerce.Along these highways passed the armies and cu lture of theWest to the conquest of the East, and the ideas and re l igions ofthe East to the conquest of the West. They were thus the

natural bonds that bound together the human race in onecommon brotherhood.

C f. R oads and T ravelin the N ewT estament, by Ramsay, in ExtraVol., Hast ings

’s D ictionary of the B ible, pp. 375- 403.

P A R T II

H IST O RIC AL G EO G RA PHY

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T he A im and Val ue of Histori calG eography. H istori

calgeography deals primari ly with the background of historyrather than with the detailed historica l facts themselves. I t

aims to go back of events and movements and to study underlying forces and causes. Primitive peoples are more subjec tto the influences of physical environment than the more c ivilised races . Modern peoples are able with the aid of art and

science to rise superior in many ways to natural conditions andlimitations. A knowledge, therefore , of the physical forcesat work in early Palestinian history is of especial value in re

constructing this important but little known chapter in thelife of the race.S ources of Information R egarding Early P alestine .

The discoveries of the past quarter century have revealed in a

remarkable way the outlines, at least, of the early history of

the states along the eastern Mediterranean. The meagre biblicalreferences have been supplemented by the contemporarytestimony of the Babylonian and Egyptian monuments . For

this early period the Babylonian data are still incomplete,being limited to the statements of certain early conquerors,such as L ugalzaggisi and Sargon I, that they made expedi tionsto the West C ountry. Beginning, however, with about 1600 B .C .,

the Egyptian records furnish rich and in many cases detailedpictu res of conditions in Syria and Palestine. T hotmose

'

III ,

who reigned between 1479 and 1447 D .C ., has given a vividaccount of his many campaigns and conquests in the landsalong the eastern Mediterranean . In his lists inscribed on the

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great temple at Kamak he gives the names of three hundmdand eighty cities, of which one hundred and nineteen are inPalestine. From the reign of one of his successors, AmenhotepIV, the great reforming king of Egypt, comes the famous collection of the Tel l el-Amarna letters. These were found inruins which lie on the east side of the Nile about one hundredand seventy miles south of C airo. Nearly three hundredof these tablets, written in the Babylonian language and script,have been recovered . They represent the correspondence ofAmenhotep IV and his predecessor with the kings of Babylonia, Assyria, and Mitann i, and especially with the Egyptiangovernors of Palestine.Evidence of the Excavat ions. Recent excavations in Pal

estine at the ancient bord er town of Lachish and at Gezer onthe coast p lain, at Taanach and Megeddo on the southwesternside of the Plain of Esdraelon, and at Jericho in the Jordanvalley, have greatly enriched our knowledge of early Palestine,for a large majority of the inscriptions and archaeo logical remains that have been discovered at these sites come from the preHebrew period . Of these the ruins of Gezer have been mostthoroughly excavated (under the direction of the Palestine Exploration Fund) and have yielded by far the most detailed andvaluable results . T he ancient town lay on the borders of Philistia, on the line between Judah and northern Israe l. Itwasbuilt on one of the foot-hi lls which extend out into the plain beyond the Valley of Ajalon!” Thus, while it belonged to theh ill country, it was almost entirely surrounded by the plainand open to all the influences which afl

'

ected the Mediterraneancoast c ities . T he originaltown rested on two hi lls, one on theeast and the o ther on the west

,and extended across the shal

lowintervening valley. Four or five distinct cities, built successively one upon another, have been unearthed .

The O ldest Inhabi tants of Palest ine. T he remains foundin the lowest stratum of the mound of Gezer introduce us to theearliest inhabitants of Palestine. They probably belonged tothe Neoli thic Age and to a non-Semitic race. From the akele

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THE OLDEST IN HABITAN TS OF PALESTINE

tons thus far discovered it is clear that they were short instature, averaging between five feet four inches and five feetseven inches in height. Already they had begun to cultivatethe ground and to make rude fl int implements. They keptcows, pigs, sheep, and goats. In certa in caves, coming fromthis or an earlier age, rude attempts to picture these animalshave also been discovered. Their pottery was shaped by handand decorated with red or white lines. Their ancien t townwassurrounded by an earth en wall, ten feet thick, faced on the insideand out with stone. G reer was evidently selected as the siteof an ancient city because about it are many caves, the originaldwelling-places of these primi tive people. They apparentlyworshipped underground deities , in connection with sacredcaves. Outs ide the entrance to such a cave at Gener are foundeighty or more cuplike cavi ties sunk in the rock and probablyused for purposes of sacrifice.T he Semi ti c Invasions From the Desert. Situated, as

was C anaan, on the borders of the des ert, it was practicallyinevitable that in time great waves of nomadic invaders wouldsweep in through the broad valleys and down the coast plains.

In the light of the excavations at Gezer and the testimony ofthe Egyptian inscriptions, this was precisely what occurredsomewhere between 2500 and 2000 Undoubtedly the

Semites had begun to find their way to Palestine before thisperiod, but it is clear in the light of recent discoveries that th isgreat movement from the desert toward the eastern shores of

the Medi terranean antedated by several centuries another similar movement eastward, which carried from Syria or northernArabia to Babylon the founders of its first dynasty. In thelight of the latest discoveries , the rule of this dynasty must bedated between 2100 and 1700 B .C . The excavations at G czerreveal the presence there at this period of a Semitic race fromfive feet seven inches to five feet eleven inches in height, sturdierthan the preceding aborigines and possessed of relatively highcivil ization. T he city was surrounded by a wall about tenfeet thick, made of large hammer-trimmed stones, and guarded

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THE OLDEST SEMITIC C IVILIZATION

easily cultivated . T he lofty mounta ins on ei ther side affordednatural protection, and yet did not ward off frequent thruststhat came from the Arab invaders that pres sed in, like the ancestors of the Amorites, from the adjo ining desert. C ommunicationwas also easy in every direction. Thro ugh this greatplain ran the main highways of trade from north to south andeast and west. Ample opportunity was offered for expansionon every side. The later appearance of the Amori tes in Palestine and at other places along the eastern Mediterranean coastland is also beet explained if the earliest home of their civilisaption was central Syria.

R ema ins of the O ld Amori te C ivilization . Large mounds,evidently the remains of ancient Amorite cities, dot the broadplain between the Lebanons. These have as yet been un

touched by the spade of the excavator. They alone can tell theage, character, and history of the old Amori te civi l ization .

They furnish the most promising field for excavations in alltheSemitic world. On the neighboring mountain heights exquisitesun temples sti ll remain. Although they may have been rearedby the later Phtenicians they doubtless stand on the sites ofo lder Amorite sanctuaries. As of old, the sun, as it rises and

sends its first rays through a lofty mountain pass, shines throughthe open door of the temple and l ights up the altar within.

The ruins of the great temple at Baalbek, which stand in themiddle of the plain between the Lebanons, are sti ll one of thewonders of the Although this vas t templewas builtlate in the R oman period, it testifies to the rich productivityof the broad valley in which it lies and to the religious traditionsthat clung to this favored region .

Babylonian Influence in Palestine. Even though theorigin of the earliest Semitic culture in the Tigris-Euphratesvalley may, in the light of future excavations, be traced backto Syria, there is no doubt that from the days of Hammurabi,about 1900 B .C ., Babylon exerted a powerful influence uponSyria and Palestine. The frequent references in the literaturethat comes from the reign of Hammurabi to the Amorite mer

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EARLY PALESTINE

chants and immigrants show how close were the relationsbetween the westland and the Ti

gris-Euphrates valley. Ham

murabi, rn a recently discovered inscription , also calls himself“the king of the Amurru . The Babylonian language and

method of writing was used in Palestine as late as the fourteenthcentury by the Egyptian governors of Syria and Palestineeven in communicating with the kings of Egypt. Pract icallyall of the pre-Hebrew literature thus fardiscovered in themoundsof Palestinewas written in Babylonian characters. These fac tsare irre futable evidence of the strength and duration of the iafluence that the highly developed c ivi lization of Babylon in thefive cen turies after Hammurabi exerted upon the West C ountry.

Egypti an Influence in the C i ti es of the Pla in . Thus farthe results of the excavations in Palestine have re vealed a preponderating Egyptian influence. At G azer scarabs from theTwelfth Egyptian dynasty (between 2000 and 1788 s o.) havebeen discovered . T he method of burial here employed wasidentical with that of Egypt at the same period . T he excavations at ancient Lachish and Taanach also indicate that alongthe coast plains and inland valleys which led from these plains,Egypt’s influence was paramount. This condition is preciselywhat would be anticipated from the relative position of Egyptand Palestine. Two or three great open highways led aroundthe southeastern end of the Mediterranean, binding these twocountries closely together. Egypt, by virtue of its fertility andfavorable physical conditions, developed a much higher andearlier civil ization than did Palestine. Hence itwas inevitablethat these western and central cities of Palestine would sooneror later take on the complexion of the earlier civi l ization.

D iflerent lypes of C ivilizat ion in P ales tine. The excavations in the old C anaanite city of Jericho, in contrast tothose on the bord ers of the Phil istine Plain, have disclosed only afew indications of Egyptian influence there at this early period .

Evidently the natural barriers which separated the d ifferentparts of Palestine from each other were asserting themselves,with the result that the life and civilization of the various cities

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TYPES OF C IVILIZATION IN PALESTINE

throughout the land already presen ted wide variations. Alongthe coast were strong Semitic c ities, surrounded by thick wallsand possessed of allthat themingled culture of ancien t Amurru,

Babylonia, and Egypt could give . Traces of the influence of

Mycenrean and {E gean c ivi lization are also found in the stratawhich come from this early period . In the north the Phoenic iancities were approach ing the zenith of their power. Up amongthe hil ls of the central plateau, however, the Shashu, or B edou in,sti ll pastured their flocks undisturbed, except near the largecities, where they were probably obliged to pay tribute .

Condi tions L eading to the Hyksos Invas ion of Egypt .About 1700 there came a marked change in the politicalsituation in southwestern As ia. In Babylon the Kassites camedown from the mountains to the northeas t and conquered thevalleys of the lower Tigris and Euphrates. About the sametime Assyria asserted its independence and began to lay the

foundations for its future greatness. Somewhat later an Aryanrace, known as the Mitanni, descended from the north, se ized theplains of Mesopotamia, and es tablished there a strong kingdom .

This newkingdom, as well as the weakness of Babylon itself,delivered Palestine from eastern invas ions. Egypt was alsotorn by civilwars and dissensions between the nobles . Underthes e favoring conditions the Semitic peoples of Palest ine,Syria, and probably also of Arabia, un ited for the invasion ofEgypt.Fortunes of the Invaders. The Egyptian records unfor

tunately give little information concerning this so-called Hyksosinvasion . The fact, however, is established that northernEgypt, for about a century, until the earlier part of the six

teenth century D .C ., was held by As iatic conquerors bearingSemi tic names. When finally expelled from Egypt by theTheban kings in the south, these foreign conquerors retired toPalestine and Syria. Thither they were pursued by the energetic warrior kings who arose at this critical period m Egypt’3history. At first the Hyksos leaders made their stand at S ha

ruhen, a city probably si tuated somewhere in southern Judah.

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EARLY FORMS OF WORS HIP

The prominence of the orac le in the early religions of Palestine may well be due to the ease with which a des igning priesthood could deceive a credulous people by the skilful use of thesesubterranean chambers. The most striking features in thelandscape of Palestine were the high peaks, the jagged rocks,the springs bursting from the hil lside, and the green trees standing out in striking contrast to their gray, sombre background.Each of these occupied a prominent place in the early C anaani tere l igions. On the heights, commanding wide views over valleyand plain, were reared the high places, or anc ient rock-cutaltars.(52o 53) Scores of these are still to be found among therocky hills of Palestine. C ertain rocks were regarded as sacredbecause it was bel ieved that in them the deity dwelt. Thesesacred rock-pi llars, or maccebO th, as they were called by theHebrews, were found near every anc ient C anaanite altar and

even, as at Taanach , before the entrance to private houses.

A rowof nine such pillars has been d iscovered standing in thetemple court at Gezer. A t Taanach there was a double row.

T he most impressive examples are the two huge monolithswhich guard the ascent to the famous high place at Petra. Fre

quently these sacred stones or pillars are worn smooth by thelips of worshippers or by the libations which have been pouredupon them . Often there are cuttings on the top or side, wheresacrifices were probably offered to the numen or deity, whowas supposed to reside within. Beside or beneath each ancientsanctuary, as at Gezer and Taanach,was a spring or wel l, whichapparently figured in the worsh ip. Beside these ancient sanctuaries grew trees, symbo ls of life and the mystery of generation .

Sometimes these trees were represented by the asherahs or sacredpo les to which the Hebrew prophets often referred .

Upon the Be l iefs of Its Inhabi tants . More fundamenta lsti ll was the impression which the diverse physical contour of

Palestine made upon the beliefs of its anc ient inhabitants.Where the contour of the land made po li tical unity imposs iblethere were necessarily many independent races and kingdoms,each worshipp ing their patron god or goddess. Hence the re

95

ligions of Palestine were grossly polytheistic and the worshipof one common God was a goal which the people would never

without. The different cults of Palest ine were also deeplyinfluenced by the character of the land amidst which they developed. T he dei ties of the C anaanites li ving on the fertileplains were either gods of ferti li ty or else represented the mys

voluptuous and licentious. The grim hi lls of central Palestineand the dark volcanic gorge of the Jordan and Dead Sea en

gendered a cruel and re len tless type of re ligion and worship inwhich human sacrifice was an important feature . Thus, al

though the foundations of a nobler type of culture were beinglaid, the po li ticaland rel igious history of Palestine during thisearl ier period gave little promise of the supremely importantrele that it was destined to play in the life of mankind.

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PALESTINE UNDER THE RULE OF EGYPT

R easonsWhy E gypt C onquered Palest ine. The Egyptianrule in Palestinewas established about 1580 B .C . and, with theexception of two long lapses, was maintained for nearly threecenturies. T hotmose III, the greatest warrior and organizerin Egyptian history, after fifteen energetically fought campaigns,extended the border of Egypt to the Euphrates and broughtallthe petty little rival kingdoms in Palestine and Syria underhis control. T he reason for his intense activitywas not merelythe lust for conquest and spoi l, but the desire to deliver Egyptfrom the danger of another attack similar to that of the Hyksos.From a very early period the northeastern boundary of Egyptwas guarded by fortresses, since there were no natural barriersbetween it and Palestine. T he popu lation of northern Arabiawas too scattered to be a menace to the peace of Egypt ; butPalestine and Syria, with their fertile fields and growing population, were a just cause of anxiety and fear to the peace- lovingdwellers of the Nile valley. T he powerfu l kingdoms on theTigris and Euphrates were also from the earliest times evereager for western conquest. Thus with the sixteenth centuryB .C . began the great struggle between the East and the West forthe possession of Palestine.

C ommand ing P osi t ion of Megiddo . Throughout the

Egyptian period the city of Megiddo, on the sou thwestern sideof the Plain of Esdraelon, overshadowed allothers in importance.

Here the united kings of Syria and Palestine made their standagainst T hotmose III, and after capturing this mighty fortress,the Egyptian ruler was left master of Palestine. T he reason

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PALESTINE UNDER THE RULE OF EGYPT

why Megiddo had attainedj his prestige was partially because ofits strategic importance and partially because of its mi li tarystrength. Recen t excavations leave little doubt that thisfamous C anaanite city is to be iden tified with the present Tell elM utesellim‘63’

. It is one of the three or four most impos ingmounds in allPalestine. It lies close to the Samaritan hi lls and

yet stands out in the plain, a huge, round plateau between fiftyand seventy-five feet in height. It commands a view of practicallyevery part of the Plain of Esd raelon and far along the Plain ofJezreel toward the Jordan un til the view is cut off by MountGilboa. It looks straight across the Plain of Esdraelon at itsbroadest po int, through the val leys which lead past MountTabor to the Sea of Galilee. A little to the left rise the hi llsof Lower Galilee, while to the northwest it commands the viewthrough the narrow pass to the Plain of Acre and the Med iter

reneau . Under its northeastern front ran the important roadlead ing northwest from the Jordan and central Palestine andconnecting with the main highway along the northern coast.On its southeastern side, through a broad, ferti le valley, camethe main highway from the southern coast plains and Egypt,which ran northeastward to Damascus. A northern branchpassed through the wide pla in between the Lebanons and theAnti-Lebanons .

Its M i l i tary Strength . The city is tod ay a stately, desertedru in , but its sides are so steep on the east and west that it is stil limpossible for even the hardy Arabian horses to mount to thetop from these directions . For one on foot, accustomed to

climbing, it is an exceedingly difficult scramble. A low saddleof land connects the mound with the Samaritan hil ls to thenorthwest, making the approach from this poin t somewhat easier.Recent excavations have further revealed the great strength ofthis fortress c ity. It was surrounded by a wall twenty-eightfeet thick and guarded by towers of corresponding strength .

On its level topwas an area of several acres, ample room for alarge C anaanite popu lation , for the houses were li ttle more thancubicles, and the streets narrow, intricate lanes, at many points

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ITS MILITAR Y STRENGTH

scarcely wide enough for two people to pass comfortably. Thepublic buildings, however, which included a palace and temple

,

were of a much stronger and more mass ive constructionfi“)T hotmose III ’s Advance Again st Megiddo. Standing upon

the mound of Megiddo it is not difficu lt to picture the greatdecisive batt le, which the scribes of T hotmose III have re

corded vividly and with great detail. H is courage in rejectingthe counsels of his generals to advance from the Plain of

Sharon by a detour and his resolve to approach the city directlythrough the valley from the southwest command our admiration, for five mi les to the south the valley narrows, afl

’

ord ing asplendid opportun ity for a determined en emy to attack an in

vading army with great advantage. Without opposition, however, the Egyptian army, with its gay orien tal trappings, cameup the valley. Its energetic kingwas in front, “

showing the

way by his own footsteps.

”H aving reached the Plain of

Esdraelon at the south of Meg iddo, the king, late the sameafternoon or in the night, threw out his left wing on the hillsto the northwest of the city that he might command the roadslead ing along the western side of the Plain of Esdraelon.

He thus both secu red his line of re treat and was in a positionto cut off fugitives in case hewon the decis ive battle. Thisposition also gave him the easies t line of approach to Megiddoitself.T he D ecisive Batt le. The following morning the king

rallied his forces for batt le. While h is left wing re ta ined itsstrategic position his right wing was drawn up on a hill to thesouthwest of the c ity. H ewas thus able to descend upon theforces of the all ied C anaanite kings, who were drawn up in a

north and south line before the city. R id ing in a glitteringchariot of elektrum, the indomitable warrior led the onset.Before this army, already a victor on many hard-fought battlefields, the C anaanites at the first attack fled headlong to Msgiddo . Finding the gates closed against them, many of the fugitiveswere drawn up the wall by their friends within . Elated by theireasilywon victory and attracted by the rich spoils in the camp

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Esdraelon was the cen tre of a strong Canaanitem fedemcy,which included Megiddo, Taanach, Shunem, Bethshean, ”andcertain other cities whose sites have not yet been identi fied» ,

D isas trous E fiects of Egyptian R ule. The Egyptian ruleof Palestine put a stop for a time to the wars between the pettycity states and brought them allinto close contact with the lifeand cul ture of Egypt. B ut the fertile Nile valley, with itswarm cl imate and luxurious atmosphere,was not a land to produce a great colonizing or organizing power. Egypt, because of

its secluded posi tion,was always selfish and provincial . Noneof the Egyptian rulers of Palestine sought to develop the interestsand resources of the native peoples or to unite them undera common government. Their sole interest in Palestinewas toprotect themselves from the danger of invasion from that quarter and to extrac t the largest poss ible tribute from its inhabitants .

Egypt w illingly left the native chiefs of Palestine in control aslong as they paid tribute and did not rebel, for the sharp contrast between the soft, equable climate of the Nile val ley and thewinter co ld of the eastern Mediterranean coast lands maderesidence there exceedingly distastefu l to the Egyptians. T he

fewresiden t Egyptians were officia ls, whose chief dutieswere to collect the tribute and to report conditions to theirking. Apparently the Pharaohs never attempted to establisha standing army in Palestine or Syria ; but to maintain theirrule they depended upon the rivalry of the local princes and

upon intimidating the natives by campaigns characterized bythe greatest severity and cruelty in the treatment of rebels.Thus Egypt took the wealth and life blood of Palestine andgave almost nothing in return.

Lack of Union in Palestine. On the other hand, the topography of Palestine was such that it furnished no basis for a

broad patriotism that would un i te allthe petty kingdoms andraces in its narrow bounds . This inabi lity successfu lly to combine against the common foe, and the broad valleys that openedinto central and northern Palestine from the south and west,made its conquest by an Egyptian army very easy.

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PA LE S T IN EonNnEammR ULE or rzem

t e-to forwards.

From the D esert . Another marked

characta-istre of Palest ine is the key to the understanding of

fire:next stage in its history. A s has been noted before,“it

lay broads ide on to the desert. A s surely as air rushes intoa vacuum, so the tribes from the desert steppes irresistiblysurged into Palest ine through its eastern gateways the momentits internal strength was re laxed . The se lfish, intermitten t,destructive rule of Egypt not only repeatedly dec imated the

popu lation of Palestine but weakened its outposts. In timethey even goaded on the native princes to call in the Bedouintribes to aid them in throwing off the conqueror’s heavy yoke.

Advance of the Habiri . T he Tell clAmarna letters andthose discovered in Palestine re veal precisely th is state of

affairs. It was under the rule of Amenhotep IV, who wasmore intent upon re l igious reforms than on the ru ling of his

distant provinces, that Egyptian contro l of Palestine was firstrelaxed . A stream of letters poured in upon the king from the

governors of the cities of Palestine, tell ing of each other’

s

treachery and of the advance of bands of the Habiri, who at

this t ime, about 1360 B .C ., poured into Palest ine from the

desert . These new invaders possess a unique interest for thestudent of biblical h istory, for among them in allprobabilitywere Aramean as well as Arabian tribes, the ancestors of thelater Hebrews. They seem to have been independent tribesunder the leadership of their chiefs. They succeeded in capturing many of the weaker outlying c ities. Often they were employed as mercenaries by the rival princes of C anaan , andthey read i ly allied themselves with the native peoples in anendeavor to throw off the yoke of Egypt. The governors of

such important cities as Megiddo, Askelon, and Gezer wrotebeseeching the Pharaoh to send troops to aid them against thesestrong invad ers. In the ruins of Taanach is found an interesting letter, sent to the governor of the town by an officer atMegiddo. It reads : “To Istar-washur from Aman-hashir.May Adad preserve thy l ife ! Send thy brothers with theirchariots, and send a horse, thy tribute, and presents, and all

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ADVANC E OF THE HABIR I

prisoners who are with thee ; send them to Megiddo by to-morrow.

”In the ru ins of Lachish was found a simi lar letter,

written in Babylonian by its governor Zimrida, and stating thatunless an Egyptian armywas sent quickly the city must submitto the invaders. Jerusalem, under its governor, A bdhiba, wasone of the last cities to res ist the advance of the Habiri . A t

last, however, these people from the desert prevai led . AnEgyptian officer, writ ing of the native peoples, states : Theyhave been destroyed, their towns laid waste. The ir countries are starving, they live like goats of the mountain.

”

R ise of the H i t ti te Power. Th is chapter in the history of

early Palestine throws much light upon later Hebrew history.

The invaders evidently soon coalesced with the older C anaaniteinhabitants, infusing newblood and energy into the people ;but they quickly adopted the o lder civi lization . T he conditions of Palestine remained pract ica lly the same as in the daysbefore the Egyptian invasions. T he geograph ical characteristicsof the land reasserted themse lves. T he old rivalries and warsbetween the little states of Palest ine quickly sprang up again , sothat, when the energetic kings of the Nineteenth EgyptianDynasty appeared , the land was once more ripe for conquest.Meantime, however, the Hittites , profiting by the more favorable physical conditions in northern Syria, had come downfrom C appadocia and the mountains of eastern Asia Minorand had built up a strong kingdom, having for its southerncapital Kadesh on the Orontes . From this centre they hadextended their influence not only over Syria, but also overPalestine. When R amses II, the great ruler of the NineteenthDynasty, set out in 1288 B .C . to conquer the eastern M editer

ranean coast lands, he found himself, like T hotmose III , twohundred years before, confronted by a powerful foe, stronglyintrenched in the broad valleys between the Lebanons. Afteran undec is ive battle and many campaigns Ramseswas glad toestablish with this rival power a treaty wh ich left the Hittitesin possession of northern Syria and the Egyptians masters ofPalestine.

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THE EPOC H—MAKING TWELFTH C ENTURY

mitted through the Ionian Greeks, became the basis of theone nowin vogue throughout Europe and the western world.This same Phcenician alphabet was used by the later Hebrewpriests, prophets, and sages in conveying their immortal messages to the world. Thus the twelfth century B .C . inaugu

rated a new and significant era in the intellectual as well as thepolitical history of mankind.

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THE NOMADIC AN D EGYPTIAN PERIOD OFHEBREW HISTORY

The Entrance of the Forefathers of the Hebrews IntoC anaan . The biblical traditions regard ing the beginnings of

Hebrew history differ widely in regard to detai ls, but regardingthe great movements they are in perfect agmement. Theyallunite in declaring that the forefathers of the race were nomadsand entered Palestine from the east. T he fourteenth chapterof Genesis contains later echoes of a tradition which connectsAbraham , the forefather of the race, with the far-away gloriousage ofHammurabi (Amraphel)who l ived about 1900 B .C . Inter

preted into h istoric terms, this narrative implies that the Hebrews traced back their ancestry to the great movement of

nomads toward Palestine which took place about the beginningof the second millennium D .C . Itwas about this time that theearlier non-Semitic population in Palestine was supplan tedby the Semitic races, known to later generations as the C anaanites. In trac ing their ancestry to these early immigrants, theHebrews were entire ly justified , for the mixed race, which ultimately occupied central Palestine andwas known as the Israe lites, in time completely absorbed the old Amorite and C anaanitepopulation. T he Jacob traditions point to a latermovement ofnomadic peoples toward Palestine. In the light of the con

temporary h istory of C anaan it is exceedingly probable thatthis is to be identified with the incoming wave of the Habiri ,among whom were undoubtedly to be found many of the earlyancestors of the Hebrews. These successive waves of nomadicin vasion were the inevitable result of the physical conditions

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THE ENTRANC E OF THE HEBREWS INTO C ANAAN

already considered and were a part of that prolonged mixingof races which has gone on in Palest ine through thousands ofyears and which contributed much to the virility and enduringpower of the Israelites.

R eferences to the Israeli tes During the Egypti an Period.

The references to the Habiri in the Tell cl-Amarna letters and inthe inscriptions found in the mounds in Palestine imply thatthe majority of the Habiri either conquered the older C anaanitepopulation or else coalesced with them and thus found permanent homes in the land . This infus ion of newblood was,in fact, an inevitable consequence of Egypt

’

s cruel, des tructivepo licy in the treatment of Palestine. Seti I and Ramses II,of the Nineteenth Egyptian D ynasty, in the record of theircampaigns in Palestine, re fer to a state cal led A saru or A seru

in western Gali lee. This was the region occupied by the

Hebrew tribe of Asher and would seem to indicate that by1300 D .C ., half a century after the invasion of the Habiri, th istribe was already firmly established in the land of C anaan .

Memeptah, the son of Ramses II, refers to Israel in a con

nection which leaves no reasonable doubt that a people bearing this name were to be found in his day in Palestine. This isthe earliest and only reference to Israel thus far found on themonuments prior to the ninth century B .C . That many if not amajority of the ancestors of the later Hebrews were alreadyestablished in Palestine by the beginning of the thirteenthcentury B .C . must now be regarded as a practically establishedfact .T he Hab iri in Eastern and C en tral Palestine . The

bounds of Palestine were narrow and the ancient populationnumerous. Some of the Habiri appear to have found homesin the east-Jordan land, where they grad ual ly acquired the

habits of agriculturists and reappear in later history as the

Moabites and Ammonites . Naturally, some of these invadersreta ined their flocks and herds and nomadic mode of life. Thiswas W bla because of the pecu liar character of Pales tine.

In the uplands of the central plateau, and especially in the107

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THE LAND OF GOSHEN

angles were at the modern cities of Zigazig, in the northwest,Belbe is in the south, and Abu Hammad at the beginn ing of the

valley on the east. By many scholars th is triangle is regardedas the original land of Goshen. Until the days of Ramses IIthe entire region, including the Wady T umilat, was given upto the shepherds . Here, there fore, the Israelites could keep theirflocks and maintain their tribal unity and practical independence.T he Wady T umilat. The Wady T umilat is a low-lying,

shallow valley bounded on either side by the hot, rocky desert.In ancient times it was dry except when its narrow bed wasoccasionally flooded by the inundations of the Nile. On thewest it opened into the Nile D elta . At an early period the

Egyptians had established at the eastern part of the WadyT umilat a fortress (known as the

“Wall of the for itwas the most vu lnerable spot on all the Egyptian fron tier.

Amidst these more favoring conditions on the bord ers of the

Nile D elta it was inevitable that nomads, possessed of virilephysiques , but hitherto restricted by lack of food and water,would rapidly multiply. T he modern East presen ts manyanalogies. T he alarm which, according to the biblical narrative, this increase aroused in theminds of the Egyptians is in perfeet keeping with the fear with which the dwellers of the Nilealways regarded the Bedouin .

R amses I I’s Policy. T he great change in the fortunes of

the Hebrews was in allprobability the result of the policy of

R amses II . T o carry out h is ambitious building enterprisesit was necessary for him to enlist the services of vast bodies ofworkmen . Into this service he naturally pressed the foreigners residen t in or on the bprders of Egypt. In ord er to connectEgypt more closely with its Palest inian provinces, and aboveallto develop its resources to the full, this famous organ izer conceived and carried through the plan of converting the easternNile D elta and the Wady T umilat into til lable land . T o

this end he probably repaired and en larged the canal that hadbeen constructed as early as the days of the Twelfth D ynasty.It was about fifteen yards in width and sixteen to seventeen

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EGYPTIAN PER IOD OF HEBREW HISTORY

and a half feet in depth, and ran eastward from the Nile D'

eltathrough the Wady T umilat into the C rocodile Lake. According to Pliny, itwas sixty-three miles in length . It is paralleledto-day throughout most of its course by the fresh-water canal,which irrigates this region and supplies the towns on the SuezC anal with drinking water. The ancient canal was constructedprimari ly for navigation, but it was also essential in reclaim ingthe land on either side.Bu i lding the Store-C i ties of Ramses and Pi thom. T o

cfl'

ect the transformation of this region, R amses II built twoimportant cities . O ne of them bore his name and became thedes ignation of the surrounding territory, which was known as

the country of Ramses. It probably stood at the westernend of the Wady T umilat. T he other, the Pithom (05) of the

biblical records, has been proved in the light of modern excavation to have been the ancient P -atum, that is, the House of theG od Atum. This citywas situated near the eastern end of the

Wady T umilat, at the present T ellcl-Maskhutah, ten or twelvemi les west of Lake T imaah . This was probably also the siteof the o lder fortress known as the Wallof the Prince.” Severalinscriptions have been found here containing the name P -atum .

In later Egyptian geographica l lists this was also the name ofa local province. Here Neville discovered what appear to havebeen great store chambers with walls two or three yards inthickness, made of crude, sun-dried bricks. These chamberswere not connec ted and the grain was put into them throughopenings in the top. Here, apparently, R amses II gathered thevast supplies of grain necessary for his Palestinian campaigns,for these cities were built during the earlier, warlike period ofhis reign .

C ondi t ion of the HebrewSerfs. In the light of the wellestablished facts of Egyptian history and of the geographicalbackground , it is easy to apprec iate the condition of the nomadicIsraelites. Their pasture lands were transformed into cultivatedfields and occupied by Egyptian co lonists . T he sons of thedesert, ever restive under the restraints of civil authority, were

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C OND ITION O F THE HEBR EW SER FS

put at forced labor and compelled to bu ild the border fortresseswhich made their bondage the more hopeless. Palestine wasin the control of their royal Egyptian task-master. The wilderness that stretched almost from their doors far out into thewild, rocky desert, offered the one possible place of escape ; butunder the iron ru le of R amses II and his successor, M emeptah,

the escape of large bodies of fugitives was practically impossible.

