BD 09 949

.AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTIONSPONS AGENCY

o

PUB DATECONTRACTNOTE

ELM -14ICEDESCRIPTORS

V

.1

DOCONENT RiSUNE

EC 132, 415

Hans4n, Cheryl L., Ed.: Haring, Norris, G., Ed..Expanding Oppertunities: Vocational Educap.on for theHandicapped.,Washington Untv., Seattle.

. Office of Special Eddcation and RehabilitativeServices (ED) ,'washington, D.C. Div. oflInnovationand Development.

-Oct 80300-79-00621609.

.

11101/PC08 Plus Ptstige.Community Prograks: *Employment: EmploymentOpportunities: Jvb'placement: Job Skills: Nodelse

.*Severe Ileabilities: *Severe mental R 4 rlation;Sheltered Workshots: Social Attitudes *VocationalEducation; *VooatWnal.Rekabilitation,

%

ABSTRACTSeven papers examile issues i4 vocational education

for the m erately to severely hanticapped. The first paper,"Introduction: Perspectives on vocational Education" and s

"Rehabilitation for thenudicapped" by C. Hansen and N. Haring sets#out terms and definitions and provides an' overview for the text. C.Hansen's second paper, "A History of vocational Habilitation of the.Handicapped" traces society's percertions of the, handicapped, showingeffects of legislation on social practice. In "Vocational Programmingfor -the Severe and Profound in the Putlic Schooli," A. Lynch and T.Siagar revitti assessment and Programiig steps and describe a model

-program. S. Levy points out "The Debilitating Effects of the' Habilitation Process," specifying the :nadeguacy of the shelteredworkshop gystem. K. Larson and J. Edwatds describe a model program in

. "CommunittsWased vocational Training and placement for the Severely-Handicapped'," whilv J. Alper and. S. Alper'yeview the effects ofreduced statf,expectAtion in "Issues in Comm:anityBased vocationalProgramming: Institationalilltion of staff," In the final paper,"Toward Competitive Employment for Noderately aid severely RetarledIndividuals,," PC Nehmen presents a model for employment in

.-

nonsheXtered settingS. (CL)-

t

********************4************************************4**4********** ' Reproductions supplied by BURS are the best that can 4e made ** from the original dociment, . *

*************44****** t*******************,* t *********44**Ii40 ************

.1

44

M

.

.1.

I. itr

41

A

Dimna Z. Mirkes, Production EditorNicole M. Bussod. Editorial AssistantGary Harrison. Editorial AssistantLinda S. Floyd, Word Processor .

Gregory M. Owen, Graphics Specialist

This documont was produced under contract number 300.79-0062 from the United States EducationDepariment. Office of Special Education and RshaSilitraive Services, Division of Innovadon andDevelopment. Program Development Branch The opinions expresseOberein do not necessarilyrenew)), pcisfion or pobcyof the United States Edema) Department, and no official endorsementby U $ El) Mould be inferred

.1.

" Prhited in the Untied States of America

. October 1980

I ,..i

. :

Y

/

.

toe

.4,.

s

I

/

I

Contents

'

*I.

1 , ..

. A

. -....

.. .)..

Contributors.

Introduction: Peispectives on VocationalEducation and Rehabilitation forthe Handicapped.

Cheryl L HansbnNorris G. Haring b

- ; .. or .

History of Vocational Habilitation ofthe Handicapped

' Cheryl L Hansen

4

. vii

1

17

Vodational Programming for the Severe . ' 45.40 Profound in th& Public Schools. J

0,

Al LynchTracy R.A. Singer

.._

i _

The Debilitating Effects of the Habilitation ; . 73 1

Process .

Sidney M. Levy .

-,( . . ..-...I *

:i.. .4

.. . .

:..

40

.

CommCommunity -Base d Vocational Training and\

93Placement for the Severely Handicapped

Keith H. LarsonJean P. Edwards

4.4 .

Issues in Community -Based Vocational 121Programming: Institutionalizationof Staff

Joseph S. AlperSandra Alper

Toward Competitive Employment for'Moderately and Severely Retarded

. individuals' Paul Wehman

5

-% '145

'X

Contributors.

.30seph S. Alper, Neuropsychologje Laboratory, Neurology,Incorporated, Columbia, MO 65211

Sandra Alper, Department of pecial Education,University of Missouri- Columbia, Columbia, MO65211

, ,. Jean P...,Edwards, Special Education Department, Portland

State University, Portland, OR 97207

Cheryl L.,Hansen Program, Development % 'AssistanceSystem 11;DAS), Wiversity of Washington,

, University - District Building, Suite 330, 1107 NE. ' 45th, Seattle, WA 98105 ft,

.:Norris G..tiarlii; Program . Development, Assistance

Systerrf (PDAS), University of Washington,University 'District Building, Suite 330, 1107 NE

r,,: . ''''

.,450,4eattle, WA 98105.

. , - .. . ,- ,. - Keith' . Lew, Special Education DePactmefit, Portland

. State'vpiver;sity, Portland, OR 97207... ,-

, ., ,,,.. %

, ',,, . ts . .

s.

4. .N:.

.1p

w

Sidney list.eLevy, George Peabody College for Teachers, ofVanderbilt University, Program for SpgcialEducation, P 0 Box 328, Nashville, TN 37203

Al Lynch, Washington State Department, of Publicinttruction, Old Capital Building F6-fl,. Olympia,WA 98504 .

.

Tracy R.A. Singer, UNivecsity of Washingtoni, Experi-menlal Bducation.thiit, Seattle; WA 98105

Paul Wellman, School Of, Education,' Virginia Common-wealth University, Richmond, VA 23284

c

$

4

1

.;

IV

.

1

Introduction: Perspectives on VocationalEducation and Rehabilitation for theHandicapped.

Cheryl.L. HansenNorris G. Haring .

4

..

s ../

The focus of this monograph1\ is on current vocationalhabilitation* efforts on behalf: of the moderately toiseverely retarded, who arc generally* . deemed 1"inconsequential producers" by traditional rehabilitationspecialists and who, have been histtacially underserved orunnerved Currently these individ s are relegated tosheltered.workshopsor work activity centers.. Seldom arethey aff6rded opportunities or competitive employment(Greenleigh Associates, 1975). However, as tileefollowingRapers dearly demonstrate, the moderately to severelyretarded can be successfully trained for and placed into

. jobs through community-based programs and can succeedwithin th,.coimpetitive labor force.

A, /n effective community -based training and placement

program depends on understanding and cooperationbetween special educators, vocational educators,rehabilitation workers and parents. Unfortun ely, due tothe disparity. in their backgrounds an training,professionalS in these fields are often unfa War with

f

.

.,

* The term habilitation is used throughout this monograph to connote ablend of rehbbilitation and educatioh programs for the handicapped.

I ,

'r"-:, I

.

I

.' Hansen & Haring

each other. This unfamiliarity can.iesult in a lack of 1communication and cooperation. Thus, in order tofacilitate communication and to foster cooperation,,mutual terms must be defin.ed and mutual goals must beestablished.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS4..

According to Title W of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, ahandicapped individual is one who "1) has a physical 'ormetal disability which for such individual constitutes orresults in a sAstantial handicap to employment and 2) can,retonably, be expected to benefit in terms ofeniployability from vocational rehabilitation services"(Pl...0 -112 Section 29 USC 706). In contrast, PI. 94-142def i a mentally retarded person as having"sig antly subaverage general intellectual functioningexist% concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviorand ifested during the developmental periodwhichadve0 affects a child's educational performance"

. (121a. )). Thus, the focus of the Rehabilitation Act ison e oyability," while. Pl. 94-142 cohcentrates ongenera ucability. For the purpose of this monograph,the emptyabllity of the moderately to severely retardedwill be cittcussed. .

The sertkces rendered to .the.. handicapped by spicialeducation,' vocational education apd vocationalrehabilitation share certain similarities. Specialeducatio provides "specially designed instructio6, at nocost to pe parent, to meet the unique needs of a'handicap d (Pl. 94-142 Section 121.a.14).Vocation education means, "vocational or technicaltraining cr retraining which is given in schools or classesto preparb individualefor gainful employnient" L. 90-576Section 122). Vocational tehabilitation services "include

- Introduction

any goods or services necessary to render a handicappedindii/idual employable" (P. 93-112 Section 103.a). Thesegoads or services may include evaluation of rehabilitationpotential, counseling, guidance, referral, and placementservices, vocational and other training services, and

i physical and mental restorative services. The programsdescribed in this Monograph combine critical aspects ofthese disciplines to enhance the vocational opportunitiesof moderately to severely retarded individuals.

Vocational programs for the adult- handicapped arefrequently. delivered in one of three settings: shelteredworkshops, work activity centers . and .adult activitycenters. A sheltered workshop "is :3 nonprofitrehabilitation facility utilizing individual goals, wages,supportive services, and a controlled work environment to

. help vocationally handicapped persons achieve or maintaintheir maximum potential as. workers" (NationalAssOciation of Sheltered Workshops and HompboundPrograms, 1968 definition, in Greenleigh Associates, 1975,p. 5). Work activity centers are a subset of shelteredworkshops and must "serve thoseqindividuals) so severelydisabled that their productive capacities .I areinconsequential" (Greenleigh Associates, 1975,: p. 5).Finally, adult activity centers/ are "established forindividuals with training needs in the most fundamental ofskills (e.g., ;ambulation, eating skills, toileting, basiccommunications, etc.)" (Lynch, 1979, p. 258). ;

I

In contrast, 'community-based training and placgmepf.,. provides instructional training of job and social skills on

an individual basis at an 'actual job site, usually alongsidenonhandicapped co-workers. In addition to preparing the.handicapped individual, community-based programs alsowork to modify variables .within the job site which may bedetrimental to the client's success. These programssimultaneously ,I prepare the client for the workenvironment And prepare the work environment for theclient.

."%.

.

3

a

4.

.

.

Hansen 6: Haring

It is a misnamer to call efforts at job training andplacement "rehabilitation." The term rehabilitatioti isdefined as bringing an individua' back, to a previousnormal condition . through education and therapy.Moderately And. severely retarded adults .cannot bebrought back to a state they have never experienced.

. Therefore, vocational training .eilorts" are habilitativerather than rehabilitative in nature. Through speciallydesigned habilitative instruction, the retarded are

. supplied with the means to enter the competitive 161)market. ?hits, the ccimmunity-baied... training 'and

placement.programs discussed in this monograph refer tohabilitation, not rehabilitation, as theirigoalt

. .

MONOGRAPH OVERVIEW

, .These papers represent the concerns and effort ofseveral Handicapped Children's Model. Programs andSpecial Needs ,Programs Project Directors currentlyinvolved in vocational training programs, who attensled aVocational Education Symposium held in March, 1910 inColumbia, Missouri. This symposium had a dual purpose: ,to share results of the vocational. habilitation modelSdeveloped by these projects; and to gain a better'understanding of. the 'critical problems facing vocationaltraining programs. . '

al

In '"A History of Vocational Habilitation of theHaidicapp'ed,". a framework is presented for understandingcurrent vocational habilitation efforts. Societalperceptions and treatment of the handicapped. areexamined during the primitive period,, when thehandicapped were considered liabilities, through thehumanitarian period, when they, were considered wards ofsociety, to the present, when the handicapped are finallyaccottled their rights as full-fledged members of society.

r

iIli

Int6"ductiorr `,"N ' ..-,

F

1 . 4

The effects pf federal iniolvement pn the servicesavailable to 41},e handicapped are traced throughdiscussion of legislative efforts during this century.

Thespecialized skills need by the special edycator towork with severely handicapped young adults, in asecondar' school job training program re discusAed byLynch and Singer. These skilli include assessing The job

,-i-rharket, assessing student abilities, developing ah .

appropriate vocational program and preparing the job site.The model program developedat Wilsoh-PaCific School inSeattle, Washington illustrates a successful schoOl-basedcational training program.

$

"The Debilitating Effects of the FiabilitatiOn Process" arediscussed by Levy. Ins this paper, Levy asserts thatsheltered workshops are cui-rently incapable of providing

"meaningful vocational habilitation for the handicapped,and, indeed, may actually harm the Clients they serve.Among the debilitating effects cited are: inappropriateevaluations, lack of training opportunities, lack oftraining for appro'pritte work behaviors, lack of suitable,

environments, little concern for improvingproduct' ity and ineffectual organizational structures.

'Possible ternatives are'presented: Improved evaluationtechniques d establishment of ,viable program options,including c .petitive employment, controlled work.environments and non-work alternatives.

Larson and Edwards describe a, model of community-basedvocational training and- placement for the severely .-handicapped developed at Portland Stare Univerfity.. Thismodel places minimal emphasis on evaluation and' simulated job training and maximum emphasis pn trainingclients in situ. Basic components of this model include:client search, screqning and assessment, classroomprevocational ograms, travel training, employercontacts for training materials and for long-term trainingsites, job exploration and training,and parent contacts. Amajor premise of the Vocational Career,s Model is that amanagement system which tracks and gives credit. for

.

S4.

er

Hansen &Haring. .

ongoing staff effort is necessary to ensure maximumefficiency.

'Staff expectations and behaviors. which maintain 'the*institutional environment rather than contrikute loClients' independent. functioning are discussed by Alpetand Alper.. Factors contributing to staff resistance to

.community -based programs, *hide both personalcharacteristics and tfie desires for surVi\ial, certainty,control,- autonomy, acceptance and congruity. Strategiesfor overcoming staff resisfance.to change include using. a.social-democratic milieu to explore Itaff needs andmicerns, kusing kexternal reinforcement of prosocialbehaviors, fostering self-reinforcement by staff andgradually exposing staff' to community-based training andplacement activities.

In the -final paper, Wellman presents a rationale fdretnploying the moderately o severely handicapped innonsheltered'competitive settings. The major advantagesto .;pursuing tcopetitive4 training' arv4 placement.opportunities fovthe handicaPkd.ate found in terms ofimproved wages and . benefits,* __integration with

. nnnhandicapped .individuals, achieving norrnislizatiod,having greater opportunities fOr advancement; and in'the'unproved perceptions of the handicapped by family,friends, erhployers arid legislatOrs. In Wehrhanos model,competitive training and placement occurs . in threestages: 1) assessing the individual's vocational skills andthe . ,work environment; 2) initiating ",community -based

_training activities and iniplementing specific advocacystrategies; and 3) fading staff assistance from the job

. site. Several suggestions -for improved community -basedtraining and placement programs Jsed on acfbalexperience are posited.

10

A

136

4).

...

Introduction

.

..,. %

EXPANDING OPPORTUNITIES

.. S 44Several innovative efforts at expanding the opportunitiesavailable for the moderately and severely handicapped aredescribed in these papers. These new opportunities have

. , . resulted primarily from the increased sophisticationofspecial educators in designing and Implementing effectivehabilitation programs to teach functional skills and in

.' . providing these programs in the least restrictive, mostnormal . environinents possible. The goal of these ..

;_endeayors is to. improve the lives of handicapped people-through assisting theni.tb Achieve maximally independentproductive lives. , -,

. . ' .

Research has repeatedly shown that the:moderately and. severely retarded have extreme difficulty generalizing

. behaviors across activities and settings AHaring et Liberty,Ndte 1). The prpgnosis for this ,population is most hopefulwhen training., and placement are congruent. Hence, thecurrent emphasis on community-based programming forthe handicapped is the direct result of Iwo known facts.First, the moderately and 'severely retarded are capableof becoming productive, competitive employees. Second,

, in order to maximize their potential, training ,anli.placement must occur simultaneously. Through combining .aspects of .specially designed instruction and on-the-jobtraining, the vocational horizons of the handicapped areexpanded. ..

,

A

I

. , .

As these habilitation, efforts multiply, professionals have.

become increasingly aware. that the moderately andseverely handicapped suffer from chronic problems whichrequire extensive long-term professional involvement.Without such continued involvement, this population islikely to encounter "a life of relative isolation from peersand segregation from the community at large" (Stanfield,1973). This 'Involvement shAuld locus on three concerns.First, for the moderately and severely retarded, crucial

'social interaction skills must be identified and taught.

.

7 74

...

...

Hansen & Haring

Second, the corrimunit, especially employers; andnonhandicapped co-workers, must be prepared to acceptthe handicapped into the labor force. Third, acomprehensive community-based support system must bedeveloped to coordinate all services necessary to maintainthe individual within the community.