T rain ing of Moses. The one Hebrew, however,who daredraise his hand against the oppression of the Pharaoh, succeededin escaping beyond the border fortresses and found a homeamong the nomad ic kinsmen of his race in the rugged mountains that lie between southern Judah and the Sinaitic peninsu la. Here, amidst the dangers and so litudes of the desert,Moses, the great prophet, leader, and founder of the Hebrewnation, received his training. Here he learned to trust thePower that gu ides the destinies of men and nations, and to

desp ise the boasted strength of Egypt. In gu iding the flocksof Jethro, his father- in -law, through the trackless wilderness fi lledwith wild beasts and hostile Bedouin, he had also becomeskilled in leading men .

T he H istorical Facts Underlying the P lague S tories.Moses

’ work in leading the Hebrews from Egypt is a familiarchapter in biblical history. In the break-down of the Egyptiangovernment and in the period of anarchy which fo llowed thefall of the Nineteen th D ynasty, a supremely favorable oppor

tun ity was offered for the escape of the serfs. A n Egyptianwriter states that at th is time “

the Egyptians had no chiefru ler for many years. T he land of Egypt was in the hands of

the nobles and ru lers of towns ; each slew his neighbor, greatand small.” A certain Syrian also proc laimed himself kingand made the en tire land tributary to him, plundering the peo

ple. T o these evils were added the horrors of foreign invasion .

Even under a good government the sanitary conditions in Egyptare far from satisfactory. In the time of anarchy and bloodshed the hot valley of the Nile is ravaged by disease and plagues.

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METHOD OF TR AVEL IN THE DESERT

may be guided by their light. In this manner the Hebrewswere reminded of Jehovah’

s presen ce and guided by his prophet,Moses.Moses ’ Equ ipmen t as a Leader. T he distance from the

eastern side of the land of Goshen to the wilderness was onlya few miles. What the Hebrew serfs most needed was a cou

rageous, energetic, and trained leader, able to command theirconfidence and insp ire them to qu ick and decided action .

Thwe qualities Moses had acqu ired largely as a resu lt of hisdesert experience. Above all, he was able to appeal to theirfaith m the God of their fathers, and thus, like the great prophetof Islam, to rule his followers through their re ligious as wellas through their se lfish impulses.

T he Scene of the Exodus. Of the two ways which led eastward from Egypt, the Israelites chose the southern, that randirectly into the desert. T he northern route, the Way of thePhilistines, was already guarded by strong, warlike peoples.Unfortunately, the o ldest biblical account of the exodus con

tains no geographical data, and none of the three or four placesmention ed in the late priestly narrative have been identified .

T he interpretation which places the scene of the exodus nearthe present port of Suez , at the northern end of the westernarm of the R ed S ea, is based who lly on the bib lica l re ference tothe Sea of R eeds , which is commonly translated R ed S ea.

That this term is frequently used in the Old Testament as thedesignation of the R ed Sea is unques tioned ; but there is no

place in the vicinity of the presen t Port of Suez which satisfiesthe conditions implied by the biblica l narrative. Furthermore,it is difficult to see what would have led the Hebrews to maketh is long and difficu lt dé tour to the south rather than escape tothe desert directly east of the Wady T umilat. T he biblical narrative implies that the latter was the course followed . T he

significant term, Sea of R eeds, po ints not to the R ed S ea, inwhose saline waters reeds wou ld not thrive, but to the marshyshores of the C rocodi le Lake, the modern Lake Timsah, whichlay directly east of the Wady T umilat. Into it poured the

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EGYPTIAN PER IOD OF HEBREW HISTORY

fresh waters from the Nile, which were conducted thither bythe canal that ran along the wady. Even though the modernSuez C anal, which runs through it, has transformed conditions,Lake Timsah is sti ll surrounded by a thicket of vegetation.

Inasmuch as the Hebrews frequently used the word sea (forexample, the Sea of Gali lee) as the designation of an inlandlake, the name Sea of R eeds was exceedingly appropriate.

Probab ili ty T hat the Passage Was at L ake T imsah . A o

cording to the earliest biblical narrative deliverance came tothe Hebrews as they were pursued by the Egyptians because“Jehovah caused the sea to go back, by a strong east w ind all

the night, and made the bed of the sea dry.

” The shallow southeastern end of Lake Timsah satisfies most fully the physicalconditions implied by this ancient narrative. At its southernend it opens out into a broad bay, but between this point andthe main body of the lakewas a shallow, marshy strait, not morethan a quarter of a mile across. A strong wind driving it fromthe leve l desert wou ld force back the waters into other parts of

the lake, leaving this passage comparatively dry. A close andsignificant parallel is recorded by Major- General Tulloch,who states that the shallow waters of Lake Menzaleh, whichlies only a short distance to the north and is subject to the sameconditions, were driven back by the W ind for seven miles, leavingthe bo ttom of the lake dry (Jcarnalof the Victorian Institute,vol. XXVIII, p. 267, and vol. XXVI, p. The biblicalnarrative also states that Jehovah bound the chariot wheelsof the Egyptians so that they proceeded with difficu lty. Thisis precise ly what would follow, not on a hard, sandy shore, butin the marshy, muddy depths of a body of fresh water like LakeTimsah . While the exact scene of that incident , wh ich, morethan any other in their history, impressed upon the consc iousness of the Israelites Jehovah’

s power and willingness to del iver them

,will never be exactly identified, the southeastern end

of Lake Timsah is the most probable site.

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T HE HE BR EWS IN T HE WILD ERNESS AND EAST OF

THE JOR D AN

Iden tification of Moun t S inai . Desert sites are so readilyforgotten, and the records of this period in Israel

’

s history werecommitted to writing so many years after the events transp ired,that it is nowimpossible to follow the Israelites with certaintyin their desert wanderings. Their first aim after leaving Egyptwas to find a safe asylum. In this quest the experiences of

their leader, Moses, would influence them to find at least a tem

porary refuge with his kinsmen, the Midianites. Their secondaimwas to worship at the sacred mountain the God who hadso signally revealed himself to them . According to the Northern Israelitish traditions (Ex. 3

1

) the mountain of Godwas nearthe wilderness, where Moseswas pasturing the flock of Jethro,his father- in-law. In allthe biblical narratives it is implied thatSinaiwas not far from the land of Midian and that the homeof the Midianites was to the south or cast of Mount Seir. Allthe earliest references in the O ld Testament, as for example,Judges and D ent. indicate defin itely that Moun t Sinaiwas at least near the Mount Seir range, if not identical withone of its peaks.(66) Furthermore, recent excavations haveshown that the road which led along the western arm of the

R ed S ea to the Mount Sinai of later tradition passed importantEgyptian garrisons, stationed there to guard the extensivequarries and mines which for centuries had been worked underthe direction of the Pharaohs. This route would also havetaken the Israelites far away from their kinsmen and their ul

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THE HEBR EWS IN THE WILDERNESS

timate goal, into a barren country, incapable of supporting alarge body of men and fi lled with hostile Arab tribesLateness of the T rad i t ional Identificat ion . The tradi

tion which identifies the mountain of God with Jebel Mass ,in the southern part of the Sinaitic peninsula,(6 7) cannot betraced earlier than the fourth or fifth centuries of the C hristianera. T he detailed itinerary of Numbers 33 is general ly recognized to be one of the latest sections in the Old Testament andembodies the late Jewish conception of the wi lderness period .

All attempts to identify the si tes here mentioned have proveduniformly unsatisfactory.Probable R ou te of the Hebrews. Of the two or three

sites mentioned in the biblical narrative, Elim, with its twelvesprings of water and seven ty palm- trees, is probably the ferti lespot at the end of the northeastern arm of the R ed S ea knownin later biblical times as the port of Elath . A journey of twohundred miles along the main caravan route from Egyptwould bring the Hebrews to this point after three weeks comfortable travel. From there the highways branch northwardtoward C anaan. If Sinai was their first objective point, theearl iest biblical references to this mountain indicate that fromElim they probably turned to the northeast and followed theway of the Arabah until they reached that one of the manypeaks in the southwestern part of the Mount Seir range whichwas regarded by their Midian ite kinsmen as the special abodeof Jehovah. Here Moses’ Midianite father-ia- law visited theIsraelites. Here, in keeping with an ancient custom of thedes ert, a sacred covenant was made with their God, whichbecame the bas is of their later social and re ligious life.

Kadesh-bamea . Late Jewish (cf. Jos. A n t. IV, and

modern Moslem traditions make the picturesque Wady Muss ,in the heart of which was the marvellous Edomite capital,Petra, the scene of their desert sojourn ; but the o lder biblica lnarratives indicate that from Sinai the Hebrews turned to thenorthwest. A desert journey of sixty or seventy-five mileswould bring them into the midst of the series of bold, rugged

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KADESH- BARNEA

mountains, cut in every direction by dry wadies, known to-dayas the Jebel el-Magrah, in the southwestern part of the SouthC ountry. In one of these wadies was the famous spring of

Kadesh-barnea, sti ll known as Ain Kdes, the Ho ly Spring.

T he water gushes out through several openings from the sideof a steep limestone c liff and is caught in a series of artific iallyconstructed bas ins . T he stream which arises from this spring,as it runs down the valley, converts it into what seems in con

trast to its barren surroundings a little oasis . A s in the caseof most des ert streams, the waters soon disappear, however,beneath the desert sand. Here, in the heart of the wildernes s ,and yet only a few miles east of the po int where the highwaythat ran from Elath to Beersheba was joined by anotherwhich came across the desert from Egypt, the Israelites apparently es tablished their central camp.

E fiect of the W i lderness Li fe Upon the Hebrews . Thespring of Kadesh is still a favorite resort of Arab tribes, butits waters are not sufficient to support permanently even a smal lBedouin clan. It is only as the tribes wander from place toplace, ever seeking newpastures for their flocks, that the inhabitants of this southern wilderness are able to subs ist . Ifthe Israe lites remained in this region for a generation, as thelater trad itions state, they must have reverted to that nomadicl ife which stil l survives in the desert .(68- 7 1> This experiencewas not without value to a race which must work out its destinyin the face of great obstacles. It taught them to endure wantand hardship . The presence of constant danger not onlydeveloped courage and skill in warfare

,but also bound them

closely together. At any moment they were subject to attackfrom hosti le tribes . Their life and that of their families and

flocks depended upon their finding from time to time springsofwater and pasture lands among the rocky wastes that wou ldsupply the necessities for their strenuous existence. T he

constant deep sense of dependence developed those religiousimpulses which are very strong in the heart of the Semites .

The long marches through the sombre wilderness by day and117

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ATTEMPT TO ENTER C ANAAN FR O M THE SOUTH

Hebron and southern C anaan to investigate condi tions, with a

view to conquest.R easons Why T hey D id N ot Su cceed . T he report of the

spies makes it clear why the Hebrews, as a whole, did not enterC anaan from the south. Their statements are in perfectaccord with the condi tions revealed by contemporary Egypt ianinscriptions and the results of recent excavations. Alreadythe territory of southern C anaan was fu lly occupied. T he

larger cities were surrounded by strong wal ls and their inhabitants were in possession of the most advanced equ ipment formi litary defen ce known to that age. These defen ces werepractically impregnable against the attack of nomad ic tribes.

Furthermore,the natural line of approach for the invasion

of C anaan was not through the South C oun try. I ts barrenwastes did not supply a sufficient base from which to makean attack. The conquest of a land like C anaan by nomadsrequired a comparatively fertile intermediate terri tory, wherethe besiegers might sett le and der ive the supplies necessary fora siege that might last many years. The reasons , therefore,why a majori ty of the tribes abandoned their original purpose to en ter C anaan from the south and chose the morefavorable route through the east-Jordan land are obvious and

T ribes T hat P robably Entered C anaan From the Sou th .

There are intimations, however, that certain desert tribes, laterabsorbed into the Hebrew empire, found theirway into Palestine from the south. C aleb, who figures in the story of the

spies as an advocate of advance from the south , appears in thenarrative of the first chapter of Judges as a tribe establishedon the southern borders of Judah . It is probable

,therefore,

that the C alebites gradual ly advanced through the SouthC ountry to the possession of the territory which they ultimatelyoccupied . T he same is true of certain Midianite c lans, like theKenizzites ,who shared with Israel the worship of Jehovah , theGod of Sinai . Possibly even before the exodus, certain of theseclans had gained a footing on the borders of C anaan ; at any

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THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS

rate they, together with the Jerahmee lites, are later found firmlyintrenched to the southeast of Judah.

T he Journey to the Eas t of the Jordan . The account ofthe march of the Hebrews from Kadesh to the east of the

Jordan is in perfect harmony with the peculiar topography ofthis region . T he shortest waywas across the dry valley of the

Arabah, past the southeastern end of the D ead S ea and northward through central Moab ; but this invo lved a journey througha part of the wilderness which can be made by large bodies of

men only when they are provided with camels and are able tocarry full supplies for the journey. For women and children,such a journeywas exceedingly difficult even if they were inuredto the life of the wilderness. Sti ll more dangerouswas the marchof a large tribe through the centre of Moab, for its highwayswere difficu lt and strongly guarded . A second way , which,according to biblical narrative, the Hebrews seriously considered,was the narrow, rocky road which led through the heart ofEdom to the great eastern desert highway. Without the consent of the Edomites, a passage by this easily defended waywas abso lutely impossible. Inasmuch as the request of theHebrews was refused by the Edomite king, the only way thatremained was the long detour around the southern end ofMount Seir. Accord ingly, they ret their way southeastward to Elath . Thence they turned abruptly to the northeastand took the broad highway northward along the borders of thedesert, where the streams of pi lgrims pass tod ay on the journeyfrom D amascus to Mecca (of. p. T he way was throughhot, rocky deserts and it is not strange that the Israe lites indulged in bitter complaints.Sta tions on the Way. The earliest Old Testament narra

tive has preserved a list of the stations on the highway by whichthe Israelites approached Moab. Most of these, as the namesindicate, were but swpping-places in the desert, correspondingprobably to the stations on the modern pilgrims’

road. Thusthe name Beeroth Bene-jaakan means Wells of the Sons ofJaakan, and was probably named after the Arab tribe that

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STATIONS ON THE WAY

roamed in this desert region. T he second station from thispoint, Jotbathah, is described as a land of flowing brooks . Thisis an excellent description of the modern important city ofMaan, near the station on the Damascus-Mecca railway, fromwhich the traveller to-day sets out for Petra, that l ies abouttwenty-five miles due west. Maan rs a litt le oasis made by a

beautiful flowing brook, which soon loses itself, however, inthe sands of the enc irc ling desert. It rs almost the only spotalong this dry highway from the north to the south where theweary trave ller hears the refreshing ripple of flowing waters.Farther north the road passes over the high, parched plateauswhere , according to the ancient song in Numbers theHebrew chieftains jo ined in digging, or more probably in c leaning out the well from which the much-needed water might besecured . The third station farther north bears the nameNahal iel, which means Torrent Valley of G od. It was ap

parently at th is point that the Israelites turned westward, following perhaps the ravine which leads from the“ east to thegreat valley of the Arnon. Bamoth, the next station, whichmeans high places, was probably some he ight to the north of

the ravine, possibly the Jebel er-Ram (the High Mountain) .The fragment of the ancient poem found in Numbersreflects the profound impression which the deep valleys of the

Arnon made upon the Hebrew invaders. Waheb, in S uphah,was possibly a place in the Wady es-S ufeiy, which opens intothe Arnon from the east and thus would lie in the line of Israe l

’

s

approach . The city of A r, mentioned in the same connection,possibly represen ts the shortened form of the wel l-known cityof Amer, on the heights to the north of the Arnon.

C onquests East of the D ead Sea. From the banks of the

Arnon, which marked the northern boundary of Moab, the Hebrews set out for the conquest of the Amorite kingdom of Sihonto the north . The decisive battlewas fought in the open, nearthe city of Jahaz, on the borders of the wilderness . The siteof the city has not yet been iden t ified . According to the Moabite stone (lines 18- 20) itwas the head-quarters of the northern

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SOJOURN OF THE HEBREWS EAST OF THE JOR D AN

themselves homes in Gilead , in the rich territory between theJabbok and the Yarmuk. A later narrative states that evenat this early period the Israelites crossed the Yarmuk and conquered the kingdom of O g, king of Bashan, whose capitalwasthe strange, rock-cut city of Edrei in the valley of the upperYarmuk.Its S ign ificance. This east-Jordan land supplied in full

est measure the training and opportunity for expansion whichthe Israelites required before they entered upon the larger taskof conquering the lands across the river. Here they learned tocultivate the soil as well as to follow the flocks. The survivorsof the conquered Amorites began to instruct them in the artsof agriculture and in the secrets of that higher civilization whichhad been developing for centuries in Palestine. Here, amidstthese highly favoring conditions, their numbers rapidly increased,until they began to feel the need of newfields for colonization.

At the same time they were constantly subject to the pressure ofArab invasion, which kept sweeping in from the eastern desert.Meantime the armies of Egypt had been withdrawn and the oldfeuds and wars between the diflerent races of Palestine hadsprung up. N0 strong power had come to the front in northern Syria. By 1150 B .C . Palestinewas ready to receive the racefor which it had been preparing through the long ages.

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THE SETTLEMENT IN C ANAAN

The A pproach to the Jordan . About the middle of the

twelfth century B .C . the Hebrew tribes from Egypt crossed theJordan into C anaan . They probably approached the ri verby the main highway which to-day skirts the northern side of

Mount Nebo,(72 ) crossing the Wady Heshban, and entering theJordan Valley where the Wady Kefrein broadens into the

meadow on which sti l l stands a group of acacias, the Valley of

Shittim (Acac ias), of the Hebrew narratives. After the latespring and summer freshets the lower Jordan may be fordedat two po ints. One is at the shal low place where the WadyKelt pours its waters and mud into the Jordan. T he other issix or seven mi les farther north, j ust below the point where theWady Nimrin comes down from the highlands of Gilead .

Probably the Hebrews crossed by this northern ford .

C ross ing the Jordan . The older biblical account of thecross ing states that it took place in the time of harvest, when theJordan was overflowing its banks. The statemen t whichfo llows rs unintelligible except as it is explained by the uniquecharacteristics of this strange river: “

Its waters rose up in a

heap, a greatway off at Adam, the city that rs beside Zarethan,

and those that went down toward the Sea of the Arabah, theSalt Sea, were wholly cut off

”

(Josh. Like the MissouriR iver in America, the Jordan frequen tly changes its course. Atcertain po ints higher up the river, especially where the Samaritanhills come down close to its sho res and the Jabbok pours in itswaters from the east, the river sometimes undermines the clay

i 24

C ROSSING THE JORDAN

banks, with the result that it is temporarily dammed up, leaving the bed below comparatively dry. T he name of the townAdam, where its waters

‘ ‘

rose up in a heap,” means red earth.

It rs probably represented by the Tell cd D amieh which standsnear the famous Demich ford, just below the point where theJabbok enters the Jordan. A reliable Moslem historian recordsthat in the year 1257 A .D . the Su ltan Bibers found it necessaryto send workmen to repair the foundation of the bridge (JisrD amieh) at this point, in order to save the retreating Moslemarmy.

.The task seemed impossible because of the springfloods, which were then on ; but to their amazement, when theyarrived at the bridge the men found the river-bed empty. Byworking rapidly they were able to complete the repairs beforethe waters again rushed down. Naturally they regarded thisremarkable phenomenon as a special divine interposition,although the historian does not fail to state that the immediatecause was a huge landslide a little farther up the river. Thislater analogy certainly throws much light upon the grea t event,which like the exodus, made a profound impression upon thefaith of the Hebrews.Strategic Importance of Jericho. Six miles across thewhite terraces that rise from the bed of the Jordan close to the

foot-h ills of the western plateau, which here projects far out

into the valley, lay the ancient C anaanite town of Jericholn )

It stood on an eminence a few feet above the level of the plain.The old city is to-day but a deserted egg

-shaped mound aboutone thousand one hundred feet long and five hundred wide,with three smaller mounds on the top. T he total area of the

ruin is about twelve acres . The average height of the moundis about forty feet above the pla in . Immed iately below it tothe east is the ‘Ain esS ultan, known in Hebrew times as the

fountain of Elisha. T o the sou th the Valley of Achor, throughwhich runs the perennial stream of the Kelt, comes down fromthe heights of southern Samaria. Immediately back of the

ancient city ran the road over the heights past Michmash and

Ai to join the central northern highway through Judea and125

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THE SETTLEMENT IN C ANAAN

not yet been identified . It wou ld naturally be looked for at

Bethlehem or at the stronghold of Bethzur farther south . T he

text is clearly corrupt and possibly the original reading conta insthe name of one or the other of these southern cities. T he mostimportant acquisition of the Judahites was the city of Hebronin the south . This ancient town lay in a shallow valley andwasprotected by no natural defences.(76) Allying themselves wi thc ertain Arab tribes, they extended thei r conquests far out intothe borders of the South C ountry. T he situation of Debir issti ll in doubt. It is usually identified with D haheriych, southwest of Hebron, where the hil ls of Judah descend to the wi ldSouth C ountry. In its vicin ity are certain springs, which cor

mmnd to those assigned to one of the clans of the C alebites.

T o the southeast, with the aid of the Kenites, the Judah i tessucceeded in conquering the border fortress of Arad, seventeenmi les southeast of llcbron . It stood at the head of the WadySeyal, which runs up in the direction of the D ead Sea past thelater fortress ofMasada. Here dwelt the semi-nomadic Ken ites.

T he Simeonites, with the aid of the Judahites, also captured thecity of li onnah, far out in the South C ountry, and in this wi ldregion. in closer touch with the tribes of the desert than withthe Hebrew tribes of the north, they lived their free , nomadicllfo.

C onquest of A land Bethel . The strong tribes of Ephraimand Manameh, under the leadership of Joshua, took the moredirect western road over the heights above Jericho. While atthis period the true home of the C anaanites was stil l on the

plains, certain of them , or else the descendants of later immigrants, had already ascended these heights and built small upland villages. T he so i l was not suffi ciently rich to support alarge population. Probably the inhabitants sti l l depended to a

great extent upon their flocks for sustenance. At the head ofthe upland valley, along which the road ran ,was the vil lage ofAl, aufllviently strong to repulse the initial attacks of the Hebrews. i twas final ly captured . however, by means of strategy,in which the wily sons of the desert were adepts. In the same

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C ONQUEST OF AI AND BETHEL

way they captured the sacred c ity of Bethel, which is generallyidentified with the present Beitin,(7 7) two or three mi les to the

northwest of Ai . The ruins on th is site are so meagre that itsidentification is by no means certa in . If they represent theancient city, it was always insign ifican t—fl place of pi lgrimagerather than of residence. T he present vi llage lies on a graduallysloping hill, strewn with large limeston e rocks. It lacks thecommanding view characteristic of the other high places of

Palest ine. Its outc rop of rock furnished abundant sites forancient altars and for the rocky pillow on which, according toHebrew trad ition, rested the head of the fugitive Jacob. I t isimportan t strategically, because near it converge the ancientroads from the east, the north, and the south. Itwas capturedby a sudden attack which caught the inhabitants unprepared .

Incompleteness of the Ini ti al C onquest. It is probablethat certa in other small vi llages in the uplands near Ai andB ethel, were captured by the Hebrew tribes that turned northward . T he later traditions record an important battle nearGibeon , which swept westward down through the pass of the

Upper and Lower Beth-horons. The o lder narrative, however,found in the first chapter of Judges , states very definitely thatthe Hebrews did not capture any of the important cities on the

plain except Jericho and that allthe important towns in centralC anaan still remained in the possession of the older inhabitants .

One zone of strong c ities, beginning with Gezer on the west,including Shaalbim, Ajalon, Gibeon, and Jerusalem, remainedin possession of the C anaanites . Farther north , beginning withD or on the Mediterranean coas t, another line of strong C anaanite c ities extended across the Pla in of Esdraelon to the Jordan,including Megiddo, Taanach, Ibleam, and Bethshean. Thesecities commanded allthe importan t highways from north tosouth . Sti ll farther north the chief cities ofGalilee were still heldby the C anaanites. Thus, in the early stages of the settle»ment in C anaan, the Hebrews, who at th is time came in fromthe east-Jordan land, succeeded in in trench ing themselves onlyat two po ints : (1) in the heights of Judah, from whence they

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THE MOA BITE INVASION

separated by zones of C anaanite cities. The result was that thelocal Hebrew tribes soon fell a prey to the older races. Earlyduring the period of settlement the Moabites who were at firstconfined to the south of the Arnon, swept over this natural barrierand appeared at the fords of the Jordan opposite Jericho.

They even exacted tribute of the Hebrew tribes in southernC anaan. The Moabite oppre ssion was overthrown by theBenjamite Ehud, who treacherously slewthe Moabite king andrallied the strong clans of Ephraim. By seiz ing and holdingthe two lower fords of the Jordan they succeeded , with the aidof this great natural barrier

,in keeping back the Moabites ; but

it is eviden t that by th is time these aggressive foes had largelyreconquered the old kingdom of Sihon and subjugated theHebrews who remained east of the Jordan and south of the

T he Rally of the Hebrews A gainst the C anaani tes . T he

rapid increase of the Hebrews led the C anaani tes to revive theold coalition, which in the days of T hotmose III had its naturalcentre at Again this important city was the rallyingplace of the C anaanites. On the great plain that extends formiles in front of this ancient fortresswas fought the battle whichdecided the possession of central C anaan . Only the Hebrewtribes of central Israel rallied on the battle-field. The Asheritesin the west, the Danites in the north, and the Reubenites acrossthe Jordan remained by their ships or with their flocks . N o

mention is made in the biblical narratives of the tribes of Judahand Simeon, far in the south. Accord ing to the older poeticaccount of the battle, Deborah, who issued the ca ll thatrallied the strong central tribes, belonged to the tribe of Issachar, whose territory lay on the northeastern side of the plain .

Here near Deborah’s home gathered the Hebrews, i ll-organizedbut patriotic and brave. Down along the highway, which ran

through the terri tory of N apthali from the northwestern end ofthe Sea of Gali lee (of. p. rushed Barak with his sturdywarriors. Evidently the Hebrews had hitherto confined theirfighting to the hi lls, where they had had a great advantage ;

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T HE SETTLEMENT IN C ANAAN

but now, forty thousand strong, they ven tured out on the plainto meet the C anaanites who were equipped with horses andchariots and who were fighting on their own natural battle-held.

T he Ba ttl e-field. T he Hebrews, however, chose theirground wisely. On the eastern side of the great plain the hillsfrom the south a lmost meet those from the north, so that here theHebrew warriors from all parts of the land could unite withouta long journey across the open plain. On the other hand, theywere there reasonably free from the danger of a flank attack,for the only dire ct and feasible approach to the battle-field fromMegiddo was straight across the plain to the northeast. Far

ther to the west the Kishon is ordinari ly not fordable, whileeast of Megiddo, opposite Taanach , are probably to be foundthe Waters of Megiddo, mentioned in the ancient song, forhere many springs burst from the plain, rendering it muddy andpractica lly impassable far into the summer. The Hebrews evidently took their stand on the northeastern side of the Kishonfl

’)

where the main highway crosses it about seven miles fromMegiddo. The river here ploughs its muddy way through theplain, which rises gently toward the northeast to the positionoccupied by the Hebrews. Its fords are treacherous at all timesand especially so in spring. In crossing this point as late asApri l, our horses would probably have foundered in its stickymud had not some camel-drivers waded out into the middleof the stream and guided us over the one narrow place whereit was possible to cross without being submerged. As we lookedback two hundred yards beyond the river, its low,

sluggishstream was completely hidden . Had we not recently crossed ,

we would not have suspected that it ran across the seeminglyunbroken plain . Not even the arsualbushes fringed its bank toproclaim its winding course .E fiect of a StormUpon the Plain . Eviden tly the Hebrews

waited before offering battle unti l the C anaanites had crossedand were thus cut off from the possibi lity of quick re treat. Theanc ient poem of Judges 5 also indicates that they chose for thebattle the time of year most advantageous for them. The

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EFFEC T OF A STORM UPON THE PLAIN

references to Jehovah coming on the clouds from Sinai andpouring out his waters, to the stars fighting in their courseagainst the C anaanites , and to the swollen Kishon, clearlyshow that the battle was fought in the spring and that, while itwas in progress, one of those drenching thunderb storms thatsweep over the pla in at this t ime of the year demonstrated toHebrew and C anaanite al ike the presence of Israel’s God .

The loamy soil of the pla in dries quickly and is then very hardbut when wet becomes at once a hopeless morass . The horseshoofs sink deep into the muddy soil and are withdrawn withthat pecu liar sucking sound which the author of the poem inJudges 5 has successft reproduced. The C anaanites, neverfamous for bravery, were quickly thrown into confusion . Intheir mad endeavor to get back to Megiddo, chariots, horses ,and ho rsemen plunged headlong into the treacherous, swollenKishon, and were swept away.Resu l ts of the Victory . Apparently the C anaanite leader,

Sisera, swerved to the northward from the Kishon and escapedover the hi lls of lower Galilee. Exhausted with his fl ight hetook refuge in the tent of a wandering Kenite and there met themost ignominious of fates—death at the hands of a woman.Thus the Hebrews were left masters of central C anaan and

possessors of the opulent cities and the mate rial civil ization ,

which had been developing in Palestine for over a thousandyears. In the southern zone, the C anaanite cities remained unconquered unti l the days of the united Hebrew kingdom, butthey ceased to be a menace to Hebrew expans ion. Thus atlast, after two or three centuries of wandering, of struggle, andof train ing, the different Hebrew tribes entered into their heritageand continued to occupy it unti l Assyria and Babylon ia destroyed their independence and carried their leaders into exi le .The East-Jordan T ribes. In the east-Jordan territory theReubenites settled just north of the Arnon. They were the firstto occupy their lands and the first to disappear from history .

The terri tory was rich and productive,but exposed to attack

from,the Moabites on the south, from the Arabs on the east,

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THE SC ENES OF GIDEON’S EXPLOITS

Gideon stories, were too intermittent to bring about a permanen torganization of allthe Hebrew tribes. Gideon’

s victory, however, possesses a large significance, for it led to the establishment of the first Hebrew kingdom. Ophrah, Gideon

’s home,is not to be confused with the town farther south in the territory of Benjamin. It was designated by the biblical historiansas Ophrah of the Abiezrites, being named from the c lan to whichGideon belonged . It has been identified wi th Ferata, six milessouthwest of Shechem ; but this site is more probably the Pirathon of the book of Joshua. The Ophrah of Gideon is bestidentified with

'

Ain el-Farah, about ten mi les northeast ofShechem, at the head of the Wady Farah, which flows southeastinto the Jordan . Gideon’

s march, there fore, with his threehundred brave followers, would be directly down this valleyand across the Jordan , ei ther at the presen t D amieh ford orfarther north, opposite the point where the Jabbok breaksthrough the hills of Gilead. The common identification ofSuccoth with Tell Deir Alla, suggested by the Talmud, wouldpoint to the northernmost of these two fords. The presen truin of Deir Alla is a high mound on the eastern side of theJordan, about a mi le northwest of the Jabbok . It commandedthe great highway along the east side of the Jordan and also theroad inland that followed the course of the River Jabbok. Itwas there fore an important strategic point. If th is identificationof Succoth is correct, the site of Penuel must be farther to theeas t along the valley of the Jabbok. The mounds known asTululcd-Dahab, that rise abruptly to the height of about twohundred and fifty feet in the middle of the valley four or fivemiles east of Deir Alla, fu lly satisfy the biblical referen ces tothis important stronghold that was later rebui lt by Jeroboam I(I Kings Ancient ruins and the remains of a greatwall and platform built of massive stones crown the eastern hi ll.C lose to its northern side runs the road from the Jordan to thedesert. The mention of Jogbehah , as an index of the routealong which Gideon pursued the fleeing Midianites, indicatesthat the way of re treat lay to the southeast in the direct ion of

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THE SETTLEME NT IN C ANAAN

and from the Ammonites on the northeast. In the days ofMesha, the Moabite king (the ninth century they hadevidently disappeared, only the Gad ites being mentioned . TheGadites were equally errposed to attack from every side, butthey were more strongly intrenched among the hills and deepwadies that lie south of the Jabbok . They were also moreclosely in touch with their kinsmen across the Jordan and protected on the north by the strong east-Jordan tribes of Manesseh and Machir, whose terri tory extended to, if not beyond,the Yarmuk and eastward to the borders of the desert.T he T ribes in Sou thern Canaan . West of the Jordan the

tribe of Simeon guarded the southern outpost, but in time almost completely disappeared from Hebrew histo ry. Thestrong tribe of Judah, from its mounta in heights spread westward to the borders of the Phil istine Plain and at a later periodabsorbed the territory of the C anaanite cities, which extendedfrom Gezer to Jerusalem . The little tribe of Ben jamin waswedged in between the great tribes of the north and the south.The southern boundary of its terri tory ran c lose to Jerusalemand on the east it touched the Jordan. Northward to thePlain of Esdraelon and from the Jordan to the Plain of Sharonextended the rich, fruitful territory of E phraim and Manasseh.

T he T ribes i n the N orth . The tribe of Issachar, profitingmost by the results of the great battle bes ide the Kishon, mwhich it had played a central rOle, entered into possession of

the fert i le territory lying south of the Sea of Galilee, probablyspread ing across the Plain of Esdraelon to Mount Gilboa andthe boundaries of northern S amaria. Zebulun occupied theterritory extending up into the hills of lower Galilee. UpperGali lee was divided between the tribe of N apthali on the eastand Asher, whose territory extended to that of the Phcenicianson the west. In the upper Jordan va ll ey, at the foot of thesouthern slope of Mount Hermon, thewarlike energetic tribe ofD an was strongly intrenched .

E fiect of the S e tt l ement Upon the H ebrews. Apparentlythe Hebrew settlement of C anaan occupied fully a century

,

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EFFECT UPON THE HEBREWS

With the exception of two or three important engagements, theprocesswas one of peaceful settlement rather than of conquest.It was a process to which there are many analogies, especiallyin the history of Babylonia and Syria. A stronger, more virilerace pressed in from the desert and gradually conquered and

absorbed the more highly civi lized but less energetic peoples resident in the land. Itwas only in exceptional cases that the earlierC anaanite populationwas completely destroyed. Shechem, and

later Jerusalem, are familiar examples of the way in whichthe conquerors and the conquered lived side by side, freely intermarrying and in time completely fusing with each other.This process was especially natural and easy in Palestine, because the older population simply represented earlier waves ofinvasion from the desert. The conquerors and the conqueredshared in common many traditions and institutions. Inevitably the invaders gave up their nomadic habits and adoptedthe agricultural pursuits, the civil institutions, the sacred places,and many of the religious rites of the C anaanites. The marvelis that during this transitional period of settlement they preserved their loyalty to Jehovah, the Godwho had gu ided theirfathers in their wilderness wanderings.

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FO RTUN ES OF T HE ARK

railway, as it enters the Judean hills. Kirjath-jearim , wherethe ark finally res ted, was probably about five miles due eastof B ethshemesh, farther up the valley which led toward Jerusalem.

T he Sanc tuary at Shi loh . The history of Samuel, the seerwho was able to interpret the meaning of this great cris is inIsrae l’s history and to point out theway of deliverance, opens atS hiloh, in the territory of southern Samaria. This little townwas cast of the central highway and at the northern end of aferti le plain, from which valleys radiate in alldirections. Thetown itself lay on a rounded, rocky hill, lower than those aroundit, and was encircled by deep valleys on the east, on the north,and on the west. The billrises in terraces to a flatten ed knobnow crowned with extensive The rude mosque andspreading tree, which are supposed to mark the site of theancient Hebrew sanctuary, stand in front of the hi ll ; but thecuttings in the native rock, in which the semblance of an an

cient altar can sti ll be distinguished, the small rock-cut reservoirs, and the level terrace near by allsuggest that the siteof the rude sanctuary in which the ark was at first deposi tedlay back of the hi ll now crowned with the ruins of the town.

Here doubtless the maidens of Shiloh once took part in thereligious dances. Here the people from allparts of the landresorted at the annual feasts, and here Samuel sat at the feet ofthe aged Eli. It is a quiet spot,(8 1) with picturesque views ofmountain and plain, central yet apart from the streams ofcommerce and war—a fitting place for worship. It neverrecovered, however, from its destruction at the hands of thePhilistines after their great victo ry and from the loss of prestigewhich came from the capture of the ark. E ven during the daysof Samuel, its traditions appear to have been transferred to thenorthern Gilgal, five miles over the bills to the southwest.Samuel’s Home at Ramah . Samuel’s homewas evidently

not far from Shiloh and in the territory of southwestern Ephraim. Of the many towns, which bear the name, Ramah , orhigh place, the present Beit Rima, twelve miles in a straight

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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM

line from Shiloh and eight from the northern Gilgal, corresponds perfectly with the biblical references to the home of Samuel. It lies in a straight line about eighteen miles northwest ofSaul’s home at Gibeah. Saul’s quest for his father’s asses tookhim over the h igh ridges and through the deep, picturesquevalleys of western Benjamin and Ephraim . A few trees stil lgrow on the hills, suggesting they were once densely wooded ,and rushing, perennial streams dash along the val leys towardthe Plain of Sharon. R amah itse lf is si tuated where the hi llsof Samaria descend to the western pla in. Near by the nativessti ll worship a Mohammedan prophet, Neby Saleh, whose tombis the goal of many pilgrimages. On the hill to the east wefound many stones set up by pious pi lgrims as they caught thefirst glimpse of this sacred shrine. It would seem that, in th ismodified form, the spirit of the great prophet of Ramah sti l ldominates this wild region, which is a little world in itse lf, apartfrom the rest of Palestine. Here at Ramah, on the heights,where stood the local altar, Samuel di rected the sacrifice, andby public act and later by private counsel on the quiet of thehouse-top (32 ) inspired the sta lwart Benjamite chiefta in to perform those deeds of valor which proclaimed him the one divinelyfitted and called to deliver Jehovah’s people.T he Si te of G ibeah . In returning, Saul apparently took the

highway which led southeast to the main road through centra lSamaria and thence directly to Gibeah . First Samuel 14“ andIsaiah 10” indicate that Geba, situated on the heights oppositeMichmash, was distinc t from Saul

’s home. The reference inJudges makes it clear that Gibeah lay c lose to the mainroad north from Jerusalem but south of the Benjamite Bamah .

Saul’s native town is sometimes confused with Geba (oppositeMichmash) , but rs probably to be ident ified with the ancientruins at Tell elFul, four miles directly north of Jerusalem.

(83)

It was a commanding site, two thousand seven hundred andfifty

-four feet above the level of the sea, and there fore overtwo hundred feet higher than Jerusalem and one hundredfeet higher than the Mount of Olives. The identification is

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THE SITE OF GIBEAH

confirmed by the statement of Josephus (B . J. V. Titus,in advancing from the north against Jerusalem , encamped atG abbath-Saul, that is, the hill of Saul, between three and fourm iles north of Jerusalem. The town enjoyed the protection ofthe inaccessible heights of the central plateau and yet commanded the roads which radiated in every direction throughoutthe land . Like Jerusalem, it was thus central, well protected,and a fitting site for the first capital of all Israel.Si tuation of Jabesh-G i l ead. The site of the Israelite city

of Jabesh-Gilead, across the Jordan, whose messengers arousedSaul to action, has not as yet been absolutely identified. Thename is preserved in the Wady Yabis, which runs from theheights of Gilead into the Jordan a little southwest of Bethshean .

Eusebius states (O nomas . that it was on the easterntable-land, six Roman miles from Pella, on the road to Gerasa,the modern Jerash. It is probably represented by the ruinsof M iryamim, north of the Wady Yabis, where the ancient roadleads up through the Wady Saleh to the heights seven milessoutheast of Pella. About these massive, anc ient ru ins areopen plains where the Ammonite hosts could assemble. Herein the early morning was probably fought the first memorablebattle in Israel’s war for independence.T he Sanctuary at G i lgal. After the destruction of Shi loh

it was natural that the Hebrew tribes should assemble atGilgal, the sacred shrine a few miles to the southwest, and theremake king the man who had proved his fitness to lead and hisability to deliver them from their foes. The town itself wastwo thousand four hundred and forty-one feet above the sea andwas approached by a long climb from almost every side. Itstood on the top of a round hill jutting boldly out into the midstof deep valleys. The billis a gi lgal, or circle, connected withthe rest of the land by a rocky shoulder running to the south.

O n this shoulder of land are two fine rock-cut thrashing floors.The southern front of the rocky plateau is occupied by thepresent village of Jilj ilia. The space on the north and west isstill unoccupied and bears all the marks of an ancient high

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THE PASS OF MIC HMAS H

S uweinit is broad and shallow in its upper course below the

village of Michmash, but to the southeast of the town there isa terraced crag or plateau overhang ing the valley, which herehas steep cliffs on both sides This pointwas probably thescene of Jonathan’s brave exploit. Accompanied only by hisarmor-bearer, he descended the cliff in front of Geba, crossedthe deep valley, and climbed up the almost sheer cliff on theother side. The temerity of his act at first only aroused thecuriosity and scorn of the Philistines, so that they allowed himto scale the heights unmolested . Their scorn was turned to

terror when, like a divine warrior, he attacked and slew twentyof their number. The biblical narrative implies that an earthquake added to the panic, which quickly spread to the ranksof the plundering Philistines.

T he G reat Victory O ver the P h i listines. San] and hiswarriors on the heights to the south looked across the ravineand sawthe tumult among the Philistines. With his characteristic impetuosity the king, without even waiting to consultthe divine oracle, rushed in pursuit of the Philistines and wassoon joined by the H ebrews who had fled for refuge to the rockyhills and valleys of Ephraim. The territory was well adaptedto the fierce guerilla warfare in which the H ebrews were skilled,and the Philistines, accustomed to manoeuvring upon the openplain , were caught at a disadvantage. The pursuit swept downthrough the val leys to the west, through the pass of Beth-boron,and thence southward to Ajalon, which was the chief westerngateway of the hill country.

Sau l’s Wars. The victorywas so complete that for severalyears the Philistines appear to have left Saul undisturbed . Thisopportunity he improved to develop his army and to organizehis kingdom, which probably did not extend far beyond thePlain of E sdraelon to the north. H is capital, Gibeah, wasreally ami litary camp, for hewas exposed to constant attack onevery side. In the south he made a campaign against theBedouin Amalekites. From the southeast came the attacksof the E domites, and from the east the Ammonites were seeking

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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM

to push their bounds farther westward . In this stern schoolunder the leadership of a bold, warlike king, the Israelitelearned not only to fight bravely, but unitedly and therefo

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THE SC ENES OF DAVID’S EXPLOITS

D avid’s Home at Beth lehem. The history of the unitedHebrew empire gathers about the personality of its founder,David. The life of no other Old Testament character isrecorded with greater deta il and picturesqueness than that of theshepherd boy fromBethlehem. His native town was beautifullysituated on a spur that ran eas tward from the watershed ofcentral Judah .

(36> It is surrounded on three sides by deepvalleys and looks eastward down upon the wilderness of Judea.About it are fields of wheat and barley and on the hills ides are

vineyards and groves of olive and almond trees, for it is one of thetwo most fertile spots in the entire territory of Judah.

(23) Thereare no springs in the vi llage itself, the nearest being about eighthundred yard s to the southeast. The inhabitants are dependent upon rock-cut wells or cisterns, of which there are many,or upon the water conducted by an aqueduct from the Poolsof Solomon to the southwest. The territory about Bethlehemis pre-eminently the land of the shepherd .

(37) The traveller today sees almost no cattle or large animals. Their absence isprobably due to the limited supply of water and to the frequentoutcrops of gray l imestone, which make travelling dangerous forcattle and horses. The landscape is dotted with flocks of sheepand goats . The rocky pastures run up to the outskirts of

Bethlehem , which appears to have been in ancient times simplya shepherd’s village.The C ontest in the Valley of Elah . Bethlehem lies onlyten miles south in a straight line from Saul’s capital at Gibeah.Hence the journey of the messengerwho summoned David to

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THE SC ENES OF DAVID’S EXPLOITS

the service of his king was not long. The event which broughtthe youthful shepherd to the attention of the nation took placein the Valley of E lah,(88) but twelve miles in a straight linewest of Bethlehem. Its geographical setting throws much lightupon th is '

dramatic event in Israel’s early history. The Philistine army was drawn up between Socoh and Azekah in Ephesdammin, the Val ley of Dark-red Lands, doubtless so namedfrom the patches of dark-red ploughed land which in thespring stil l impart a rich glow to the landscape. Socoh was onthe south side of the Valley of E lah and Azekah was across thewady to the northwest. The Phi listine position was, therefore ,on the southwestern side of the valley, which is here about onequarter of a mi le wide and well adapted to the manoeuvring oftheir chariots . The Hebrew position was eviden tly across thevalley on the steep blufl

'

to the northeast, wi th its left flank at

the entrance of the wady and highway which led to Bethlehemand Gibeah . Through the middle of the ferti le valley themountain torrent has cut a deep ravine, with steep banks oneither side and a bed strewn with white stones. The strengthof the strategic position occupied by each of the two armiesand the danger involved in advancing through the deep ravine,clearly explain their delay in making an attack. The situationalso revea ls the courage of the youth who dared cross the deepravine and advance single-handed across the plain against thePhi listine champion . It is not strange that the moment Davidslew Goliath, the Bethlehem shepherd became the idol of thepeople. It was equa lly natural that the impulsive Saul shou ldfeel a growing jealousy toward the one who seemed to havestolen from him the heart of the people.Si tuation of N ob. Nob, where David deposited with the

priest the sword of Goliath, thereby consecrating it to Jehovah ,was situated somewhere on the heights a short distance north ofJerusalem. Beside the main road, which runs northward ,about midway between Jerusalem and Gibeah, is a level plateau ,now known as Ras cl It is about eight hundredyards from east to west and about three hundred from north to

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SITUATION O F NOB

south, and is probably to be identified not only with the HebrewNob, but also with the Scopus of Josephus. It commands aclear view of Jerusalem. O n one side are ancient rock tombsand cisterns, indicating the presence in earlier times of a smallvi llage. While the identification is not certain, the ancientNob was undoubtedly situated not far from this point. HereDavid stopped as he fled southward to escape Saul’s murderousjealousy. Itwas here that he committed one of the great sinsof his life, in deceiving the priests of N ob, thereby sacrificingthem to Saul’s fury. From Nob David evidently turned tothe southwest to find refuge among the C anaanite cities in thelowland between Judah and Phil istia.T he Stronghold of Adu llam. Adullam, the strongholdto which he escaped, is without mrrch doubt to be identifiedwith Id-cl-ma, m the valley of the Wady es-Sur, two or threemiles south of the scene of his victory over Goliath. It rs asteep hil l, standing out in the valley, with a well at the footand caves of moderate size near the top. It commands the tworoads which lead up from Beit-Jibrin, in the west, and Hebron,to the southeast. From this point itwas also possible to watchthe paths that came down from the north and the northeast.At the same time it was on . the bord er of the Philistine land,which offered an open asylum to all refugees from the court ofSan] . From Adullam a rough, rocky trail, the difficulties ofwhich were no barrier to the c lansmen and outlaws who gatheredabout David, led to Bethlehem, twelve mi les away.

Keilah . Between three and four miles south of Adullam,

in the Wady es-Sur, lay the important Judean town of Kei lah.

I t is mentioned several times in the Tell el-A marna letters andwas evidently at this time the most important southwestern outpomof Judah . Its terraced slopes are sti ll covered with grain,even as in David’s t ime. These same fields supplied the grainfor the threshing-floors which the Philistine marauders cameto rob. By delivering Keilah, David was able to proclaimin clearest terms his loyalty to his kinsmen and to Win the devotion of the southern c lans.

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DAVID AT GATH

charm also won this Philist ine chieftain, even as it did all

with whom he came in contact. The region about Gath, however, was thickly settled and presented no field of ac tivity forDavid’s followers. Hence he was ass igned a frontier townand thereby made the guardian of the Phi list ine border.A t Z ikl ag. The identification of Ziklag rs uncertain. That

would place it at Zuheilika, nineteen miles southwestfrom Beit-Jibrin and eleven southeast from Gaza, is on thewhole the most probable. The ruin lies on three low hills,and it appears to have been a characteristic border town. Fromthis town David, with his warriors, was able not on ly to repelall Bedouin attacks, but also to make forays upon the deserttribes that wandered in the wilderness far to the south. Itgave Israel’s future king and his followers experience in hard ,

dangerous warfare and yet allowed him, without aro using thesuspicions of the Phil istines, to show his loyalty to his race andespecially to the Hebrew tribes of the south who were most exposed to these Bedouin robbers.

ReasonsWhy the Philistines Invaded Israel m the N orth .

The presence of David rn their midst, as well as their knowledge of the growing weakness of Saul’s rule, impelled thePhilistines to gather their united forces rn another attempt tocrush the Hebrew kingdom. This time they wisely avoided thenarrow and easi ly defended passes that led into the heart ofsouthern Israel. Instead, they followed the coast road up ac rossthe Plain of Sharon and then cut across possibly past Megiddoto the eastern side of the Plain of E sdraelon . Th is method ofapproach enabled the Phi listines to advance over broad pla ins,where opposition was not easy and where their chariots couldpass without difficul ty. In this way they separated the Hebrews of the north from those of the south at the point wherethe connection between the difieren t parts of the land of Israelwas naturally weakest. Doubtless their aimwas also to keepopen to commerce the great highway that led from Philistiaacross the Plain of Esdrae lon to Damascus and Babylonia .

They apparently took up their position near Shunem, at the

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foot of Little Hermon, on the northern side of the Valley of

while the Hebrew army occupied a strong posi tionon the northern end of the sloping heights of Mount Gilboa.

Saul’s Jou rney to E ndor. S aul’s night journey to consultthe medium of Endor took him across the Plain of Jezreel andup through the wide valley which leads east of Shunem and

Litt le Hermon to the south of Mount Tabor. The small village of Endor lay on the northern slopes of Litt le Hermon ,facing Mount Tabor across the valley!” To-day the crest of thehill is pierced by deep caves , in which the squalid natives re

side.(9 1) These caves with their dark passages were well-adaptedto the occult arts which sti ll survived , even though Saul himse lfhad earlier tried to banish them from his kingdom .

The Battle on G i lboa . S aul’s courage was well illustratedin the final battle on Gilboa . His positionwas evidently chosenbecause the northern end of Gilboa commanded the valley ofEsdraelon as well as that of Jezreelam To gain control of thehighways which led across these valleys, the Philistines weretherefore compelled to dislodge the Hebrew army and in so

doing to fight against great odds . To make the attack directlyon the north from the direction of Shunem was practically impossible, for at th is point the Brook Jalud is so deep that it isimmssable for an army. The rocky hills of Gilboa also risevery The probabi li ties are that in making the

attack the Philist ines marched down the eastern side of thePlain of Esdraelon and then advanced toward the heights ofGilboa from the southwest by the sloping terraces that leadgradually to the top. Here they could also uti lize their chariotsand preserve their battle array. By this formidable army thescattered and disheartened forces that ral lied about Saul werequickly defeated . The disaster was overwhelming ; the valiantking and his sons fought desperately, with no thought of retreat. Thus fell on the heights of Gilboa the man who laid thefoundations of the Hebrew empire, leaving the Phi listines inpossession of Northern Israel. The half-C anaanite town of Bethshean“) on the Plain of Jezreel appears to have surrendered

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THE BATTLE ON GILBOA

at once to the Phi listines, for the body of Saul was hung inderis ion on its walls soon after the battle. From the heightsof Gilead in a midnight march across the Jordan came themen of Jabesh-Gilead to capture the body of the fallen kingand to bury it within their own territory, that they might thusrepay the large debt which they owed to their deliverer.T he Remnan t of Saul’s Kingdom. Throughout this

earlier period the eas t-Jordan tribes were especially loyal to thehouse of Sau l, probably Mes uas of his early act of deliveranceas wellas his laterwars against their foes in the east. I twasnatural, therefore, that the capita l of the remnant of his kingdom should be established at Mahanaim in Gilead. Theexact site of this important city of the eas t-Jord an has not yetbeen determined. Probably it was at the ruins of Mahneh,north of the present city of Ajlun . Others would identify itwith the important later city of Gerasa, the modern Jerash, ona brook which runs north from the Jabbok. A few biblicalreferences suggest, however, that it was nearer the Jordan, butamong the highlands to the north of the Jabbok. In any caseit was not far from the modern Mahneh. Here Saul’s son,Ishbaal, who succeeded him, was out of the direct line of Philistine attack and beyond the reach of the southern Israelitetri bes, that had asserted their independence immediately afterthe battle of Gilboa.H ebron , D avid

’s First C apital. David, their beloved

champion, was naturally the choice of these southern tribes.Theway in which he disposed of the spoils captured from theAmalekites indicates that beyond doubt, even before the fallof Saul, he was bidding for thei r loyalty. Accord ingly hewas made king at Hebron, then the chief ci ty of Judah and theSouth C ountry. The ancient city lay on the hill to the no rthwest of the presen t Its importance depended not uponits military strength , but upon its central position and the

presence of perennial springs. Two of the ancient pools arestill in use. The one in the northern part of the town is eightyfive feet long and fifty

-five feet wide. The other, lower down153

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THE FINAL STRUGGLE WITH THE PHILISTINES

The Final S truggle wi th the Philistines. The assassi

tion of Ishbaalby his own followers left the northern tribesno deliverer but David. A llhis previous training had prepared him for this great task. His acceptance of the fealty of

the northern tribes was equivalent to a declaration of war againstthe Philistines. Regarding this important period, the biblicalrecords are unfortunate ly incomplete ; but from incidentalrefcrenees it is clear that the Philistines did not yield their claimto central Palestine withou t a severe and prolonged struggle.At one time they were in possession of David’s own city, Bethlehem, and he was obliged again to take re fuge in the borderfortress of Adullam . As at the beginning of the war, they appearto have seized the series of strong fortresses on the northernborder of Judah and thus to have cut off the Hebrews of thenorth from those of the south . The C anaanite cities fromGezer to Jebus, which doubtless acknowledged the Phi listinesuzerainty, completed the wall of separation.

D avid’s Victories. Strong in the possession of these central

c ities, the Philistines evidently invaded Judah directly thro ughits two main wes tern porta ls, the valleys of Sorek and of E lah.David was thus forced to depend for support chiefly upon thetribes of Judah and of the South C ountry. The territory inwh ich this guerilla warfare was fough t, and David

’

s experi enceand skill

,gave him in the end a great advantage. The Philis

tines were obliged to retire each year to plant and to reap theirfields, and in so doing necessarily lost many of the advantageswhich they had gained. Repeawd battles were fought andeach time David gained

"

m strength. The two decisive battleswere waged in the Valley of R ephaimflwa broad , shallow valleyto the southwes t of Jerusalem, from which connecting valleysran down to Bethlehem and the south, while the main valley

westward into the great Valley of Sorek. On this plain,with its broad , cultivated fields, the Ph ilistines were able to masstheir forces and at the same time to maintain on the west theirconnection with the home land . Here also David was able torally his followers from the south and in case of defeat to have

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THE SC ENES OF DAVID’S EXPLOITS

away of escape into the neighboring wilderness of Judah. Onthis battle-field the final decisive engagement in Israel’s warof independence was fought, and the Hebrews won a sweepingvictory. As the biblical narrative states, the Philistines werecompelled to abandon their northern garrisons “from Gibeonas far as Gezer.” David at last was free to develop and or

ganize that larger kingdom which was destined soon to growinto a small empire.

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PALESTINE UNDER THE RULE OF DAVID AND

SOLOMON

Establishment of Jerusalem as Israel ’s Capital. David’sfirst act as king of alllsraelwas to break down the barrier ofC anaanite cities which separated the north from the sou th, andthen to establish a capita l that would be free from local associations and more centra l than his former capital at Hebron.

The Jebusite city of Jerusalem fu lly satisfied thes e conditionsand was at the same time by nature much stronger and betterfortified than Hebron. The original city of David apparentlyinc luded the old Jebusite city on the hill of Ophel (55) with certain addi tions, known as Millo, pro bably running down intoone of the adjacent valleys? ” Possibly, during the reigns ofDavid and Solomon, the dwelling-places of the Hebrews beganto climb across the T yropceon Valley (cf. p . 65) and up thewestern hill, but there is no evidence that at this early datethe wes tern town was surrounded by a wall and thus incorporated in the C ity of David.

Israel ’s Natural Boundaries. With the establishment ofthe new capita l at Jerusalem and the transference thither ofthe ark from Kirjath-jearim, the various Hebrew tribes werebrought into a close poli tical and religious union. The prestige and tactfu l, conciliatory policy of David were importantfactors in bringing about this union. The process was alsohastened by the pressure of outside foes and by the aggressivepolicy toward them which David at once ini tiated . On thewest and north the territory of Israel had reached its naturalbounds. Never again did the Philistines make a determined

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SITUATION OF RABBATH- AMMON

it was connected with the surro unding hills by a low, narrowneck of rock. At this point were built great protecting wallsand towers. The hill itself consisted of three terraces risingfrom east to west, with a main gateway on the south side.E ach of the succeeding terraces was defended by a wall. Thehighest area, which included several acres , ro se nearly threehundred feet above the surrounding valleys, and it was, there

tress in allPalestine.T he Water C ity. The Water which was first capt

ured by Josh,was probably in the valley of the Jabbok, whichruns along the southern side of the acropolis. Th is valley, andthat which comes in from the north along the western side of theacropolis, is the site of the modern city of Amman. The greatRoman citywas also built for the most part in the Valley of theJabbok, or, as it is now called, the Wady Ammmr. Here thewaters of the bro ok, which were carried by aqueducts alongdifferent levels and which were supplemented by gushing spri ngs,fully justify the name of Water C ity. Situated in the valley,it was most exposed to the attack of the Hebrews. When it wascaptured, the supply of water and food would be cut off fromthe citadel above, so that, as indicated by the biblical narrative, the fallof the entire city would be the inevitable result ofa long siege.Exten t of D avid’

s Empi re. The conquest of the Ammonitesand the Moabites and the defeat of the Arameans enabledDavid to extend the bounds of his empire to the desert. In thenortheast it probably never extended beyond Mount Hermon,which was its natural boundary in that direction. In thesouth he fought a decisive batt le with the Edomi tes in theValley of Salt, which was probably at the southwestern end ofthe D ead Sea near the border line between southern Judahand Edom. This Arab race, in its difficult mountain fas tnesses,was held in con tro l by means of Hebrew garrisons establishedthroughout the land. By this means David’s southern boundarywas extended to the eastern arm of the Red Sea and the

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PALESTINE UNDER DAVID

Sinaitic Pen insula, thus atta ining in every direction its naturalbarriers. In less than one generation, as a result of the energy,tact, and broad statesmanship of David, the physical limitationsof Palestine were overcome and a stro ng empire was establishedalong the southeastern Mediterranean .

Absalom’s Rebe ll ion . As later events quickly proved ,

however, the unity of the Hebrew Empire was chiefly dependent upon the personal charm and ability of the man who builtit up. The discordant elemen ts were sti ll present and onlyrequired an opportunity to break forth into a flame of civi lwar. Absalom, inspired by a treasonable ambition, succeededin winning away the affections of the '

southern tribes and instirri ng up the rivalry between the north and the south .

This rivalrywas traceable not only to racial differen ces, but tothe fundamental variations between the physical environmen tand contour of Northern and Southern Israe l. It was naturalthat Absalom’

s rebellion should be launched in Hebron, theold capital of David’

s kingdom. In fleeing from the rebelsDavid aimed to put between himself and them that greatnatural barrier, the Jordan valley, which separates Palestineinto its two great divisions. Among the hills and deep wadiesof the land of Gilead he felt most secure. Here he was in them idst of a prosperous people, intensely loyal to a ru ler whosewars and victories had at last given them immunity from theattack of their strong foes. This part of Palestine was leastswayed by the passions of the hour and most loyal to its deliverer. Here also David could rally his followers, withoutidentifying himself with the tribes of the north, as opposed tothose of the south .

D avid E ast of the Jordan . In fleeing from Jerusalem ,

David did not follow the line of the modern carriage-road downto the Jordan, but went farther north, over the Mount of Olives,avoiding the barren wilderness of Judea, which lay immediatelyto the east. According to the Targums, Bahurim, the homeof the Benjamite S himei, is to be identified with Almon, thepresent A lrn it, one mile beyond Anathoth . By continu ing a

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DAVID EAS T OF THE JORDAN

litt le farther north it was possible to reach the direct highwayfrom Michmash to the Jordan by way of Jericho. Davidprobably crossed the Jordan at the upper of the two southernfords. From this point many roads led northeastward intoGilead (cf. p. At Ishbaal’s capital, Mahanaim, somewherenorth of the Jabbok, he made his head-quarters. The forestof Ephraim was doubtless either immediately north or south ofthe Jabbok, not far from the Jordan, among the wild hills anddeep ravines st ill clad with great groves of oaks,(97) whose spreading branches often reach down to only a few feet from the ground.

The traveller through that region to-day has little d ifficultyin picking out in imagination the great oak whose extendedbranches he can picture catching and holding the head of thefleeing Absalom.

Rebellion of the N orthern T ribes. The wild and suddenrebellion which sprang up among the northern tribes becauseDavid in his hour of triumph had shown favor to the tribes ofthe south spread far up the Jordan valley. Its leader was a

certain Sheba, of the hi ll country of E phraim. The rebellionwas quickly put down in central Israel, but the rebels tooktheir final stand far in the north, in the city of Abel-beth-maacah,at the northwes tern end of the Jordan valley. It is M ay an

imposing mound, standing out in the midst of the valley,looking miles of verdant meadow land, with a lofty and eas ilydefended acropolis. Ruins on the southeast are indicative of itsstrength and importance. Through the intercession of abrave woman, the people of the city turned over the rebel toJosh, and thus the rebellion was put down . The contrast,however, between the level, unbroken fields about Abel-bethrnaacah and the gray limestone hills that encircled Hebron issignifiwnt of the wide breach between the north and the south,which the tact of a D avid could only temporari ly heal.Scene of Adon ijah

’s C onspi racy and So lomon’s Acces

s ion . The closing scene in the tragedy of David’

s fami ly lifewas in Jerusalem. O verwhelmed by the crimes of his sonsand the burden of his own great sin , the king in his later days

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C APTURE OF GE ZER

aid Solomon in capturing Gezer, the last stronghold left in thehands of the C anaanites. This important strategic point Solomon further fortified, making it one of the seven great fortressesupon which he depended for the defence of his land.

So lomon’s Fortresses. Solomon also fort ified Lower Beth

horon,°

which was situated on the flat, fertile billwhich com

manded a wide view over the western plains. This strongholdguarded the important highway that led up from the coast,pas t Gibeon to Jerusalem, with an eastern branch runningdirectly to the Jordan. In the same way the old C anaanite cityof Megiddo, on the southwestern side of the Plain of Esdraelon,was fortified, thus enabling Solomon to control the great traderoute from Damascus and P hten icia to Phi l istia and E gypt.In the north the city of Hazor, a l ittle east of Lake Huleh, onthe road which ran north from the S ea of Galilee, was madethe chief stronghold . It was a city often mentioned in the Tellcl-Amarna letters, as well as in the story of an Egyptian travellerof the fourteenth century B .C . In the south, Jerusalemwas thegreat military centre. Tamar, which is probably to be iden tifiedwith the Thamara of Eusebius and Jerome, southwest of theDead S ea, a day

’s journey from Hebron, guard ed the roadwhich ran to E zion-geber and E lath on the eastern arm of theRed Sea. Baalath, the seventh stronghold, has not yet beenidentified. From its position in the list, it would seem to beone of the southern fortresses , though it may be identical withKirjath-jearaim, which guarded the western approaches to Jerusalem through the Valley of Sorek.Solomon’

s Strategic and C ommerc ialPolicy. It is significant that Solomon apparently did not deem it necessaryto guard his eastern frontiers. The conquests of David haddelivered Israel from all danger of attack from this quarter.Solomon’s chief defences were massed on the west and north,indicating that the foes whom he feared were the Philistinesand the more distant invaders that might come from Egypt ornorthern Syria. The southern fortress of Tamar was evidentlyintended to guard the trade route to the port of E zion-geber,

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PALESTINE UNDER SOLOMON

from which the united fleets of Solomon and Hiram of Tyremade their long journeys past the coast of Arabia and out intothe Indian Ocean . The situation of the land of Ophir is notcertain , but the character and names of the products broughtback by the t nician and Hebrew traders point strongly toInd ia. The ao-called “Land of Ophir ” was probably eitherA bhira at the mouth of the Indus, or else a seaport of easternArabia, through which the products of India reached theWestern world .