The effectiveness of these efforts will depend . on acontinued commitment to quality programming andresearch. Carefully dondUcted, rigorous research luppliesCritically needed data on effective instructional.procedures. Similarly, carefully controlled program,evaluation efforts permit documentation of successfulprograms and modification of others.

.Historically, applied .'behaviOr "analysis has been equatedwith the modification of social behaviors. The emphasiiof behavioral programs, however, has generatly been onaltering or eliminating maladaptive behaviors. Recently,expanded ef foils- to identify and teach prosocial behaviorshave been noted. In. ,this vein, those behaviors whichfacilitate an individual's acceptance within thecommunity hug been the focus of concern.

Several efforts at identifying and operationally definingprosocial behaViors necessary . for success in thecommunity are undeevay (cf. Mithaug & Haring, 1977;Brown & Gruenewald, Note .2). These efforts willcontinue as passionals refine techniques to observeand analyze the dynamics of potential job sites. EffortsAre also underway to develop instructional programs toteach age-appropriate prosocial behaviors . to themoderately and severely retarded (cf. Brown &Gruenewald, Note 2; F;eagon, Note 3). These programs'encompass community, vocational, domestic andrecreational aspects of life.

As crucial social behaviors are identified and treatmentare initiated, data can Ile' obtained to evaluate

the effects of these programs not only on thehandicapped, but also on their nonhandicapped peers. For

15.

Introductiono

4&h.

*,

exaMple, Voeitz (1980) has demonstrated that the mere'presence of severely retarded students in a regular publicschooj can have beneficial flecis on nonhandicappedpeers.

-

Dedication to the princiiile of least restrictiveptogrammingprovides the basis for the recdgnition.of therticiali-intortante of systtmatically preparing the

comrh*iitty: to accept the moderately and severelyre t cled as co- workers. One reason early competitive job

acement efforts_ tailed was undobbtedly because Theemployers 'and 'co-workers. were not prepared anti/or notwilling to with the various, probleniNassociated withthe inclusion ofArandicapped'Individuals as co-workers Inorder to rectify this situation, the work environment mustbe carefully analyzed and a plan must be prepared toaddress potentialproblemS.

. 1

The general populace often holds stereotypes of thecharacteristics anepotential of the _retarded which arereflected. by the :competitive labor force. Thesestereotypes Can be- dispelled -through disoissions withspecial educators working as community-based trainersand through meeting handicapped persions. Due to 'a lack,of knowledge about the capatzgitiet. of the retarded,interactions between co-Workers might become strained:Nonhandicapped co- workers might reject or be overlysolicitous toward thehandicapped worker. Bothresponies'can have deleteriouseffects.'The bomMunity trainer canact as a. model to demonstrate, appropriate methods ofinteracting with the bandieapped Worker. finally, thinonhanditapped worker might exhibit morale problems byperceiving his or her job "demeaned" by the handicappedworker Smith, do Haring, Note 4).

° 4. Unfortunately, some people, way equate intelligence withthe -value of an individual. Thus, they feel that U aretarded person is capable of performing a particular job,then the_job is not Worth doing. Co-workers who feel his-way must be made to understarld the difference between aperson's ntelligence and his worth as individual.Un,ddrstanding, and 'accepting this distinctioh implies a

4

t

': r f

4

:4I

t r, Hansen & Haring

,rnoqicaticm in a piet;onis values. Changing these valuesteipiies conscientiOuss, and continued efforts on past,of the communit)c:based,tiainer.' ,

,

Finelly;intrinsic tothesuccess, of any vocational trainingand. placement program . is the. availability ' and ,,accessibility of a comprehensive community-basedsupport system. The present' arrangement, in which manydifferent agencies, each with its own established historyand guidelines, and .each with, its own jargon and goals,must be 'reorganized and. molded into a single unifiedbody. -The. 1977 interagency agreement entered. into.between the Office df Education and.the RehabilitationServices, Administration to :plan and implementcooperative, vocational training efforts on behalf of thehandicapped, "has provided impetus for states to establish

. systems 'for jointly providing services to handicappedstudents and for encouraging cooperative activities at thelocal lever (Razeghj & Davis, 1979). In addition, thereorganization which resulted when the Department ofEducation was established represents another major steptoward this goal. 'However, interagency agreements andreorginizations provide only* partial solutions.Professionals at all levels must work together to improjethe opportunities offered to the handicapped and to asSisethat these, 'bpportunitits the best practicesavailable and occur in the most natural, feast restrictive,environments possible, .

4n order tobe Successfully maintained in the community,the handicapped individual ?Itiquires'i network of _support

.

, services for a wide rahge. of community, vocational,domestic and recreational needs (Belrhore & Brown, 1978);For example; the individual may require assistance in

4 managing his or her persoltal finances, including socialsecurity 4and medicaid payments,, budgeting and bankinghis or her paycheck or avoiding an unscrupulous businessdeal. Similarly, the individual (nay require assistance inareas of health care, such as personal hygiene,;skills, ordifferentiating between sickness and heiltlY. ;These arebut two areas of daily living in'which the modeletely and

v

1 */

k 10

Introduction

' .4

.severely retarded may require assistance. WithOut.''thenecessary support systems to meet community, domestic ,

and recreational needs, the vocational 'success of the'individual will be meaningless. .

Obviously, the needs of the adult retarded are too great I.

and too complex for one individual or one discipline. to -manage, and, thus, comprehensive systematic planning isrequired' to meet these nteds (Sontag, Burke, & York,1973; Wehman & McLaughlin, 4980). Special educators '.

can -contribute to comprehensive service delivery in anumber of ways. .First, special educators should continueto develop, evaluate and refine . fectiim and efficientskill training and behavior mans ement ptograms. Theirexperience and expertise developed through years ofworking with severely handicapped children can bemodified and applied to the needs of the olderhandicapped. Second, special educators should participatein interdisciplinary efforts , towards developingcomprehensive habilitative programs. Both PL 91f-142and PI- 93 -112 mandate that individual programs bedeveloped and implemented by planning teams. Hence, alldisciplines with responsibilities toward thd handicappedmust learn to work together. A comprehensive servicedelivery system mandates mutual cooperation and mutualrespect between professionals.

and perhaps most important/59, special educaltbrscan contribute to a comprehensive service deliverysystem by developing, in. conjunction with otherdisciplines, a smooth transition from the public school tothose agencies charged with the respobsibility ofprovidi 'ng services to adult handicapped (VogeJsberg,Williams, & Fried!, 1980). All too often individual'srecords are closfd when he or the leaves the public schoolsystem. Thus, adult 'service agencies cannot benefit frompreviotis experience. They must start anew--which mayresult, in a duplication in training effort, or, worse, therepetition of previous unsuccessful techniques., Byestablishing a two-way communicatidn links betweenpUblic schools and adult service providers, both parties

a

. Hansen & Haring

benefit. As qtated previously, the adult service providerI. can continue habilitative programs in Mated in the public

school. In addition, the special educator receives a morerealistic picture of the actual requirements of. asuccessful community placement.

I

12

1,0

t /

v.t /

-

, Hanien'& tfaring4

k

REFERENCE LIST.. ,

$ .

6 1/1vt

Aeimpre, K.,°& Brown, L. A job skill inventory strategydesigned for severely handicapped potentialworkers.. ,In N. G. -Haring & D. D. Bricker (Eds.),

- "c a Teaching the severely handicapped (Vol. III).. Seattle, AAESPH,.1978.

tk.crosSen, J. E. Action: Outcomes of the conference work. 111 sessions. In N. G. Haring (Ed.), Developing effective

. individualized education programs for severelyhandicap ed children and youth. Department ofHealth education and Welfare, Office of Education,Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, 1977.

/Greenleigh Associates. The

.role of the sheltered

workshop in the rehabilitation of the severelyhandicapped. Report to the Department of Health,Education. and Welfare, Rehabilitation ServicesAdministration. New York, 1975.

Lynch, K. P. Toward a skill-oriented prevocationalprogram for trainable and severely mentallyimpaired-students. In G. T. Bellamy, G. O'Connor, &0. C. Karan (Eds.),, Vocational rehabilitation ofseverely handicap d persons: Contemporar

NI

. I.

service strategies. altimote, MD: Univeriity Par

'Martin, E. W. On Justice Douglas and education for theseverely/profoundly handicapped. In I. Newman &R. Piazza (Eds."), Readings in severely_ andprofoundly handicapped education: Guilford, CT:Special Learning Corporation 1978. (Reprinted from

-Journal of Special Education, 1976, 10(2):

Mithaug, D. & Haring, N. Community vocational andWorkshop placement. In N. Haring -St L. Brown(Eds.),yeaching the severely handicapped (Vol.New York: Grupe & Stratton, 1977.

.

13

41.

044X e41:

IntrOducfisiii .14-"; ; ". .

Razeghl, J. A., & Davis, 5, Federal mandates foi.:.^,the,"handicapped: Vocational education oppoOurtitk;4ndemployment, Exceptional Children,45:353-359: T.

IScheerenberger, R. C, A model for deinstitilitnaDiation.

In R. M. Anderson & J. G. Greer (Eds.),'Esiticatingthe severely and profoundly retarded. floltamoresUniversity Park Press, 1976.

Sontag, X. Burke, P, J., & York, R. Considerations forserving the severely handicapped in the publicschools. In R. M. Anderson & J, G. ,Greer (Eds.),Educating the severely and profoundly retarded.Baltimore: University Park Press, 1976. (Reprintedfrom Education and Training of the MentallyRetarded, 1973, 8:20-26.) .

Stanfield, J. S. Graduation: What happens to the retardedchild when he grows up? In R. M. Anderson do J. G.Greer (Eds,), Educating the severely and profoundlyretarded. Baltimore: University Par, Press, 1976.iReprinted from Exceptional Children, 1973,39:548-552.)

Voeltz, Luanna M. Children's attitudes 'towardhandicapped peers. AmeeiCan JOurnal of MentalDeficiency, 1980. 84 (5), 455-465.

Vogelsberg, R. T. Williams, W., ck Friedl, M. Facilitatingsystems change for the severely' handicapped:Secbnilary and adult services. JASH, 1980, 5(1),7345

4

Wehman, P. 4 McLaughlin, P. J. Vocational curriculumfor developmeptally disabled persons, Baltimore:University Park Press, 1980.

2i14.

i

1

. /

0 . ..

N.

1

REFERENCE NOTES

i.Introduction .

1. Haring, N.,4 Liberty, K. Instructional hierarchiesproject progress report. Seattle: ExpixnentalEducation Unit, University of W4ifiington,

. . ' 1978..

. 2. Brown, L. & Gruenewald, L. Strategiesdeveloping age appropriate curricular contentand public school service ' delivery- modelsdesigned to prepare a wide range of adolescentaQd young adult severely handicapped studentsto function as independently and asproductively as possible in post-schoolcommunity, vocational, domestic 'and recrea-tional environments. Technical Proposal:Contract No: 300-78-0345, USOE, BEH,04Division of Innovation and Development, 1978.. .

3. Chaff in,. J: D., Smith, 3. O., .dc Haring, N. G.Selected' `demonstration for the vocationaltraiffing of mentally ill retarded youth inpublic schools. Final Report RD 1548 to the

1 Department of Health, Education and Welfare,Vocational Re'habilit4ion Administration,

1.. , Division of Research Grants and -Demonstrations, Washington, D.C. KansasCity: University of Kansas Medical Center,Noverriber, 1967.

4. Freagon, S. Program for severely/profoundlyretarded youth. Technical Proposal: Contrict, -

. Not 300-77-0255, USOE, BEH, Division ofInnovation and Development, 1977..

. ' 0'

..',

15

C.

.

4.,

I

.:

.

4

I.

History of Vocational Habilitation of theHandicapped

Cheryl L. Hansen4a.

(

it is often Kelpful to, explore one's history for theperspecWe that results. The findings of such .

explorations can be -used to measure the distance societyhas traveled toward providing a full range of services fOrthe handicapped. They also serve as a reminder of thedistance left to travel. Examination of our roots(vocationally -speaking) is useful for identifying successfuland unsuccessful 1 strategies intended to enhancevocational opportunities for the handicapped. Hopefully,by studying previous strategies, past mistakes can beavoided. Finally, historical research illuminates thestruggles of the many brave and daring- vocational-predecessors upon whose shoulders we stand today.

The history of vocational habilitation of the handicappedis shared by many disciplines. Each has contributed to ourpresent level of progress and to our present problems.The contributions of vocational education, rehabilitation,guidance and psychology have been blended With theaccomplishments of special education and theperseverarice of parents.. These three major groups,vocational education, special .education Ind parents arenow mandated to work together on behalf of the

IP

*17_ 2J

Hansen

handicapped. Their mutual interest was officiallyrecognized when the newly established Department ofEducation combined the areas of vocational rehabilitationand special education. The ramificatiocts of this union areas yet unclear; however, increased mutual understandingmay result if the roots of each discipline are recognizedand appreciated. It is hoped that this chapter will

° contribute to that understanding.

at

COMMON- THREADS

While the history of vocational attention toward the needsof the handicappeti can be traced to ancient Egypt, it ismore commonly believed to have begun in 17$4 whenValentin Hauy opened a workshop and, training school forthe blind in Paris (see Table 1). During the intervening200 years many things have changed, others haveremained the same, The first workshops served the blind,later workshops opened for the poor and indigent. Afterthe Industrial revolution, interest in rehabilitationextended to the victims of industrial accidents. Thencamel World War 1 and the returning disabled war.veterans. These heroes needed retraining to resume theirproper role in society. It was not until the RehabilitationAct of 1973, however, that the severely handicapped werefinally recognized as meihbers of society capable of beingother than "inconsequential producers" and deserving ofvocational training (Laski, 1979).

Regardless of thi disability group in question, certaincommon threads are apparent in the development of =

training programs. All vocational' habilitation'programsare -based on the premise that "work is good." Workallows ap individual to be self-sufficient.. It is essentialfor developing a healthy, positive self-concept. It also'provides a valued social outlet for people. Historically,

184

4

'TABLE 1

LANDMARKS IN VOCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

FOR THE HANDICAPPED .

830 B.C. Masseurs* Guild or in Japan1762 A.D. Rousseau publishes Emde 41776 A.D. America establisherariBdependence1784 A.D. Valentin Hauy establishes first school and workshop, for the

, blind in Paris1837 A.D. First American Workshopopened by Samuel GrictIgy lApwe in

Massachusetts1908 A.D. Vocational Psychology birfisas Parsdrvs publishes Choosing a

Vocatien1913 A.D. Goodwill Industries Is establiihed in Brooklyn, New York1917 A.D. Smith- Hughes Law establishes the Federal Board of

Vocational Education1918 A.D. Smith-Sears Act authorizes vocational rehabilitation of

disabled veterans1920 A.D. Smith-Fess Act (National Rehabilitation Act) extends

rehabilitation to industrial victims1936 A.D. Randolph-Sheppard- Law permits blind to operate vending

stands in Federal buildings19)8 A.D. Wagner O'Day Act requires government to purchase certain.

items from the blind1938 A.D. Fair Labor Standards Act permits wage and benefit

discrimination against disabled1939 A.D. Social Security Amendments allow sheltered workshops1943 A.D. Vocational Amendments expand definition of appropriate

'rehabilitation services1932 A.D. United Cerebral Palsy establishes workshop in Seattle,

Washington1934 A.D. Vocational Amendments authorize funds for workshop

construction1934 A.D. Supreme Court rules on Brown vs. Board of Education.1963 A.D. Vocational Rehabilitation Act Amendments extend

evaluation period1966 A.D. Fair Labor Standards At Amendments allow Work

Activities Centers1968 A.D. Vocational Education Amendments call special Intention to

the meoWly retarded .

1971 A.D. Wagner O'Day Act amended to extend preferentialtreatment to all disabled

1973 A.D. Rehabilitation Act revolutionalizes services for handicapped,197f A.D. Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94 -142)

passes1980 A.D. Department of Education established. Offices pf Special`

Education and Rehabilitation Services joined

19

2,5

Hansen

vocational training for the working class was necessary tddevelop skills with which they could earn their livelihood.In contrast, handcrafts and industrial arts were commonlyrecommended as a. means to promote health for upperclass youth,

.