S i te of Solomon’s T emple. The culminating act of Solomon's reign was the build ing of his palace and temple. H is

public buildings were reared on the northern con tinuation ofthe hill of Ophel, as it rises gradually above the site of the ancientJebusite city.

(99) The jagged limestone rock, rising sti ll higherand farther to the north was without much doubt the anc ien tthreshing-floor of A runah, the Jebusite, on which was rearedthe famous temple of Solomon . The irregular mass of nativerock, with its pecul iar cuttings, (100) which now stands in thecentre of the Mosque of Omar, probably represmts the greataltar for burnt offerings, which stood east and therefore immediately in front of the Hebrew temple. This shrine of Solomon took the place of the older royal high place at Gibeon,where sti ll a rock-cut altar may beSignificance of the Reigns of D av id and S olomon. The

reigns of David and Solomon gave Palestine what it had neverhad before and what it rarely had again in its troubled historya period of comparative peace and prosperity, in which therich resources of the land could be fully developed. The progless of the Hebrews during this glorious half-century was mostmarvellous. From a struggling, oppressed, disintegrated groupof nomads they suddenly developed into a strong, opulent,and united kingdom, becoming masters not only of their ownterritory , but of that of their hereditary foes. The earlierC anaanite population of Palestine was also completely ah

sorbed and its agri cultural civilization assimilated by the con

querers.

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ISRAEL’S FA ITH

Influence of the Uni ted Kingdom Upon Israel’s Fai th .

T he great and supremely vital contest that was waged duringthis period of prosperity was that between the worship of Jehovah, which the Hebrews bro ught with them from the desert,and the different C anaanite cults which they found strongly ihtrenched in the land . If the Hebrews had been defeated besidethe Kishon, or it David had not overcome the Phi listines in theValley of Rephaim, it is doubtful whether or not the religion ofJehovah would have emerged victorious in this great contest.The topography of the land of Palestine strongly favored the

development of many different sanctuaries, each devoted to theworship of some local god. It was only a strong race, under apowerfulcentral government, that could overcome the influen ceof physical environment and hold to its faith in one God. Theestablishment of the united Hebrew kingdom ear ly in theirhistory was there fore a mighty factor tn the development ofIsrael’s fai th m one supreme Divine King.

Solomon’s Fata l M istakes . Solomon’

s selfish ambitionto imitate the splendor of the orien tal courts about him blindedhim completely to the best interests of his family and nation.

The one important force that held together his people afterthe danger of foreign invasion had been averted was theirloyalty to their Divine King. In tolerating and patronizing thegods of his allies under the very shadow of Jehovah’

s temple,though it was demanded by Semitic usage, he committed a fatalerror, for he thereby weakened the unity of the Hebrew nationas well as his own hold on the people

’s loyalty. He also fai ledto appreciate the spirit and traditions which his subjects hadinherited from their free life in the dwert and from the daysof tribal independence when they had been struggling for theirhomes in Palestine. The Hebrews, still in close contact withthe life of the desert, were suspicious of all centralized authority.

They were restive under a rule which imperiously commandedthem to toil under royal task-masters and to bring to the kingthe best fruits of the soil . From their nomadic ancestors theyhad inherited a thoroughly democratic ideal of the kingship,

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PALESTINE UNDER SOLOMON

in which the first duty of the kingwas to act as the leader ofhis subjects rather than to treat them as his slaves. Solomon’

s

policy, therefore , threatened to take away the two most treasuredpossessions of the Hebrews— their democratic ideals and theirloyalty to one God, ru ling supreme over his people.Forces T hat Made for D isun ion . The men prominen t in

the history of the united kingdom had come from the southerntribes of Judah and Benjamin . Many of the northern tribeshad for the first time been brought into real touch with therest of their race in the days of David and Solomon. Thelarge population and by

‘

far the greate r resources were foundin the north . Solomon devoted most of his building energy todeveloping the south ; but it was inevitable that before longthe superior strength of the north would assert itself. Whilethe secluded and barren hills of Benjamin and Judah restrictedtheir inhabitants to a relatively slow development, the broadvalleys and the fruitful fields of Northern Israel, cut by greath ighways of commerce, offered to its people every opportuni tyto acquire wealth and culture . During the period of stress andstruggle David was able with rare tact and organizing ability tobind together these diverse elements in the kingdom and toovercome the fundamental differences of physical envi ronmen t ;but even during his re ign the wide breach between the north andthe south was revealed. It is doubtful whether or not, inthe new stage of Israel’s development, even David could haveovercome these wide differen ces. Unfortunately, Solomon

'sfoolish policy only tended to emphasize them, and his son, Rehoboam, by his tyrannical reply to the reasonable demands of thenorthern tribes, made harmonious union fore ver impossible.Si tuation of Shechem . The scene of the final breach be

tween the north and south was the old C anaanite city of Shein the heart of the territory of Ephraim, the most

powerful northern tribe. The townwas one of the most beautifully situated cities in Palestine and at the same time theleast easily defended . It lay in a valley between one-half to amile in width

,between the two highest mountains in Samaria

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SITUATION OF SHEC HEM

Ebaland Gerizim. The mountain slopes on ei ther side werec lothed with vineyards and olive groves. From Gerizim onthe south twenty-two springs burst from the rock, irrigatingthe gardens of the ancient town , which, like the present city ofN ablus, _

clung close to the southern moun tain . Because of itspeculiar position, the citywas long and narrow, extending fromeast to west. The open val ley at each end offered no natural defence and the overhanging heights rendered it espec ially opento hosti le attack. Its importance was due to the rich terri torywhich encircled it and to the important highways which connected it with Jerusalem and H ebron in the south, wi th centralIsrael, Damascus, and P htenicia in the north, with the coastplains on the west, and with the Jordan valley on the east.At Shechem all these great roads focused, making the ci tyth roughout all its history an influential commercial metropolis.

Significance of the D iv is ion . The result of the fatefulconference at Shechem was a division of the territory of Israelalong the natural line marked out during the period of settlement and during the early Phi listine wars. The boundary linefollowed the Wady Kelt up from the Jordan to the vicin ity ofMichmash and thence turned a little south of the BenjamiteRamah, running through Gibeon and westward to Gezer. ToNorthern Israel fell fully two- th irds of Palestine and at leastthree-fourths of its arable land . The divis ion left Judah acomplete geographical and poli tical unit, and, thus disseveredfrom the more heterogeneous elements of the nation, free todevelop its own life and faith . The division and the civilwars which followed inevitably weakened the strength of bothkingdoms and prepared the way for that fate which overtookeach in turn. In losing their strength and unity, they preserved, however, their two most distinctive and precious posses sions their democratic traditions and their undivided

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C APITAL S OF NORTHERN ISR AEL

Shishak, king of Egypt, who overran and plundered the westJordan territory. Later the capital was transferred again tothe city of Tirzah, somewhere west of the Jordan . The iden tification of this city is uncerta in. It may have been at the modern town of T elluss , situated on a hi ll one thousand nine hundred and forty feet above the level of the sea, immediately northof Mount Ebal . The town has many ancien t cisterns but nospri ng. This identification would correspond to the statement ofan early traveller (B orocardus) that Tirzah was on a height threeleagues east of Samaria. The other more probable site is atT eiasir, about twelve mi les northeast from Shechem, on the mainhighway that leads from this ancient capital through the O phrahof Gideon to Bethshean and the upper Jordan valley (cf. p.

T eiasir rs a central and command ing site, with extensive ruinsto the north which indicate that itwas once an important city.In II Kings 15“ it is stated that “Menahem went up fromTirzah to Samaria, which applies excellently to T eiasir downnea r the Jordan but not to T elluza, which is one thousand feethigher and five hundred feet above Samaria. There is littledoubt, therefore, that Toisait represents the ancient northerncapital.The Aramean Kingdom. Northern Israel suffered from

its exposed position. At first there waswar between Judahand its northern rival, which resulted disastrously for thesouthern kingdom. To aid them in the conflict, the southernIsraeli tes made the fatal mistake of calling in the Arameansto attack their foes on the north . By this time the Arameanshad taken possession of northern Syria and established themselves at the ancient city of Damascus, which lay on a ferti leoas is out in the desert, on the border line between Syria and

'

northern A rabial‘m By virtue of its central position it commanded the land trade of E gypt, Palestine, and P haan icia onthe west, and of Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Babylon on theeast . It was “the harbor of the desert .” The Aramean kingdom, with its capital at this favorable point, rapidly developedgreat wealth and mi litary resources, and soon became a menace

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AH AB’

S A R AMEA N WA RS

of Sharon, but is probably to be identified wi th the moderntown of Ftk, beside the important highway which runs fromthe southern end of the Sea of Gali lee northeastward towardDamascus. Ahab’s courage was shown in thus going out tomeet his foe on the northeastern border of his territory. Thetown lay on the top of the plateau at the end of a valley thatlooked down upon the Sea of Gali lee on the west. The battlewas probably fought on the level plain of the Jaulan, whichran cast of the town, and resulted in the complete defeat of theAramean army and the capture of its king.

Strength and Fatal Weakness of Ahab’s Policy. Ahabwas contented to make a favorable treaty with his fallen foe.The captured Israelite cities were restored and a trading quarterwas set aside in Damascus for the Hebrew merchants . Ahabevidently sought in every way to develop the commercial resources of his kingdom. His marriage with Jezebel, the daughter of the Tyrian king, was intended to cement more closely therelations with this great commercial people on the west. Viewedfrom the poin t of view of world poli tics, Ahab

’

s policy in maintaining the natural boundaries and in developing the commercialresources of his nation was sound. By his contemporarieshe was doubtless regarded as a most successful king. Hisfatal mistake, however, was that of Solomon : in his pursuit ofmaterial splendor he disregarded the inherited beliefs and rightsof his subjects. The offic ial recogni tion of the C anaanite worship of his P haan ician queen was even more of a menace to thepure worship of Jehovah in Northern Israel in the days ofAhab than in Jerusalem in the days of Solomon. NorthernIsrael was pre-eminently Baal’s land. Here the C anaaniteshad been most strongly intrenched and their religious traditionsst i l l pervaded the land. C ommunication with the C anaaniteson the Medi terranean coast was exceedingly close and therewas much in these ancient Baal cu lts to attract the prosperous, pleasure- loving, cosmopoli tan people of Northern Israel.Ahab’

s poli cy did not contemplate a substitution of the worship of the Tyrian god, Baa l Melkart, for that of Jehovah, but

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T HE NO RTHERN KINGDO M

it did mean obscuring the fundamenta l characteristics and demands of Israel’s God .

El ijah’s Home . It was natural that the prophet who was

able to analyze the situation and to point out its dangers, shouldcome from the borderland of the desert where Moses had firstimpressed upon his people the unique character of Jehovah.T ishbe, the town from which E lijah came, willprobably neverbe identified with absolute certa inty, but it was somewhere inthe land of Gilead . Modern tradition fixes it at Mar Elyas,a village a little north of the modern town of Ajlun in northernGilead . Amidst this land of deep , rushing river-beds and

steep , tree-clad hills, which gradually merge into the desert, wasreared this stern champion of Jehovah and foe of the degeneratecults of agricultural C anaan . In one of these wadies, whichcut down through the Gileadite hi lls toward the Jordan, Elijahfound a refuge when the drought parched the fields west of theJordan. His other home was Mount C armel, whose ferti le topand noble vistas resembled his native land across the Jordan .

T he Scene on Mount C arme l . E xcepting when he foundrefuge in the Phoenician city of Zarephath, which lay on a promontory about eight miles south of S idon, and again at Horeb farin the south, Elijah performed his l ife work almost entirely inthe narrow strip of land which lay between Gilead and C armel.It was somewhere on the eastern end of Mount C armeh‘loz)where it jutted out far into the Plain of Esdraelon, that hesummoned king and people to the great conference which re

vealed to them the vital issue between the re ligion of Jehovahand that of Baal. Modern tradi tion identifies it with a sitecalled Rl-Mahrakah, Place of the Burning. A spring a littlebelow favors the conclusion that thiswas an ancien t sanctuary.This retired spot, far away from the distractions of the city lifebelow, was eminently fitted for the delivery of the prophet’sbrief but searching message. It looked along the western sideof the plain to the old stronghold of Megiddo, the centre of theancien t C anaanite kingdoms . Due east lay the battle-field beside the Kishon where Jehovah fought for his people and

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THE SC ENE ON MOUNT C ARMEL

demonstrated in a language that a child nation could understand, his superiority to the local baals . To the south werethe ferti le, undulating hills and valleys of Samaria, to the norththose of lower and upper Galilee, while eastward across theplain were the hills where lay the prophet

’

s home, and far awayin the northeast rose the snowy height of Moun t Hermon.It was a scene that spoke clearly and impressively of Jehovah

’

s

might and of his tender love and care for his people. Whenat last, after the great convocation was over, the lightning flashedand the thunder rolled across the plain , none could doubt thatJehovah was sti ll in the midst of his people demanding theirundivided loyalty.Ancien t Jezreel . Jezreel, Ahab

’s northern capital, is ordinarily identified with the pm ent town of although theabsence of ancient ruins at this point renders the identification exceedingly doubtful. The village lies on a broad elevation ris ing three hundred feet above the plain and rs encircledby ferti le fields which extend for miles m almost every direction.

The statement in I Samuel 29‘ that “the Israe lites encampedby the fountain m Jezreel implies that the ancien t si tewaseither further east near the copious spring now known as Ainel-Meiyiteh, or else to the southeast under the northwesternend of Mount Gilboa beside A in Jalud which 13 probably thefamous Spring of Harod of Judges Jezreel was on the central highway from Northern to Southern Israe l and guarded theentrance to the Valley of Jezreel. Under royal patronage thisfertile land would quickly be transformed into a paradise ofgardens and vineyards. Ancient Jezreel, however, was a paradise in which a man listened to the tempting voice of his wifeto his undoing. In reaching out and taking with his ruthlesshand the vineyard of Naboth, Ahab condemned his family toexile and death. The voice of the dauntless prophet of Gileadpronounced his doom. Near this same vineyard the dogs lickedthe blood of Ahab, as his body was borne back across thePlain of Jezreel from the scene of his last battle wi th the Arameans.

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S ITUAT IO N O F RAMO T II- GILEAD

deep val ley of the Yarmuk, on the west by the Jordan, fourand one-half miles away and over one thousand eight hundredfeet below, and on the south by the Wady el-Arab, which cutsa deepg orge into the Gileadite hi l ls. It is due south of Aphek,where was fought the great battle between the Hebrews and theArameans under Ahab, and is on one of the chief highwayswhich leads up from the Jordan through Arbela to join the pilgrim highway, to Damascus and Arabia . It is, there fore, thechief gateway and at the same time the natural fortress whichguards northern Gilead . On the wide level plateaus aboutthere is ample room for the manceuvring of chariots and an important road leads directly from it across the Jordan to Ahab’snorthern capital.E l isha’

s Home . According to Jerome, AbelM eholah, thehome of E lisha,was about nine miles south of Bethshean . Thename, Meadow of the D ance, or of the C ircle, implies that itwas a low- lying va lley. All these indications point to

i

A in Helweh , a ruined mound beside a gushing spring on the westernside of the Jordan valley. It was surrounded by ferti le fields .

Throughout allhis work E lisha, in contrast to E lijah, re vealedhis fami liarity and close touch with the agricultural civi lizationof Northern Israel. The scenes of a greater part of his activitywere the Jordan valley and the plains of Jezreel and E sdraelon,which lead into it from the west.Jehu’s Revolu tion . T he culminating act of E lisha's workwas to call Jehu to the kingship. The call came to him as hewas directing the siege of Ramoth-Gilead . It rs easy in imagination to follow his furious ride down the heights from RamothGilead across the Jordan and along its western side, pastBethshean and up the Valley of Jezreel to the northern capitalof Ahab. On the open plain near the city of Jezreel he slewhis master and thence rode into the city to complete the slaughter of the house of Ahab. By the sword he not only mountedthe throne, but rooted out the Baalism against which E lijahand E lisha had both contended .

Rule of the H ouse of Jehu . T he history of NorthernIsrael for the next two generations is a record of humiliation

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T HE NO RTHERN KINGDOM

and disaster. Jehu secured h is position on the throne by paying a heavy tribute to the king of Assyria, whose armies werehovering on his northern borders. The active and ruthlessAramean king, Hazael, overran Northern Israel, destroyingmost of its warriors and extrac ting heavy tribute . In thishour of Israel’s weakness the Philistines made forays into thesouth, carrying off Hebrews as slaves to foreign markets . Itwas not unti l Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, came to the throneof Israel that the tide turned . Damascus, attacked in the rearby a northern Aramean people, was unable to cope with theIsraelite armies. The east-Jordan territory was reconquered byJehoash’

s son , Jeroboam II, and the Moabites again laid undertribute. For the first time in Israel’s history a prophet arosein the land of Gali lee. In the small town of Gath-Hepher,situated on a hi ll a little west of the highway which runs northfrom Nazareth, lived Jonah, the son of Amittai . He predictedthat Jereboarn ’

s kingdom would extend, as it did later, fromthe southern end of the Dead Sea to the gateway between theLebanons in the north, that marked the southern boundaryof the strong northern Aramean kingdom of which the capita lwas Hamath. Again Northern Israel touched its widest bounds.Pride and se lf-confidence took possession of the nation.

'

Themilitary nobles who rallied about the king, enriched by thespoils ofwar, enslaved their fellow-countrymen whose fortuneshad been depleted

'

by the disastrous Aramean wars. OutwardlyNorthern Israel seemed strong and prosperous, but within weresocial wrongs which were eating the very vitals of the nation.T he Advance of Assyr ia . It was at this time that Assyria

became the dominating factor in Northern Israel’s history.This enterpris ing and ambitious nation was apparently an

offshoot of the old Babylonian empire. It occupied the fertileplains east of the upper Tigris. As early as the eighteenthcentury B .C . it began to break away from the authority ofBabylon. About 1100 D .C . T iglath

-

pileser I laid the foundstions of the Assyrian empire by campaigns in Babylonia, Elam ,

Mesopotamia, and Syria ; but it was not unti l 854 B .C . thatAssyria touched Israel . Then, according to the annals of the

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THE ADVANC E OF ASSYRIA

Assyrian king, Shalmaneser II defeated Ahab, together withthe other princes of Syria, at the batt le of Karkar. By 842 hehad conquered practically all of Syria and received tri butefrom Jehu of Israel. During the reigns of the next two Assyriankings the advance of th is great world power was stayed. Butwhen T iglath -

pileser IV founded a new dynasty be injectedfresh energy into the empire , recovered its lost territory, andadvanced to the conquest of Palestine.Amos’

s Home at T ekoa. It was probably about the timewhen T iglath-pileser IV began to institu te his aggress ive policythat Amos delivered his epoch-making sermon at the royalsanctuary in Bethel.(7 7’ His home was at Tekoa, twelve mi lessouth of Jerusalem, and but twenty-two from Bethel. T ekoawas the eastern outpost of Judah. Broad, rich fields lay onthe north and west, but to the east it looked down upon thebarren rounded hills that descended to the Dead Sea andtoward the bold uplands of Moab in the distance. T he townwas situated on an elevated plateau which commanded a viewof nearly all the places mentioned in the prophet’sKirioth in Moab, the region about Bethel and Gilgal, and theroads that led to Philist ia, Egypt, and E dom . The dominantfeature in the landscapewas the Dead Sea,with its blue waters,i ts rising mists

,and its gray, purple, and yellow clifl

'

s. Itwas agrim, rug ed, awe- inspiring outlook and clearly made a deepimpression upon the thought and life of the prophet. Among thedry, rock-covered pasture lands, that run up to the eas ternside of the town of Tekoa, the prophet re ceived his trainingfl fl i”

T o-day, as in the past, it is the land of sheep and goats. Thewildness of the region and the proximity to the desert demandedstrong, stalwart shepherds, inured to hardship, keen to detectthe presence of a foe, quick to repube the attack of wild beastor lurking Arab robbers, and tender in their care of the youngand the injured . Among these silent, treeless bills or besidethe occasional spring, the travel ler to-day meets this type ofshepherd, silent and resourceful, armed with his short, heavy,

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EVIDENC E REGARDING HOSEA’S HOME

in ruins Beth-arbel in the day of battle. The city referredto is clearly one of the two east-Jordan towns hearing this name,and in a ll probability the Arbel east of Pella in the heart ofnorthern Gilead . In 12u he declares : In Gilead is iniquity,yea, they have wrought vanity.

” Again in probably referring to the rmidentified city east of the Jordan mentioned inJudges he declares

Gilead is a city of evi l-doers,Tracked with bloody footprints,And as bandits lay in wait for a man,So a band of priests murder on the way to Shechem,

Verily they commit deliberate crime.

ViewFrom Jebel O sha. The bold heights of Jebel O shacommanded a view of most of the places mentioned in Hosea’sprophecies. Across the valley lay the territory of the great tribeof Ephraim whose name is constantly used by him as a synonymfor Northern Israel. A little to the northwest were the heightsof E bal and Gerizim, which guarded Shechem and the highwaywhich led directly to the city of Samaria. From the samemountain height could be seen to the northwest the roundedtop of Mount Tabor, which is the northernmost point mentionedby Hosea. Direct ly across the Jordan was the northern Gilgal,and a li ttle to the southwestwas the table- land of Bethel . Far

ther south was the height of R amah. Hosea’

s prophecies alsocontain a surprising number of referen ces to the lower Jordan valley, which lay stre tched out immediately below themountain peak which to-day bears his name. Just oppositewere probably to be found the ancient ci ties of Admah and

Zeboim. T he former may be identified with the city of Adam,

men tioned in the second chapter of Joshua (of. p . which

pmbably stood near the D amieh ford, just below the pointwhere the Jabbok en ters the Jordan . Farther north the Plain ofJezreel comes down to the Jordan, while to the southwest one

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THE NO RTHERN KIN GDOM

may see the Valley of Achor, the present Wady Kelt, cutting itsway through the western hi lls toward Ai and Bethel. Hoseaalso refers to Baal-peor in southern Gilead and to Shittim inthe valley below, near the lower lords of the Jordan. Thusthere are many indications in the ancient prophecy that Hoseali ved among the hi lls of Gilead, and that, like Amos, he wasa man who moved among the heights with a broad outlookever before him. The message which these two prophets proclaimed was as difierent as the vistas which opened beforethem. Amos used the figures of the shepherd ; Hosea those ofagricultural life. Amos looked upon the evidence of Jehovah'smight and justice ; Hosea upon ferti le fields and tree-cladhills, which spoke of Jehovah

’s love and his gracious provisionfor his people’s needs. Thus the messages of these two contemporary prophets supplemented each other, the one proclaiming Jehovah ’

s justice, the other Jehovah’

s love.C onquest of Gal ilee and G i lead. The rulers of North

ern Israel, however, were as irresponsive to Hosea’s pleadings

as they were to Amos's stern warnings. The result was thatwhen in 734 D .C . T iglath

-

pileser IV invaded Northern Israel,an assassin sat on the throne and the rank and file of the peoplewere crushed by the cruelty and oppression of those who shouldhave defended them. Northern Israelwas swept by the armiesof the conqueror. Ijon, which was a city on the rich plainin northern Galilee between the Litany and the Nahr cl-Hasbany, that sti llbears the name Merj A yun (Ijon) ; Janoah, acity in the heights six miles east of Tyre ; Abel-beth-maacah,at the upper end of the Jordan valley ; Kadesh, Hazor, east ofLake Huleh and Ijon, were among the important cities captured in northern Gali lee. Lower Gali lee and Gileadwere alsooverrun, their leading citizens transported to Assyria, and

their territory annexed to that of the Assyrian empire .

T he E xiled N orthern Israel i tes. T iglath-

pileser IV leftto Hoshea, the last king of Northern Israel, simply the territorywest of the Jordan and south of the Plain of Esdraelon. Afterruling for a decade as the vassalof A ssyria, this king rebelled.

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THE EXILED NORTHE RN ISRAELITES

For nearly three years his capital, Samaria, held out againstthe Assyrian armies, but at last, late in 722 B .C .

,Samaria fell

before the conqueror and twenty-seven thousand two hundredand ninety of its citizens were deported to different parts of theAssyrian empire. Some were settled in the province of Gozanon the upper waters of the Habor River, which flows southwardinto the E uphrates. They found a home, therefore, near thecentre of Mesopotamia. References in the A ssyrian inscriptions suggest that Halah was a c ity in western Mesopotamia.T he third colony of exiles were settled in the Median cities tothe east of A ssyria.T he Fate of N orthern Israel . The great majority of the

people of Northern Israel were left behind in their cities andvillages. To destroy their racial unity colonists were imported by the A ssyrians from three cities— Babylon, Kutha,

which is probably the A ssyrian Kutu, a c ity a little northeastof Babylon, and Sippar, north of Babylon. O ther colonistswere brought from Hamath, the capital of the conquered northern Aramean kingdom. These colonists were in time absorbedby the native population. In later history this m ixed race isknown as the For the next century Northern Israel largely lost its political and religious significance andbecame simply a part of the great Assyrian empire. In itsbrief history it demonstrated the great truth that prosperity,opportunity, and culture do not necessari ly develop strong nationalcharacter. At the same time through its prophets it gaveto the world certain truths regarding Jehovah’

s justice andlove which are the corner-stones of the faith of humanity.

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SH ISHAK’

S INVASION

and Beth-boron, Gibeon in the north and Sharuhen and An din the south were among those captured . According to thebiblica l re cord Rehoboam stripped the temple of its wealth inorder to pay tribute to th is foreign conqueror.War Between the Two Kingdoms. As soon as the E gyptian forces were withdrawn, Northern Israel, by virtue of itsgreater resources, first recovered its strength and fortified thetown of Ramah, five miles north of Jerusalem . Ramah stoodon a prominent hi ll two thousand six hundred feet high, nearthe intersection of the main highways running north, south,east, and west . From this fortress it was possible to cu t off allcommercial relations between Judah and the north . The kingof Judah retaliated by hiring the aid of the Arameans . Whenthe Northern Israeli te army was withdrawn the fortress at

Ramah was razed to the ground . With materials taken fromthis ruin the king of Judah fortified the old stronghold of Geba,two miles to the northeast, thus gain ing control of the mainhighway from the Jordan to the Philistine Plain . In the sameway Mi zpah, an imposing, massive hill to the northwest of Jerusalem, was fortified . M izpah <

20l lies about two mi les south ofG ibeonf” ) through which ran the old division line between thenorth and the south, so it is evident that in this border warfarethe boundary between the two kingdoms remained practicallythe same as before. Soon both were forced to unite againsttheir common foe, the Arameans, so that, with one disas trousexception, neither attempted again to encroach upon the territory of the other.Amaziah ’

s Wars. In the division of the two kingdoms,E dom and the South C ormtry fell to Judah. Shishak so com

pletely weakened Judah that it appears to have early lost controlof the Edomi tes. Amaziah, the father of Uzziah, was the firstwho succeeded in winning a decisive victory over these southernfoes of the Hebrews. The battle was fought, as in the daysof David, in the Valley of Salt, southwest of the Dead Sea .

The narrative adds that he took Sela (the Rock) by storm . Itis not clear whether this was a border fortress or, as m ay hold,

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T HE SOUTHERN KINGDOM

Pet ra, the marvellous capital city of the E domites, which liesin a narrow gorge, cut out of the heart of the many-coloredlimestone mountains that rise between the G hOr and the A rabian

Elated by this victory , Amaziah foolishly cha llengedthe king of Northern Israel to batt le . The decisive engagement was fought at Beth-shemesh , the prosperous town thatlay on the southern side of the Valley of Sorek. It was almostdue wes t of Jerusalem and in the heart of the lowlands alongwhich the northern army probably approached . Followingup the victory, the Northern Israelites tore down two hundredyards of the northwestern wall of Jerusalem at the point wherethe city mounted the northern plateau and was, there fore ,most exposed . They also looted the temple and royal palace,thus completing the humi l iation of the southern kingdom.

The conspiracy which resulted in the fl ight and execution ofAmaziah at Lachish, the southwestern outpost of Judah , wasprobably the fruit of his folly.

Uzziah ’s Strong Reign . Uzziah, who succeeded his father,

rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem and strengthened them bytowers that guarded the northwestern and southwestern gatesof the city. He also extended the influence of Judah in thesouth, building the important port of Elath. In a campaignagainst the Philist ines he captured Gath, whose power hadalready been broken by the Arameans, Jabneh, west of Gezer,and Ashdod farther south . The death of th is strong king,therefore, marked a crisis in the l ife of Judah, for his successorswere inefficient and at this time Assyrian armies began to invade Palestine.Isaiah of Jerusalem. It was in the year that Uzziah died

that Judah’

s great prophet, Isaiah, entered upon his work. Hisintense loyalty to his nation and his conception of the transcendent majesty of the Divine King who ruled over Israel, revealhis southern birth and training. His familiarity with king,court, and the problems of the nation leave little doubt that hewas a ci tizen of Jerusalem and possibly a scion of one of itsnoble fami lies. At first, like Amos, be devoted himself to de

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ISAIAH OF JERUSALEM

nouncing the crimes of the ruling class and the inevitable te

sult of their cruelty, greed , and disregard of public responsibility.H is Advice to Ahaz in the C ris is of 734 B .C . When, in

735, Northern Israel and Damascus united and endeavored toforce Judah to combine with them in a coalition against theinvader, T iglath-

pileser IV, Isaiah entered upon his workas a statesman. In person hewent to advise Ahaz, as the kingwas probably invest igating the defences of Jerusalem, in viewof the possibilities of an impending siege. The place of meetingwas eviden tly south of the city, where the valley of the Tyropceon jo ined that of the Hinnom near the pool where , in earlierdays, Adonijah had rallied his Isaiah’s advice,however, to make no alliances, but to s immy trust Jehovah fordeliverance, was rejected by king and people. Ahas became avassal of Assyria, and not only turned over the si lver and gold ofthe temple and palace to the invader, but wen t in person toDamascus to pay homage to T iglath-

pileser.

The G reat Rebellion of 703 B .C . The great cris is thatcalled forth the majority of Isaiah’

s recorded sermons camethirty years later, when Judahwas again tempted to enter intoan alliance wi th the other states of Palestine in an endeavor tobreak free from the rule of Assyria. In common with theother little states of Palestine, itwas a victim of its intermediateposi tion between the great world-powers, Assyria and Egyp

t.Under a new E thiopian dynasty, E gypt

’

s ambitions were again

beginning to stir and Assyriawas the chief barrier to their realization . There fore, Egypt by promises of help encouraged thestates of Palestine to revolt against Assyria. In 711 B .C . thePhilistine towns of Ashdod and Gath did actually rebel. Itwas on ly by going about in the garb of the captive, proc laimingin this objective way what would be the consequence if Judahrebelled against Assyria, that Isaiah was able to arrest the attention of the nation and save it from fatally compromising itself.When the great Assyrian king, Sargon, died in 705 B .C . the

temptations to rebel were too strong to be resisted . Merodachbaladan , of the ancient Babylonian royal line

,at once instigated

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HOME OF THE PROPHET MI C AH

S uafir, five miles southeast of Ashdod on the Philistine Plain,Zaanan and Lachish to the southwest, and other smallvillageson the western borders of Judah. His eye rests last of allupon Mareshah, which has recently been identified beyonddoubt with the large Tell es-S andahannah, one mile south ofBeit-Jibrin. The latter was the most important city nearMicah’s home, for it guarded the pass and stood near the junction of the great highways that radiate from this poin t.Judah ’s Fate in 70 1 B .C . Judah experienced in 701 D .C .

the calamities that ~ Isaiah and Micah had predicted. The annals of Sennacherib state that the Assyrian king conquered fortysix of the ci ties of Judah, together with innumerable fortressesand small towns in their neighborhood ; over two hundredthousand captives, and horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen,and sheep without number were carried away as spoils. In thepicturesque language of the conqueror,

“Hezekiah was shut uplike a bird in a cage in the midst of Jerusalem” unti l he wasforced to surrender and to pay a huge tribute of gold and silver.Isaiah ’

s C ounse l in a Later C risi s. In this great cris isthe wisdom of Isaiah’

s counselwas vindicated beyond questionand his authority became so strong with king and people thatan attempt was made to remove certain of the surviving heathensymbols from the popular worship. In the later crisis of 690D .C .,

when Sennacherib advanced to the conquest of E gypt, theprophet by his advice was able to save Jerusalem. While eugaged m the siege of Lachish, the imposing fortress on the Phi listine Plain on the southern side of the Wady elHwy, Sennachcrib sent messengers demanding the unconditional surrender ofJudah’

s capital. From the point of view of the Assyrian kingit was dangerous to leave in his rear a strong fortress like Jerusalem, which had aheady proved a centre of rebellion. Hisdemand, however, was unreasonable, for there is no evidencethat Jerusalem, at this later time, was gui lty of sedi tion . Inthe light of these changed conditions, instead of predictingca lamity as a penalty for rebellion, Isaiah advised Hezekiah torefuse to surrender his city to destruction. The calm, unflinch

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THE SOUTHE RN KINGDOM

ing faith of the prophet overcame the fears of the king and thuspreserved Jerusalem for another century. Without wait ingto carry out his threats against Jerusalem, Sennacherib ad

vanced against Egypt. From the variant traditions it appearsthat in the marshy land on the eastern side of the Nile deltahis army was overtaken by a plague and he was forced ignominiously to re treat.T he React ionary Reign of Manasseh . Assyria continued,

during the reign of Hezekiah’s successor, Manasseh, to maintain its control of Palestine. Assyrian and Babylonian customs and religious institutions pervaded the land as never before. Two legal contracts, drawn up in the usual Assyrianform and dating from the years 651 and 648 B .C . in the reignof Manasseh, have been discovered in the mound of Gezer.The one records the sale of a field and the other of an estatewith the house and land . The owner of the land was a Hebrew(Nethaniah) but the joint owners of the estate and the twelvewitnesses were nearly allAssyrians, indicating how strong wasthis foreign influence at the t ime. The weak Manasseh wasa leader in a wide-spread reaction against the exalted religiousand ethi cal teachings of the prophets. The old C anaanitecults were largely revived and the worship of Babylonianand Assyrian deities was introduced even into the temple atJerusalem. Silenced by persecu tion, the faithful prophets andpriests devoted themselves to putting the principles proclaimedby Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah into definite laws that would shapethe daily life of the people. The results of their work are preserved in the book of Deuteronomy, which became the basis ofthe later reformation of Josiah.

Two Prophet ic Reformers. The two leaders in the greatreform movement were Jeremiah of Anathoth and Zephaniah,who seems to have had great influence over his kinsmen, theyoung Josiah . Zephaniah was apparently a native of Jerusalem. Most of his prophecy is devoted to denouncing thedifferent forms of apostasy and the crimes of oppression thprevalent in the capital. While Jeremiah was not a ci tizen of

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TWO PROPHETIC REFORMERS

Jerusalem, he came from a neighboring village andwas also inclose touch with the political, social, and religious life of thecapital.Si tuation of Anathoth . The little town of Anathoth,(109>

his'

home, lay to the northeast of Jerusalem, just over the Mountof Olives

,at the point where the hills began to descend to the

barren wilderness to the east. It stood on a low, rounded hill.The limestone rocks crop out at many points, imparting arugged appearance to the landscape. A thriving fig orchard onthe western side of the modern town recalls the forceful figure bywhich Jeremiah contrasted the Jews left in Palestine wi th theexiles in Babylonia. The low stone and mud buildings of thepresent town are crowded close together and the dirty streetsand people remind the traveller of the men of ancient Anathothwho pemecuted their illustrious townsman . On the south theview is shut off by the rising hills, but toward the northeastlies Gibeon and Ramah and to the north Michmash, with itsinspiring memories. The chief view from Anathoth, like thatfrom Tekoa, is toward the Jordan valley and the Dead Sea .

The gray, barren hi lls let themselves down in gradual terracesto the depths below. To the northeast are the tree-clad hills ofGilead, whi le across the Dead Sea rise the rounded , rockycliffs of the Moabite plateau. Like the homes of most of thegreat Hebrew prophets, it is a place of broad outlook . Thegeneral impression of Anathoth is grim, stem, and sombre, although here the harsh, barren landscape of the south mergesinto the more ferti le and pleasing h il l country of the north . E venso in the character of Jeremiah were blended the sternest, mostexalted sense of justice and a love for his nation and his countrymen so tender and strong that he was ready to give his life,if need be, to save them from the evils which he saw impending.

Through all his sermons these two motives struggle, sometimesthe one and sometimes the other breaking forth into expressron.

Josiah’s R eign . In Josiah the reformers found an ener

getic leader. It was during his reign that the Scythian hordes189

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JEHO IAKIM’

S REIGN

Jehoiakim’s Reign . By the death of Josiah the cause of

the patriotic prophetic party in Judah sufl'

ered severely. Theyounger son of the dead king, who was first put on the throne, wassoon deposed by Necho and the selfish Jehorakrmwas establishedas a vassal of Egypt. His sympathies were with the party ofreaction and he proved another Manasseh. When the C haldeansappeared in Palestine their rulewas readily accepted, but aftera reign of ten years Jehoiakim listened to the seductive promisesof E gypt and rebelled against his C haldean master. It wasduring the reign of Jehoiakim that Jeremiah delivered thegreater part of his sermons. By direct address and objectlesson he denounced the follies and crimes of the king and people and tried to save them from the calamity which he sawimpending. When the spirit of rebe llion was rife he used allhisinfluence to keep his countrymen loyal to the C haldeans, butin vain . While Judah was being overrun by the C haldeanarmies, Jehoiakim died and was su cceeded by his young son,Jehoiachin.

The First C aptivi ty. In 597 B .C . Jerusalem iwelf fell beforethe army of Nebuchadrezzar. The king, his nobles, and between eight and ten thousand of the prominent men and artisans, representing in all between thirty and forty thousandsouls, were transported to Babylonia. T he object of N ebuchadressat was to strip the land of its leaders and all who mightassist in carrying through another rebellion. O ver the Judeanswho were left behind was placed Zedekiah, a son of Josiah .

The newking was inclined to listen to the voice of Jeremiahand to rule for the best interests of his subjects, but he washelpless in the hands of his headstrong nobles. For nearly adecade Judah submitted to the strong and , on the whole, ben ignrule of Nebuchadrezzar ; but by 593 B .C . the kings of E doin ,

Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon encouraged , as of old, by Egyptwere again plotting rebellion. Jeremiah did allin his powerto save Judah from these fata l entanglements, but false prophetsundermined his influence and encouraged the people to hopethat Jehovah would perform a mirac le in their behalf.

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THE SO UTHERN KINGDOM

The Second C aptivi ty. In 588 n.c . Zedekiah rebelled againstthe C haldeans. Syria and Palestine proved themselves again,as throughout all their long histo ry, a land incapable of unitedaction. Nebuchadrezzar established his head -quarters at Riblah , on the upper Euphrates, beside the great northern highway.

From this strategic point, from which history had already demonstrated that the Hebrew coastlands could best be ruled, he directed the campaign against the rebellious states. Most of

them su rre ndered at once. Tyre and Jerusalem alone held outagainst a protracted siege. The Egyptian army which cameto relieve Jerusalem was defeated on the borders of Palestine.It was only the fear of the judgment that would be visitedupon them that inspired the followers of Zedekiah to resist aslong as they did. Even at the risk of imprisonment and deathat the hands of the unprincipled nobles, Jeremiah asserted thatthe only hope lay in surrender. At last Zedekiah in desperation,after the northern walls of the city had already been broken downby the besiegers, fled by night through the southeastern gate ofthe city, down through the gorge of the Kidron to Jericho. Herehe was captured by the C haldeans and carried to Riblah onthe O rontes. While his life was spared, the nobles and re

l igious leaders who had been acti ve in the rebellion were put todeath. About five thousand of the prominent men of Jeruaslem were carried with Zedekiah to Babylon. The city andtemple were stripped of their weal th and the walls were throwndown , leaving Judah

’s capital “a min and a heap.” Israel’sfeasts were transformed into fasts and her songs into lamenta

T he End of the S ou thern Kingdom. Not wishing to leavethe terri tory of Judah in utter desolation, Nebuchadrezzar appointed Gedaliah, a grandson of Josiah

’s counsellor, Shaphan,governor over the Jews remaining in Jerusalem . The newruler selected as the centre of his government M izpahfl

omlthemost commanding point in northern Judah , four and a half milesnorthwest of Jerusalem . T his was one of the two border citieswhich had been fortified by A sa, in his war against Northern

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THE END OF THE SOUTHERN KINGDOM

Israel. The northern position of his capital suggests that hisauthority, like that of Josiah, extended over a part of southernSamaria. This inference is supported by the fact that Israelitesfrom Shechem, Shiloh, and Samaria came, under the protection of his rule, to presen t offerings at the ru ined temple atJerusalem. Many Jewish refugees soon returned from Moab,Amman , and Edom to put themselves under the protection ofGedaliah’s just and kindly rule. The bright promise of anearly restoration of Judah’

s fortunes was destroyed by thetreachery of a certain Ishmu l, of the Jndesu royal line, who,at the instigation of the king of Ammon, went to Mizpah andtreacherously slew Gedaliah. C ontrary to Jeremiah’

s advice,the Judahites who survived fled to E gypt, taking him withthem. Thus Judah was overtaken with an even more overwhelming fate than that of the northern kingdom. Yet inthe hour of its deepest humiliation two brave souls, Jeremiahin Palestine and Ezekiel in distant Babylon, proclaimed inclearest terms that Judah would again be inhabited and that anoble destiny yet awaited their nation. Above all, Jeremiahdeclared that inasmuch as the old covenant between Jehovahand the nation had been broken by the crimes of the rulersand people, a new and more spiritual covenant wou ld be

between Jehovah and each individual.

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SITUATION OF TAHPANHE S

of the Nile and close to the caravan route from Palestine. Onthe north was the marshy Lake M enzaleh. It was, however,close to the fertile lands of the Nile Delta and from the daysof P samtik I an important military and commercial town .

Here were settled Greek and Phcen ician colonists, and here theJews who fled with Jeremiah after the murder of Gedal iahfound refuge. Here and at Migdol the refugees were in closesttouch with their kinsmen who had remained behind in Palestineand were in a position to return thi ther when ever conditionswere favorable. They were also in the midst of a cosmopolitanlife that offered them ample opportunity to engage in trade,which must have been the chief occupation of these semi-d eserttowns.Memph is. A third home of Jewish colonists in Egypt was

Noph, which was the biblical des ignation of the sacred cityof Memphis . This great city lay ten miles south of C airo, atthe southern end of the Nile Delta. It was a large metropolitancity, with an exceedingly d iverse population . Herodotus foundin the vicinity of the Egyptian temple of Ptah a Tyrian colonywith a temple dedicated to the “foreign A phrodite. Here wereprobably settled the Jews who had decided to make permanenthomes in Egypt, and who may have reared here a temple to

T he C o lony at E lephan tine. The fourth centre of colonisation was at Syene in the land of Pathros, the biblical equivalent of upper Egypt. Syene is apparently represented by themodern Egyptian city of Assuan, just below the first cataractof the Nile. In Ezekiel 29“Migdol and Syene mark respectively the northern and southern boundaries of E gypt. Recent excavations on the northern end of the island of E lephantine,(l1 1)which lies in the Nile opposite Assuan, have revealed the pence of a large Jewish colony at this point, which flourishedduring the earlier part of the Persian period and was probablyestablished soon after the fall of Jerusalem. The island isone of the gard en spots of the N i le valley. The ru ins of theancient city cover a low-lying hill on the southern end, which

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HOME OF THE EXILES IN BABYLONIA

Home of the Exi les in Babylon ia. In deporting the Jewish captives from Pales tine to Babylonia, Nebuchadrezzar eviden tly followed the longer, more northern route, through Ri blahand Hamath, across the Euphrates at C archemish, and then cesouthward through Mesopotamia . Instead of scattering theJewish exiles throughout the empire, he settled them tu a colonyon the C hebar River, which is evidently identical with theKhabaru C anal. According to recently discovered inscriptions,this canal ran eastward from Babylon to the ancient sanctuaryof Nippur. This region was in the northern part of the greatalluvial plain between the Tigris and the E uphrates and wasintemected in every direction by canals, which were used bothfor irrigation and commerce. T o escape the spring floods thevi llages were built on low mud mounds, in many cases ruins ofearlier ci ties. The prophet E zekiel, who was the pastor andspiritual adviser of the exi les in Babylon, l ived at a village namedafter the mound on which it was built, Tell Abib. Two othersimilar vi llage mounds were called Salt Hilland Forest H i ll.E zekiel describes their new home as “a land of traffic, a cityof merchants, a fruitful soil, beside many waters.T he i r Life in Babylonia. In certain psalms are found the

echo of the homesickness and longing for their native hi llswhich fil led the hearts of the Jewish exi les . But the fruitfulsoil of Babyloniawas a partial compensation for what they hadlost. The active commercial l ife of Babylon, as that of Egypt,developed within them the latent Semi tic genius for trade.At first they were evidently settled as a communi ty by themselves, a little Judah in the heart of the great empire . Herethey lived in accordance with their laws, under the ru lershipof their elders, build ing houses, p lanting gardens, and rearingup fami lies, as Jeremiah advised in the letter which he wrotethem (Jer. The result was that the majority of the Jewsin the east became so attached to their new homes that fewwere found later who would undertake the arduous journey offifteen hundred miles to return to the stony hills of Judah . Fora great majority of those who were exi led or who fled from

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Extent of theJewish Territory. Th e Jews werealercet entirely confined to the Judean highlands. Their out

pu ts an the southwest were Kei lah and F"

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E ! T E N T OF THE JEWISH T E R R IT O RY

zanoah, which guarded the entrance to the Valley of Sorek,and N etophah, the modern Beit N ettif, which guarded the eutrance to the Valley of Elah . The northern boundary ran

within five or six miles of Jerusalem. To the northeast theJews appear to have held the city of Jericho and the neighboring Plain of the Jordan. Thus the cultivated Jewish territory was little more than twenty-five miles in length and

breadth and included the least desirable land of allPalestine .Evidence T hat T here Was N o G eneralR eturn of Exiles

in 536 B .C . The overthrow of the C haldean Empire by C yrusin 538 B .C . gave the Jews of Babylon an opportunity to return,for the Persian king reversed the policy of the Assyrians and

the Babylonians and aimed to develop the resources and loyaltyof each of the many peoples in his great empire. There is noevidence, however, that more than a handful of the Jews in theeast improved this opportunity. C yrus also adopted the policyof appointing native princes as local governors. A scion ofthe royal house of Davidwas placed over the little sub-provinceof Judah. This appointment gave the Jews a local govemment that undoubtedly attracted to the homeland many refugeesfrom Ammon and Moab and especially from the land of E gypt.But the sermons of the contemporary prophets, Haggai andZechariah, indicate clearly that those who constituted the rankand fi le of the Judean community and rebuilt the temple werethe people of the land and that a general return of the exileswasan event, stillin the future, for which they ardently longed.

T he R ebu ilding of the T emple. E ven during the Babylonianperiod sacrifices were offered at the great altar of native rockthat had stood in front of Solomon’

s temple. Perhaps evenbefore C yrus gave full permission to the native peoples torebuild their cities and temples a few had come back to findhomes among the desolate ruins of Jerusalem. Itwas a small

,

struggling,and discouraged community to whom Haggai in

520 B .C . addressed his stirring message. H is call to rise and re

build the temple met with an immediate response. H e wasalso seconded by the encouraging words of his contemporary,

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THE BABYLONIAN AND PERS IAN P E R IO DS

Zechariah . The rebellions that were then shaking the greatPersian Empire to its foundations encouraged the Jews to hopethat the opportune moment had arrived to reinstate Zerubbabel.Inspired by these hopes , the temple-building progressed rapid ly.The stones for the repair of the walls were apparen tly found on

the temple hill. The timbers for the gates were cut from the

hills about Jerusalem , which at this time were, at least in part,covered wi th trees. By 516 D .C . the work was completed andthe Jewish race again had a common religious sanctuary atwhich to worship.

D iscouragement and Hopes of the Jews. The hopes of

re-establishing the Hebrew kingdom under a Davidic ruler were,however, comNetely dashed to the ground. Darius succeeded inputting down the many rebellions and in thoroughly reorganiz ingthe Persian Empire. At this time the descendants of Daviddisappear from Israe l’s histo ry. For a generation or two theJudean community was overwhelmed with discouragemen t,for it was the victim of foes from wi thout and of its corruptand greedy ru lers within, who ens laved the people and se izedtheir land. It is not clear what aroused the spirit of the discouraged Judean community. Possibly it was the divinelyinspired vision of the great prophet, whose immortal songsare preserved in the fortieth and following chapters of thebook of Isaiah. He appears to have been a citizen of Jerusalem ,

and to the ancient capital city hismessage is primarily addressed .

It was a call, however, to all the scattered remnants of therace to return and do their part in rea lizing Israel’s nob ledestiny. It was a summons to voluntary, self-sacrificing service .It interprets the discouragemen ts, the calamities, and the ignominies which were then the lot of his race, not as the result ofJehovah’

s disfavor, but as a supreme opportunity, if non improved, to demonstrate to the world the character of the Godwhom they worshipped and the saving power of the faithwhichthey cherished .

N ehemi ah ’s Response to the C all to Service. Before there

could be a general return of the exi les it was necessary that the200

NEHEMIAH ’S RESPONSE TO THE C ALL T O SERVIC E

walls of Jerusalem be rebui lt, and this required resources, influence at the Persian court, and , above all, an energetic, ableleader. In sending a deputation to Nehemiah, the royal cupbearer of Artaxerxes, the Palestinian Jews showed great wisdom .

At the head of this deputation was Hanani, a kinsman of N ehemish . The scene of this memorable interview was in theroyal pa lace at Susa, the capital of the Persian Empire . Thehuge ruins of the ancient city, fu lly eight miles in circumferen ce,have revealed to the modern excavator its magn ificence andbeauty. It is possible that the unknown author of the immortalchapters in the latter part of the book of Isaiah was a memberof the deputation from Jerusalem. Nehemiah records howprofoundly he was moved by the recital of the misfortunes thathad overtaken the city of his forefathers. The spirit and message of Isaiah 40- 55 pervade the prayer of Nehemiah, recordedin the first chapter of h is memoirs. One Jew, at least, wasfound responsive to the divine call to service. Improving afavorable opportunity, he secured permission to go back andrebuild the walls of Jerusalem . A royal escort and letters tothe governor of the province beyond the river prepared theway. H is journey from Susa lay along the southern side of theE lamite mountains and thence beside the Tigris, through Mesopotamia by one of the great highways which led from northernSyria to Palestine.C ond i tions in the Jewish C ommun i ty. Nehemiah has

given a vivid description of conditions as he found them inJudah. The active foes of the community were Sanballat

,the

Horonite, whose native town was apparen tly either Upper or

L ower Beth-boron, a certain Tobiah, who had intermarriedwith the high-priestly fami ly of Jerusalem, and Geshem, anArabian. Sanballat appears to have been at the head of theSamaritans, Tobiah of the Ammonites, and Geshem of certainArabian tribes, that probably had already gained a foothold inPalest ine. The Judean community had been so long preyedupon by its greedy rulers, led by the high priest and his followers,that Nehemiah found it necessary, as a preliminary, to inst itu te

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this point were bui lt two strong guarding towers, standing ap

paren tly on the site occupied in Roman times by the famousTower of An tonia. In the days of the divided Hebrew kingdoms, the upper end of the T yropoeon Valley, immediately westof the temple area, had been enclosed wi thin the city wal ls.

In Zephaniah In it was called, because of its peculiar shape,The Mortar. E lsewhere it bears the name of The SecondQuarter (II Kings, Zeph . Through this low depress ion of the T yropceon Valley ran the main street of thecity. It passed through the Fish Gate which opens in thenorth to the great highway leading to Samaria. The Fish Gatewas probably so named because in the adjoining market quarter the fishmongers sold their fish, which were doubtless broughtin early times, as in the Roman period, from the S ea of Galilee .The exact course of the northern wall from this point is notentirely clear, for the ground over which it runs is nearly leveland is to-day covered with buildings. The importance of thiswall and the difficulty of completely restoring it is shown bythe proportionately large number of workmen detai led byNehemiah to repair it. It probably ran in a southwesterlydirection to the C orner Gate, wh ich was also called the Gateof the O ld Wall. From this point it would seem that Nehemiah constructed a straight wal l to the E phraim Gate,which corresponds to the western Jafl

'

a Gate of modern Jerusalem.

O n the West. Immediately south of the Ephraim Gatethe city was especially liable to assault. Here a broad, ordouble wall was constructed. The remainder of the westernwall (5 7) has been trawd by excavations. It ran due south alongthe brow of the western hill to a corner tower which measuredforty-five feet each way and rose twenty feet from an outerledge of rock . At this point the wall turned obliquely to thesoutheast, running to the Valley Gate, where it tu rned due east.The ancient Valley Gate was only eight feet ten inches wide onthe outside. Its lower sockets are still in position . The wallon the cast was nine feet thick. To the west of the Valley Gate

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ON THE EAST

was the Gate of the Guard , where one of the companies thattook part in the dedication of the wal ls, in the days of N ehemiah, stopped before entering the sanctuary. Here emvations have disclosed massive masonry and the course of theoriginal wall, which at this point turns to the northwest. It follows the slope of the native rock, which descends suddenly onthe north to the ravine leading up from theKidron Valley. Insidethe walls, between the Gate of the Guard and the Sheep

.Gate,

were the bazaars where the people could purchase those thingswhich were needful for their offerings.‘1 12)Significance of N ehemiah ’

s Work. In rebuilding thewalls, Nehemiah prepared the way for that general return of theJews, which is implied in the seventh chapter of Nehemiahand confirmed by the later facts of history. The story of Ezrais a late trad ition regarding one of these return movements .

Nehemiah, in reorganiz ing the method of distributing thetemple dues to the priests and Levites, in d iscountenancingforeign marriages , in enforcing the Sabbath law, and in providing for the support of the temple, laid the foundations for theinstitution of the new priestly lawand the reorganization ofthe ceremonial service, which is assoc iated with his name.Nehemiah was thus the restore r of that newJewish state whichrose on the ruins of the old .

E xtension of Jew ish T erri tory to the N orthwest . Shutin on the south by the Edomites and on the east by the DeadSea and Jordan valley, the Jewish community naturally ex

panded toward the northwest. In doing so it followed the greathighways, which ran northwestward from Jerusalem out uponthe Phi list ine Plain . By virtue of the new life and strength infused into the Judean commun ity by N ehemiah, it was able tocope with the Samari tan community and to push its boundariesnorthward . Wi thin two or three cen turies the arable Jewishterritory was nearly doubled and included such important citiesas Ai , Bethel, and Timnath in the north, and A jalon, the Horons,Modein, as well as Ono and Lod, the later L ydda, far out on thePhilistine Plain.

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T HE BABYLONIAN AND PERS IAN PERIODS

D evelopment of Judaism D uring the Latter Part of the

Persian Period. The Babylonian and Persian age as a wholewas for the Jews a period of overwhelming calamity and discouragement, and yet during the latter part of this era scatteredremnants of the race began again to restore the temple andcapital city. During this era the foundations of Judaism werelaid along the lines first outlined by Ezekiel. The priestsand scribes succeeded to the earlier authority of the kings andprophets. Loyalty to the law and ritual took the place of theancient loyalty to the king and state. Judaism, helpless andexposed to the attacks of its powerful foes, stood apart from therest of the world, finding its joy more and more in worship,in trust in Jehovah, and in the noble ideals and hopes thatare voiced in the psalms and wisdom writings of this period.

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THE SC EN ES OF THE MAC C ABEAN STRUGGLE

Alexander’s C onquests. The Persian Empire, foundedas a result of the conquests of C yrus and the organizing abilityof Darius, after two centuries had become weak, corrupt, andready for conquest. O n the other hand, the Greek civilization ,which had been developing for centuri es in the little land ofHellas and the coast lands of the E gean, demanded an outletthat it might expand naturally (cf. p. At this critical moment in the world’s history, Alexander, the M acedon ian, animated by the lust for adventure and by an ambition to make theworld more glorious by disseminating Greek art and cu lture,set out on his eastern campaigns. Within less than a decadehe carried the standards and culture of Greece across southwestern Asia beyond the banks of the Indus . After a year ofactive campaigning in As ia Min or, he completed its conquestin 333 B .c . at the great battle of Issus at the northeastern end ofthe Mediterranean. With the exception of the cities of Tyreand Gaza, which were captured only after prolonged sieges,the people of Palestine read ily submitted to the new conqueror.E gypt likewise proved a comparatively easy conquest. B y331 B .C . Alexanderwas able to turn eastward, and at the greatbattle of Arbela, which was fought that year on the plains nearthe Tigris, he broke the power of Persia and advanced to seizeits eastern possessions.The Impress ion Upon Sou thwestern Asi a . Although

Alexander the Great died in 323 B .C .; before he was able thoroughly to consolidate and organize his great empire, his con

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T HE MAC C ABEAN STRUGGLE

quests made a permanent impression upon southwestern Asia.This lasting impression was due in part to the attractivenessand superiority of G mek art and culture, and to the valor andmilitary skill of the Greek soldiers, but above allto Alexander

’sdesire to Hellenize the peoples and lands that he conquered. Toaccomplish this end be rebuilt many of the captured ci ties on a

magnificent scale and established Greek colonies throughouthis empire.T he C i ty of Alexandria. The city of Alexandria in northern

Egyptwas the noblest fruit of Alexander’s ambition . Selectingthe level strip of land which lay between the Mediterranea nand the lagoon of Mareotis, he transformed it into a magnificentcity which diverted the trade from Tyre and in time riva lledRome itself. The site was well chosen, for in front of the city ,one mile away, lay the island of Pharos. This be connectedwith the city by a long causeway, thus providing two largeharbors, the eastern, used chiefly in the Greek and Romanperiods, and the western, through which the city is approachedby modern ships. A canal connected Alexandria with theC anopic or western branch of the Nile and brought to this newmetropolis the vast trade of upper Egypt as well as the productsof Arabia and India. The c i ty itself was divided in to threedistinct parts. The Egyptian and native quarter was on thewest, while the G reek and official quarter was in the centre opposite the eastern harbor. The Jewish quarter was in the

northeastern part of the city. Many Hebrews were attractedhere by the privileges which Alexander granted them, especia llythe opportunity of living under their own laws and local rulers.G reek Influence in Pal est ine . Alexander and his succes

sors also transformed the cities of P hcen icia and Phi listia andthe important towns east of the Jordan into cen tres of Greekculture and civil ization. Large numbers of Greek colonistswere settled at Gaza, Ashdod , Askelon, Joppa, and the ancientAccho, whichwas renamed Ptolemais . In the same way Hippos, Gadara, Pella, Gerasa, and the an cient Rabbath-Ammon ,under the name of Philadelph ia, became the homes of many

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GREEK INFLUENC E IN PALESTINE

of Alexander’s veterans and were largely rebui lt after the manner of Greek ci ties. Thus, from the beginning of the Greekperiod, the Jewish community in Palestine was encirc led by aring of ci ties from which emanated the ideas and cultu re ofancient Hellas. The history of the next few centuries is a

,

record of the great conflict between Semi tic and Hellenic ideasand cu lture and of the ultimate fusion which resulted from thisclose and protracted contact.The Ptolemai c Rule. In 320 B .C . Ptolemy Soter, who be

came the ru ler of E gypt after the death of Alexander, conqueredthe territory of Judea and Samaria. At this time many Jewsand Samaritans were transported to E gypt. T hey were grantedspecialprivileges, for the Greek rulers recognized in them valuable allies in the difficult task of rul ing the large native population. Du ring the next cen tury Palestine was subject to thePtolemies . It was the victim of many invasions. By virtueof its position itwas the bone of contention between the ru lers ofE gypt and her rival in the east and north .

Si tua tion of Antioch . About 300 D .C . Seleucus I builtthe city of Antioch and transferred his capital from the TigrisE uphrates Valley to this important strategic centre. The citywas si tuated at the point where the Lebanon mountains on thesouth were separated from the Taurus on the north by theO rontes River. The city lay at the northern end of the greatvalley between the Leban ons, near the point where the O rontesbends abruptly to the southwest. I twas sixteen mi les from thesea and not far from the borders of the eastern desert. Heremeet the great highways from the E uphrates and from centralS yria and Palestine. Itwas, therefore, an importan t commercialand politica l centre. The city itself lay on the broad, ferti leplain, which ran northward from the river up the sides of MountS ilpius. A side from the river and the mountain , it possessed nonatural defences, but was dependent upon the huge wallwhichsurrounded it.Causes of the Maccabean Struggle . In 198 B .C . Antiochus

the Great, in a battle near P aneion, the modern Banias, at the

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THE TOWN OF MOB R IN

with little opposition rmtilthey reached the town ofModein,‘l13)

northeast of the Beth-horons on the bord ers of the coast plain.

Its deserted ruins are to -day one of the most picturesque andimpressive mounds in allPalestine. Over it allis flung a luxuriant growth of grain and olive trees. It is surrounded bydeep valleys ; on the south and west the Wady Malakeh swingsin a broad semicircle about the mound, which is nearly a com

plete circle, one-third of a mile in diameter. To the northwest,connected by a shoulder of land, was the lower town, whichwasa little larger in area than the acropolis. O n the north lay adeep encircling valley which made its defen ce easy. The sidesof the main acropolis rose rapidly in three or four large terraces .

It stood apart from the surrounding foot-hi lls like an emeraldset in the midst of black and gray limestone.T he First Flame of Revol t . Modoiawas a fitting altar ofJewish freedom and patriotism. Here the Sy rian official set up aheathen altar. By promises of royal favor he sought to induceaged priest by the name of Mattathias to sacrifice upon it

in accordance with the king’s command. To this demand the

priest replied that if they alone of alltheir race remained faithful, he and his fami ly would never forsake the law and ordinances. At the sight of an apostate Jew advancing to sacrificeat the heathen altar the indignation of the stern old priest waskindled. He slew both the offender and the royal officialand tore down the altar. He then fled to the mountains withhis five stalwart sons . Recognizing rn him a leader, the Jewswho were faithful to their law soon rallied abou t him . At firstthey devoted themselves to tearing down the heathen altars, toenforcing the law of circumcision wherever it had been neglected,and to putting to death all apostates whom they captured . Atthis critical moment in the life of Judaism they strengthened thecourage of those who were wavering and raised a standardabout which the faithful rallied in ever- increasing numbers.C haracter and Work of Judas. In a few months the aged

Mattathias died and was succeeded by his son , Judas, who wasknown by the distinct ive ti tle of Maccabeus. He soon proved

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THE MAC C ABEAN STRUGGLE

h imself an unselfish patriot, a devoted champion of the law,

and a mili tary leader of rare enthusiasm , en ergy, and strategicskill. The odds against which he had to contend were seemingly overwhelming. With a few unarmed peasants he wascalled to meet large armies of well-equipped and well-trainedGreek mercenaries. But again, as in the days of David, therugged physical contour of Palestine was the chief advantagepossessed by the Israe lites. Select ing a favorable point alongthe road which led from Samaria to Jerusalem, Judas made a

sudden attack upon the Syrian general, Apollonius, and suc

ceeded not only in putting to fl ight the Syrian soldiers, but alsoin slaying the leader of the persecution. Henceforth Judaswielded effectively the sword of Apolloni us, and his followersarmed themselves likewise with the weapons of the sla in.T he Pass of B eth -boron . Judas’s first open engagementwas fought near his home at M odein . Seron was sent with aSyrian army to put down the rebellion. He advanced againstJerusalem by the main northern highway, which led up throughthe pass of the Beth-borons. At this point the road ascendsvery rapidly. On the Plain of Ajalon it is but eight hundre dand forty feet above the ocean level. At the lower Beth-boronit is one thousand two hundred and forty feet. Thence asteep, rocky road leads to the upper Beth less thantwo miles away at the height of two thousand and twenty-twofeet above the sea. Four miles farther on it reaches the top ofthe ascent, which is about two thousand three hundred feetabove the level of the sea. The difficult pass, often ascend ingby rock-cut steps

,was the scene of this memorable battle .