Another common thread lies in f he effect of society's,perceptions toward the handicapped. Ross, (19Mpostulates 'three major phases in society's perception Ofand treatment toward the blind. The first phase, called"the primitive period," is one in which the disabled areregarded as iliabilitles; their status is negligible mndprospects clan. This phase is followed by "thehurhanitarian period", in which the disabled are grantedthe right to live but are considered wards of society,. Thefiriat phase, the social integration period," occurs whenthe disabled are finally regarded as full-fledged membersof society. Throughout our history it appears that, "onlythe victims of problems for which remedies were knownor anticipated have been treated sympathetically"

AStrauis, in Safilios-Rothschild, 1970, p. 8). As will beshowri until very recently the severely handicapped weredenied vocational habilitation. opportunities. The current

- trend toward increased vocational opportunities for tirehandicapped is a" functionL of changes in society'sperceptions rather than changes in the capabilities of thehandicapped.

Once society perceives the handicapped as capable ofcontributing in a meaningful fashion, reasons are found tosupport. efforts in .their behalf. Hence, individualsinterested in working with the population emerge andmonies, first locally', then nationally, are authorized tosievelop and support training programs. The programsare usually advocated in the belief that they ethicallyproper and economically desirable. ,For exa le onemajor argument for vocational rehabilitation hasbeen to reduce the welfare rolls (Safilios-Rothschild,1970). Anderson P926) advocated industrial 'ichools forpoor children to relieve taxpayers of the burden of

. maintaining them. Crime reduction is another frequently

'2 ti 20

.;;II

;

.

. History

. .

entioned benefit of vocational training. lohn Ruskin, a1 ader in the arts and crafts movement in the early 1800'sjs uoted as saying, "The real and 'noblest function oflabor is to prevent crime" (Anderson, 1926, p, 126).

Once vocational training is determined tp be the right andproper actiiiityl for the disable& the search forappropriate occupations begins. The belief that a prOper-match exists between an individual and his or her job issadirect result of the credence given to vocational-psychologists in the early twentieth century. Educatorsbelieved they could develop scientific,, objective methodsfor evaluating and predicting vocational aptitudes. They

4 took the position that "in the world of human action, wemust learn to select the right Man, to educate hill-, and tofit him to his exact task'!. (Keller & 1937 p. 292).Naturally, intelligence was the key, to determining aperson's best-suited Vocation. Unforttinately, intelligencescores served more often to deny admittance to

-Jr occupations rather than to increase opportunities. Theresulting discrimination weighed heavily on thehandicapped.

SinertZ their. inception sheltered workshop staff werecharged with responsibility to provide vocational trainingfor the handicapped. They viewed theniselves as schoolsfor .4aining, not as employers, Their stated goal was toprepare their clients for'coMpetitive employment. Thus,they viewed themselves as interim facilities which wouldalloy, clients to develop and practice their skills until theyiQuld be placed competitively into employment. This goal%I/a repeatedly thwarted, and time after time theseworkshops became long-term employers. .

Early schoolmasters, such as Sam uel Gridley Howe, wereoverly optimistic. They were confident that theirstudents need only demonstrate their. mastery ofindustrial tasks fo be accepted by competitNe employersand to become self-supporting. These beliefs were soondashed. Airnilarly, in the 1950's, a majority of shelteredworkshops professed the aim of jelping .as many as

(

214.

k

,. Hansen

possible to return to regular industry despite the fact thatonly one workshop out of II offered vocational training ofother than an elementary manual character (tenBroek atMatson, 1939). Unfortunately, conditions are little

1 changed today. .

Not only are habilitation goals thwarted, but programs forthe 'disabled have also continuously suffered fromfinancial problems throughqut their existence. Although.these problems result from many different factors, one'common difficulty has been the workshops' struggle toaccommodate their dual identity. Training programs for

, -. the disabled, notably workshops, function both' ascharitable treatment programs and as businesses. Ascharities, their first obligation is to the well-being oftheir clients; however, as busineges, they are committedto making money.. 'While riot nreconcilable,. these'different goals cause administrators i' great deal ,ofdifficulty. Consequently, neither goal is truly attained.The unfortunate result of the conflict caused by this dualidentity is often detrimentZ to the client's. Rather thanrealize their potential as contributing, full-fledgedmembers of society, the disabled are once again relegatedto' the stance of "wards of society" or "inconseqZential

, producers.P . .. .

By far the most 'common thread throughout the entirehistory of' vocational habilitation is optimism, With thenotable exception of Itarfl, nearly all previous writers and

...observers of the-handicapped have been optimistic. Theyall have stated that conditions were much improved arldthat the end (i.e., the .perfect solution) was near. ;LikeGeneral Westmoreland, they reported "light at the 'end ofthe tunnel." After 200 years .of vocational training forthe handicapped, the light appears to be brighter, but itsnearness should-continue to be questioned.

I

I

1 .

260.

I.

3

. .,.r

22. 1

History -

THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD

primitive period" of treatment toward the severelyhandicappe extended throughout most of writtenhistory.. I deed, persons with any type'of disability werehistoric y onsidered liabilities to society. The terms v"disab d "severely handicapped", however; haveundergone number 61 interpretatibps throughout thecenturies. 'Prior to the industrial revolution, the standard

4 of .-rnen1317competency was much lower than it ispresently. Thus, those with mild learning and sensoryhandicaps were not fonsidered a liability because theywent undetected. The severely handicapped (those whosurvived at all) were either hidden or ostracized. A fewobviously handicapped individuals, notably blind persons of

. exceptional intelligence, were accepted irfto society.Indeed, the blind. population has always had the mosteffective andfrpotentlobby of any disability group (LaVor,1980).

Music was the earliest occupation available to the, blind.Early Egyptian hieroglyphic symbols depict blindmusicians. In China, the blind were trained as fortunetellers, while in Japan the masseuse guilds were reservedfor blind persons as early as 850 A.D. (French, 1932).Eiten though =there have always been tn4ividual successesamong blind persons, competence was not attributed 'tothe blind as a class.- The basic reason was that while theblind were capable of learning vocational skills; theyivereconsidered less capable than The sighted. Accordin toFrench (1932), the prevalent attitude wasAsAat the findmay be able fo do well, the seeing can do better" (pt. 19

In 1784 Valentin Hauy established the first school, andworkshop for the blind in Paris. This school, whichpreceded !tarsi's work with the wild boy of Avyronabout (50 years, was designed to provide skill training withthe goal of competitive employment. Hauy succeeded inaccomplishing the first objective (skill training), but not

232,-' /

Air

.!'

....4 ,

,

Hansen

the second (competitive:,ernployment). Indeed,many ofthe tasks taught;,irt-Hauy's School have persisted to thepresent 'day. For example, the first jobs taught to girlswere weaving' and knitting. woven girths, slippers, socksand catgut whip's.) Boys learned to weave cane chairs andmake baskets. -

..

4 . ..

A few years later, in -1791, Henry ,Dannet opened theSchool of Instruction for, the Indigent Blind in Liverpool,'England (Obei-rnann, 1965). Training in music; andmechanical arts was provided. This school was supportedby special collections'at churches and by the income fromthe workshops.

...

During the *nineteenth' century many more schools wereestablished in England, Scotland and Wales. These schoolswere primatily intended for the blind and deaf with themain emphasis on vocational training and workshopproduction. During this .fine some.ltnproVements werenoted 4) the care and training of :mentally retarded,epileptic, and crippled children and adults. Educatorswere beginning to. realize that these handicapped personscould not be expected to' co,inpete in an Industrial societyunless they received ,ipeciaI- education and special,vocational training.

. ,.

Interest was also, growing in providing training for the.

poor and crippled. Leibnitz (1646-1716) advocated tradeschools for those boys not ,fitted by nature or intelligenter

,.i

.. f6r,irezular Schools. Indeed, the'indotrid revolution was44 a major factqr in the movement for, school education in

-the Industries (Anderson, 1926). .o' ..

.,,

.. .

I'

, .In the colonial lunited ttates, the emphasis was on mere'existence. COloni.gs had little time or inclination toconcern themsViles-. with the disabled. Poor Laws,patterned after theserof England, were established. Theselaws did not ,procnote- the restoration of the disabled toproductive worlt.,Many'commu,nities merely "warned out"their destitute and disabled--thereby 'resolving theproblem by renloving it. Mentally ill and retarded ,persons'

,

oZ

...

"2.

4 ,

t

0

.

I

,. ., .. .

tarHistory..

twere frequently placed is tiny, cestruottires and maintained like dogs incommunities solved their problems by "adependent persoWto the highest bidder,extract such services as the victim wduring the period of retention and supp

, 1965).

I-like, unheatedkenrjel. Othertioning off" theho was free to

able to givet (Obermadn,

f. I.Mentally retarded children in this country welast to 19e worked with and helped to adjust

t vocationally. Facilities for the care an4 treatretarded were not established in the United 3

e among the_ocially andent of theates until

the-middle 1800's; however, almost from the beginning theemphasis in these institutions was on vocationalhabilitation. . 4 .

..

.

a

The ,history of efforts it vocational habilitation. of thehanditapped is irrevocably entwined with the history Ofsheltered workshops. 'Workshops were originally intendedto enable .the handicapped to work and to acquire thebenefits of .work (Nelson, 1971). The label "sheltered"implied a segregated retreat of noncompetitiveemployment: Although noncompetitive in naturet.theywere intended to provide short-term rather than long-term employment.. Indeed early Elizabpthan workhousesWere deliberately made 'as disagreable as possible andwages were kept barely above starvation to encourage

inmatesto leave (tenBroek & Matson, 1959). . '

'''' . ' , *The- first.

,,American sheltered workshop for, the

handicapped ,was established by Samuel Gridley Howe in * ,*1837 at the Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind (laterknown as the Perkins Institute). According to Howe (inKoestler, 1976) this "separate work department" was not

,

.".+....

THE HUMANITARIAN PERIOD

4

25 3i No

2

.4

Hansen

established on capitalistic principles. Rather, "it must bea pecuniary loss at the outset, it is wholly for the benefitof the individuals who wor in it" (p. 209). Typical jobs inthe Perkins workshop i Manufacturing mattresses,cushions2 pillows, brushes rooms, chair bottoens andfloor rats.

While the workshop was viewed as an alternatiie tocompetitive employment for those clients unable tosecure employthent dbe to lack of jobs, its Major goal wasto place Clients into competitive employment.Unfortunately, this goat was never realized. Nelson(1. ) cites three reasons for this lackNof success: 1)Milts were not trained in jobs that industry desired, 2)the blind could not adjust to industry without help, and 3)industry just was not ready to accept blind workers.

Other institutions followed low's example. The majorityof these efforts at establishing' workshops were found inlunatic asylums and in hospitals such as the Pennsylvania

.Hospital near Philadelphia, where the mentally retardedcdttinued to be [relegated. In 1845 Amarich Brigham (inOberman; 1965), Superintendent of the Utica New York

tate Lunatic Asylum, observed that

we are of the ppinion that much may be done fortheir '-(the mentally retarded%) improvement andcomfort; that many, instead ot.tbeing a burden andexpense to the community, may be so improved asto engage in useul employments and supportthemselves; and also to participate in theenjoyments of society (p. 79).

Education and habilitation of the retarded and otherwlsehandicapped was enthusiastically undertaken in the mid-and late 1800'54 spurred undoubtedly. by the success andenthusiasm obSeguin and Howe. For qxample, in 1893The Industrial School for Crippled and.,Deformed Childrenwas established in Boston as the first American school forcrippled children. The objective f this school was totrain clients in the skills necessary for them to r"e a.

L

.26

History

living. Religious organizations also became involvedvocational rehabilitation. These groups, which include St.Vincent de Paul, Salvation Army, Volunteers of America,and Goodwill Industries, were essentially interested inhelping the poor and indigent. In recent years, however,

. their scope has broadened to include services to personsr with a wide range of handicapping conditions.

Despite these encouraging developments, enthusiasmdiminished and support dwindled as instant cures amongthe retarded failed to occur. Pessimism turned to alarm-as eugenicists began to release data indicating the 'moraldegeneracy of the feeble minded. The eugenicsmovement, which reached its peak in this country duringthe 1920's, fostered the notion that intelligence is

'hereditary and therefore the attempt to train individualswith lovi Intelligence was felt to be useless. Indeed, thehandicapped were called a menace to society--breeders ofcriminality and degeneticy (Davies, 1930). The finalsolution to the problem of the handicapped was believedto include segregation and iterilitation. Strange, as it.may seem, it was during the beginning of this period thatcircumstances were ripe and actions were underway totransform the retarded '.into their currentmetamorphosis-las accepted members of society,

TOWARD SOCIAL INTEGRATION

1

World. War I, the war to end all wars, brought the peopleof the United States together. The toll extracted by thewar was tremendous, but for the first time in history itwas not total. Due to advdnces in medical technolbgy and

4 changing tactics of .modern day warfare, 'many menreturned home, men who previously would have died onthe battlefield. In the spirit of patriotism and as a thankyou to the returning heroes, the Smith-Sears Aft for the.

2733

o3

e Hansen

vocational rehabilitation of disabled veterans was passedin 1918. Although there was no real worlag relationship.with sheltered workshops, for the. first time thegoverhment assumed responsibility for the vocationail

. rehabilitation of the disabled. This act, along with ,tileSmith-Hushes Law of 1917 and the NationalRehabilitation Act of 1920, was the work of oneman -- Senator Hoke Smith. -,

SenatorSmith served)only seven year's in the Senate, but1. 0

those years were remarkable for the number of educationbills he sponsored. A staunch friend of vocational `.education, Smith was responsible.f or the establishment ofthe Federal Board of Vocational Education andRehabilitation-programs for the disabled.. Smith foughtagainst established prejudices to press for his legislation.An example of these prejudices is the comment of SenatorSherman of Illinois: "After a man has reached the periodwhen, he has hardened down into what he is in this world,

s. do you think you can make over the broken instrument,the failure of life? ... Let such failures go to thepoottouse" (tenBroek .3c Matson, 1959, p. 164).

. , .Early kvocational rehabilitation workers accepted thechallenge to make over broken instruments. They sawtheir job as returning clients to the work force.. Theyabided by hard-headed business principles and selectedand worked with those -individuals with whom there wasthe greatest poisibility of success.,

Another far-reaching event took place in 1920, whenveterans with service-related disabilities in New YorkCity were given preference in securing strategic locationsfor ne*spaper stands._ Second preference for _thesepositions was given to the blind. Thus the precedent ofpreferential treatment of the disabled was established.

x

.Interest in and programs for the blind krad disabled laggedas the country struggled through the depression years.Everyone was in `the same boat. Few well-bodied people

' aid fewer disabled had jobs. During this period, however,

op 34 28 ..

,

A .

t

Hi Story.

preferential treatment of the disabled was given.:additional' support. The Randolf-Sheppard Law of 1936gave the blind a monopoly to operate vending stands inFederal office buildings. The Wagner O'Day Act passed in1938, and required the government to purchase various

supply items `made by workshops for the blind (the mostfrequently produced commodities 1,Verg brooms and mops).Thus, a constant source of contract work and a built-in

-' national small business for the blind was assured.Unfortunately for other handicapped persons, OW 1971,when the Wagner O'Day Act was amended, it excludednon-profit workshops which served mainly sighted workersand, more importantly, those which served

I persons with other types of disabilities.

That same year another piece of legislation affecting thehandicapped was passed. That act had deleterious effectson the employees of sheltered workshops. The Fair LaborStandards Act of 1938 effectively denied handicapped thebenefits normally accrued by regular workers throughalloWing a partial exemption from the minimtmT-wage forhandicapped individuals who were not capable of normalproductivity (U.S. Department of Labor, Note 1):Although the reasoning for this exemption was based onthe belief that workshops' were charitable organizations,the act has proyed to be immensely unfair to thehandicapped.

The next year, .1939, marked the passage of the SocialSecurity Amendments. These amendments permittedtraining of severely disabled- persons for homebound orsheltered workshop employment. These programs were tobe operated separately frorp the regular rehabilitationservices in each state and were offered only to thosestates which maintained reasonably adequate programsfor more promising candidates. As a result of the SocialSecurity" Amendments, parents became interested inestablishing workshops for their mentally retarded adultslivinig at home. Rehabilitation workers, however, did notconsider mentally retarded adults to be reasonablecandidates. and excluded them from service. The timewas not ready for social integration.

29

41.

.. #

. The second world war brokeput. Manpower needs were sosevere that many retarded persons were released frominstitutions to serve in the armed forces or to work infactories (Rosen, Clark 43c Kivitz: 1976). These individualsbelied the notion that the retarded were unsafe to minglein society and that they vere unsuitable for employment.

Once agiln, the returning war, veterans proved to be aboon for all handicapped persons because, "for the firsttime (i.e., Offer World War Ii)) thousands of employerswere learning that ability was what they were seeking in

. their work s and that disability need not be a bar tosuccessful ormance" (Obermann, 1965, R. 289). Agreatly expan d definition of aliprogriate rehabilitationservices result from the Vocational Rehabilitation ActAmendments 1 1943. Now any services, necessary to

....,. render a disabled individual

anyfit to engage in a

remunerative occupation were acceptable. .Treatment of the mentally retarded also improved as aresult of this legislation. For the first time the fnentallyill and mentally retarded "could" be accepted asrehabilitation clients. Previously, these two groups wereexcluded . as unsuitable. Postwar years, unfortunately,found the emphasis in rehabilitation on body counts andcost effectiveness. The goal was to place the mostpersons into the most jobs at the least cost to the public.The result was a tendency to accept people with simplerehabilitation problems and to ignore the severelydisabled, including the retarded.

Hans 7ni

1

,On another front, The National In,dustries for the Blind(NIB) became increasingly active during the 1940's. TheNIB was originally established to _provide technicalassistance_to workshops for the blind (U. S. Department ofLabor, Note I). Spurred on by the ideals expressed by theWagner O'Day Act and caught up in the spirit ofpatriotism brought on by war, the NIB began to expand.During this period,' sheltered workshops solicited jobsfrom national chain stores and industrial customers.Another expansion occurred when door-to-door sales

3 do

(

4

SI, :

.

History

teams were formed to peddle workshop pooducts. Thus,big business was finaltY coming to the sheltered workshop.The blind at least, were beginning to _be Sociallyintegrated. Their workshops were beginning to competewith other factories in the marketplace. Most otherworkshops, however, retained the mission(s) of socialservice or charity. W-oik continued to be considered asthdrapy for people who could never realistically supportthemselves.

The 1950's were relatively, quiet, legislatively speaking.The only legislation of note occurred in 1954 when theVocational Rehabilitation Act was again amended.' Withthese amendments, federally 'funded research anddemonstration projects were,authorized. This legislation,probably more than any other piece of legislation in theprevious 40 years, spurred the growth of workshopi forthe mentally retarded. Prior, to its passage in 1954, sixworkshops for the retarded were operating in the UnitedStates. gy 1957, this number had exploded to 108workshops. In the first ten years following the passage ofthe.1954 Amendments, 151 grants were made to programsfor the,mentally retarded (Nelsori, 1971).. It must benoted, 'however, that these grants only proyided start-upmonies, and it was up to the individual states to providepermanent (albeit partial) support for workshops.

Parents must receive the majority of the credit for'establishing and administering the firSt workshops

expressly for the mentally retarded. In the early 1930's,some parents of the ntntally retarded and cerebralpalsied attempted unsucesfully to enter their children invocational education and vocational rehabilitationprograms. Although these programs claimed to help thehandicapped, the parents found that their children wererejected. Such rejection was not entirely unexpected.Previously, these parents had banded together to provide 4educational programs for their progeny who had beenrejected by the public schools.

31

. 3 7

Hansen

The Vocational Rehabilitation Act was revised in the mid-forties to permit services to mentally retarded persons bystate rehabilitation agencies; however, little impact wasfelt in tworkShops. During the 1950's ents anizedprograms through their local associations or R tarded.Citizens (NARC) and United Cerebral Palsy, groupsto provide services for their adult handicapped. Many ofthese *grams eventually developed into shelteredworkshops (U. S. Department of Labor, Note 1).

NARC workshops exhibited much greater variability inobjectives and services, than other workshops, dueprimarily to the range of needs evidenced by the mentallyretarded clients for social, recreational and daily living aswell .as for vocational training. Because parents operatedmany of the early workshops, they were viewed asextensions of school programs; hence academic and socialskills were emphasized. According to Nelson (1971), "Thepurpose of the work was to develop social skills, toprovide recreation, or to occupy enrollees when evathenot being taught needed living skills" (p.) 327).Unfortunately, this attitude .is still apparent today inmany workshops and work activityitenters.

Two additional trends emerged during the 1950s. Thesewere en-the-job training (03T) and public schoolvocational (training programs. Although 03T has alwaysbeen a pait of vocational rehabilitation programs, largescale use of this technique was not attempted .until thelate 1950's. The prototype for 03T can be attributed toJoseph Clunk, who perfected practical, demonstrationmethods for convincing employers to hire blind workers.during the 1930's (oestler, 1976). Clunk used threetechniques. First, tk demonstrjted that the blind couldperform certain jobs by forming a cadre of successfullyplaced blind workers to be exhibited as "tokens." Thistechnique was used previously by Howe to raise money forhis chool at the Perkins ins :Saute. The vaudevillian

s of these side shows were 4thought to be lessi rtant than, the results. The second technique used by

%Clu was fo have potential employers simulate blindness

32

.t.

History

while completing certain tasks. When the employersfound that they could perform a task while simulationblindness, they were often more willing to hire the blind.`Clunk's third technique was to provide OJT through trialplacements. In this instance, he accompanied the blindperson to the job and trained him in thejequired tasks.After that person demonstrated success on the job, Clunkdiscontinued his assistance and, hopefully, the individualwas hired on a permanent basis.

On- the -job training was applied to the handicapped in thelate 1.950's by the Milwaukee Jewish educationalVocational Service (JEVS) as the basis of a denfonstrationand evaluation Work experience program. Other examplesof OJT have included training men tally retarded in forestservice and in maintenance work (Nelson, 1971).

A 'second vocational trend for the handicapped wasevident in the public schools in the fifties. By 1960,fewpublic schools had workshops operated by specialeducation programs. Some of, these were bootlegoperations in which the class sold products made in-house.Others, such as the Whittier Shop for Cerebral palsied andthe Santa Cruz Shop for the mentally retarded establishedpaid workshops in public schools. La Grange Illinois,another forerunner of public school interest in workshopprograms, established a workshop operated by specialoducation which provided services to students 21 years oldand under (Nelson, 1971). ,

John F. Kennedy brought concern for the problems ofmental retardation into the forefront of Americanconsciousness. Vocational Rehabilitation begandeveloping special projec and program goals with theretarded in mind (D n, 1972). The President'sCommittee on employ ent of the Handicapped wasestablished and the Mental Retardation Facilities andCommunity Mental Health Centers Construction Act of1963 was passed. This act, which was largely due to theeffort of concerned parerits and professionals, providedfederal assistance for establishing sheltered workshops formentally retarded persons.

A

4

' Hansen

The Vocational Education Act of 1963 was passed,followed by the Vocational Education Amendments of1968. The 1948 Amendments required That at least 10%of all vocational education money be set aside to includephysically, mentally and emotionally handicapped inspecial vocational education programs and ,services,.thereby mandating Vocational education for all thehandicapped.

In 1965, the Vocational Rehabilitation ACt was amendedonce again -- further benefiting the handicapped. Oneresult of these,ame dments was to extend the evaluationperiod for any lien to a maxivim of sx months and uptO 18 months for dia stic services. The ultimate resultof these amendmen was to spur, an unprecedentedgrowth in the quality d quantity of sheltered workshops.Through these am ndments, the government alsoattempted . to inf ence sheltered workshops toconcentrate on thel original 'goals of training forcompetitive emplo ent rather than providing longtermemployment opport nities {U. S. Department of Labor,Note O..

Work activities ce tern were established at a result of the_Fair Labor Stand ds Act Amendments of 1966., Theseamendments also laced a statutory floor of 50% of theminimum wage for people in sheltered workshops and arequirement for payment of wages commensurate to thosepaid nonhandicapped.viorkers in industry. Minimum wageexemptions, 'hOwever, were allowed for those in workevaluation or training and for clients of work 'activity`centers whose physical or mental impairment soseve'Ie as to make their productive capacityinconsequential.incon1equential. For the first time, Congress recdgnizedthe'need for therapeutic programs for persons with littleproductive capacity. Thus a new category of facility, theWork Activities Center, was established although,contrary to its title, the center was Intended foractivities- -not for work.

'of34

4\

' History..

40

Special attention to the problerfis of the mentallyretarded were 'readily apparent in the provisions of the1968.Vocittional Amendments, A number of modificationsin services were called for .and new services allowed.Major provisions included demonstrations of newtechniques and methods, initiation of new services,.1.

expansion of services to mentally retarded persons withspecial problems, training' of personnel, extension ofservices to rural and poverty areas and the. establishmeritof special facilities and servites for diagnosis, treatmentand training or care of the mentally Detarded.

Another. notable event of 1968 was the establishment- ofthe Commission on Accreditation of RehabilitationFatilities. This com,_mission formalizefd the place ofrehabilitation centers and wockshoPs ithinrehabilitation field (Dean, 1972). More importantly,developed a procedure for evaluating" and certifyingworkshops to ensure that they corn-ply with all federal .andstate statutes and tat they proitide the highest qual* ofservices, both vocational +and therapeutic, for workshopcliehts,

;,

Thus, at the close of 'the 1960's, when the, civil rightsmovement, was at its peak and civil disobedience hadincreased among the populace, the government washeavily committed to workshops for the mentallyretarded. They had assumed responsibility for' .vocationalhabilitation as well as rehabilitation. The severelyretarded and those who had been previously, excluded from

)1 vocational training were now considered acceptablecandidates. Federal money, had a three-fold effect on

't workshops. -First, many mulgdisciplinary shoes began to_serve Large numbers of mcrderately retarded. Second,

.Asome workshops for the mentally retarded began to

*expand their admittance eiteria and accept persons withother disabilities. Finally, parents were no longer totally vsresponsible for the programs offered in workshops. They

. abdicated in favor of ptofessionals with indultrial and ,rehabilitative training. ''=". . . ' ..

1 ,i . .. ,.

."k-?/ : : ...

35 4 .1%,

Hansen

Then came the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and more than50 years of practice in the _reha,bilitation field wasreversed. This At affected the field of vocationalrehabilitation as much as PL 94-142 has affected specialeducation. The major provisions of the Rehabilitatipn Ac!et19-73 are as follows:

I. Special emphasis must be placed on servingand rehabilitating the severely handiCapped;

.

2.. An extensive evaluation of the vocationalpotential of persons with severe or imultiplehandicapi: must be unde(taken to determine*which program would bat serve theirdisability;

comprehensive3. A comprehensive wriita 'rehabilitation "Ianmust be developed for th-e clients taking intoaccount his vocational potential and hisphysical and/or mental :liniItations;

4. Intensive' efforts ,must be made to place theseverely handkapped in remunerativepositions; and

5. Extensive follow-up services must be madeafter placement to assure success ofrehabilitation.

'the Rehabilitation Act also contained a provision, Section504, which has had far-reaching effects. This provision'states: "No otherwiie qualified handicapped individual inthe United States shall, solely by reason of his handicap,be excluded from the participation in, .b'e denie1 thebenefits of, or be subjected_ to disCrimination under artyprogram dr activity receiving federal fininCial.assistance".

Thus, with the stroke of a pen, the field of vocationalrehabilitation was revolutionalized. -According to Laski

,

4'C36

.

History 4

(1979), "The systematic exclusion of.siverely handicappedfrom rehabilitative services on the basisthat they bade novocational potential is as unsupportive as the propositionthat Mentally retarded children cannot benefit . fromeducation" (p. 16). From waiting patiently at the end ofthe line, the most severely handicapped found themselves

,pushed to'the head. The concepts of "susceptibility torehabilitation" or "feasibility for rehabilitation" suddenlywere unacceptable as standards for receiving services.

It would not be ari exaggeration to state that theRehabilitation Act of 1973 has had and will cbntinue tohave "significant implicationssier improving services tbthe mentally retarded" (Brolin, 1976, p. 46) The degree-'6f impact -resulting 'from this act is illustrated by the,increase ih population served in workshops. Between 1968and-1977: the population ofwb*.shops increased by 30096, .from 39,524 to 156,475 perOns -(Whitehead,. 1979).Although this growth appears impressive, Whiteheadcautions us to note that work activity centers grew614% while regular workshops grew by 84%, Therefore,the increased opportunities appear to be located in workactivities centers with their emphasis placed on.,warehousing the "inconsequential producers" rather thanin providing meaningful. vocational training activities.

'CONCLUDING REMARKS

Howe's workshop at the Perkins instittia, like all otherworkshops before and after, was founded' bn nobleprinciples but floundered on everyday peacticalities.Howe failed to achieve his goal of competitiveemployment for the blind not because he did not have thetechnology to teach valuable skills and not because hisstudents did not have the capability to learn acceptabletrades, Rather, he failed because he did not provide the

37 4 t) *

)S

9 1 .. Hansen..

necessary support, mechanisms which would haveincreased the probability ha( 1)is clients would enter andremain in confpetitive elploYirnent.

.fThree major 'ficiors :contributed to the failure Of theworkshop at The Perkins Institute according to tenBroekand Matson:.(1959). First: the publii hdd not beenadequately prepared to receive the blind as po-workers oremployees- SecOnd; no systematic placement methodswere devised tb locate' nd place clients within industry'.Third, there was le attempt to gauge employmentopportunities and.to train clients for specific jobs. Theinevitable result was that the Perkins workshop became along-term employment .facility. Our fear today is thatdespite legislative support and public interest, the fate ofhandicapped clients will 'be" similar to that experienced byHowe's TAyears ago. Pprhaps we can learn from SamuelGridley Howe's misforturibs!

According tcpberman (1945),. . .

The basic ,diff,irence between. the VocationalRehabjitation, Acts of 1935 and 1965 is not thedifference in Millicins of. dollars in appropriations, itis r5dt the difference in techniques and procedures,

the difference in the 401tlic and professionalattitudes 'toWatifis disability glie.towards the rightsand patentialitig cd disabled persons.(p. 266)

This statement as 4.1ally applicable totay. Since the. .

establishment of the first workshdin for'the blind by.Hauyin 1784 and sInCel:the. first fideral legislation for thevocational habilitition f the pisablid An 1916, a steadyprogressiod .has .been 'n d. in the public's acceptance of-.the Ilandicappgrel- 3011-fledged members of societycapable of contributing irti a meanifttgful fashion. In orderto ensure, confirm* sujigcttrt fort vocational, habilitaticinefforts, the campaign of public education and awarenessmust continue.

s."

History . t. 4

Concurrently, effort mist continue to be directed towarddeveloping and improving models for training and placingclients in eompetitive jobs. Many professionals areactively involved in model development. A number ofthese, models are represented in the present volume.These models, however, 'must be . combined into acompletrtcpntintm of vocational training activities.Such a itontinuurn might begin in the public school withprevocational classrooms intended to teach basic skills.The next level would be a transitional workshop in whichpublic school and local' sheltered workshop professionalsjoin forces:to Introduce the hvdicapped to remunerativework experiences. The thin:rood fourth levels of thecontinuum v.!ould provide for progressively longer 'workdays and mere difficult vocational tasks. Finally, theclient would move to a competitive.ernpIoyment site andthe vocational trainer would retain thinimal contact(Hansen, Note 2)1; IThrough the concept of a vocationalcontinuum, eachladividual would be permitted to receive

, training ih the least restrictive vocational settingappropriate and would be allowed to progress at his or herown individual rte.,

The ultimate goal for all handicapped persons should becoropetitiVe employment and economic independence

.(Whitehead, 1979). This goal can only to achieved throughidentifying appropriate skills for training and throughappropriate training opportunities (Mithaug & Haring,1977)....This is not to advocate a return to the earlytwentieth century concept of "the right man"for the rightjob". In contrast, it means that the job market should becarefully analyzed and compared to the potential skills ofthe handicapped individual in order to identify those jobsWhich have the greatest probability of success. In thismanner, the problem ot training clients for jobs notteeded or wanted by industry can be alleviated.

in conclusion, we can optimistically state that the light atsr . the end of the tunnel does indeed grow, progressively

brighter. The best advice comes from Rosen, Clark andKivitz (1976):

39. 45

.............

..,,.._,-.