Here it was impossible for an army to deploy or maintain aregular formation. A few determined men on the heights abovewere able to turn back a large force. The defeat of the Syrianarmywas complete . E ight hundred of them were slain duringthe hot pursuit down the Beth-boron slope . The rest fled to theland of the Phi listines, out on the plain . At last, after four centuries of defeat and humiliation , the Israelites found that by courage and united action they could put to fl ight their heathen foes.

2 12

VICTORY OVER THE SYRIAN GENERALS

Scene of the Victory O ver the Syrian G enerals. Fortanately for the Jews, at this cris is Antiochus E piphanes foundhis treasury depleted as a result of his luxurious habits and extensive build ing enterprises. Accordingly he turned over thegovernment of his kingdom to Lysias, one of his nobles, whilehe gathered a large army and set out on a campaign into Persia,where he ultimately lost h is life. The departure of Antiochusreduced by fully one-half the so ldiers avai lable for the campaigua against Judas and his followers. But Lysias, appre

ciating the importance of suppressing the Jewish rebellion at

once, sent out an army of forty thousand infantry and seventhousand cavalry under the leadership of three generals, Ptolemy,Nicanor, and Gorgias . They encamped near Emmaus on thesouthern side of the Valley of Ajalon , not far from the border ofthe Philistine Plain. Th is time they avoided the steep anddangerous pass of Beth-boron and aimed to penetrate the highlands of Judah through the narrow and yet direct highwaywhich led up by the Wady Ali, through which runs the moderncarriage road from Joppa to Jerusalem . Meantime Judas hadrallied his followers near M izpahfl ol This imposing heightwasin c lose touch with Jerusalem and at the same time commandeda view of allthe roads leading from the north and west, rendering it practically impossible for the Syrians to overtake himunawarea ‘m Apparently the Syrian generals had pitched theircamp at Emmaus in the vain hope that by a quick nightmarch they might surprise Judas and his followers at Mizpah.Anticipating this design, Judas by night transferred his armyto a point a li ttle south of Emmaus, probably following one ofthe wild, deserted val leys which lead from Mizpah to the pla in .

The result was that when a detachment of Syrian soldiers weresent under Gorgias to capture Judas, they found Mizpah deserted. Meantime Judas boldly attacked the remnant of theSyrian army on the plain near E mmaus and quickly put themto fl ight. Many were slain ; some escaped to the stronghold ofGezer, or Gazara, as it was called at that time, a little northwestof Emmaus ; some turned southward into the Philist ine low

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C AMPAIGNS SOUTH AND EAST OF THE DEAD SEA

end of the Dead Sea, along which ran the road from Hebron toPetra. On the east-Jordan at this time the Ammonites, undertheir leader, Timotheus, apparently controlled the entire territory from the Arnon to the Yarmuk. Judas’s first east-Jordan campaign was in the territory immediately north of theArnon, Where he conquered the ancient city of Jazer and its

Victories in N ortheastern G ilead. Learning that the Jewsand descendants of the ancient Israeli tes settled in northernGilead were being besieged by Timotheus, that many others hadbeen massacred, and that those in Galilee were also the object ofbitter persecution, he gathered eleven thousand of his followers.Simon, his brother, was sent with three thousand soldiers intoGali lee, where he succeeded in rescuing the Israelites and indriving the heathen out of the uplands down to P tolemis.

With the remaining eight thousand picked soldiers Judas and

his brother Jonathan made a rapid and brillian t campaignthrough southern Gilead. A march of three days from the eastJordan to the northeast brought them to the borders of thedesert , where they met certain of the Nabateans, an Arabianpeople who at this timewere crysta llizing into a strong nation,with their centre southeast of the D ead S ea. Like Judas theywere apparently hosti le to the Syrians and therefore they methim on friendly terms. Learning through them of conditionsin Gilead, he turned suddenly northward and captured theimportant trading city of Bozrah, far out in the wi lderness tothe south of the Hauran. The spoi ls of this city provided hisfollowers with immediate supplies. Thence by a night marchhe reached the stronghold where the Israelites were being besieged by the Ammonites under Timotheus . In the Greekversion of I Maccabees, this stronghold is called D athema, butin the Syriac version Rametha, which is clearly the modernRemtheh, an important station on the great pilgrim road to thenorth, about twenty-five miles east of Bozrah . As has alreadybeen noted, it is one of the most probable sites of the ancientR amoth-Gilead . Timotheus and his followers, caught unpre

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THE MAC C ABEAN STRUGGLE

throne of Syria on the dea th of his father. A vast army wasgathered, consisting of a hundred thousand infantry and twentythousand horsemen . Thirty-two elephants also accompaniedthe army and played an important part in the final battle .Again the approach to the Judean heights was made thro ughthe Valley of E lah and up along the Wady es-S ur to B ethsura.

Instead of meet ing the Syrians at th is point Judas retired alongthe northern road to Beth-zacharias, which lay on the right ofthe highway a few miles southwest of Bethlehem. Here Judasgave battle to the huge Syrian army, which was drawn up on

two wings, one on the heights and the other on the low ground .

The elephants, with towers of wood on their backs, were placedin the front of the line of battle. Each elephant was supportedby a thousand men armed with coat of mail, and five hundredhorsemen. Judas and his followers made a courageous attackupon this huge and imposing host, but they were overwhe lmedby sheer numbers. The elephants also were effective in turning the tide of battle. E leazer, one of Judas

’s brothers, withthe spirit that characterized the family, broke through one ofthe phalanxes and, creeping under what be supposed to be theroyal elephant, pierced it with his spear from beneath and perished under the beast as it fellto the earth . None others werefound, however, in the Jewish ranks to follow his courageousexample. Judas retired to Jerusalem, where he was besiegedby Lysias, the leader of the Syrian forces. Fortunately forthe Jewish cause, conditions in the Syrian capital made it necessary for Lysias to retire. He accordingly made a treaty withthe Jews in which their religious freedom was fully assured oncondition that they would recognize the authority of the Syriankingdom.

Fortunes of Judas’s Party. After securing religious freedom a strong party of the Jews, known as the Hasideans, thefore runners of the later party of the Pharisees, were inclined toaccept peace at any cost . The result was that from this timeon Judas lost many of his followers. E ven the apostate A lcimus

,appointed high priest by the Syrian king, was at first ao

2 18

FORTUNES OF JUDAS’S PARTY

cepted by the Has ideans. His deceptions and persecution of

the faithful, however, soon dro ve many back into the ranks ofthose who, like Judas, were struggling to gain not merely re

l igious fm dom,but also complete political independence. In

response to the demands of the Syrian party in Judea, a certa inNicanor, formerly master of the elephants in the Syrian army,was sent to check the growing power of Judas and his followers. An engagemen t was fought at C aphersalama, evidentlysomewhere near Jerusalem. Many of the Syrian soldiers wereslain and the rest fled to the C ity of David, which had been,from the days of the great Hebrew king, the designation of thehil l of Ophel, in the southeas tern part of the c ity. It is exceedingly probable, therefore, that C aphersalama is to be iden tified with the modern Kefr the little village on theeastern side of the Kidron, jus t across the valley from the C ityof D avid .

Victory O ver N icanor. Alarmed by this victory, Nicanorsent for another Syrian army, which he met at Beth-boron.Thence he took the main road that leads over the pass towardJerusalem . Judas, with his followers, had taken his positionnear the village of Adass , at the point where the Beth-boronroad joins the central highway southward to Jerusalem. Nicanor fell in the first charge, and his army was so demoralizedby the loss of its leader that they threw away their weapons andfled back along the highway toward Gazara, the ancient Gezer.The Jews in the vi llages along the way attacked the fleeingS yrians with the result that none of them escaped . Pro fitingby this signal vict

ory, Judas sent an embassy to Rome. His

aim was to secure in his unequal contest with the Syrian king~dom the aid of this power, which already was beginning todominate the poli tics of the eastern Mediterranean ; but beforehe could receive a reply from Rome, the Jewish . championfought his last fatal battle .D eath of Judas. After the defeat and death of Nicanor, the

Syrian king, Demetrius, sent another army i'

nto Judah . It enlered the land by the way that leads to Gilgal, which was prob

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JUDA S’S C HARACTER AND WORK

armies, but in a prolonged struggle with the Syrian kingdom the

advantages were all with the latter. The barren, l imited territory of Judea was incapable of supporting a large people or offurnishing the resources for a protracted war. On the otherhand, Antioch, which had as its base the great plain betweenthe Lebanons, possessed almost unlimited resources and wasthe natural centre from which to rule both Syria and Palestine.Judas was able to win his victories not merely because of hisdauntless courage and leadership, but because the Syrian kingdom was fatally weakened by the moral corruption and constant dissensions of its ru lers. These two elements

,courageous

and able leadership on the side of the Jews and corruption andinefficiency in the Syrian kingdom, enabled Judas

’s followers

in time to overcome geographical conditions and to build up,as in the days of David, a large and independent kingdom.

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T HE MAC C ABEAN AND HERODIAN AGE

Jonathan’s Po l icy. Jonathan, who succeeded his brother,

Judas, in the leadership of the Jewish re bellion, combined greatskil l and energy with a certain craftines s, which enabled himto profit by every turn in the tortuous politics of Syria. It wasan exceed ingly corrupt age, and Jonathan adopted the standardsand methods of his day. The secure hiding-places in Palestin eenabled him to elude the Syrians and to recover from the shockwhich his cause had received as a resu lt of the death of Judas.Jonathan and his followers took refuge first in the wilderness ofJudea (20 and the dry , barren wadies that lead down to theDead Sea, and later in the jungle of the lower In tothis thicket of reeds and bushes the Syrian general pursuedthem . O n this strange battle-field Jonathan and his fol lowerswere defeated, but by swimming across the Jordan succeeded inescaping pursu it. At another time he was shut up in the fortress of Beth-bas i, which Josephus iden tifies with Beth-hoglah,in the midst of the Jordan valley, a li ttle southeast of Jericho.It is more probably to be identified with some one of the manynatural strongholds along the Wady el-Bassah, which leadsthro ugh the eastern part of the wi lderness of Tekoa down towardthe Dead Sea.

Basis of Agreement Wi th the Syrians. Finding that pursuit was fu ti le, the Syrian general made a treaty with Jonathan,according to which hewas allowed to establish his head-q uartersat the ancient fortress of Michmash (35) on the northern bordersof Judah and to ru le in peace as a local chieftain. He in turn

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BASIS OF AGREEMENT WITH THE SYRIANS

was to refrain from attack upon the Syrians, who were intrenchedin certain strategic strongholds. Jericho guarded the easternbounds of Judah. The border fortresses on the north includedBeth-heron, the ancient sanctuary of Bethel, Timnath, north ofBeth-boron, Pharathon, which is without much doubt to be identified with Farata, southwest of Shechem , and T ephon, whichprobably represents the ancient Tappuah, a little west of themain highway that leads southward from Shechem. The western border fortresses were Gazara in the northwest and B ethsura,the ancien t 14) in the southwest.C oncess ions to Jonathan . As a result of the rivalry between

the d ifferent claimants for the Syrian throne, Jonathan wassuddenly raised from his position of comparative unimportanceto the virtual rulership of allsouthern Palestine. A certainAlexander Balas, who claimed to be the son of A ntiochusE piphanes, the arch persecutor of the Jews, finally gave Jonathan the title of high priest and the control not only of Judea,but of the Philistine coas t. Jonathan, by the sword, quicklymade valid these concessions. Joppa, the natural seaport ofJerusalem, was first seized . Then Azotus, the an cient Ashdod,was captured after a Syrian army had been defeated on theplain before its walls, and the famous temple of Dagon wasburned .

Jonathan’s C onquests. When Jonathan’

s patron, AlexanderBalas, was overthrown by a Pto lemy of E gypt, the Jewish leaderreadily transferred his allegiance to the Syrian king, Demetrius II .Ignoring the fact that he himself was struggling for freedom,

Jonathan disgraced the Jewish cause by sending tro ops to aidthis tyrant in carrying through a great massacre of his subjectsin the streets of Antioch . Already personal ambitions werebeginning to obscure the nobler patriotic ideals that had atfirst actuated the warlike sons of the old priest, Mattath ias. Ina short time a son of Alexander Bales appeared on the politicalhorizon and won the allegiance of Jonathan by granting himcontrol of the entire coast land from the Ladder of Tyre to theborder of Egypt. The Jewish leader improved this opportunity

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SIMON’S STRONG AND PROSPEROUS RULE

Modein . Boldly advancing to the attack the Jewish army putthe Syrians to fl ight, pursuing them to Kidron and the towersnear Azotus, which they quickly captured . In gratitude forhis patriotic services and beneficien t rule, the Jews confirmedSimon in the title of high priest, general, and governor. Hisrule and that of his son who succeeded h im were the frui tageof the earlier struggles and the ca lm before the storm of foreigninvas ion that before long again swept Palest ine. Like his otherbrothers, Simon died a violent death . He was the victim ofthe treachery of one of his sons- in - law, who slew him at thelitt le stronghold of D ok, in the Jordan va lley, on the edge of thewestern hills about three miles north of Jericho.G row th of the Two Rival Parties. Simon was followed

by h is son, John Hyrcanus, who drove his father’s assassin from

the land . With the mili tary ski llof his illustrious father and

uncles be combined a strong personal ambition. This is shownnot only by his conquests, but also by h is employment of foreigo mercenaries. His long reign of thirty-one years witnessedthe development of the two great parties in Judaism, the Pharisees and the Sadducees. They were the expression of the conflicting ideas and ideals ever present in Jewish life, but nowbrought into clear relief. The party of the Sadducees comprised the high priestly nobles , whose rank, wealth, and ambitions made them conservatives and led them to support thepoli tica l ambitions of the Maccabean kings. The Pharisees,on the other hand , were the party of the people. They were thestrenuous champions of the law. While the question of freedom of worship was at issue, they had upheld Judas, but theycared little for political glory and preferred to submit to foreign rulers rather than to fight for their independence. Theyalso considered it a sacri lege that warriors like John Hyreanusshould perform the sacred higho

priestly functions. Hence fromthe days of John Hyrcanus the history of the Judean kingdomwas that of a house d ivided against itse lf.Wars and C onquests of John H yrcanus. During the early

part of John’s re ign Judeawas again invaded by the Syrians.

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THE MAC C ABEAN AND HERODIAN AGE

Jerusalem was besieged and the Jews were again obliged torecognize the old suserain ty. Fortunately for them the Syrianking was inten t upon invad ing Parthia and, therefore ,

in orderto secure the support of John Hyrcanus, left him in possessionof his kingdom. After the death of Antiochus S idetes in th istern campaign, John was free to complete the conquest of

the ancient foes of his race. His first cammign was cast ofthe Dead Sea and resulted in the capture of the old Moabite cityof Medeba. He then marched against Shechem and MountGerizim, the home of the Samaritans. Their temple was leftin ruins and their territory was joined to the Jewish kingdom .

The Idumean stronghold , on the borders of thePhilistine Plain , and Dora, or Adora, a fewmiles southwest ofHebron, were captured and the Idumeans were completely subdued. These close kinsmen and hereditary foes of the Jewswere compelled to submit to the right of c ircumcision and toaccept the Hebrew laws. Thus at the point of the sword wasbrought into the Jewish nation an element which was destinedin the end to prove its undoing. Last of all, Hyrcanus conquered , by means of a pro tracted siege, the then Greek city ofSamaria. The Syrian army sent to its relief was vanuand the city completely demo lished .

Reign of Aristobulus I . Notwithstanding its independenceand political strength, the Jewish kingdom was at this timelargely Hellenized . Aristobulus I, the son of John Hyrcanus,was, as his name indicates, a man strongly influence d by theGreek culture and ideas that were pressing into Palestine fromevery side. Following the example of the Greek states, he assumed in 104 B .C . the title of king. His brief reign was characterized by great brutality. His mother he allowed to starveto death in prison , and through his insane jealousy he slew hisfavorite brother. By far the most significant event of his reignwas the conquest of Galilee . Its Iturean or half-Arabian population was assimilated to Judaism and the foundations laidfor that freer, more viri le l ife which was the background ofearly C hristian history.

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THE C RUEL RUL E OF A LE! A N D ER JAN N EUS

T he C rue l Ru le of Alexander Janneus. Alexander Janneus, the brother who succeeded Aristobulus, was known amongthe Jews as the. Thracian,

” and he well deserved the title.His chief interes ts were war and revelry. By his rash attacksupon the neighboring peoples he repeatedly brought disasterupon his kingdom. He succeeded in alienating h is subjects socompletely that they called in the king of Damascus to freethem from this inhuman monster. In the hour of their success,however, they repented of their action, brought Janneus backfrom the mountains whither he had fled, and restored him tothe throne. Instead of showing gratitude he hung upon crosseseight hundred of the Pharisees who had opposed him, firstslaying their wives and children before their eyes. N otwithstand ing his rashness and his unmeasured excesses, he succeededby sheer persistency in extending the bounds of his kingdom,

so that at his death his authority was paramount along theMediterranean coast from Mount C armel to the borders ofEgypt, in central Palestine from upper Galilee to the S outhC ountry, and in the east-Jordan land from east of the Sea ofGali lee to the Arnon. The outlyi

ng Greek cities which he con

quered were many of them laid in ruins and the land givenup to bands of robbers. At the momen t when the Maccabeankingdom reached itswit bounds its decay had already begunand distress was the lot of most of its citizens.The Rivalry of Parties Under Alexandra. Alexander Jan

neuswas succeeded by his wife Alexandra. The only otherwomanwho had sat on an Israe lite throne was Athaliah of Judah, although reigning queens were not uncommon in orientalhistory. She reversed the policy of her husband and placedthe Pharisees, the party of the people, in control. They madethe great mistake, however, of us ing their power to take bloodyrevenge upon their Sadducean rivals. The result was that thefata l breach between the two parties was broadened rather thanhealed. The Sadducean and mil itary party ral lied about A ristobulus, Alexandra

’

s younger son , while the Pharisees upheld herolder son, Hyrcanus . Both of her sons were lacking in kingly

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T HE APPEAL TO POMPEY

The Appeal to Pompey. T he Jews had long been awareof the importance of Rome’s influence in the territory lyingalong the eastern Mediterranean . It was natural, therefore ,

that the claimants for the Jewish throne should refer theircase to Pompey. At Damascus represen tatives of the twofactions pleaded their case before him. More indicative sti ll ofthe spirit of the Jewish race was an embassy representing thepeople and es pecially the Pharisaic party, demanding that theclaims of both the rivals be set aside, so that the Jews mightbe allowed m quiet to worship their God rn accordance withtheir sacred laws, under the protect ing rule of a fore ign power.Pompey reserved his decision until he arrived at Jerusalem.

His line of approach was appare ntly along the Jordan valleypast Bethshean, then known as Scythopolis, to Korea, whichJosephus describes as the “

first en trance into Judea when onepasses over the midland countries.

” This is probably to beidentified with the modern Karawa, on the southwestern sideof the beautifu l plain through which the Wady el-Farah findsits way to the Jordan . Through this wady the highway runswestward to what was at that time the northern boundary ofJudea. Aristobulus, anticipating that Pompey

’

s decision wouldbe adverse to him, had shut himself up in the fortress of Alexandrium, built by his father, Alexander Janneus. Apparentlythis famous fortress stood on the height of Kam Sartabeh,which rises over two thousand two hundred feet above theJordan valley, just south of Korea and opposite the point wherethe Wady Farah enters the river. Its top is strewn to-daywith large, rough-d ressed blocks of stone, which probably belonged to the ancient castle.Pompey

’s Captu re of the T emple. Aristobulus surrendered

when ord ered to do so by Pompey, but his fol lowers refused tolay down arms when the Romans approached Jerusalem . Instead, they intrenched themselves on the temple hil l. Pompey,aided by Hyrcanus and Antipater, attacked this inner fortress from the north . The deep ravine which led up from theKidron and the deep cutting across the northern extension of

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THE MAC C ABEAN AND HERODIAN AGE

the temple hillmade the approach , even at this, the most vulnerable poin t, exceedingly d ifficu lt. By fi lling in the greatrock-cut fosse Pompeywas able at last to bring up his batteringrams and to surmount the high walls and fortresses that weremassed at this point.Pal estine Under the Ru le of Rome. In the settlement

which followed the capture of Jerusalem, Pompey condemn edAristobulus to follow the chariot as a captive in the great triumphalpre cession at Rome. Hyrcanus was stripped of allpoli tical power, but was allowed to reta in his posi tion as highpriest. Many of the Greek cities, both along the coast of theMediterranean and east of the Jordan, were rebuilt. Allofthem were separated from Judea and placed under the immediate d irection of the Roman governor of Syria. Galilee, Judea,and Idumea were annexed to the Roman empire , but governedtogether as a sub-province. Under G abin ius, who carried out

the policy of Pompey, they were divided in to five admmistrativedistricts, with centres at Jerusalem in the south, Jericho, Amathus, and Gadara along the Jordan valley, and S epphoris inGali lee.Rebe l l ions Led by Aristobu lus and H is S ons. T he peace

of Palestine was repeatedly disturbed by the attempts of thesurvivors of the Maccabean house to recover their kingdom .

The first rebellion, in 57 B .C ., was led by Alexander, son ofthe deposed king, Aristobulus II, about whom the Sadduceannobility and the military class in Judea quickly rallied . Herebuilt the fortress of Alexandrium, but h is followers weredefeated by a Roman army before its walls and he was takenprisoner. The next year Aristobulus, with his son Antigonus,escaped from Rome and rallied his followers again at Alexandrium. He soon, however, abandoned th is stronghold for themore inaccessible fortress of Machwrus, built by his father,Janneus, on a hill in the middle of a deep ravine which led upon the eastern side of the Dead Seam) Being far away fromthe majority of their followers and without proper equipment fora long siege

,the rebels were soon obliged to capitu late . The

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REBELLIO NS LED BY ARISTOBULUS AND HIS SONS

third rebellion, again led by Alexander, was quickly put downas the result of a decisive battle near Mount Tabor. For yearsafter, bands of robbers and rebels kept central Gali lee in aconstant state of unrest, until finally the Roman general, C assius, subdued the country and sold thirty thousand of them intoslavery.

Antipater’s Servi ces to Rome . During the two decadesthat followed the Roman conquest of Palestine, Judea wasdeeply affected by the great convulsions through which Romepassed in its transition from a republican to an imperial formof government. Du ring this turbulent and dramatic era A n tipater, the Idumean , remained the ru ling power in Judea and

profited by each change of ruler. His policy was to retain thefriendship of Rome at any cost and to ally himself with theman of the hour. H is chief aim was to further his own personal interests . Hewas influenced by no patriotic zeal or racialprejudices . At the same time he showed great skill in steeringh is course amidst the storms that swept the Roman world during these tempes tuous years. When Pompey was defeated atthe battle of Pharsalia in 49 B .C . Antipater actively allied himself with the cause of Julius C aesar. When an army of the victormarched to the conquest of E gypt he sen t Jewish auxiliariesand fought valiantly at their head , both in the siege of P elusiumand that of Mernphis . He also at a critical moment influencedthe Nabateans and the Jews of Egypt to ally themselves withthe cause of C aesar.Rewards for H is S ervi ces. As a reward for his services

Antipater was made procurator of Judea . His elder son,Phasaelwas appointed governor of Jerusalem and h is youngerson

,Herod, of Galilee. Hyrcanus was given the title of eth

narch . Joppa,which opened the trade of the Mediterranean to

Judea, was added to the province. The rights of the Jews inforeign countries were also guard ed by C resar, who alwaysshowed himself a patron and friend of the race. His assassination in 44 B .C .,

and the murder of Antipater by an ambitiousJewish noble one year later, did not undermine the influence of

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HEROD’S POLICY

H is P oli cy. Herod was a tyrant, merciless in putting to

death allrivals. He loaded h is people with heavy taxes, buthe did give them much des ired peace. Naturally in this Greekage the son of an Idumean father and an Arabian mother wasan ardent advocate of the prevail ing Hellenistic culture ; yet,with occas ional lapses, Herod proved also a defender of theJewish race and religion .

His Work as a C i ty Bu i lder. As a bui lder Herod made adeep impression upon the Palestine of his age. After thebattle of Actium the c ity of Samaria had been presented to himby Augustus. Herod transformed it in to a Gresco-Roman cityof the most magnificent type. Its name was changed to Sebaste, the Greek for Augusta, in honor of his patron . On thetop of the billwas bui lt the huge Roman temple, the ruins ofwhich have recently been laid bare by American excavators.

(59)

The city was encircled by a colonnade, twenty yard s wide andover a m ile long, with pillars sixteen feet in height. A beautiful natural theatre was built on the northern slope of the hill,overlooking the ferti le plain . Splendid public buildings madeit one of the glories of Herod’

s k ingdom . He also transformedS traton

’s Tower on the Mediterranean coast into a G mco

Roman metropolis and named it C aesarea, (1 15) in honor of theemperor. O n a comparatively level plain rose a temple, thea tre ,

amphitheatre, and pa laces of marble . Since it was intended tobe the seaport of both Samar ia and Judea, a great bre akwatertwo hrmdred feet wide was constructed out of huge stones. Theharbor opened to the north, thus protecting ships from the

prevai ling southwest winds. At strategic points throughouthis kingdom he fortified natural strongholds, such as the highconical hi ll east of Bethlehem known as the Herodium.

(86) InAthens and in other cities outs ide his kingdom Herod rearedmagnificent public buildings.Herod’

s T emple . In many ways the crowning ach ievementof Herod’s zeal for build ing was the great temwe which hereared in Jerusalem . The temple area was first extended tothe south so that it was double its former size m.

‘ A viaduct and233

THE MAC C ABEAN AND HERODIAN AGE

four gates connected it with the central and western part of thecity. Two large gateways also led up from the ancient C i tyof David on the south . The entire temple area was enc irc ledwith a double row of huge marble columns. On the south sideof the court were four rows of lofty columns wi th C orin th iancapitals . The sanctuary itself, which stood on its original sitein the northern part of the temple area on a platform of nativerock, was surrounded by an inner group of elaborate bui ldings,approached by splendid gateways on the north , east, and south .

In front of the comparatively small temple structure was reareda large porch, one hundred cubits high and one hrmdred cubitsbroad , which brought it into harmony with Herod

’s huge constructions. The work on the temple was begun about 20 B .C .

Provisions weremade so that i t continued un interruptedly afterHerod '

s death. The temple was completed only a few yearsbefore the final destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A .D .

T he T raged ies of H is Fami ly L ife. The saddest chapterin Herod’s tempestuous career is that of his family li fe . Hewas a man of strong and ungoverned passions, in whom intenselove, jealousy, and vindictiveness played a prominent role . Hewas also the victim of the intrigues and rivalries characteristicof an oriental harem. The story of the murder of his wife,Mariamne

,the Maccabean princess whom he truly loved , and

of his two favorite sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, as a re

sult of the plots of his sister, Salome, and of his treacherousson , Antipater, is one of the fami liar and most tragic chaptersin history. C onscious at last that his wife and sons had beeninnocent of the base charges which led him to murder them,

betrayed by his nearest kinsmen, hated by most of h is subjects,and regarded coldly by the royal patron whom he had servedso slavishly, Herod the Great was the most pathetic figure in allhis wide kingdom .

T he Popu lar Hopes of the Jews. The victories and gloriesof the Maccabean era, followed by the double tyranny of Romeand Herod, made a profound impression upon the faith andhopes of the Jewish race. Many of them turned with loathing

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THE POPULAR HOPES OF THE JEWS

from the bloodshed and the selfish victories of the laterMaccabean rulers to the law and the worship at the temple as their chiefjoy and consolation. In the minds of others these triumphsrecalled the glories of the days of David and kindled anewtheir ambition to see a world-wide kingdom with Jerusalem asits centre and a descendant of David on the throne, who shouldreign, not as the corrupt, selfish Maccabean kings, but withjustice and regard for the welfare of allhis subjects . Others,more spiritually minded, like the author of chapters 37 to 70 ofthe book of Enoch, looked for The Elect One, The Anointed,The Son of Man, who would come to put an end to the reignof the wicked, to purify the earth of all evi l, to gather togetherthe faithful, and to establish a universal rule of righteousness.T he more bitter the tyranny of H erod and the more galling theyoke of Home the more ardently they hoped for the speedyrealization of these expectations, which were the solace and inspiration of the great body of the Jewish nation. About 4 B .C .,

possibly while the tyrant lay dy ing who for a third of a century had held the Jewish race powerless in his strong grasp,a few miles away therewas born one who was destined to realize,in a manner more glorious than the most enlightened of Israel’sprophets had proclaimed, Jehovah

’s gracious purpose formankind.

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TERR ITO RY AND C HARAC TER O F HERO D ANTIPAS

T erritory and C haracter of Herod Antipas. To his son ,

Herod Antipas, Herod the Great left Gali lee and Perea . Galilee at th is time extended on the south to the River Kishonon the Plain of Esdraelon. Its western boundaries were theplains of Acre and Tyre. On the north it extended to the RiverLitany, wh ile its eastern boundary was the Jordan and theS ea of Gal ilee. Perea was the east-Jordan territory, extendingfrom the territory about the Greek city of Pella in the north tothe River Arnon in the south . On the east it was bounded bythe territory belonging to the Greek cities of Philadelphiaand Gerasa. This region had been formerly occupied by theheathen, but after conquering it the later Maccabean rulershad settled it with Jewish colonists, so that in the Mishna it isreckoned with Judea and Gali lee as Jewish terri tory. HerodAn tipas, to whom these fertile provinces were assigned, inheri tedthe lust, the unscrupulous methods , and the building ambitionsof his father. In comparison with that of Herod the Great, hislong reignwas peaceful, and whi le he taxed his subjects heavilyhe did not interfere with their personal freedom . Sepphoris,which was situated on a fertile hi ll on the southern side of therich pla in of Buttant, in centra l Gali lee, was by Herod sur

rounded with a wall and raised to the level of an imperial city.Later he built Tiberias on the western side of the Sea of Gali lee,transferring thither the seat of government . It was built afterthe usual plan followed in Greek cities and adorned withsplendid public buildings.Ph i lip’

s T erri tory. The northeastern part of Herod theGreat’s territory, from the foot of M ount Hermon to the upperwaters of the Yarmuk, and from the Jordan to the desert, wasgiven to Phi lip, who ruled under the title of tetrarch. He wasby far the best of Herod’s sons and he devoted himself to developing the resources of the barren territory over which heruled. The ancient Paneion , on the southern side of Moun tHermon, was rebuilt and transformed into a Grace -Romancity and made the capital of Phi lip’s possess ions. In honor ofAugustus he named it C azsarea, and to distinguish it from the

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PLAC E OF JES US’ BIRTH

lofty hills, its broad open plains, and its far-extending vistas,becomes the scene of the most important chapter in human history. It is true that early C hrist ian trad ition points to Bethlehem <80> as the birthplace of Jesus . This tradition is confirmed by Just in Martyr, who describes the scene of the birthas in a cave near Bethlehem. Many such cave-stables are st illin use throughout the land of Palest ine. For three centuriesBethlehem lay in ruins, so that at last, when C onstantine rearedthe basi lica which sti ll marks the traditional site , it is doubtfulwhether there was any means of determining the actual birthplace. Beneath the church in the eastern part of the presenttown there are caves, one of which may have been the scene ofthe familiar story, but the misguided zeal of later generations ofC hristians has surrounded it with marble and tinsel, destroyingthe original simple setting.

Si tuat ion of N azareth . For twenty-seven or eight yearsNazareth was Jesus’ home. Here he received those variedinfluences which are reflected in his life and teaching. Thetown of Nazareth (1 16) lies about one thousand five hundredfeet above the level of the sea and fully a thousand above thePlain of Esdraelon to the south. The town itself is one hundred and forty feet below and a mi le and a half back of thesouthern front of the range of hills on which it rests . I t standsin the midst of an upland hollow, facing eastward . In thespring the fields in front are green with grain, while olive treesare scattered along the hillside up which the town climbs. Theencircling hills, however, are gray and rocky, with only meagresuggestions of Verdure, and are at present entire ly denuded oftrees . Here the shepherd and the ti ller of the soil lived and

Its C entralPosi tion . Nazare th, in ancient times, was byno means a small, secluded town . It stood in the very heart oflower Gali lee. N earby the great highways radiated in alldirections. From Esdraelon came one branch of the great centralhighway of Palest ine. Across the same pla in came the maincaravan route from the east-Jordan land, from the Desert of

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JESUS’

C HILDHOOD AND YOUNG MANHOOD

Arabia,and beyond. Southward past Nazare th ran two great

highways, which connected with the coas t roads through P hil istie to Egypt. Westward ran a road directly to the southernend of the Pla in of Acre, following in part the l ine of the presen tcarriage road from Nazareth to Haifa. To the northwest rananother well-travelled road, connecting at Ptolemais with thecoast road to Phczn icia and the north . To the northeast, by wayof the Sea of Gali lee and C apernaum, a branch of the ma incentral highway ran to Damascus. The quiet upland city,Nazareth, was therefore peculiarly open to each of the manyvaried influences that emanated from the cities and lands ofthe eastern Mediterranean and from the great C raco-Romanworld across the sea.

View from the Heights Above the C i ty. Probably theancient city extended farther to the west, possibly climbing theheights that overshadow the town and rise to the height of onethousand six hundred feet above the level of the sea. Here wasspread out before the eye of the young boy of Nazareth one of themost beautifuland significant views in all Palestine. To thewestwas the Bay of Haifa and the long line of Mount C armelrunning out to the blue Mediterranean . O n the sou theasternend of this massive plateau was the Place of Burning, whereE lijah appealed to the dull conscience of his nation. Below,

on the farther side of the Plain of Esdraelon, was the huge ruinof Megiddo, bes ide which had been fought so many decisivebattles in C anaan’s history. Directly south lay the hills ofS amaria, with the lofty height of Mount Ebal in the distance .

S tanding out boldly to the southeastwas the battle-field of G ilboa. Behind it was the deep gorge of the Jordan and beyondthe lofty hi lls of Gilead. In the immediate foreground layLittle Hermon, with the town ofNain on its northwestern side,(9)looking out upon the Plain of Esdraelon. Eastward, in the immediate foreground from Nazareth , was the rounded, tree-c ladtop of Mount Tabor. O ver the hil ls to the northeast ran theroad to C ana and C apernaum . O n the north rose the loftyplateau of upper Gali lee, and on its summit Safed,

“the ci ty240

VIEW FROM THE HEIGHTS ABOVE THE C ITY

set on a hi ll that could not be hid. Beyond rose the cold,snowy top of Mount Hermon. To the northwest, only fivemiles away, was Sepphoris, Herod

’

s earlier capital, the chiefstronghold of his kingdom .

T he Spring at N azareth . Nazareth has but one spring,situated on the side hill, in the eastern part of the town, probablyouts ide the ancient city. It leaps from the native rock a littlenorth of the C hurch of the Ascens ion. Thence it is conductedto the famous Mary’s Well} l 17) where the water spouts from the

wall under a covered stone arch and then ce is conducted intoa great square stone trough. Here the women and chi ldrengather to draw water tod ay as they gathered in the days of

Jesus. About this ancient spring, as well as in his home, thekeen, thoughtful boy of Nazareth was able to study humanlife, so that it was unnecessary that he be told whatwas in theheart of man. Nazareth was so small that the character anddeeds of each of its inhabitants were like an open book, and yetit was large and central enough to feel the pulsations of all thegreat world movements.Roads to Jerusalem. From Nazareth three or four pil

gr im roads led to Jerusalem. One, apparently little used, ledwestward along the eastern side of the Plain of Sharon, andthence over the famous passes of Beth-boron to Jerusalem .

The direct but more arduous and dangerous road led due southacross the Plain of E sdraelon past Jezreel and G inea, the ahcient E nvG annim, which stood at the point where the greatplain penetrates the Samaritan hills . Thence the main roadturned a little westward, running through Samaria and S hechem.

A more direct branch ran due south, past Sychar, joining theother branch just east of Mount Gerizim . It was while journeying northward along this road that Jesus paused at Jacob’

s

Well,“7 ° 18) on the eastern side of the ferti le plain that opens tothe northeast of Mount Gerizim, and conversed with the womanof Sychar, who perhaps had been working in the fields near by.

The third pilgrim road from Nazareth ran from Jezreel eastward along the plain to the Jordan valley. From there itwas

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SC ENE OF JOHN THE BAPTIST’S EARLY LIFE

protested. The wild, treeless wilderness that runs up from theDead Sea almost to the gates of Jerusalem furnished a fi ttingsetting for this stern prophet of righteousness, th is herald of anew order. Here, undisturbed by the distracting life of thecity, he could effectively deliver his message to the thoughtfuloneswho sought h im in his solitude fiw Here also dwelt thatpeculiar Jewish sect, the Essenes, whose ascetic life and strictceremonial regime were an extreme protest against the corruptHellenizing tendencies of the day.Field of H is Activ i ty. Like the early Hebrew prophets,

whom John so closely resembled, he also sought out the placeswhere men could be found in great numbers. The later Maccabean rulers and Herod transformed the hitherto compawtively deserted valley of the lower Jordan into fruitful fields, irrigated by the brooks from the hil lside, studded with prosperousvi llages and guarded with mighty strongholds. The Jordanval ley, which touched all the Jewish parts of Palest ine— Judeaitself, Perea, Samaria, and Galilee—was the chief field of John’swork. Bethabara (House of the Ford) has been generally identified with the famous ford called Aharah, oppos ite Scythopolis.The best Greek manuscripts, however, read

“Bethany beyondthe Jordan. ” It is doubtful whether John’s work extended sofar north as the Decapolis. It is exceedingly probable that thevariant read ings are due to a confusion of the original, whichread Beth Nimrah, which is represented by Tell N irnrin beyondthe Jordan northeast of Jericho, at the po int where the WadyNimrin breaks through the Gileadite hills. It was evidentlyan important town , commanding the road which leads inlandfrom this point and was within the field of John’s activity.T he Baptism of Jesus. If so, the ford where Jesus met

and was baptized by John was probably a little northeast ofJericho, just below the point where the Wady Nimrin joins theJordan, rather than farther south at the traditional scene of thebaptismfl w) In any case, it is easy to picture the coffee-coloredstream pausing in its tempestuous course just before it entersthe Dead Sea. A thicket of bushes and overhanging trees

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C HILDHOOD AND YOUNG MANHOOD

shut ln the view on ei ther side, making a strange but fi tt ingsanctuary for the meeting of the fearless prophet and the disci

ple from distant Nazareth, who had doubtless come, attractedby the rumors regarding his work and words. Whether Johnknew it or not, that momen t marked the culmination of his ownlife task. To Jesus it meant the consecration of himse lf notonly to that for which John stood, but also to that vastly larger,broader task that had been revealed to him in the quiet yearsat Nazareth . H is act, simple yet profoundly significant, broughtto Jesus a full divine assurance of God’s approval. He wasyet to find the place, men, and means with which to work, buthenceforth hewas completely committed to his task. The biblicalnarrative implies that after this wonderful meeting w ithJohn there came to Jesus, as at frequent times in his ministry,a great reaction. Hewas led to seek the solitude of the wilderness west of the Jordan, there to battle with the temptationsthat assailed him, there to win the surpassing peace and poisethat characterized his acts and words in all the great crises ofhis min istry.Machmrus Where John Was Beheaded . The Synop ticGospels, as well as the Fourth, immy that for a brief periodJesus took up the mes sage and adopted the methods of John,preaching with great success among the country vi llages ofJudah. His work appears to have been brought to a suddenend by the arrest of John , whose fearless denunciation ofHerod’s crime in putting away his own wife, the daughter ofAretas, had amused the resentful hatred of Herod and ofHerodias, the partner in his gui lt. In keeping with the methodsof the age, John was seized and imprisoned at Herod

's mostdistant fortress, Machrerus,(38) which lay three thousand andseventy feet above the sea, on the top of a long flat ridge runningfor more than a mile from east to west. According to Pliny,i t was, next to Jerusalem, the strongest fortress in the land.I t had been reared by Herod the Great in the place of the oldMaccabean stro nghold. In the centre of it was an impregnable citadel. The encircling wall, one hundred yards in diame

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MA C HAZRUS WHERE JO HN WAS BEHEADED

ter, can still be traced . The interior is s ingularly bare , but avery deep well and two dark d ungeons remain. Apparen tlyHerod the Great also built a stro ng Roman city at the head ofthis valley. It rested like a swallow’s nest on the lofty edgeof the Moabite plateau . Acres of hewn stone with crumblingwalls testify to its size and strength. In the centre are theruins of a huge pa lace or castle about two hundred feet long anda hundred and fifty fee twide, with traces of rounded towers.

Several passages lead to underground cisterns and dungeons,suggesting that this may have been the castle of Herod Antipas,beneath which John the Baptist was confined. Either here or inthe citadelfarther down the va lley the intrepid pro phet spenthis last days. In this sin ister spot, associated as i t was wi thAlexander Janneus, Herod the Great, and his son Antipas, Johnthe Baptist was beheaded.

B fiect of John ’s In prisonment Upon Jesus. The news ofJohn’s imprisonment evidently made a deep hnpression uponJesus. It led him to change the scene and method of his work.

He left Judea,with its harsh scenery and narrow life, and returnedto the simpler and more joyous scenes in Gali lee . He stillcontinued in part to preach, but more and more he devoted himself to the task of the teacher and sought to draw from themultitudes that gathered about him certain disciples who wouldstand in c loses t personal touch with him and embody in theirlives and teachings the messagewhi ch he wished to impart to

Jesus’ Appearance. The gospels record the inner spiritua lgrowth of the divine Son of God ; but the environment amidstwhich he lived suggests the nature of his physical development.Nazareth is sti ll famous for its attractive, wholesome type ofmen and women . Its wholesome surroundings , soil, and air

allmake for perfect health . The artists of the Middle Ages hadno bas is other than their morbid religious fancies in paintingtheir grotesque pictures of the C hrist. C onstant exposure tothe hot oriental suns meant that his complexion was deeplybrowned . The out-door life among the Gali lean hills meant

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THE SC ENE S OF JE SUS’ MINISTRY

Why JesusMade C apernaumH is Home. At the beginningof his Gali lean ministry Jesus transferred his home, as well asthe scene of his work, from Nazareth to C apernaum. Thechoice of this city reveals the breadth of his purpose. C apernaum was the commercial metropolis of northern Palestine.Here converged the great highways from E gypt, central Palestine, Gilead , and Arabia on the south, which in turn led toPhcenicia, northern Syria, Damascus, and Babylonia . Althoughit was a strongly Jewish town, its population was necessarilycosmopolitan. Many different occupations were here repre

sented. The fish that were caught, especially in the northernpart of the lake, were famous throughout Gali lee. The basaltic,well-watered plains about the northern end of the Sea of Galilee bore rich crops of grain ; whi le on the rocky but fertile hi llsshepherds pastured their flocks. The position of the town alsomade it an important commerc ia l centre. Roman tax collectorsand centurions made it their head-quarters. Thus C apernaumwas an epitome of the varied life of Galilee. Teach ings implanted at this strategic point would also quickly spread in alldirections along the eastern Mediterranean seaboard.

Si te of C apernaum : Arche ological E vidence. The exactsituation of C apernaum has been the subjec t of long dispute.T he two rival sites are (1) Tell Hum , at the northern end of theSea of G alilee, and (2) Khan M inyeh, or the neighboring hillknown as Tell O reimeh on the northwestern side of the lake.(33)Although extensive excavations have not yet been conductedat these points, the amhwologicalevidence thus far discovered

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THE SC ENES OF JESUS’ MINISTRY

points clearly to Tell Hum as the site of C apernaum. O n thetop of Tell O reimeh, which rises about two hundred and fortyfeet above the level of the lake, are the ruins of an old Amoritetown. A t this point, however, as wellas at Khan M inyeh and

in the neighboring plain, not a single trace of Roman ruins canbe discovered . At Khurbet M inyeh, farther north, near theshore of the lake, are the extensive ruins of a large Arab townwhich flourished during the Middle Ages. In the absence ofany trace of Roman ruins it is incredible that the great metropol is of C apernaum could ever have occupied this site.Ru ins at T el l H um. Tell H um,

on the contrary, is the centre of a vast area of ruins which come from the Roman and

Arabic period, and clearly was once the site of a huge city.(l19>

Great, black, basaltic blocks are strewn in every direction, withoccasional fragments of capitals and columns of white limestone .In the neighboring valley is an extensive Roman necropolis ,which is itse lf clear evidence that near by was once a greatand flourishing city. In the centre of these ruins are the re

mains of the largest synagogue thus far discovered in Galilee.It was bui lt of white limestone and lavishly decorated. Of themany artistic figures which were thus employed the sevenbranched candlestick, palms, and vines are distinctively Jewish .

The foundations and many of the fallen pillars of this noblestructure still remain, and are jealously guarded by the Franciscan monks, who have surrounded the whole by a high, en

closing wall. The synagogue eviden tly faced the lake. Infront was a raised pavemen t, to which steps led up from theeast and west. Like most of the synagogues of Gali lee, itwasentered by three doors, of which the central was six feet in widthand those on the sides four and a half feet. The synagogueitse lf was seventy-e ight feet long and fifty

-nine feet wide. Theinmr court was surrounded on three sides by rows of columnson which rested an upper gallery. The synagogue of which theruins survive probably dates from the second C hristian century

,

but there are distinc t indications that it stood on the site ofan older bui lding. This older synagogue was in all probabili ty

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RUINS AT TELL ' HUM

the one so frequently mentioned in the Gospel narratives (cf.Mk. L k. Mt.T estimony of the G ospels and Josephus. The parallel

passages in John 6" and Matthew 14“clearly imply that C apernaum was on the northern border of the Plain of Gennesare t.By many scholars this has been recorded as decisive evidencethat the city, which was the scene of the greater part of Jesus

’

ministry, was at Khan M inyeh or T ellO re imeh , which lie inthe northern part of the Plain of Gennesare t. A reference inJosephus, however, leaves little doubt that during the firstC hristian century the term Gennesaret included the low- lyingterritory to the northeast of Tell O reimeh, which rises in themidst of the plain , and that its northeastern end was the famousspring of T abighah (120) which bursts from the hillside at thepoint whe1e the northern hi lls descend c lose to the lake. Afterdescribing the marvellous ferti li ty of the Plain of GennesaretJosephus says : “For besides the good temperature of the air,it is also watered from a most ferti le founta in. The peoplecall it C apernaum. Some have thought it to be a vein of theNile because it produces the coracin fish (the catfish) as well asthat lake which is near Alexandria .

” During the Arab occupation this springwas enclosed in an octagonal basin which keepsout the catfish that abound in allthe inlets on the northwesternside of the lake and originally were doubtless found in this copious foun ta in, as is stated by Josephus (cf. Masterman, S tudiesin Galilee, His statement also implies that the Roman cityof C apernaum extended westward to the fountain T abighahon the border of the Pla in of Gennesaret. In his L ife (5 72)Josephus also tells of his be ing wounded in a skirmish nearBethsa ida Julias, east of the Jordan. From there he was “carried into a vi llage named C apharnome.

” This reference po intsclearly to Tell Hum , only four miles from Bethsaida Julias, asthe site of C apernaum , rather than to Khan M inyeh, two anda half miles further west on the same road .

Statements of Early Pi lgrims. The first C hristian pilgrim to give an account of C apernaum is Bishop A rculf who

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SITE OF C HORAZ IN

a view of the lake which lay below. The ruins of the ancienttown are scattered over several acres, and indicate that C horazinwas probably once as large as C apernaum . Its chief publicbui ld ing was also a synagogue, seventy-four feet long andforty-nine feet wide, and entered by a triple gateway. Its C c

rinthian columns were elaborately decorated in a style that suggests that it comes from a period not earlier than the secondC hristian century. Like that at C apernaum, it probably standson the site of the older synagogue in which Jesus taught theJewish inhabitants of this retired Roman city. The remainsof olive presses indicate that the town was once encircled byolive gro ves. Near by are also fields , the rich, basaltic soil ofwhich doubtless bore the superior quali ty of wheat for which,according to the Babylonian TM ud (Menahoth 85 A), C hora

Bethsa ida. Bethsaida, which also witnessed many of Jesus’

mighty works, was, according to Pliny and Jerome, on the eastof the Jordan. Here Jesus re tired from the territory of HerodAntipas when the news came of the dea th of John the Baptist.The town was situated immediately east of the point wherethe Jordan enters the delta thro ugh which it d ischarges itswaters into the Sea of Gali lee .‘132) Philip, the son of Herod theGreat, rebui lt and transformed it into a Greek city, giving itthe name Juliss in honor of the daughter of his patro n Augustus.It is represented to-day by the ruins known as E t-Tell. Thesite was well chosen . To the south is the rich, alluvial plainmade by the delta of the Jordan . It rested on a ro unded hi l lwhich rose fifty or sixty feet above the pla in . Extensive Romanruins re vea l the importance of this southern metro polis of

Philip’

s territory.Probable Scene of the Feed ing of the Mult itudes. At

this secluded point, which commanded a marvellous view of theSea of Gali lee to the south, lived three of Jesus

’ disciples, Andrew, Peter, and Phi lip. The waters of the lake immediatelybelow the delta are sti ll the best fishing grounds (123) in all theSea of Gali lee . Eastward and northward of the Jordan delta

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is a wealth of grass which covers the rich pla in and runs up theslopes of the eastern hills. This point , which was a lone lyplace beyond the limits of the city, fully accords with the sta tement of the Fourth Gospel,

“Now there was much grass inthis place. Although early C hristian tradition fixes the sceneof the feeding of the multitudes on the northern borders of thePla in of Gennesaret, it is probable that here on the northeasternside of the sea Jesus , undisturbed, was able to teach the mul titudes and to satisfy their great spiritual as well as physica l

T he N ight Voyage of the D isciples. The evidence thatthere was a Bethsaida west of the Jordan breaks down on closeexamination. The crucial passage, Mark which states thatafter feeding the multitude Jesus told his disciples to cross overin advance to Bethsaida, would perhaps mean that they weresimply to go in the direct ion of Bethsaida. The continuationof the narrative in Mark, as wel l as the parallel pm inMatthew states that they crossed over and landed on thePlain of Gennesaret, whi le John 6" adds that their destinationwas C apernaum. The physica l characteristics of the northernend of the Sea of Gali lee throw much light upon the night voyageof the disciples. The ac tua l distance from the lonely spot so utheast of Bethsaida to C apernaum was only about six miles. Theircourse was almost due westward toward the point where thePlain of Gennesare t and the wadies behind lead to the heightsof upper Galilee. Through this open gateway sudden windstorms rushed down across the lake with terrific violence.While we were riding by this spot one beautiful day in Marcha storm of this kind suddenly swept down across the valley nearKhan M inyeh, transform ing the placid lake into a mass of windswept waves and compelling some men in a sai l-boat to lowertheir sa ils and drive before the storm . Even the members ofour own party had difficulty for a time in keeping in the saddles,so fiercewas the wind , although at the same time the southernpart of the lakewas almost undisturbed. Against such a western gale the weary disciples struggled all night unti l morning.

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THE NIGHT VOYAGE OF THE DISC IPLES

At last, as the Fourth Gospel states, Jesus, ever solic itous forthe welfare of his friends, came out to meet them as they werenear to the land.Places Where Jesus Taught H is D iscipl es. On the

southern side of the Plain of Gennesare t, where one of thestreams that waters the plain flows into the sea, was the littletown of Magdala, under the shadow of the bluffs that come closeto the shore on the south .

(33) It was a walk of only four or fivemiles from Jesus’ home at C apernaum. A little east of the roadwhich ran from C apernaum to Nazare th were the rounded,treeless heights known as the Horns of Hattin, where , accordingto tradition, Jesus sat down and taught his disciples the greattruths contained in the Sermon on the Mount. T o the northand west of C apernaum are many quiet heights commandingexquisitely beautiful views across the sea below. To theseJesus doubtless often re tired, sometimes accompanied by hisdisciples. The earliest C hristian tradition (that of A rculf, about670 a n .) fixed the scene of the giving of the Beatitudes andof the Sermon on the Mount on the top of the hi ll at the end ofthe wady that leads up to the north of the famous fountain ofT abighah.(129) E ugesippus writing in the twelfth century saysthat the descent of the mountain where our Lo rd preached tothe multitude was two miles from C apernaum,

” thus confirmingthe older identification with the central, commanding, and yetsecluded site near the city that witnessed most of Jes us’ teaching and work. It would appear that (as D r. Masterman urgesin his S tudies in Galilee, 87) the difficulties which later prevented pilgrims from reaching the northern shores of the Seaof Galilee led them to transfer the traditional site of the “Mountof Beati tudes ” to the Horns of Hatt in nearer Tiberias. Alongthe northern shore of the sea are also two or three picturesquebays with the land sloping gradually upward like an amphitheatre. Here it requires little imagination to see Jesus sittingin the boat with his disciples, surrounded by attentive crowds.These quiet spots, apart from the city, were of profound signifi

cance in Jesus’ministry, for his great work was that of a teacher,253

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JOURNEY TO PH(ENIC IA

re turned to Bethsaida through the Greek towns east of theJordan, thus completely avoiding the territory of A ntipas.At Casarea Philippi . Soon after, or possibly in connec

tion with the same journey, Jesus visited Phi lip’s capital at

It lay at the head of the Jordan valley, on the highway from northern Palestine to Damascus. About were picturesque hills, covered with poplars, oaks, and evergreens, andferti le gardens watered by the many streams that sprang fromthe base of Mount Hermon. The Roman town was situatedon a triangular terrace, with the present Wady Hashabeh on thenorth and the Wady Zaareh on the south. On the east therewas also a protecting moat, whi le the inner c ity was surroundedby thick walls and guarded by towers. Itwas not within thisheathen city, but on the quiet hi lltops and the spurs of MountHermon that rise to the north of the town, that Jesus found therefuge and quiet which he sought. Here, away from the Judeanmultitudes and the popular hopes of a temporal Messiah, Jesustold his disciples that he must accomplish his miss ion not by thesword or with the outward signs of triumph, but through sufi

'

ering,ignominy, and death. Here, therefore, is to be sought the sceneof that transfiguration whichwas so closely connected with hisannouncemen t to his disciples of the supreme sacrifice whichhe was about to make and which revea led to them his truecharacter.The Journey Sou thward from G al ilee. From Luke 1331

it is clear that at this period Herod Antipas was endeavoringto put Jesus to death, even as he had John the Baptist. Thisfact doubtless explains why Jesus avoided the territory ofAntipas, preferring, as he himself implies , to end his work inJerusalem rather than in some gloomy fortress like that ofMachwrus (Luke. Hence, as he returned southwardfrom C e sarea Philippi, passing through Gali lee, probably alongthe western side of the lake or by boat to the southern end,he was careful “that no man should know it” (Nlark T he

most direct route from C apernaum to Jerusalem was down thewestern side of the Jordan valley. Luke l7n states that on his

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grime from Peres , Gali lee , and eastern Judea, the fields inwhich his ministry had been performed, accompanied him onthe journey. As they saw him riding on an ass, the royal beastin the days of David, the earlier hopes of the people were sud~denly re vived . Quickly the news of his presence spread thro ughthe long line of pilgrims. Those ahead tore branches from thetrees by the wayside or else spread their garments in the wayalong which he was to pass , while they all joined in a triumphant song suggested by Psa lm

Hosanna to the son of David !Blessed is he who cometh in the name of the Lo rd iHosanna in the highest !

Slowly the procession wound around the southern spur of theMount of O lives, with the deep gorge of the Kidron on the

south , until Jerusalem suddenly burst into view. Thence descending into the valley, Jesus entered the city and found hisway to the temple just as the sun was setting behind the western hi lls . He sought not a waiting throne, but a place for quietworship. Then in the hush of the evening, re fusing to give theslightest encouragement to the selfish, materia l hopes of thepeople, he returned to his humble home at Bethany.Jesus’ Activi ty in the T emple. Jesus’ activity during thelast week of his ministry gathers about the temple.“25) Theremark of his disciples regarding its huge foundation stoneswas used by him as a means of ca lling their attention to thetemple not bui lt with hands. It was probably near the en

trances in the southern part of the great court of the Gen ti les,under the huge portico wi th its four rows of C orinthian columns, that the extortionate money-changers and those who solddoves plied their trade. To secure a place within the sacred precincts, they must have bribed the temple officials. Jesus

’act inexpell ing them was, therefore , not merely a reawertion of thesanct ity of the temple, but also a rebuke of the corrupt practices of the Sadducean nobles . S olomon’s Porch, where Jesus

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walked and taught, was the long colonnade with its doublerow of pillars on the eastern side of the C ourt of the Genti les.From th is eastern side one magnificent gate , with doors adornedwith C orinthian brass, led directly into the C ourt of the Women.

Within this small eastern court were probably placed the thirteen offertory chests into which the people cast their fre e-wi llofferings. Here only men and women of Jewish faith and parentage were a llowed to enter. It was probably within this courtthat Jesus stood with his disciples and watched the people asthey cast in their offerings, the rich of the ir plenty and the poorwidow her two mi tes.The Last Supper and Agony. The place of the upper

chamber, where Jesus ate the last supper with his disciples, isnot definitely known. Tradition fixes it at a certain place onthe western hill. Equally uncerta in is the exact site of the G arden of Gethsemane. Its name indicates that it was probablyan olive grove containing an oi l press. It was doubtless enclosed with a fence like simi lar gardens about Jerusa lem to-day.

It was situated somewhere to the east of the Kidron, on theside of the Mount of Olives. A tradition which is probablynot older than the sixteenth century identifies Gethsemane (12 6)

with a garden low down in the Valley of the Kidron, oppositethe temple. This garden, with its eight old olive trees, aidsthe imagination in picturing the spot, probably farther awayand more secluded, where Jesus met and overcame his lastgreat temptation, and gave himself wholly and voluntarily tothe completion of the divine task entrusted to him .

Scenes of the T rials. The G ospel narrative irnplies thatJesus was not tried before a formal meeting of the Sanhedrin,which would have convened in one of the chambers immediatelyadjoining the temple, but in the house of C aiaphas, the highpriest. This midnight session was, therefore, not a regulartrial, but a pre liminary examination by his Sadducean enemies ,with a view to formulating definite charges against him. Thehouse of the high priestwas undoubtedly near the temple, probably somewhere to the west. According to the Fourth Gospel,

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THE MORE PROBABLE SITE

cuttings at this point. Vast quantities of stone used in therepeated restorations of the walls have been taken from thesequarries. Probably Herod quarried at this point much of thestone used in extending the temple area southward. The bold,rocky bluff on the northern side of this quarry was well adaptedto public executions. If this was the scene of the crucifix ionthe place where the cross rested has probably been cut awayby later excavations.The Place of B urial. In a little garden to the left is shown

to-day a well-preserved, rock-cut tombfl zs’ It is an excellentexample of the family tomb of the Roman period and may havebeen that of Joseph of Arimathea, although there is no conclusive evidence. It possesses great interest, however, because it isa type of the tomb in which the body of the Masterwas laid.

(129)

Most significant is the fact that not one of the places whichwitnessed the closing scenes of his life can be identified withabsolute assurance. Occidental as well as oriental C hristianityhas shown itself too eager to worship sacred sites and in sodoing to forget the deeper meaning of the events which havemade the places memorable. Though most of the scenes willremain forever unknown, the work and teachings of the Masterwill abide and occupy an increasingly larger place in the lifeand thought of mankind.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE

O rigi nal C entre at Jerusalem. The spread of C hris tianitythroughout the civi lized world bears conc lusive testimony notonly to the life-giving truth of Jesus’ message, but also to thesupreme wisdom of his method . H is heroic death at firstdaunted, but the vis ion of his liv ing pre sence, which , accordingto the oldest records, came to his disciples amidst the fami l iarscenes on the northern shores of the Sea of Gali lee, quickly inspired them to take up the mission which he had left them and

to procla im abroad the good tidings of God’s love for men .

S trangely enough, Gali lee, which had been the scene of the ca ll ,the training, and the sending forth of Jesus

’ disciples, again s inksinto oblivion. C apernaum, C horazin, and Bethsaida had fai ledto respond to their great opportunity. In accordance with theimplied, if not the expressed, commands of Jesus, his disciplessoon transferred their homes and work to Jerusalem, the re

ligious home of the Jewish race, to which they, as well as theirMaster, at first alone appealed. Here it was possible at thegreat annual festi vals, when the pilgrims streamed to the temple from all parts of the Roman empire, to touch the en tireJewish world. Following the example of the Great Teacher,his disciples took up the task of teaching and preaching withinthe pre cincts of the temple and especially at Solomon’

s Porchon the eastern side, where he had often walked and ta lked.Spread of C hrist ian i ty O u tside Judea. The stoning of

Stephen, which was outside the ci ty and probably in the deserted264

SPREAD OF C HRISTIANITY OUTS IDE JUDEA

quarries immediate ly to the north of the temple, marked a newepoch in the life of the early C hristian community, for it was thebeginning of a bitter persecution at the hands of the Jewishauthori ties, which soon drove the disciples in all directionsfrom sec luded Judah and transformed them into a world-conquering missionary force. In this early dispersion the apostlesnaturally followed the great highways, which led northward,southward, and westward from Jerusalem . Philip the Evan

gelist preached with great success at Samaria . Here he wasbui lding on an older Hebrew basis, for the Bible of the Samaritans conta ined the first five books of the Old Testament withportions of the book of Joshua. The mixed Samaritan populaption, however, ever open by virture of their geographical position to the diverse influences that surged up and down the eas tern Mediterranean, never proved a stable element in the earlyC hristian church.Ph ilip’

sWork in the Sou th andWest. Leaving the Samaritans, Philip set out for the coast city of Gaza. He probablytook the cen tral highway from Jerusalem southward by way ofHebron. A late tradition places the spring where he baptisedthe Ethiopian official on the tortuous road, practically impassable for chariots , which leads southwestward from Jerusalem,

but the older and more probable tradition identifies it withthat beside the main road southward, a little north of Bethzur.Thence Philip turned westward, preaching and teaching withsuccess at the old Phi listine town of Ashdod, which lay threemiles from the Mediterranean, on the border line between thefertile plain and the drifting sands, at the point where the maincoast highway divided into its eastern and western branches .

E xtensi on and E xpans ion of C hris tian i ty D u ring the

Fi rst D ecade . Peter, likewise, turned westward, and at theflourishing city of Lydda, which stood where the main highway from Jerusalem to Joppa crossed the great northern coastroad, found awell-established C hristian community. Joppa‘130)stood on a bold hi ll looking out over the western sea. It wasfitting that here Peter, the natural leader of the rapidly grow

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PAUL AND BARNABAS IN C YPRUS

Pauland Barnabas in C yprus. With these conditions inm ind, Paul and Barnabas planned their first missionary journey.C i licia belonged within Antioch’

s sphere of influence and wasindeed a part of the province of Syria. Paul and Barnabas

Roman province of Galatia, lying respectively to the southwestand northwest. C yprus possibly attracted them because Barnabas was a native of that is land. Throughout all its historyit had stood in close commercia l re lations wi th Syria . Salamisits chief -eastern city, was first visi ted. It lay at the mouth ofthe River P edimus on the eastern edge of a ferti le p lain whichextended far to the west. The Ptolem ies, as early as 295 D .C .,

had transported many Jews to C yprus, and Herod the Greatdoubtless sent many more to work the copper mines there whichbe controlled.A t Paphos. From Salamis two Roman highways ran acrossthe is land to Paphos, the chief city on its western shores. TheRoman city which Paul and Barnabas visited was the newPaphos. It was si tuated on the sea-coast, being in fact theseaport of the older inland city ten miles to the southwest.The older city had been famous throughout the ancient worldas the seat of the corrupt worship of the Paphian goddess,whom the Greeks identified with Aphrodite. At the new cityPaul came into contact both wi th the Roman ruler and a representative of the local superstitions.Jou rney to Antioch in G alatia. From Paphos it waseasy to secure a passage northward to the coast of Pamphylia,for along this course passed many of the merchant ships fromAlexandria to Rome. The apostles probably landed at Attaliaand thence went to Perga, the chief city of central Pamphylia.