IWO

'II:

.Hansen

.Eich generation painfully confronts and. somehowcopes with the same dilemmas. Previous solutionsno longer seem accept4ble in retrospect.' Thechallenge remains, as it hat alwayi been, to advanceour knowledge and understanding of mentalretardation, to encourages innovative efforts onbehalf of mentally retarded citizens, to distinguishbetween useful innovations and the clever packagingof older, outworn policies and programs and topromote human . welfare for the mentally

dicapped no less than we would for any othergroup 'tizens.(p. 434).

4

46 40

1

1

1/4s,

Koestler, F. A. The unseen minority: A social history ofblindness in America. New York: David McKay,

History

4.

REFERENCE LIST

.

Anderson, L. W. , History of manual and industrial schooleducation. New York: D. Appleton, 1926.

Brolin, D. E. Vocational preparation of retarded citizens.Columbus: Charles E. Merrill, 1976.

Davies, S. P. Social control of the mentally deficient.New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1930.

Dean, R. 3. New life for Millions: Rehabilitation forAmerica's disabled. New York: Hastings House,

French, R. S. From Homer to Helen Keller:. A social and, educatio stufft of the blind. New York:

Amer n Foundation for the Blind, 1932.

, Keller, F. 3., & Viteles, M.. S. Vocational guidancethroughout the world. New York: W. W. Norton,1937.- *

-1975.

Laski, F. 3. Legal strategies to secure entitlement to. services for severely handicapped persons. In G. T.

. Bellamy, G. O'Connor, & 0. C. Karan (gds.),Vocational reh'abilitation of the severelyhandicapped: Contemporary service strategies.Baltimore: University Park? ress, 1979.

LaVor, M. Words and money: The compromise that. became PL 94-142. .Counterpoint, 19W, 1(1), 1;

8-9.

"1 41

A

1

I

,,,tlar,sen

Mithaug, D. E. & Haring, .N. G. Community vocationaland workshop placements. Ih N. G. Haring & L. J.Brown (Eds.), Teaching the severely handicapped(Vol. P. New York: Grupe dc Stratton, 1977.

Nelson, N. Workshops for the handicapped in the UnitedStates: An historical and developmental perspective.Springfi7k1, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1971. ,

- . .

Obermann, C. E. A history of vocational rehabilitation inAmeriat Minneapolis: T. S. Denison, 1965.

Rosen, M., Clark, G.R., 4c Kivitz, MS. The history ofmental retardation: Collected pipers . (Vol. 1).Baltimore: University Park Press, 1916'. ,

.Ross, I. Journey into light: The story of the education of-1 .the blind.. New York; Appleton-Century-Crofts,

1951.

Safilios-Rothschild, %..:C. The sociology and socialpsychology of disability and rehabilitation. NewYork: , Random House, 970.

. .tenBroek, J., & Matson, F. W. Hope defer red: Public

welfare and the blind. .Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, J959:

Whitehead, C. f. Sheltered workshops in the decadeahead: Work and wages or. welfare.. In G. T.Bellamy, G. O'Connor, & 0. C. Karan (Eds.),Vocational rehabilitatton of severely handicapped'persons: Contemporary , service strategies.Baltimore: University Park Press, 1979.

,

°

4642

..

S

k

1

dr

History

REFERENCE NOTES

1. US. Department of Labor. Sheltered workshopstudy: A nationwide report on sheltered workshopsand their employment of handicapped individuals(Vol. 1). Washington, DC: June 1977.

2. Hansen, C. I-. Data-based instruction within avocational continuum. Paper presented at the,.American Association for the Severely andProfounOly Handicapped Conference, Baltimore,1978.

*

(

.P.

*

is

.

Vocational Programming for the Severeand Profound in the Public Schools

At LynchTracy R.A. Singer

Public secondary schools in America typically provideyouths with the opportunities to learn skills which will beuseful in their adult lives. Some high school studentsmaybe preparing for college-level work; others view highschool as a time to learn a useful vocational trade. Forthe halidic.apped learner, acquiring relevant job skills inhigh school may be the significant difference betweensuccessful job placement and unemployment.

Yet the schciors have not traditionally embraced theresponsibility to provide handicapped studenti withappropriate vocational skills. The more severelyhandicapped individuals have often been, excluded frompublic schools altogether on the grounds that they cannotlearn. A recent report by the National Association, of theState Boards of Education (1979) claims that there is a"percerad decline" in handicapped students who arereceiving dpecial education. services at the secondaryleyel and that there are "severe shortages" of teacherswith training in both special education and vocationaleducation. The report goes on to note that there arelimited .vocational education' programs, serylce deliveryoptions, and funding bases for Me handicapped.

45 -.. 4-*

JJ

Lynch 6c Singer

The situation is more hopeful., however, than this reportsuggests. First, passage of such key legislation as PublicLaw 94-142, the 1976 VocatFpnoL Education ActAmendments to Public Law 94-42,. kid Section 5,04 ofthe Rehabilitation Act of 197 armed parents andother proponents of job training the handicapped withthe legal - power to force the chools to be moreresponsible. More is being written which advocatesappropriate vocational education for all students in thepublic high schools. More federal and state -dollars arebeing funneled into research, demonstration, andpersonnel preparation programs; results from thoseinnovatiye programs are being widely ppubV andreplicated.

Still, the severely and profoundly handicapped students'have been neglected when talk turns to vocationaleducation. The belief still persists that these Individualscannot, learn even the most rudimentary jobs. Yet ahandful of research programs has demonstrated that eventhis population can learn simple assembly tasks if theinstructor knows how to arrange the leArning environmentto promote acquisition of skills. For instance, Gold (1972)has demonstrated that severely handicapped persons canlearn' relatively complex assembly tasks, such as puttingtogether a-15-piece bicycle brake.

This means that the special educator who works withseverely handicapped .young adults in secondary schooljob-training programs must have some sophisticated skills.He or the must be sensitive to real and potential job

sheltered wor hop and other $tentlal employers.. He oropportunities 'n the community)ind must coordinate with

she must be able to work with an interdisciplinaryeduca 'onal team and must design appropriatelysequen d programs for each student leading to eventualjob plat ent. Finally, the teacher must be responsiblefor placm new clients on the job and providingtransitional training and. support to ensure theiradjustment' to the workshop.

51 46

.

Vocational Programming' in Public School's

Much of the research conducted on learning abilities ofthe severely and profoundly handicapped has concentratedon corhmunity-based special, programs, often conducted atthe site of the client's eventual placement. But there area few public school-based programs in operation whichhave successfully prepared the severe and profound forsheltered workshops and similar employmftnt.

This paper will review the many tasks involved inoperating a school-based prevocational program for theseverely and profoundly handicapped, and then discuss onemodel developed at Wilson-Pacific School in Seattle,Washington.

IASSESSMENT

Assessing the 30b Market

The special educator must survey the existing job marketfor his or her students and must assess student interests4,0 abilities before teaching can begin. Two categorieseiXAStsessment are considered: job and student abilities.

The first step in establishing any vocational preparationprogram for the severely handicapped is to accuratelyassess the placements which will be possible aftertraining. The teacher should know about present worksites, the changing job market, and the possibilities ofrestructuring existing jobs for more severely handicappedemployees.

Graduates of regular vocational education programs arelaunched into the job market knowing that their 'skillshave prepared them for a variety of related positions.'Thus, their teachers need not worry about the exact

47

5 -4.

Lynch ac Singer

nature of work the students will perform on the job, norneed they inquire about where that job 011 be or underwhat conditions the work will- k performed. Because theseverely handicapped student !tarns slowly, and can be

----Ivprepared for only alimited numbetsof post "alts, however,it is essential that the special education , eacher knowwhat jobs will exist in the community after training soprecise skills can be taught.

4

This khowledge means contacting public and'-privateservice agencies to determine exactly what shelteredworkshops or other programs currently accept severelyhandicapped workers. The teacher should visit eachpotential placement site to discover what work itperforms and what the procedures are for clientplacement. He should learn answers to several questions,including: what entering skills or behaviors are essentialfor acceptance into the program; whether the work ispresently within the learning capabilities of the severelyhandicapped; what life skills (e.g., traveling to and fromwork, etcitate necessary, and what amount of supervisionclients receive.

',Several recent studies have surveyed workshop employersto discover what they demand Of new employees.Suprisingly, the majority of supervisors want clients toliave good' social skills. Grantham (1977) identified 47

' 'bask behaviors required for stEcessful client placement,including personal, interpersonal, and specific job skills.The ten_ most important skills Identified by employerswere all related to acceptable social behaviors. In fact,the first' true cc cOpational skill was ranked '36th inimportance. able I lists ten bOavioral standardsgenerally considered to be survival skills by Workshopsupervisors for sheltered workshop employment (Rusch acMithaug, 1980). Again, the emphasis. is on personal skills.and good work habits, rather than on specific job-relatedfunctions.

With the certain knowledge that social skills must bedeveloped, the special education teaciter can concentrate

55 4.8

4

Vocational Programming Public Schools

TABLE I0-

BEHAVIOR STANDARDS IN VOCATIONAL SURVIVAL SKILLS\_wog,

SEIsECTEDFOR ENTRY BY 90% OR MORE OF SUPERVISORS

Employees Should Be Able To: .

1. Participate in work environments for 6hour periods2. Move safely about the shop by:.

a. - Walking from piece to placeb. Identifying and avoiding dangerous areasc. Wearing safe work clothing

3. Work continuously at a job station for 1-2 hour IS'eriodi4. Lbarn new tasks when the supervisor explains by modeling3.' Come to work on an average of 3 times per week6. Correct work on a task after the second correction7. Want to work for meney/sepse of accomplishment$. Understand work routine by not displaying disruptive behavior

during routine program changes9. Continue work without disruptions when:

a. Supervisor is observingb. Fellow worker Is observing

9 c. Stranger is observing10. Adapt to new work environment with normal levels of productivity

in 1-3 days and with normal levels of contacts with supervisor in30-60 minutes.

"11,

NOTE: From Vocational Training?or

Mentally Retarded Adults: ABehavioral Approach. '1980 (p.. 113) by F. R. Rusch & D. E.Mithaug. Reprinted with permission, from Research Press,Champaim,.11. ,

A

49 5.4

LXnch & Singer-

on discovering e)lictly how a. particular workshopAP functions; the Ands / of ,taiiks performed and the, supervisor-c.lieht ratios. All of these variables will

influence the secondary school training program.it;

The teacher must m onitor changing" events 1n. both therecent literature and in the& ccimmudity to ensure thatappropriate .-posiiions are available in the months andyears ahead. In"the local community, econemlF, socialand political factors may force changes in tt number of

; workshops aid the demand for particular occupations.Involving potential employers on. community or schooltask forcr, 'show d provide `relevant input .f or designingnew work progr or thseverely handicapped and helpthem see "whic sk Is ,students are already capable, oflearning. . Also, Oloyers with federal governmentcontracts are oblige to have affirmative action policies.Stereotypes of t severely. handfrcapped are not easilydispelled, but the number of 'entloyrnent settings forthem is increasing as is the varjety of occupations within

A ,their reach..

es

Once the special education t er has assessed Ithepo.tential 'job darker, he or must attempt to match

,NIP ' those occupations with st interests and aptitudes.Although most studen be non - verbal or ,will have

- _'such. limited corn t. tio& skills` that they cannotexpress an opi arding vocational' choice, it remainsimportant empt. tQodiscover what activities the ..stude es best. Finding ,It satisfying vocation 16

o

importan for. everyone; like othgr students,.., the .

handicapped learner will work better and longer onenjoyable tasks. Rai** should also , be consulted

- regarding their desires ,f,.." e e $ntual career of theirchild. For example, if- nts stluoisly object totraining ,for janitorial' wor then e teacher should .

.0"

t4

dr

50.

'"

al

I ..

. ..... \ J.- ..1. , 6 4

Vopational PrOgrmming in Public Schools ... . ,. ..

.

conside?hat occupation as a less successful programoption fdi the student.

" .

Of course, student aptit de is of more import than4student interest; thus a tudent with severe motorimpairment will not 12e good candidate for a foodservice worker program. rowner 11977) identified three

.. variables that should influence assessments student age,

. ability, and need. The older the individual, the less timethere will be to provide school-based training; hence,more emphasis is needed oft learning spec 'c occupational

',jobs. The student's ability will determ the 'setting hkwhich the assessments will occur, w :it be in thehome, at school, or in a workiliop g.. Individual -

needs will also dictate the assessment a orne, because astudent may have behavioral or other: problems which willimpact the eventual, job site. For instance, severe Visualimpairment will limit the situations open to a studentunless adaptations are considered.

One . of the most effectNe ways to determine how 'Yastudent. will perform certain jabs is to-expose him toseveral occupations during the assessment phasi. The,siTpleg method is to take the student to workshps, to

. MAN films and pictures, and to discuss different jobs.This helps the student become aware of options; but sincethe student is rarely engaged in trying out the jobs, theteacher cannot form a judgment about aptitude, onLyinterest. 1% . . -:

, .

Brown; iBellamy, and Sbniag (1971) and Lynch (1979)advocate public school -based simulated workshops.Developing such sites in the schools allows students toparticipate actively in mock on-the-job training. Theteacher can then `observe realistic job behaviors andresponses and make informed training decisions. Thisworkshop method may not closely simulate real tasks intfutureowork settings all the time, but it does infoin theteacher about some general work traits and interests,

1

..,

r

,

.,

4.

r

.

N

The Educational Team

Lynch & Singer'

It is essential to involve parents and other professionals inthe education of the severely handicapped. The expertiseof occupational and physical therapists, languageclinicians, social workers, and others necessary toassess the student thoioughly. R The inter4isciplinaryeducational team will jointly decide *hat occupations thestudent is best able to learn. The team will also providedirect services to the student and advise the teacher as heor she programs for learning. Crowner (1977) offers fourassessment strategies the.team should considers 1)

determine specific activities for* the student gip be utilizedby all team 'members in their observations; 2) decidebefore assessment begins who will collect whatinformation to avoid overlap; . 3) decide how assessmentinformdtion will be collected; and 4) ensure that at leasttwo team meinbers agree On each assessment decision.The team should collect data on .gross and fine motor,language, cognitive and affective domains, and.on staminaand medical status. Data should include facts about rate,endurance, and .quality of performance iq both a singlesituation arid across different situations.

A final word about assessing student skills to determinetraining options: vocational training for the severely orprofoundly l'apdicapped adolescent will often lead tosheltered wdrkshop employment, It is, however;important to remember that there is wide ariationamong evan these students, Educators, parents and othersmust be realistic, yet optimistic about the placementsavailable to individuals.

Jr / 52

e

Vocational Programming in Public Schools. . .

I 1,-, ,

STUDEK,PROGRAMMJNG

.,

a ,

6A -a

, (1/4rmed with .a knowledge/1A the potential job placements

available to students after training anclOvith adequateinformation regarding student interests and abilities, theteacher and other team ,members are ready to begin

pksigning a program to epsure eventual employment. Thisrogram should include an IEP which specifies lopg-term

and short-term objectives; measurement procedures andanalyses, of instructional tasks.

Long -Term Objective

Exit skills from , the -secondary school program mustcoincide with entry, level skills_ required by vitt kshopls andother work sites. For 'instance., if "an assemlly°:4lineoperathin requires the client'to work withOut a break forone-hour at a time with.no More than one cue to return towork, then the studentts ong-range goals must includethat behavior. Contirfuing."with the example, if thestudent can remain seated aodon task for no more thanthree minutes at a time' with several prompts to remainworking, then the difference 'between entry- and exit-level behavior is clear, if vast.,

.

Another way to define long -range goals a4vocated bypellamy, Wilson, Alder, and Clarke t1e978)",e'who suggest°the identification of a area, anCa set; of responses"which achieve a defined fuiictional 'effect when it .itperformed in the appropriate situation" (p. 110. Teachingskill areas such as "mechanical. fastening with tools" ;provides the flexibility that training for a specific lobcannot; -thus, a client could use his mechanical fasteningskills in a variety of settings. Mits ability, irrturni *illmake the client more employable. 'Figure t illustrates theidentification of a single skill area which could form the'

. basis for a long-range goal..

53

I

LWORLD OF goax

1

AGRICULTURALI ELECTRICAL MECHANICAL [METALS CONSTRUCTION FOOD MARKeT OFFICE

CASTING FORMING SEPARATING ASSEMBLY CONDITIONING FINISHING

.Poured b Hot Forming

MachiningChip RemovingHome CuttingNon-Traditional

StridiFusiongnFlowPressureCold

Forced Cold FormingShearingStraightCurved

MechanicalFasteningForceJoints

Thermal

Mechanical

ConvertedAnodizingOxidizing

CoatingOrganicInorganic

,Riverns I Sew4ng

Fastening

AdhesiveBonding

ScrewingWenches IBolting

[ Chemical

Stapling

Figure I: An Illustration of the World of Work Divided into Skill Areas.

Other' Operations :

.1 .4 r NOTE. Adapted from G. T, Bellafriy, b. Wilson, E. Alder, & ). Clarke. A strategy for

programming vocational skills for severely handicapped youth. 1978 (p. 271.Reprinted with pernmssion from senior author.

6,

UM

Vocational Programming in Public School

Shoit -Term Objectives

Once -the team has identified the appropriate terminalskills and behaviors for pciith students it must determinewhat relevant tasks must be taught to, achieve exit-levelgoals. Objectives should relate to specific work skills(e.g., assembling a pulley), behavioral skills (e.g workingfor long periods of time without reinforcement), andpersonal skills (e.g., basic hygiene). The inclusion ofoccupational objectives on. this IEP is the significantdifference .from those written for younger handicappedchildren, _where social and academic goals generally takeprecedence. Again, the older the student (and thus theless time before school termination), the more directedmust be teacher efforts to prepare the studentvocationally.

All IEPs should include information about effectivereinforcers which will promote continued successful 41learning in the classroom and.which can generalize to theworkshop setting. Often, a token reiMorcement tystem isused, where coins or script can be erchanged for _food orfree ,time. The schedules of reinforCement must also be ---

designed so tIcat they eventually parallel those in the workenvironment. by the Iirne the, student is ready forplacement. In the classroom, a student may be rewardedafter 'completing one multistep task, such as assemblingsix or more sifters, before reinforcement. The frequent"pay-offs" used' in the classrbom to promote acquisitionand proficiency must be modified, reduced and ideally,eliminated.

Measurethent

The IEP should include criteria for attaining eachobjective. The special educator 'must record studentperformance data on a regular, preferably daily, basis.

55

i

,

. .,

Lynch & Singer

Daily data collection. ensures that the student is notmoved on to the next level task too soon, nor held backtoo long. Data tell the teacher when16, "slice back" a

< program that is not succeeding and when to modify .ineffective.teaching strategies.

..

Task Analysis. ..j

.

The more severely impaired a student's learning ability,the more often the special education teacher must reducetasks further into' subtasks. He or she then teaches each,subtask in a sequence which will lead to acquisitimi ofheentire skill. The ,assembly task in Table 2 contains 32separate activities. which must be performed in a certainorder. The first movement is to pick up a bolt; the second

viovement is to:*ky up a washer, and so on until theassembly is complete and the student raise\ his or herhand to have the work checked. in the section on theWilson-Pacific School model will be a description of howwork-related skills are.taught. Because most skills taughtto the severely handicapped must be broken down so,finely,. it is important to make informed decisions aboutprevocational tasks that lead to employment. Constantlyanalyzing tasks also helps the teacher find new ways toteach difficult skills.

L

;

PREPARING THE JOB SITEa

.1,

. .

ln. 1972, a study commissioned by the Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare reported that existing ..occupational preparation programs for the handicappedoften failed because the environment was not as veilprepared for. the client as the client was for the job

tii 56

,

.r

Vocational Programming in Public Schools .

sTABLE 2

TASK ANALYSIS OF A 17-PIECE

TWANE HERMATIC ASSEMBLYi

4

Step bstrixticoaltue Student Respxse

I. s at war' station attending2. bolt in hand3. washer in hand4. washer on boltS. rubber washer in hand6. rubber 'washer on bolt

' 7. metal cap washer in hand

S. metal cap on bolt .9. hat shaped cover in hand

to, hat shaped covqrpn bolt11. spring in hand12. spring in bolt13. slotted stem in hand14. slotted stem on bolt11. slotted stern secure16. body in hand

1...r

17. slatted stemassembly us body1$. body on table_ .19. wing in hand-20. wing in sloth

.i. 21. steps 134119 repeated22. heavy metal plate in hand

23. heavy metal plate placed24. cap in hand21. threaded stein in hand26. threaded stem secure27. small cap stern in hole25. small cap stem del hole29. thin plate in hand

1 .30. thin plate in cap31. cap assembly on body32. cap assembly secure3). finished product placed

.,,

pick up boltpick up washerput washer on boltpick up rubber washer on boltput rubber washer on boltpick up metal cap washerpast metal cap washer on bolt flatside downpick up hat shaped coverpat hat shaped coveron boltupside down .pick up springplace spring on boltpick up slotted stem ...place slotted stem on bolttighten slotted stem securely

N pick up bodyplace slotted stem assembly intobodypiece body on tablepick up wing 'place wing in slot thick side outrepeat I &et19 until Won are Idledpick up heavy metal plateplace metal plate on top of stern .

1 assemblypick up cap 'pick up threaded stemput stein in hole from bottompick up small cap stemput cap stern In hole inside of cappick up thin plate %.place plate inside of cap indentedside downplace cap assembly onto body

, . tighten cap assembly onto bodydace finished product in placerepeat sequence

,

is

C

57

,

.

4 Lynch & Singer

environment, nor weie serstices or groups outside theimmediate administration of the adequatelyused.

The special education teacher should maintain contactwith the workshop supervisor through the school year tomonitor changing conditiont in the work site which mightimpact on the employability, and hence the trainingprogram, of the secondary student. As the student nearsattainment of his or her goals; the teacher must beginpreparing the job site and the potential supervisor.

Workthop personnel seldom conduct extensive on-the-jobtraining of neit employees. Table 1 focused on skills thatsupervisors consider njoist important for e "ntosheltered workshops, rraky of which are behavi ills.Often their supervisor - client ratios are,too high or muchindividualized attention; 'therefore they, look for clientswho enter with certain'kinds of skills, Thus, the burdenfog continuing*the student's training after job placementfalls invariably on the 'teacher. The teacher shouldarrange for, continued supervision until the student canwork on tasks as: independently and as quickly as otherworkers. Until that' time too, the employer will notremunerate the client,. leaving financial responsibility upto the school or other agency.

Clarke; Greenwood,. Abramowitz, and Bellamy (1979)describe three objectives for, on-the-job supervision: I) tofacilitate acquisition of appropriate work skills; 2) tomaximize independent performance; and 3) to monitorappropriate social and general work behaviors of theclient. Either the teacher will be directly involved in thesupervision of tire student in the job setting, or he mustdirect someone else -- a practicum teacher or aide --monitoring client performance. The teacher mustfacilitate the ac5eptance of the client on the job and helphim or her to function appropriately.

oust as data collectionin the classroom was important tomonitor student progress toward meeting objectives, so

5!

10

\I

...)

Vocational Programming in Public Schools

.'too is it . essential during this transition phase. Theteacher must have accurate data on client perfprmance in

order to continue training or to retrain as necessary.Data collection also tells the teacher when the client isready to work independently, without transition staffsupervision.

Wheh the client 'is 'working independently, the teachershould 'continue to maintain. contact with the workshopsupervisor to, monitor client's performance. At all times,the teacher should be willing and able to re-enter theworkshop to provide updated training to the client andtechnical assistance to the workshop supervisor.Sometimes the teacher. must be creative in solvingproblems. In one case, a profoundly retarded client wasnot performing at a satisfactory rate in a shelteredworkshop. The 'special education teacher suggested thatthe young man's mother send fifty cents in pennies towork with him each day. These pennies were doled out tohim throughout the day. This solution cost workshopstaff nothing and took little time, but it in easedi theclient's performance rate and enabled 41, to meetproduction schedules,.

I. P

\ / THE WILSON-PACIFIC SCHOOL MODELI

In 1977, the Washington Office of the Superintendent ofPublic Instruction and the Seattle School District wereawarded a contract from the Bureau of Education for theHandicapped (now called the Office of Special Education)to develop a model school prograrh for severely andpro un handicapped adolescents leading to placementin cornmuni workshop 'and living settings. During tilepast three years, the staff have 'developed a school

. prpgram, coordinated with commAty agencies, andbegun placing students in the community to continue

\59\I

c4

,

I .

Lynch & Singer

building their skills. Three other school' districts havelbegun adapting the model process.

The Setting

The 'program is housed at Wilson-Pacific School in Seattle,a...special junior-senior high school for mentallyhandicapped students. The school wing has been assignedto the' program(lncluding three classrooms, oneproduction center, a combination occupationaltherapy/physical education moth, a homeliving class withkitchen and beds, and a laundry/bathroom complex.

Each of the three classrooms is divided into activityareas; each contains a separate "work_area" wherevirtually all the classroom-based prevocational trainingtakes place, in order to reinforce the difference lietween,"work"- and "school." The production center is called a'shop". for the same reason. The shop is set up' as a

. simulated sheltered workshop, with a variety of %asks anda supervisor-student ratio of 1:10. There are 20 workstations 16' for assembly and ifor disassembly twoparts and tray storage areas, and a staff work area.' The

. morn also contains a small free-time area and a time-outarea. .

.

The three classrooms are staffed by a master teacher;two aides, and the part-time services of support'professionals, such asan occupational therapist, and acommunications disorders specialist. The productioncenter manager also has aides. (To assist in thecommunity transition, the program has a Com* munityLiaison Specialls d a Family Program Specialist. The

-r former is respons: le for coordination with workshops andclient placement the latter coordinates with students'families and ho e living sites within the comairity.

S

a

60

I

I: ..

f

Vocational Programming in Public Schools

Surveying Community Resources

' The 'Community Liaison Specialist surveyed the Seattle-King County area to determine what community workplacements- were able and willing to accept severely'handicapped clients. He identified and contacted 32 sitessuch as sheltered workshops and work activity centersiand asked each to complete questionnaires which providedhim with information about behavior admissionrequirements and administration. Some programs, for.instance, required clients to have such 'self-help skills astoileting; others wanted a. certain level of receptive andexpilessive language to facilitate training on the job.

., Twelve programs were found to be acceptable. forplacement of program "graduates."'

t

Designing the School Prograffi

r 4% :.

The prevocational curriculum 'cOnsistedof four stages oftraining: 1) specific skills acquisiticin -- accomplished inthe regulir classroom; 2) work hibiti training --conductedin the producticin center; 3) on-site trial placement; and 4).training and final placement --practiced in the. communitywork site, In Washington statp, the' pepartrrtertt of Social .

and Health Services (DSHS) Provides ,funds tor adult' (21..iyears and ,over) handicapped persons who are employed in'shelar.ed Workshops t-and o.theP ifocational settingss ,

therefore 'only studerits. 20 and 21 years41d.are involvedin the triatt antd final pfaCement leyels of the progrim:

,t ,

Each student's school program is a careful.mixture of age -appropriate academic and preacaderrric tasks, self-helpand 'home,living skills, and w.orkr.elated skill ;training.

..-, The following six training program levels were identified.

ThVerreflect the increasing emphasis on vocationalpreparation: .

,

..: i.). z .. $,__

.

N.

t ....611

.

a. .

.,,.

tench dcSinger

1. High priority self-cars and communicationskills, . lower priority prevocationalprerequisite skills (in classroom setting).

2. Previpcationa) training (acquisition)' as aprogram priabty (classroom setting).

3. Participation in vocational production withcontinuing prevocational training (productioncenter and classroom settings),

4. Full participation in vocational productioncenter- with at least two regularly- performedproduction jobs (mostly production center,sometime in classroom).

5. Trial Placement in a target facility withsupport from Community Liaison staff (incommunity setting); and

6.. Final placement in target facility with follow-up support (in community setting).

Thus, the movement of student; is from basic self-careand communication training to vocational training withinthe schoolsetting, and then to placement in communitysettings for continued training , and final placement.Younger students (ages D-16) are less likely to beinvolved in ,levels 4, 5, and 6. Older studenis/who areapproaching the end_ of their school careers and who .willsoon be eligible forDSHS funding will receive increasedprevocational training.

Assessing Students

Once the ed'ucati nal team knew.,the types of placementsavailable . st ents-, after their school program

6''' 62 .. .

' Vocational Programming in Public Schools

terminated,, it. deieloped a curriculum plan for eachstudent to meet the entry requirements of the workshopsetting deemed most appropriate. Each student wasassessed on three measures: the Uniform PerformanceAssessment System, (UP AS) (White, Edgar, Haring, 1970,the Prevocational Assessment and Curriculum 'Guide(PACG) (Mithaug, Mar, & Stewart 1978), and the PcogressAssessment Chart Of Social Dutlopment To-A-C)(Gunzburg, 1973). UPAS is a cdilriculum-referencedassessment' instrument which measures preacademic,gross and fine motor, communication, social, and self-helpskills; the PACG measures prevocational readiness andcapabilities of the severely handicapped; and the P-A-C isa tool used by the State of Washington to measure social,personal, and self-heipaskilis in DSHS- eligible handicappedindividuals.

Placing Students in the Curriculum

Most students begin their prevocational training in tloleclassroom, then move into the ,production cemer forincreasing lengths of time as their skills improve. Fifteenprevotational tasks have been identified as skills actuallypeiformed in local sheltered workshops, or which simulatecertain skills of value in many settings, such as the use ofa screwdriver. The training procedures utilized in the-

; school-based prograM are adaptations of task design, task,analysis, and training techn,iques used by such programs asthe Special Training-Program in Eugene. Oregon, and theExperimental Education Unit in Seattle,WaShington. Theprocedurr focus on increasing the student's ability toperform a complicated task independently. Progress ismeasured in terms of percentage of steps (of the taskanalysis) completed without assistance. This informationis recorded on a data sheet. Level .of performance (withassistance, independently, etc.) is marked . in theappropriate box. Total performance on the task is thengraphed on the data sheet itself to provide an easy visual

63 bU

O

1.40`. . .

A

'04Ip

,'Lynch & Singer

los

of 4 0- check of tpe training trend. When a student has reached

triter on a ,classroom-based prevocational task (usuallyAtireCconsecLitiye days tt 90% independence or greater),the student moves into the production center to improvework related behaviors.' . .-.. . ,

. %

v .- t-

.

,

Teansitioning into Community Settings.. .

1 . tee:L.

Ack a student reaches age 21 ' when,bt or stia7must leave

pkblick.ichool arid as his or her 'skill's increase, more,--arid41time (up to a maximum of two hours per day) will be spent

in the production' certferunder a supervision riatiosof 2:20.At this point, the client is ready for the transition into awork site. . *1_.

* ,. ,

The educational team determines the trial placerrient si eby considerihg seyeral variables: skills the student as

A mastered, parents' desires for placement, wor ., ;.9 . rnr edat'" the OM., distante to the site, tecept ,! s's ofwori:shoO: staff, arid funs/lig considerations. t° Ohce a ' 'decision .is reached?. thht student's school 0 gram. ismodified so that he, or she is concentrating on specificskills necessary for the mole, such as using publictransportation, building an appropriate tteceptive andexpressive vocabulary, )'''and, of, c receivinginstruction on assembling.specific prOducts ma acturedat the site. ti-

e.s

The Community Liaison Specialist and the.wort<shop staff

qagreePto bring the student in to the work site for two'hours a, day, twice .a week. For the next two threemonths, the Community Liaison Specialist heipsWe

jeclient

-acclimate to the work routine and, eases the 'transitioneventual'

. work(shops Jo the area (6, hours/ dtys per week). If the.into the eventual' 30-fidur lek usuai, in sheltered

;octient has problems with any aspect of the job, the .specialist is there help him learn to handle them, .whether, lieit to us to work, gttitng akin-with

100

O

.

4

if

Vocational Programming in Public Schools

fellow wchers, or increasing the time on task withoulreinforcement. The specialist also helps the workshopstaff adjust to)he new client.

After. the first three' months the client is generallyworking at a level that 'Permits the' specialist to graduallyphase out. The supervisor and the pecialist decide, whento make the placement final. Aftr that, the specialist-maintains daily contact with the.'tupervisor for anothertwo weeks, after which .contact tapers to weekly. Afterthree months into the final placement.; he may call, or.visit periodically. At all times, the Community ,Liaison'Specialist Or an aide is available to answer - supervisorquestions, or to., provide training .if the client'sperformance Is unsatisf actOry.