It lay five miles from the river, on a pla in at the foot of a bold,extended acropolis . The climate of these low-lying coast plainswas sultry and malarial. The ci ty was dominated by theworship of a local goddess and there is no evidence that therewas a Jewish synagogue at this point. Because (a these un

favorable conditions, Paul and Barnabas simply passed through269

THE SPREAD OF C HRISTIANITY

this southern city on their way to the great strategic centresfarther north. The journey thither through the deep valleysand over the rough heights was exceedingly arduous. HerePaul doubtless experienced many of those peri ls of rivers andperi ls of robbers which he mentions in II C orinthiansC ond i t ions at Ant ioch . It was at the Roman colony of

A ntioch,(13 1l that the apost les found the ir first great fie ld ofactivity in Asia M inor. The town lay about three thousandhundred feet above the level of the sea , on an isolated plateautwo miles in circumference, which rose from one to two hundredfeet above the western plain. On the east it was protected bya rocky gorge through which flowed the River A n thios. Thecitywas, therefore, a natural fortress, able to resist the freq uentattacks of the warlike Pisid ian mounta ineers. It had beenmade a Roman colony by Augustus a little before the beginningof the C hristian era and hence was an outpost of Rome i tse lfand dominated the southern part of the great Roman provinceof Galatia. The worship of the loca l deity had recently beenabolished, so that the city offered an unusual field for missionary work. The Jewish colony was apparently large and influen tial, for many Genti les joined with the Jews in worshipat their synagogue . From the first Paul and Barnabas appearto have made a profound impress ion upon the people of th isimportant ci ty. Itwas their success that aroused certain of theJews and the Roman magistrates of the city so that the apost leswere forcibly expelled .

At Icon ium. From Antioch they turned eastward,follow

ing the Roman highway that led to Lystra. Instead, however,of going at once to Lystra, they turned to Iconium,

(132) e ightymiles east of Antioch. This town lay. on a level plain threethousand three hundred and seventy feet above the sea . Itwas protected on the west by a lofty mounta in range

,from

which emerged the river, which first irrigated and then lost itse lf in the wide, thirsty plain on which Iconium lay. UnlikeAntioch, Iconium had no natural barriers. Great energy andski ll were required to uti lize successfully the waters of its ma in

270

AT IC ONIUM

stream and to protect it from the annual floods. Here grew upa flourishing commercial city with an active, resourcefu l pcpulation . A Jewish colony and a synagogue offered an excellent field for the apostles’ work. Here they remained for a long

strong C hristian church which made Iconium long after an

important religious centre. In time, however, the oppositionof the Jews crysta llized and the apostles were driven forth bya mob.A t L ystra and D erbe. From Iconium they turned south

ward to Lystra,“33) twenty miles d istant. It was a quiet town,s ituated in a pleasant valley in the midst of which rose a bold,elongated hi ll about one hundred and fifty feet high, which wasthe acropolis. The valley was watered by two streams whichflowed from the western hi lls. Whi le it was a Roman colonyand connected with Galatian An tioch, it was aside from thegreat highways of commerce. The apostles evidently turnedto it as a refuge. Antioch and Iconium were strong G rsecoRoman towns, but at Lystra Paul and Barnabas came into contact with the native L ycaonian population . The readiness withwh ich the natives identified the energetic spokesman, Paul,with Hermes, and themore reserved and dignified Barnabas withZeus

, re veals the naivete of the small provincial town. Againthe attack of a mob, incited by Jews who came from Antiochand Iconium, compelled the apostles to seek refuge in Derbe,on the southeastern end of the L ycaonian plain. The townwas probably situated on a lowh ill that stands in the midst ofthe great pla in about forty-five miles south of Onthe south the lofty range of the Taurus shuts it off from the sea.Here the apostles were among the native people, with littleRoman, Greek, or Jewish influence to interfere with their work,which appears to have been successful and undisturbed by persecution . From this point they retraced their steps through allthe cities where they had recen tly labored. Thence going southward they stopped for a short time at Perga and then sailedfrom Attalia back to Antioch.

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PAUL AN D SILAS AT PHILIPPI

Pauland S ilas at Ph ilippi . The city of Phi lippi lay aboutnine miles northwest of its seaport, Neapolis. Itwas on thesouthern side of a great p lain that extended to the north andnorthwest Its chief river flowed along its eastern side into ahuge marsh that flanked the city on the south . Like manyof the cities chosen by Paul as the scenes of his labors, it was aRoman colony. Itwas probably chosen becawe of its strategicva lue as one of the outposts of the great empire whose conquestfor C hrist was already the goal of Paul's endeavor. Also, asthe event proved, Rome

’s protection was of great value to the

apostle,who could claim citizenship in the imperial city. A p

parently therewas only a smallJewish colony at th is point andno synagogue, so that Paul established connection with hiscountrymen at the open place of prayer bes ide the river andbeyond the city walls. The success of their work aroused theinevitable opposition and led to their imprisonment ; but onthis occasion they were sent forth from the city at the requestof the magistrates rather than by force.A t Thessalon iea. From Phi lippi they proceeded westward

along the well-trave lled E gnatian Way to T hes saloniea, thecapital and ch ief commercial city of Macedonia. It lay at thenortheastern end of the Thermaic Gulf, the present Gu lf ofSalonica, in a great ampitheatre formed by the surroundinghills, which were crowned by a strong c itadel. Vast pla ins laybeh ind the city and it commanded the trade of the northernEwan. Because of its loyalty to the cause of Octavius andAntony it had been made a free city, ruled by its own assemblyand magistrates, called P olitarchs. Here, as at Ph ilippi, Paulsucceeded in laying the foundations of a strong C hristian church ,composed largely of the Greek converts to Judaism . The hostileJews soon charged Paul and Silas with stirring up sedition andrebellion , a charge to which the ru lers of a free city like Thessaloniea were especia lly ready to listen. Much to his regret, Paulwas therefore obliged sudden ly to leave the city.Pau l at Berma. As in his flight from Iconium, he nowfound

refuge at a quiet, retired town . Bertea lay fifty m iles southwest273

THE SPREAD OF C HRISTIANITY

of Thessalon ica, in the midst of groves of trees and flowingstreams. It was flanked by a bold mountain range on thewest and faced toward the E gaan, with a broad expanse of plainlying in the foreground. Here Paul found a nobler type ofJews, probably untouched by the mercenary sp irit of those whohad been attracted to the great commercial centres like Thessaloniea and Philippi. His work among both the Jews and Greekswas very successful until em issaries came from T hessalon iea.

Paul’s heart was evidently set upon returning to take up hiswork at the Macedon ian metropolis, but events had provedthat this was immssible.

A t Athens. Accompanied by the C hristians of Ber-(ea, Pau lnext went southward along the E gean to the home of that civilization which had surrounded him in his boyhood days atTarsus and profound ly influenced the fields in which he haddone his work. Landing at the port of Piraeus, he prowededa long the new road to Athens, beside which stood the altars tothe unknown gods. On entering the c ity be naturally wen t tothe Agora

,on the south of which Mars B ill‘m”rose abruptly .

East of this was the Acropol is, crowned by that most peerlessproduct of Greek art, the Parthenon . Athens was sti ll at theheight of its artistic splendor, but it had already ceased to bethe political and intelbctualcapital of the Greek world . S u

perficialphilosophy and soph istry had taken the place of rea lin tellectual leadership. Athens, being aside from the world

’scommerce, had litt le attraction for the Jewish colonists. Thecity, therefore, lacked the religious background which Pau lhad found helpful in all h is previous work. The critical, speculative atmmphere of the city was uncongen ia l. Paul was aocustomed to addressing h imself to the vita l, crying needs of

humanity. He made a strong effort to adapt himself to the newconditions, not without some success, but there is no record of

a church at Athens, and he soon left to find a more promis ingfield .

Irriportance of C o rinth . C orinth, to which Paul nextwen t,marks an important epoch in his ministry. The city was ca lled

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IMPORTANC E OF C ORINTH

by the ancients the “Bridge of the It lay on the narrow neck of land which connected the C orinthian with the Saronie Gulf. It was on one of the three great highways from theeast to the west, and here all cargoes had to be trans-shipped.

It was also the bridge that connected the Peloponnesus withnorthern Greece. By nature, therefore, it was destined to become a great and influentia l city. It was built on a broad terrace at the end of a gently sloping plain, with an almost impregnable acropolis ris ing one thousand eight hundred feet abovethe sea- level. When Paul visited the c ity it was the metropolisand Roman capita l of the province of A chaia. From the daysof Julius C e sar it had been a Roman colony. Because of itscommercial importance its population was cosmopolitan, inc luding many Jews. Like most ci ties thus situated, it was exceedingly prosperous and profligate.

Pau l’s Work at C orin th . To this needy and immrtan t

field Pauladdressed himselfwith superlative devotion. Anxiousregarding the results of his work in T hessalon iea, harassed bypoverty and weakened by sickness, he nevertheless devotedhimself to teaching both Jews and Gentiles, at the same timeplying his trade as a tent-maker. Finding the Jews hosti le, bedevoted his time almost en tirely to the Gentiles, making hishome with Titus Justus, whose name suggests Roman origin .

Unable to visit the church at T hessaloniea, Paulwrote to theC hristian community there the two letters known as I and IIThessalonians. At about the same time he appears to havewritten his famous epist le to the Galatian churches . Theseletters mark the beginning of that remarkable correspondencewhich is recorded in the epistles of the New Testament. During this period or at a later visit Paul wrote from C orinth theletter known as the Epistle to the Romans, which contains thefu llest and noblest resume of his doctrines. C orinth was oneof the few places which Paul was not compelled to leave underpressure of persecution . A fter a sojourn of about two years hedeparted for Syria, stopping for a short time at Ephesus, andfina lly landing at C e sarea.

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SITUATION A N D IMPORTANC E OF EPHESUS

caravan road fromSyria and the Tigris-E uphrates Valley. Thelatter churches appear to have been established by his cc-workers,for in his letter to the C olossians Paul implies that he had neverpersonally vis ited their city.

Return to Pal esti ne . Having planted the C hristian faith inallthe great strategic centres along the main thoroughfares whichled to Rome, Paul set out by boat from Miletus(139) to returnto Jerusalem. Following the usual course along the southernshore of Asia Minor, he landed at Tyre. Thence he went by landto Jerusalem, stopping at Ptolemais and Cwsarea. The bitterpersecution which he experienced at the Jewish capita l and hislong, wearisome confinement at C resarea are fami liar chapters inthe life of the apostlell15) They only intens ified his oft-expresseddesire to visit the capital of the great empire, whose strength andweakness be fully appreciated. Again his Roman citizenshipenabled him to wcape his persistent persecutors and to reachRome, although as a prisoner.Journey to R ome. In this last long journey his courage

and faith, as well as his wide experience as a traveller, weredramatically illustrated. Sai ling from C e sarea, be, with his Roman guard, trans-shipped at Myra, a c ity of southern Lycia, onan Alexandrian merchant ship. Thence the usual sea routewas fol lowed along the southern shore of C rete unti l the stormdrove them south of the ir course, past Sici ly, to the is land ofMelita, the modern Malta. T here the ship was wrecked andtheywere obliged to remain through the winter. Then by another Alexandrian merchantman they sai led northward, landing at P uwoli, and thence proceeded by land to Rome along theA ppian At last at this goal of a ll his missionaryjourneying, Paul was able to extend widely the bounds of thechurch, already established in the capita l, and through the.medium of letters and messengers keep in close touch with thechurches which he had founded.T he World-w ide C onquests of C hrist iani ty. Whether or

not Paul was able later to vis it distant Spain, as certa in earlychurch traditions assert, cannot be definitely determined. At

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THE SPREAD OF C HRISTIANITY

least it is certain that the goal which he had set before himselfhad beemin one sense, fully attained. Wi thin less than th irtyyears after the death of Jesus, active, growing C hristian communitica were to be found in all of the important cities of the eastern and northern Mediterranean. Two or three centuries la terheathenism was vanquished and C hristianity was master ofthe empire . This marve llous achievement would have been im

pomble if Rome, in the course of its natural development, hadnot broken down allnational and rac ia l barriers and boundtogether the peoples of that ancient world into one great empire.It had opened and developed the natural highways, makingcommunication comparatively quick and easy. The naturaltrend of civi lization was also from the east to the west, andC hristianity moved on the crest of a great wave which wassweeping over the western world . Thus the faith of the H e

brew prophets and of Jesus, first procla imed among the hilltops of Judea and Gali lee, was able to enter upon that world.wide conquest which is the most significant fact in human history.

AP PE ND I!

SELE C T ED B IBL IO G R APHY

TH E PHYSICAL CON TOUR A N D CH ARACT E R IST ICS O F PA L E T IN E

Baedeker, P alestine and Syria, 1911.

B uhl, G eographic dss alten P aldstina, 1896.

C onder, H eth and Moab, 1883.

T ent Work in P alestine, 1895.

D awson, E gypt and Syria. T heir P hysical Features in Relation to

B ible H istory, 1885.

D unning, T o-day in P alestine, 1907.Forbush, T he T ravelLessons on the O ld Testament, 1900.

Fullylove, T he H oly Land P ainted by John Fullylove. D escribed byJohn Kelman, 1902.

G uerin, D escription dc la P alestine, 1868—89.

G uthe, Faustino, 1908.

Hull, T he S urvey ofWestern P alestine, 1888.

Huntington , P alestine and I ts T ransformation, 1911.L ibbey and Hoskins, T he Jordan Valley and P etra, I, II, 1905.

Lynch, N arrative of U. S . E xploration in 1848.

MacM illan , G uide to P alesti ne and Syria, 1903.

Masterman, S tudies in Galilee, 1909.

Meistermann, N ewG uide to P alestine, 1909.

Merrill, E ast of the Jordan, 1870.

Murray, H anfi ook for T ravellers in S yria and Palestine, 1892.

O liphant, Land of G ilead, 1880.

Petrie, Tellcl-H asy, 1891.

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Hana-nth, T ime of the Am , 1895.

T hought, 1907.

T he C ities of E astern A sia Minor, 1907.T he Galatia of S aird P auland the Galatic T err itovy of A cts, 1896.

M ORE 0 ! T RAVEL

Buckhardt, T ravels in Syria and the H oly Land, 1822.

C urtis, T o-day in Syria and P alestine, 1903.

D oolittle, Forbidden P aths in the Land of O g, 1900.

G oodrich, I n a Syrian S addle, 1905 .

In es, Li fe and A dventures B eyond the Jordan , 1906.

N eil, Rambles in the B ible Lands , 1905 .

O liphant, N otes of a P ilgrimage to Jerusalemand the H olyR ix, Tent and Testament, 1907.

T homson , T he Land and the B ook, I—III, 1881- 86.

Van D yke, O ut-of-D oors in the H oly land,

P hoto-relief Map, from a S pecially P repared C opy of the RaisedMap of P alestine, 1902.

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APP ENDIX

Beasley, Medaba Map, 1905.

B ible A tlas, Issued by the S ociety for P remoting C hristian Knowledge,1903.

C ornsnitteeofthe P alestine E xploration Fund,G age, Relief Map of Palestine, 1903.

Kent and Madsen, T opographicaland H idoricalMaps and C hronologicalC hart for B iblicalS tudents, 1905.

H istoricalMaps for B ible C lasses, 1911.

Palestine Exploration Fund, Map of Western Palestine in 26 S heets

fromS nrveys, C onducted for the C ommittes oj the P aleetine Ez

ploration Fund, 1880.

Philip, S cripture A tlas. 1906.

ImperialA tlas oj the World, Vol. II.

Sand pecialE dition o/ the P . E .F.Maps. Part I. 13m mD ivisiom of the N aturalD rainage and the MouMain RangeswPart 2, Illustrating the O ld Testament, the A pocrypha and Jo

sephus (6 S heets) .—

, Part 3, Illustrating the N ewTestament, also the Talmud and

Josephus. 1882 .

Smith, G . A ., A N ewTopographical, P hysical, and B iblicalMap ofP alestine. P repared under the D irection of J. G . Bartholomew,1901.

S tandard B iblicalA tlas, 1908.

S tanforth, A tlas of UniversalG eography, 1895.

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ST E RE O G RAPHS AN D ST ERE O PT IC O N SL ID ES IL LUST RAT IN G “B IB L IC AL HIST O RY AN D G E O G R APHY

T he following stereographs (or stereoPticon slides) have been prepared to illustrate the physicalcharacteristics of the biblicalworldand the most important events of biblicalhistory. Inquiries in regardto prices, methods of ordering, and other details should be sent directly to Underwood and Underwood , 3 West 19th S treet, N ewY orkC ity or to Underwood and Underwood, 104 High Holborn, London,W. C ., England. T hrough them a supplementalbooklet (with threelocating maps) may also be secured, that gives detailed descriptions ofeach of the views. S ixty olthe most important, that may be used

R elief Map of P alestine (of. p . 15 in text )R uins of Ancient T yre (p. 22 )Haifa and the P lain of A cre from Mount Carmel(p. 24)Eastward across the Plain of Sharon (p. 24)G eneralView of Gm from the Southeast (p . 26)Shephelah and the P h ilistine P lain from T ellSandahannah

(p. 26)H ighlands of Upper G alilee abou t Safed (p . 29)Lower G alilee N ortheast fromMount T abor (p . 80)Shutb fromMount T abor toward G ilboa (pp . 30, 152)N orth from G ilboa over the P lain of Jezreel (pp. 31, 152)Plain of E sdraelon and Mount CarmelWest from G ilboa

(pp . 32 , 173)Northwest from Bethshean up the Valley of Jezreel(p. 33)South fromG ilboa over the H ills of N orthern Samaria (p. 35)

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APPENDIX

The NarrowG ateway to P etra (pp. 62, 184)T he R ockohm T emple of Isis at P etra (p. 62)Fron t View of the G reat H igh Place at P etra (pp. 62, 95)T he T op of the G reat Altars at P etra (PP . 62 , 95)Jerusalem from the Valley of the Kidron (p. 64)Jerusalem from the South (pp . 65, 204)Jerusalem from the N ortheast (pp. 67, 70, 202)Jerusalem on the West (pp. 69 , 203)T he D amascus G ate on the N orth (p . 70)G eneralView of Samaria from th e N orth (pp. 71, 170, 233)The AcrOpolis oi Samaria irom the East Q . 71)

HIS T O R IC A L G E O G R A PH Y

T he Mound of Gezer from the N orthwest (pp. 88, 224)Baalbek and the G reat P lain between the Lebanons (p. 91 )The Mound of Megiddo from th e Southeast (pp. 98, 131)T he R uins of H ouses and P ublic B uildings at Megiddo

T he B rick S tore C hambers at P i thom(p. 110)Mount Seir and the Eastern B orders of the South C ountry

(p . 115)The T radi tionalMount S inai from the West (p. 116)Bedouin G ardens in the W ilderness (p. 117)Making B read in a B edouin T ent (p. 117)B edouin Women Churning Milk (p. 117)A P owerfulBedouin Sheik and Hi s Warriors (p. 117)Mount N ebo and the R oad down to the Jordan (p . 124)T he R uins oi Jerich o and the Western H ills (p. 125)T he O uter Wallof Ancient Jericho (p . 126)R oad from Jericho to A i (p. 127)G eneralView of H ebron from the East (pp. 128, 153)R ocky B ethelfrom the South (pp. 129, 177)T he G reat Spring at D an (p. 130 )T he Battle-field beside the Kishon (p. 132)G eneralView of Sh iloh from the Southeast (p. 141)Sou theast from the T op of the R uins of Shiloh (p. 141)H ousetop at the T radi tionalH ome of Samuel(p. 142)G ibeah of Saul(p. 142)

285

The Pass of Upper B eth-boron from the South (pp. 144,

2 12, 220)

Scene of Jonathan's Victory at Michmash (p. 145 )D avid’

s C i ty , B ethlehem from the West (pp . 147, 233)Sh epherd B oy wi th his Flock near Bethlehem (p . 147)Scene of the Slaying oi G oliath in the Valley of Elah (p. 148)The P riestly T own of N ob (p . 148)W ilderness East oi Ziph (p. 150)Interior of a Cave at Endor (p. 152)T he G reat P oolat H ebron (p. 154)View fromMizpah N orthward over G ibeon (pp. 154, 213)T he Valley of R ephaim Sou th of Jerusalem (p. 155)Southern E nd of th e Jebusi te C i ty (pp. 157, 162)T he Water C ity of Rabbath -Ammon (p. 159)T he Oak near the Scen e of A bsalom’

s D eath (p. 161)T he S cene of A doni jah ’

s C onspiracy (pp. 162, 2 19)S i te of Solomon’

s Palace and T emple (pp. 164 , 233, 260 )T he Native R ock on th e T emple A rea (p. 164 )Shechem, Where the H ebrew Emmre was D ivided (p.

R ock of Elijah’s Altar on Mount Carmel(p. 172 )

A Shepherd with H is Flock near T ekoa (p. 177)The Samaritan Passover on Mount G erizim (p. 181)T he Samari tan H igh P riest and P entateuch (p. 181)R ecords of the Campaign of Shishak (p. 182)T he P oolof Siloam (p. 185 )Mareshah and the H ome of Micah (pp . 186, 198, 2 17,Modern Anathoth from the Southwest (p. 189)T he Jews’Wailing Place in Jerusalem (p. 192)Assuan and the Island of Elephan tine (p. 195)Bazaars in Jerusalem (p. 205 )Modeln , the H ome of Judas Maccabeus (p. 211)B attle-field of Beth sura from the Sou th (pp. 214, 223)T he R uins of C e sarea (pp. 233, 277)Nazareth , Jesus’ H ome (p. 239)Fountain of th e Virgin at Nazareth (p. 241)Baptizing in the Jordan (p. 243)S i te and R uins of C apernaum (p. 248)T he Fountain T abighah and the Plain of Gm csaret (p . 249)R uins of C horazin (p. 250 )

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APPENDIX

N ear the S ite of B ethsaida (p. 251)Mending N ets near B eth saida (p . 251)B ethany, the H ome of Jesus

’ Friends (p . 259)P ilgrims in P assion Week in the T emple C ourts (p. 260)T he T raditionalG arden of G eth semane (p. 261)T he N ewC alvary O utside the D amascus G ate (p. 262)A R ock-hewn T omb near Jeremiah

’s G rotto (p. 263)

Interior of the R ock-hewn T omb (p . 263)

Jafia, the Joppa of B iblicalT im“ (p . 265)A ntioch in G alatia. (p . 270)Iconium, Where P aulLabored (p. 270)T he Mound of Ancient Lystra (p . 271)T he S ite of D erbe (p. 271)T he Harbor and S ite of T roas (p. 272)A thens O ld and N ew(p. 274)T he Isthmus of C orinth (p. 275)T he G reat T heatre of E phesus (p. 276)Ancient R oman T heater at Miletus (p. 277)The R oman Forumand C olosseum (p. 277)

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IN D E ! O F NAME S A N D PLACES

Abana, 55

A barlm. Mountains of the. 60Abel-beth-Maacah. 161. 180Abel-maholah. 175Abner. 154Aboda. 76Absalom, 160. 161

A bu Shittim. 122

A ocho or Acre. later P tolamais, 28.79. 8 1. 100. 208. 277

Achor, Valley 01. 125 . 144Acra or Akra. 66 -68. 210

Acre, P lain oi . 23. 78

Act ium. 232

Adam. 124, 125Adana. 2 19

Adoni jah. 162Adoraim. 42

Adullam. 4 1, 149. 150. 155E esen Sea. 9. 272Ahab, 170- 174M . 125. 128 . 129. 144. 205‘

Aln el-Farah. 137‘A in es -Sultan, 125

Ajalon. city oi . 100. 205Ald on. Valley of. 26. 96. 40. 41. 80.88 . 129. 140. 182

Akaba. G ulf of. 14. 53A krabat tlne. 2 14

Alexander Janneus. 227Alexander the Great. 207-209Alexandra. 22Alexandria. 82 -84. 208

Alexand rlum. 229. 230. 236Altaku . see Eltelteh

Amalekites. 118 . 145Amanus Mountains. 82Amathua. 230Amenhotep IV. 88 . 102. 130Ammonm . 134. 136. 145. 158. 159186. 198 . 215

Amorites. 91. 92Amos. 18. 177. 178Amurru. 92. 98

A rchelais. 236Archelaus. 236Aretas. 228Aristobulus I. 226Aristobulus II . 229. 230A rn

géi . the river. 52 , 61, 62, 121. 122.

1

Arvad . 100

Ashdod. 26. 100. 184. 185. 208. 2 14,2 17. 223. 264

Aaherites, 130. 131

Ashkelon. 25. 26. 100. 102. 208Ashteroth-Karnaim. 2 16

Asia Minor. 8 . 9. 78. 82 . 207 : roads,82 83; P aul 'swork in. 269- 272

A sochis. 30. 8 1

Asshur. 134AS SN . 78. 93. 176. 177

Assyrians, in Galilee. 180: capture ofSamaria. 18 1 ; Sennacherlb

'

e campaigns, 185- 188

289

Anathoth. 189Antioch in Galatia. 269- 27 1

Antioch in Syria, 82.209.266.267 . 272Antiochus E p iphanes, 2 10. 2 11. 2 13.267

Antiochus the Great. 209Ant i-Lebanons. 13. 29. 55. 80. 90Antipater. 228. 229Apennines, 10Aphek, east or the S ea oi Galilee. 17017 1

Aphek , in Western Palest ine, 140Appian Way. 276

A r. 12 1

Arabah. 53. 76. 78. 116. 120. 124A rabia, 3. 7. 19. 164

Arabia. desert. 13. 15. 16. 8 1 ; Influence in Palest ine. 17. 18, 123

Arad , 118. 183

A n

a-seam, 158. 159. 169- 17 1, 173- 176.

1

Arbela, in Gilead . nowIrbld. 175. 179.

INDEX

Greeks. 18. 23. 108Grot to ot Jeremiah. 262

Habiri. 102. 108. 106. 107R aehllab. 150B alls , 8 1

N amath. 80. 176. 181Hammurabi. 91. 92. 106Hanat hon. 100

Harod. spring of. 173B arren. 8 1

R eebaay. 47Hat tin. Horns oi . 253Hauran. 29. 36 . 56.78 ; physical characterist ics. 58

Haaor. 29. 163. 180.Hebron. 38. 4 1. 42. 70. 128. 150. 153.154. 160. 198. 217

R oller, 10. 207liellespont. 82

Hermon. 13. 22. 29. 36. 55. 8 1. 130.

$9 ; physical characteristics. 46,

Herod Antipas. 237. 244. 245, 251.254. 257. 258

Herod the Great. 231- 241. 269Herod ias. 244H erodlum. 233Herod 's temple. 233. 234Heshbon or HesbAn. 77. 122Hezekiah. 186 , 187H innom.Val ley of. 38 . 65-69. 185Hippos. 208 . 238 . 254H ittites. 103. 104Hormah. 128Huleh.Lake. 29. 47. 48. 79Hyksos. 5. 93, 94. 97H yrcanus, the btch priest. 227- 232

Ibleam. 79. 80. 129

Iconium. 82. 270- 272

Idumea. 228. 230. 236Idumeans. 2 14. 217. 226lion. 180Irbid . See ArbelaIsaiah. 184. 185 . 187Ishbaal. 153- 155

Israel. history of N orthern. 168- 181of Southern. 182- 193

Issachar. 134Issue. 207Italy. 10. 11.83

Jabbok. 49. 50. 51. 59. 123- 125. 134.137. 159. 161

Jabesh-Gilead. 143. 158

Jabneh. 184

Jahas. 121

Jalud. B rook. See Nahr JalodJamnia. 2 14Janoah. 180Jaulan. 56- 58Jebel A ttarus. 61Jebel Hauran. Bee D ruse MountainsJebel Jermak. 29Jebel Mdsa. 116Jebel Osha. 59. 178. 179Jebel S hlhan. 61

Jebel Usdum, 54

Jebus, 155. 157Jehu. 175. 176Jepht hah. 136

Jeremiah. 188- 195Jericho. 36. 50. 5 1. 8 1. 92. 122. 125128, 199. 223. 230. 230. 256. 259

Jeroboam 11. 176

Jerusalem. 38. 39. 41. 127 :situation. 64- 68 ; geol031ea1 tonnation. 68. 69 ; unearth. “. 70 ; his

tory. 100. 102. 129. 157. 184. 186

193 ; rebuild ing wall under N ewmlah. 201- 205 ; Maccabean period.2 17- 224: days of Jest” . 259- 264 :of early church. 265—267. 272.

Jesus. home. 238- 241 ; training. 241246 ; ministry. 247- 261 ; deat h.261- 263

Jethro. 115Jezreel. city of. 79. 173—l

—5.

29laln of. 31-83. 55. 49. 50. 81.

J llla, 143

Jo'

s Well. 69. 162Jogbehah, 138. 139John H yrcanus, 225 . 226John the Baptist . 242-245Jonah. 176Jonathan. the Maccabean leader. 222

Joppa. 17. 22. 24 . 25. 37. 40. 41. 80.104. 208 . 223. 231. 265—267

3011

115 11. the. 13—17. 29 - 126,

Jordan Valley. 81. 243 ; phydcalcharacterist ics. 45- 54

Joseph of Arimathea. 263

Josephus. 24. 28. 30. 149. 229. 249.255 . 258

Josiah. 189. 190292

IN D E!

Judah. hill: of. 16: physical charac Mamre, P lain of. 42teriatlca. 38-44 : contrasted with Manasseh, 128. 134Samaria. 43. 44 ; land 01.78: tribe oi. Maon. 38 . 150

134 : history after exile. 198- 201 Mareshah , later Marina. 198. 217. 226Judahites. 128 Mariamne. 234Judas Maccabeus. 211- 221 Mars Hill . 274Judea. 230- 236 Masada. 54. 128Julius Omar. 231. 275 Mecca. 120. 121

Medeba. 77. 226

Kadeah-bamea. 117. 118. 120 Mediterranean (or Great Sea). 3. 4. 6.Kadeah on the Orontes. 94. 100. 11. 31. 32. 82- 84

Kanah. B rook. 37 Meg iddo. 33. 79. 97- 103. 129. 131.Kanata. 235 132. 15 1. 163. 172

Kanntha. 238 Memphis. 195. 231Kap itoliaa. 238 Menzaleh . Lake. 76. 114Kamak. 88 Merj Ayun. 80. 180

Kassites. 93 Memeptah. 107 . 111Kedeah in Galilee. 100. 180 Meaha and the Moabite Stone. 122.Keilah. 4 1. 149. 198Kenites. 128 . 133Kenizzites. 119Kerak in Moab. 77Kerak on Sea of Galilee. 254Kersa or Kun i. 255Khan Minyeh. 8 1. 247- 250. 252Khurbet Minyah. 248

Kidron Valley. 64. 65. 127. 204.King’

s Garden . 204

King ’

s Pool. 204Kirjath-jearim. 141. 157. 163Kishon. 32. 132- 134. 165

Kutha. 18 1Kybistra. 82

Lachish. 88. 103. 187Ladder of T yre. 2 1. 22. 78Lainh. 22. 47. 130

Laodieea. 82. 276

Lebanons. 13. 14. 28- 30.5 1.55. 80.90Litany , 22 . 29Lit tle Hermon. 31. 152L ubieh . 79

Lydda. 205 . 265Lysias. 2 13. 2 14Lystra. 27 1. 272

Maan. 121Mach ierua. 54. 230. 244. 245 N abateans. 198. 231Machir. 134 N ahlus (Shechem). 36Meander Ri ver. 82 N ahaliel. 12 1.Magdala. 253 N ahr B areigh it , 47Mahanaim, 153. 154. 161 N ahr cd -D amur. 22Maxed. 2 16 N ahr cal-Alma. 56. 57Malta. 276 N ahr el-Auwali. 22

293

Mesopotamia. 8 1. 93

Micah. 186. 187Mi chmash. town.36. 8 1. 125. 140. 142.161. 222

paw. 144. 145

Midiani tes. 33. 115. 116. 136. 137M igdol. 194Mfletus. 276

Moab. 15. 16. 40 . 77 . 78. 120 - 122.186 ; physical characteristics. 60- 6 2

Moabites. 131. 133. 158Modein. 176. 205. 2 10- 212. 220March. Hill of. 30. 31Maresheth-Gath. 186Moses. 111. 113Mosque of Omar. 164Mount E bal. 35 . 36. 72Mount Gerizim. 35- 37. 80. 167. 226Mount Gilboa. 31. 32. 35. 152. 153

Mount Hermon. S ee HermonMount 0 1 Olives. 260. 26 1Mount Belt . 62. 115. 116. 120Mount T abor. 30. 61. 79. 231Mycenm. 9. 93

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