. Results of the Wilson-Pacific Model

The combination of school- and workshop-ised. traininghas proved successful in this model progrAm. In theschool seeing, students have acquired many basic,prevocational skills -and related work habits. Of the 34individuali enrolled in the school' prograni over the course

; . of the :three-ypar project, all but one made significantgains in the school- related tasks. Approximately 70% ofthe students kr the production cedter showed 'measurableimprovement in on-task performance. .

BY the end of the project, 12 itudents, had becomeinvolved: in the community-based trial placement-finalplacement -process in taeven sites. Two of the studentsplaced during the first year did not have the opportunity'to participate fully in the- chool-based -components, but;since they were nearing. e 21, they, were acceleratedinto trial placements. One subsequently failed his trialplacement due -to ,,behavior -problems related to .independent' use of pplic transportation. Two students

"1 who were in trial placements when the protect terminatedarestill in the proce of final placement.

65

.

;

t Lynch 6: Singer

Conclusion

The training techniques (e.g.,. task analysis, "schedules ofreinforcement, movement into a "Shop" setting, etc.)utilized in the school program have been successftil inteaching a variety of vocational tasks to severelyhandicapped youths. It is alsd clear that the EducationalTeam approach, surveys of potential community'placements, and trial placements can be useful processesin a joint .school- community training program. A highpercentage of 'program graduates are proving successful inpost-schbeil placements.

The local schools can meet an important need in thedifficult process of preparing severely handicapped youngpeople to perform. in workshoesettings. The Wilson-

'Pacific School model demonstr 6s the workability of ajoint 'school- community program which enhances thesuccess of vocational opportunities for the severelyhandicapped by developing skills, which permit clients toenter "programs ata higher on-the-job training level'. Theschools have the expertise in acquisition training and cancreate a setting in which many variables can be controlledas students learn new skills. Close coordination withcommunity placements can ensure that the trainingcontinuum is unbroken as each student moves from theschool into a. job setting. The public schools Fah and willassume their critical role in preparing the most severelyhandicappedostudents for independent and productivelives.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

.

Education for ,the severely,. and profoundly handicappedhas been a priority for several years. Recently, two

166

Vocational Programming in Public Schools

Requests for Propos s from the Office of SpecialEducation have unde ored the need for a neweducational emphasis: school and comthunity agency

- cooperation in providinrg older s verely handicappedyouths With the skills they need to f ction in the least

. restrictive community environments,

State-level support for school-based vocation programs. for the handicapped Is essential in order to move'

programs out of speci ly-f unded federal cat ories and4. into the mainstream of services provided by local

, education agencies to, all students. In Washi ton state,Dr. Frank Brouillet, State Superintendent of PublicInst uctioh, indicated his own priorities in a sp ich beforethe ashington Stag Congressof ,PareriltrT achers, and,

dents on May I, 19g0, in Spokane:...

- I would like to see vocational* educationopportunities in the '80s provided to students with,handicapping conditions, paiticularl*the 18-21 year

' , olds whose *quality of life' could be immensely. improved by independent or semi-independent lifestyles. This was mandated by the federalgovernment under Piiblic Law 94-142, but we ateslow in responding. leis a task for the '80s..,.

, Yet the following statistics, gathered this spring inWashington, reflect a general problem in most states. 01'64 disfrictl_ responding_ to a questionnaire regarding

. i

vocational education services for the handicapped, only 16had programs which included the _severely handicapped.,"Qnly 21916 of the districts had agreements with shelteredworkshops, 18% 'boordirbated with the Division ofVocational Rehabilitation (part of DSHS); and only 11%were 'involved in Division of Developmental Disabilities(inother DSHS program) cooperative programs.,

.... .

The need for ,more and better public school vocationalprograms for Me severely handicapped is clear. In thecoming. years, the following three priorities -must be eaddressed to ens e that the schools fulfill their mandateto prepare AL udents for adult life:

4.

..,/. 67

f

,

A

0

," 4*

Lyhch,ac SiDger.

.. .

. First, teachers must be prepared to work with severelyhandicapped adolescents to ,prepare them for leastrestrictive community placements. Teacher trainingcourses roust include informatio0 oh how to teachvocational and life skills, how to coordinate withCommunity agencies .to facilitate client transitions, andhow to monitor client adjustmenT to adult life in the leastrestrictive environment.

to

Second, the public schooli and community agencies mustbuild stronger ties to ensure that severely handicappedstudents. and their families receive all necessary andappropriate services. Good cooperative relationships willfacilitate ,the eventual transition of students intocommunity settings, while keeping the flow of necessaryservices from bogging dowh 10 red tape.

Third, the public schools must take a lead role inestablishing orderly and effective transitions, for studentsleaving schools and moving into communiq-basedvocational and home living settings. The schobls ire theprimiry educators of handicapped children, and 4.as suchthey must bear the primary responsibility for making sure.that those students are prepared for adult life.

_

s5hool vocational training for the severelyhandicapped is working in those few programs sponsoredby special grants, It is time for the effective practicesdeveloped through these model programs ,to, be widelydisseminated and adapted for use in a variety of schoolsettings. Only then can this vital area of .education forthe handicapped be vigorously pursued.

O

Vocational Ptogrammink in Public Schools

ACK-NOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions ofthe Wilson-Pacific .Staff: Jim McConnell, Principal;Ettotiet Staff: Cal Edholm, Frank Dunbar, Brenda Renrick,Mary Hanson, Dan Peterson and Shirley Speert; andSupport Staff: Yoriko Hasagawa and Louise Simes.

).

-

69' t

r

. ;

A

'.I

11fr

a.

I 0 W

. .'1

, ,

ALynch & Singer

REFERENCE LIST

b / %

.

Dellarny:G. T. Wilson, D., AAder, E., & Clarke, J. Astrategy for programni5 vocational skills for

a

severely handicapped youth.. Specialized TrainingProgram, Eugene, OR: Center on HumanDevelopment, University of Oregon, 1978.

Brown, L., Bellamy, d. T., & Sontag, E. {Eds.), Thedevelopment and implementation of public schoolprevocationaj' training programs for trainable

. retarded and severely emotionally disturbedchildren. Madison, WI: Madison Public Schools,August, 1971.

Clarke; 3., Greenwood, L. M.,. Abramowitz, D., &Bellamy, G. T. Summer jobs for vocationalEreparation Of moderately--and severely retardedadolescents. Specialized Training Program, Eugdne,OR: Center on Human Development; University ofOregon, .1979.

Crowner, T. Occupational education: Assessment and, implementation. In Developing effective IEPs forseverely handicapped c i ren and youth.W hington, DC: Department of Health, Education,and Welfare, August, 1977..Pp. 253-268.

Golds M. Stimulus factors in skill training on a cornplexassembly task: Acquisition, transfer, and retention.

' American Journal of Mental Defidiency, 1972, 76,5.17-'526. -

Grantham, Characteristics significant to employers 4nAtchison; .Kansas, .Lawrence, KS: University ofKansas, October, 1977.

Gunzburg, lit, C. Progress' assessment chart of socialdevelopment. Bristol, IN: Aux Chandelles, P-A-CDepartment, revised,1973.

.)70

.

z

Vocational Programming iii Public Schools .

Improving occupational programs for the .handicapped.Washington, DC: DeVartment of Health, Education,

4111and Welfare, 1972.

Lynch, K. P. Toward a skill-oriented prevocationalprogram for trainable and severely mentallyimpaired students. In G. T. Bellamy, G. O'Connor,and 0. Karan (Eds.), Vocational rehabilitation ofseverely handicapped persons: Contemporaryservice strategies. Baltimore: University Parkpress, 1979.

Mithaug, D.Mar, D., & Stewart, J. ,Prevocationalassessment and curriculum guide. eattle,Exceptional Education, 1978.

National Association of the State Boards of Education.Vocational education of handicapped youtO: 5,tate ofthe art. Washington,/ DC: NASD E, Fall, 1979.

Rusch, F., & Mithaug, D. Vocational training for ment[yretarded adults: A behavioral analytic approach.Champaign,, IL: Research Press, 1980.

White, 0., Edgar, E., & Haririg, N. G, (Originators);Affleck, J., Harinei N, G., & Hdydeo, A. H.iSupport and Development); M. Bendersky (Ed.),Uniform performance assessment system. Seattle,WA: Coliege of Ed&eation and ExperimentalEducation Uilito University of_Washington, 1978.

71

x

4

1.-

The Debilitating Effects of theHabilitation Process

Sidney M. Letty

\ .

Each .iear an increasing amount of this country'seconomic and human _resources is used to improvehandicapped persons' lives. Recently, particular noticehas been given to the problems of the adult handicapped,a population which has long been ignored and rejected.One has only to observe the recent increases in Federal-and State-supported projects and programs, theincreaseilprofessional literature in the area and the increases inpresentations at professional conferences to confirm thisinterest. Few question the justification' for thismoveruent. Two concerns, however, are voiced: Are theseattempts truly improving__ the quality of life forhandicapped persons? _and Are the-benefits derived byhandicapped persons and by society cost effective? Thianswer to both qUestions is no. If society is truly gOing toenhince the, quality of handicapped pesonst lives, acomplete analysis of the current situation andrecommendalions for improvements are essential,

. . .

. Out of the adult handicapped population, the moderatelyand sevefely retarded have been identiied for specialconcern a.e., The .1973 'Rehabilitation Act,' Greenleigh

----J Associates, 1975; Bellamy, }Omer & Inman, 1979;

. ..

..

73 7/

1

I..-- Levy

Wehrhan & McLaughlin, 1980; Rusch at Mithaug, 1980).The sheltered setting (i.e., sheltered workshops, workacttvity centers, adult activity centers) is most frequentlyused to provide programs for this population. Theseprograms were designed to provide opportunities. forhandicapped people to develop the job skills and socialbehaviors necessary for- entering more normal workenvironments. For example, the sheltered workshop,which services most moderately and severely retardedpeople, is defined in the National Association ofSheltered Workshops and Homebound Programs (Note 1),as:. A nonprofit rehabilitation facility utilizing individualgoals, wages, supportive services, and a controlled workenvironment to help vocationally handicapped personsachieve or maintain maximum potential as wdrkers.

P

Not only do these programs fail in their attempts torealize maximum vocational potential for the majority oftheir clients, but in many cases, they actually createdebilitating /actors, such as new inappropriate behaviors;whiCh even further hinder the clients. The apparentfailure of many habilitation prograths, as evidenced bytheir clients' minimal movement to higher level programsid reenleigh Associates, 1975),, could result either fromthe limited abilities of the clients or from ineffectiveprograms. Since the moderately and severely retardedhave demonstrated a higher learning potential than waspreviously thought, (Gold, 1972; Bellamy, Peterson, &Close, 1975), the latter explanation seems most feasible;the ineffectiveness of these programs extends into theareas of evaluation, training, environment, productivityand organizational structure.

#

it<3

a

1

7k

"...*....0

De.bilititing,Effects,

CRITICAL AREAS OF PROGRAM 111/4tEFkECTIVENESS

4 Evaluation4

s . Prior to -or upon ntrance to the sheltered workshop, thehandicapped peilon is evaluated to determine his, or her\A functionini levels, interests, and vocational strengths andweaknessek. The results of this evaluatidn are u3ed tosuggest the. level of training needed an4 the mostappropriate progratri placerrkent. Theoretically andpractically, 'evaluation is a reasonable and logical

, apprbach. If the, instruments used are'reliable and validand, in fact, .lead to effective 'programming, then theevaluation process should be 'encouraged. The instruments

. and prOcedures 'currently used to evaluate the vocationalpotential of moderately and severely handicapped persons,however, have not been proved to be reliable or _valid;aik

. furthermore, adequate training programs are seldomprovided or even avai.lible.

Three categories of trafitional vocational assessmentinstruments are intelligence tests, manual dexterity testsand work sample tasks. The' effectiveness of theseassessment instruments, however, is questionable. On thesubject of standard tests, Patterson (1964) suggests that:"In the field of academic achievement we are perhapsbetter off than in any other, since the standard tests areapplicable, except where there are specific speech,reading, or physical defects" (p. 132). When dealing withmoderately and severely retarded persons, Patterson'sexceptions include practically the entire population. Therelationship of intelligence test results to job success isnot clearly established (Appel!,, Williams; &.Fishell, 1962;Meadow & Greenspan, 1961; Wagner & Haw ver, .1965c. insome cases (Wagner & Hawver, 1965), correlations havebeen found between intelligence tests (Stanford-Binet)and dexterity tests (O'Connor Finger Dexterity Test) bignone has been shown to correlate highly with job success.

75

(J

Leif),

Indeed, the use of IQ scores to determine programplacement often relegates people to inappropriatesituations. .*

Many available jobs for the retarded worker are in the'area .of small bench assembly and tests for manualdexterity are considered imporoff for job success.Again; however, the relationship' of 'manual dexterityalone to work success is questionable, line training andexperience may greatly influence an individual'speiforniance. As Tiffin (1952) states, "A consideration ofthe skilli demanded-of the industrial tradesman or skilledmachine operator indicates that the employee usuallysucceeds or fails in proportion to his training and generalmechanical comprehension, not in proportion to his basicdexterity" (p. 126).

Another technique commonly used for vocationalevaluations is the work sample task, in which a number ofstandardized work tasks are used in a test situation tosimulate actual job conditions. What could be a morereasonable evaluatibn of an individual's ability to performa task than the task itself? Unfoitunately, thistechnique's procedural limitations can result inquesgonable validity. Because most rehabilitation.facilities do not have the equipment, space, moneiiirstaff to provide a wide range of work samples'Irappropriate machinery and equipment, work samples areoften poor or "inaccurate representations of the actualwork tasks: Although work sample tests provide closerapproximations to normative work situations than otherforms of evaluation, they are still not close enough;performance on a simulated job may not accuratelypredict performance on a real job.

Patterson (1964), after carefully surveying methods usedto evaluate the vocational potentibl of mentally retardedpersons, maintained that determining present skills orabilities is not as critical as providing training. Manypersonswho do not demonstrate the desired behaviors in atest situation quickly acquire them during training.

, 76

t

(I,

Debilitating Effects

Moreo r those per'sons who have been tested aregenerally not provided with appropriate trainingopportunities based on evaluation results. According toPatterson, "Too often, diagnosis, assessment or evaluationis the end, rather than the beginning of the process.Rather than testing the individual's potential, evaluation .often samples inadequate training" (p. 149).. Evidence tosubstantiate Patterson's position is provided by Gold(Note 2, 1972), Merwin (1973, 1974), and Levy (1975), whohave demonstrated that severely retarded individuals,

"previously evaluated and -deemed capable ofaccomplishing only the most menial, simplified tasks, canlearn to perform difficult industrial tasks. 41

. . . %__

The effects of pretraining on evaluation results have beeninadequately explored; the only test which providestraining prior to evaluation is the Vocational Informationand Evaluation Work 'Samples (VIEWS) test. Sincetraditional evaluation efforts have proved unfruitful andin many cases detrimental to individuals by precludingthem from training, a new approach is not only warrantedbut essential. The considerable time and money currentlyspent on evaluating the retarded has not clearly resultedin beneficial change for that population: therefore,resources need to be reallocated towards activities proved'to result in beneficial change (i.e., systematk training). )Only when evaluation is proved to be advantageous tohandicapped people should its priority be reinstated. Gold(1972), a strong advocate of this position, states, "Noattempt has been made to inake the evaluation periodfruitful to the client in terms of the development of theskills which are being evaluated. If anything is gainedfrom the evaluation period, it is usually adjustive innature with the clients often spending many hours or daysbeing nonproductive and not learning clew skills" (p. 12). .

Therefore, Patterson's statement, "There is no better wayto evaluate ability to do something than a trial at it" (p.149), must be amended to read, "There is no better way toevaluate ability to -do something than by training for-it."Evaluation via training' is not only more realistic, butmore profitable for the in4 vidual and the workshop.

7761

i

1

4 I

Training

Levy

The essence of any program foi the handicapped iseducation and training. The acquisition of useful andappropriate skills and behavior is the primary goal oftraining, yet few moderately and severely retarded peoplereceive training cgrnmensurate to their potential duringtheir tenure in sheltered workshops.' if they are capableof learning complex vocational tasks, such as bicycle.brake assemblies (Gold, 1972), cam switch .assemblies(Bellamy et al., 1975)- and electric circuit boardassemblies (Levy, 1975), then the question.remains,Whyare they.not being provided With opportunities to attainthese skills? One explanation for the lack of training forcomplex tasks is that workshops seldom acquiresubcontracts 'that demand such highly skilledperformances (Gold, 1975; Greenleigh Associates, 1973;Pomerantz do Marholin, 1978). Most workshopsconcentrate ors-simple jobs or low skill level tasks that'require minimal training. Thus, sophisticated trainingprocedures required for learning complex work tasks areseldom necessary.

On. the rare occasions when subcontracts for morecomplex work tasks are acquired by sheltered workshops,the jobs are relegated only to the workers with thehighest skill levels. Clients with lesser abilities are notallowed to attempt the jobs. This situation is usuallyexplained by the workshop's immediate production needs.(e.g., "The customer wants a shipment by tomorrow")and/or by insufficient staff to train less skilledindividuals. Many moderates and severely retardedpeople can learn complex tasks very quickly[ oximately 90 minutes to learn a bicycle brakeass (Gold, 1972) and 120 minutes for electric circuitboard assembly (Levy, 1975)] when taught in a one-to-onesituation using systematic to piques; one-to-onetraining, however, is seldom Fovided on the basis thatthere are insufficient professional staff available. Levy(1978) discovered that sheltered workshop supervisors

78

.111

rDebilitating Effects

.

spent only 10% of their tole tirrkaihing, Apparentlyworkshops do nat establish cleir training procedures and.systems, do no't train staff to use them, or do maintainimplemektation.. . . .

.

iummaily, the complex Work of whi6h Moderately and. .

erely. handicapped persons are capable is seldomlable to them. When compleic work is available, /hereinsufficient training and few Oorkshops have'

4tP defined, training time,. procedures and systems for .implementation, The result is that staf.ihOnd little timetraining. Educators, have the' ability :Co give riandicappedpeople. skitls far beyond those they .will have theopportunity to use given the current nature of rinostsheltered workshops. It, appeau that the technology for

- Irainingbas surpassed its application., '4. ./ '° ,

A second 'training goal is to p rovide .clients with the;- mcopriate. social and work behaviors necessary. for ,-.. successful integration into more normalized work

environments. The lack pf appropriate behaviors hai-beendescribed as the most selvere deficit of retarded workers.The design of 'effective, and efficient programs to-train4ppropriaft work behavior's requires knowledge about!

,normal Worker behaVior and about ho% it differs, kmiretarded worker behavior: These variabres have yet WI be-

6 empirically ..sracified..' It is imperati.ve ta conduct .."4:4 T research to. specffy appropriate work behaviors and to

develop .chrnpatible curriculum artd.training :techniques., 4,- To. .achieve ,succest4in 'this arka,- tairting staff enol ,-., reseatchers.cannot guess what is important to.teach! The. ,

needs.of handicaOpe, people are too gre,a-rior the_ to, ,. t. Aste;timelearttierg nonfunctival behaviors.

,,,...:.. ,

.. , .....4 .

. t --:" ' I:\

ae4 0 ..

4 .

e .. 9 ^ Sr .-

. a1. 4 4 "*# t Environment

14.

Anottle'r consideration related io training social and work:,instrtictional, environment. The'.,

behaviors. .1,

-

4. IYr

t.

r

I t*

.16

population of sheltered workshops is considered abnormal-by soCie.ty)' obviously, that is why they are there.

Attempting. to teach normal behaviors in. abnormalsettings, however, is -unrealistic. Handicapped people ateexpecte4 to learn to' act ,normally withdut the behetitT ofnormal pdpulVioriinodels. The question 15 Is it fedsi6leto teach appropriate behavior skills in an-abnormal andsegregated environment? The level' of jolt successattained by ex-workshop clienfs would indicate that theanswer is no. Attempts to, provide handicapped workerswith access to normally behaving peers is essentiaLto thesuccessful development of appropriate work skills:

.

Levy

Productivity

Another area critical , to vocational, success fo?tanditapped people is job productivity. Competence isone isgect of success. consistent quality and rate of.peiform7ce are o.therL Yet, one only has to consider theaverage ags,of workshop and activity-center employees-to realize that' shel*red workshops are not big*

,Aoducti:ve environments. dk recent "national survey of;Weltered._ workshops found that mentally retarded

workshop employees earned an average of $1,030 peryear, and those in work activity centers earned4ply $520.p er tear (Greenleigh Amociates, 1175).

: '.

0,0 0ne reason fortilov4 worker,...pr.odUctlyity ii-flack ofmotivation due to,the4typeand quantity of taiks.teund in

l'sheltergd waiFkihopt. 'The :work is generally slittffle and ;,,e, :or. rerefittrous,1 provfding little stimulus to workers.

'Research tia4 shown a strong lelationshtp between task%characteristics, worker satisfaction and:production (Levy,Pomerantz;. & Gold, 077). Another reason for lowproductivity is that few. workshops have sufficientquantities of 'work to spstatn,.contiduous high rates of

81'.1 production. When there is no need for high production "rates, w9cers engage in off-task behavior or pretend to

:

* .

Debilitating Effects

.tic

,...' ,.....look busy. Sheltered workshop supervisors 'seldom

pressure workers or work with them to encourage higherproductivity. In contrast, .competent industrialsuperAfars spend a majority of their time 'working withthe 1416e staff to encourage higher productivity (Levy,

z1978). Forthermore,.withno need for.'high productivity,efficient production design is no* encouraged in shelteredworkshops; thus, little effort is extended to design cost-

4.

;

A effective systems or to invest in materials and equipment'. for facilitating higher production. The .singular message,to .everyone in industrial. environments is that theirpurpose is

redproduction. the singular message 'to everyone in

shelte settings isproduction;

their purpose is charity.sic

Under present cirCumstances, it is diffictilt io .kn'owwhether low productivity is.a factor-of *oiler limitationsor environmental conditions. Levy (1178) pievidedevidence to ind. ate that, for some w.orkers, .environmental factor are.critical to productivity. ,In thatstudy, sheltered wo kshop employees who were deemed.not \cariable of competitive: employment Were,nevhqiess, placed- into tompetitivejobs. One -workerwho had never stkpassed,42% productivity in ten years ofsheltered employment achieved 6296fter tWo days on thejob. Within ten days he reached 190% with an error rateof lest than 0.5%. These data raise the question, Hewmany othet handicapped workers are in similar workshopsituations?

b .. r. .

,Iln summary, conditions in sheltered worksitbps; such as_ .simplified tasks,' limited numbers of, tasks, poor 'Rroqaction designs, and staff if ference to production,,, .

are Major contributors to low w. ker productg<ity,14

Organizational Structure

. The final program components to he -discussed are the. organizational structure and the staff: Nelson (1971)

..;

A.

81

4

Al

.4

,, t4. I

.J

`.

.t describes a .dialotorny, that exists, in most sheltered,'

. .Workshops between, the,goat of habilitating clients and the

4 is, .need for °auction. For -inank_professionals,_the two--

not compatible nee. Some clients geed -an -0orientations, unprestured environment where they can learn skills at .

'their own pact. In the unpressured setting, demands forhigh' production railOs are inappropifla. Other clientsmerely 'need-a-job; their -goal is to, earn a living wage.

.A factor that may determi'n)Lk the orientation of tile-workshop is, the staff's training and background. ff. their ,

training is in the social sciences, such 4 as 'education ;psychology, .or-- social work, the the pr§ductitin-components of the program will cobably not be fully

..: developed. ,C,onversely, if th staff's" training ie inbbisiness, then theoclal serv,ice.,, rientation will .be fess

. highly stressed." : . ) , -

..- . a -'

. ..;Levy

.

In either, case, Tt appears. that theconflict between stafforientations interferes with the of effectivelypreparing handicapped people form e normal 'lives. Ifthe investment in sheltered prGgfam does not result inthe habilititioh of bandicappe4 people, alternatives sltuld.

be cohsideredgak chronic expenditures of considerablefinancial and Viinan resources. without reasonableimprovement in the quality of handicapped peoalescan no longer be tolerated. It'is extremely cliffitulY tochange large, well-established, ongoing systerrit., but"attempts must be made. The next part of itzrer4er willpresent some alteinafixes. .

I .

'ALTERNATIIIES'-°/

*Devising and ,implementing,can be challenging.perseverance are -required

... . ,...., .

solution to complex pro ems'CreatiViiy, dedication ) andfor r.heaningf9,1 change. New

82

s

. -

Debilitating tffects.

approaches to vocational programming for handicapped ,people must replace well-intended but less effective ones;if thequalitior theio lines is to be enhanced.

ReOntly, the Greenteigh Associates. (1975) assessedcurrent practices of sheltered workshops irohe United

j States' and recgrnmerided alternatives The suggestionsmade in this port, such as for. enclaV'es in privateindustry and for govern-merit-sponsored businesses, requirea firm commitment from our society and the governmentto the rights of, the handicapped 'to participate in thelabor force. The United States has not yet made thatcommitment, although it isregarded by many as one ofthe more .progressive and socially Conscious nations in theworld. -..11Li.thout that commitment, 'change would 'bedifficult,if not impossible. .

4 .

Given sufficient government` support, a numbir ofalternativps'are suggested; 'first, a new organizational .

struct Me4 controlled by16.ne,central governmental agencyneedsto b8 established. 'This agency would financially

support and monitor the integrity of piograms under its .

jurisdiction.. Four separate programs under the. central.agericy would provide direct services to handicappedadults..., .These, programs would be responsible for: 1)evaluation, 2). competitive employment, 3) controlledwork environments; and 4) alternatives to Werli. Eachprogram would have clearly defined roses andresponsibilities for carrying out service to handkcApped

.people.;

Evaluat%nI

Clients initially fleierred:for adult services would enter aregional diagnostic evaluation tenter staffed key

professional' baluatois, At this center. an evaluatdr coulddetermine the clientls current functioning rivel andywational training neleds in order to determine the best

".*

$3 ./.

. 1

-

" 17r '

... . _-_ I. ,s"T... - ."r

.. r ',- Leyy.-: .j.11":'-... - I '

, e . . ., f. ."'.1* ,

ini program for each individual. Afer, initial;e ion,each individual would betecomMended f* ore

-t-he three other program options. The that an,...improper, placement might occur would still exist, "bid the

probability of that event would decrease. ., Beyond..

evaluating clients, the center- staff would be activelyinvolved' in research to improve existing evaluationprocedures and to divelop new ones.

1

CoMpetitive Employment

, , itt.

. ,it is becoming dear that the' best place' ,to train an .indiiidual fora competitive job is at the employment site i(Levy, 978; Wehman, Hill, & Koehler; 1979). The t

conditiob of that site annpt be accurately replicated in.,artificial settings. refore,"one program option would

use competitive indu rial settings. ' .r

.- _ .A. AMany landicapped workers fail' at . cornpetitiv jobs tbecause: OA insufficient training and sap systems.

. .Many problems which occur on the job could be easily i.resolved if they are treated immediately. It they are not cimmediately deilt with, they cap deteriorate into major ,:problems; resulting in termination of the employeeo.A4Trainer-Advocate .(T40 model can be emPlOyed to train

. the handicapped worker on the job and to resolveproblems as they occur, thus increasing the probability 6fsuccessful placement ,(Levy, 1978). An objective of, the

. . model- is for the' T-A gradually to remove himself, orherself as regular. job- supe:ritrsors begih to assume ,

management responsibilities. This model, employed inmany pacts of the country, hai proyed to be an effectiveand economical :way of placing people in competitive' ' ..

employment.. . ,

Other models, such as ,the buddy system and workerenclaves, Could be employed, depending on the 'clientele,

, available. staff and particular situations. With the .buddy

,

.

. .84

t

.tating Effects

.

sys m, a nonhandicapped employee works alongside ahandicapped perion and serves as a model and trainer forthe .handicapped.Worker. in the enclave model, a group ofhandicapped people works as a unit in an industrial settingwith professional supervision; the handicapped workerexperiencei a normal work situation in a manner .

does rat threaten him or her and.. the, othernonhandicapped employees. Hopefully, as enclays6workers, become more profitient they will. have theopportunity to transfer to the reguldr work force. . .

, ., .

To snake competitive employment a feasible large-scaleOption, ,tbe government has to provide employerincentives: To date, a few demonstration programs

. document the feasibility of successful jobPlacement ofclients.. }/hen the demonstration stage 'evolves to large-

. scale' placements in the work force, industry mightrnibeeoe ,resistant. Emplaytr,s 'might find having large

groups of handicapped people in their work foiceimacceptable... The fact is that the high current and

-. predicted rates of unemployment...in this country mightdecrease- the ,need for handicapped people in the labor

forde. Nevethelesi, if legislation mandates and provides-incentives fOr businesses to accommoda,te handicappedworkersi then. their acceptance as ftiil-fledged 'members

. Aol the work force should be. facilitated..- . .

I. . .

,' One.form of eMptoyer incentive would be to. provide on- ''.. i" the-job training-funds during the .initial training period.' i Another incentive would be to provide wage sbbiidies for ,

,.'; ;individuals who do not -meet production standards. If.'..,,I .employers Are nbt required to withstand the cost of

t training, hiring the handicapped should be more attractive.' ,to thenu The benefits to handicapped people, such as

having the opportunity to work in a normalized setting, .

-- ',feeling useful and earning a decent living, are self-al.."4 ' '' .. evident., The benefits received Sy .society through

",. '---tedbcing financial dependency, improving human lives,, -, Q creatisig mere taxpayers should more offset the

po ential risks of paying illegitimate training, ubsidies. i. .,... ,,..,

`'\ $5*N.

t 90

' t*

Controlled Work Environment

Levy

An alternative for those not presently ready forcompetitive employment wouldtbe the controlled workenvironment. The controlled work environment would beestablished with the sole purpose of prbvidirt a place ofemployment for 'handicapped people, with work potentialand interest. These shops would be operated* businesseswhere people ,would engage in work and be paid at leastthe minimum wage. Long-term contracts would beobtained from governmental or private sources. TheLegislation to enable this to occur has alrea,dy been

. approved by Congress with the pissege of the WagnerO'Day Act in 1938 and mom recently' with the 3avits-Wagner O'Day Act in 1271.

, ..The. work would be at higher leyels of com exity than ,presently found at most sheltered workshops. More*.complex work should increase the challenge to employees

---- --and should generate. aciditional _income .fon the workshop. _4..

. The environment would, be business-oriented, and staff, .7working with employees, would serve. as good worker .Models. Production systems Would be designed tomaximize.productivity., Training would be available, but .only in the context of the wofk task; that is, the specificjobs and the relevant appropriati behaviors would receiveattention; Professionally trained support personnel would

N.consult with line staff on specific behavior or learning .problems.

iswork, not ,training, would be the workshop

goal,. It is .i5redicted that through providing a etwine,productive business erwironment,where employees engagein meaningful remunerative work, higher levels 4 of 'appropriate client behaviors and skills will naturally ..;

' . emerge.

.i.,., ,..-

?4 P.r- ,.. i .. ,

s.) .. ' . .

. . . I'. o. .

. *

4

Debilitating Effects

An Alternative To Work.

The final program, option is a life activity program toserve those persons who are either presently incapablkofwork or who choose not to engage in work. Not everyonecan or should be involved remuneraVvework. Somepeople have so many deficits and require prbgramming inso many. areas that work may not be a first priority for,them. Others may choose not to'spend their time workingand would receive nonvocational skill training and

%experience. For his group, a prbgrim emphasizingindependent living, self-help, and recreational-ticills would

. be'appropriate. Participants would be subsidized with. adisability pension. Should their interest and prioritieschange such that a vocational direction seems moreappropriate, they could. transfer to a controlled workenvironment or competitive employment.

4,

:!-AlF414

V

CONCLUSION

The present system ot services for the moderately and,severely retarded is inefficient, ineffective, costly, and,in fact, debilitating to those it is intended to help.,Sejdorn do the moderately and severely retarded acquirethe skillsAcessary for meaningful participation in the'labors-lot-de; The,potential of many of these individuals toe r the' woftt" force has been demonstrated. Yet the

ledge of at potential has produced little change in;the c trent, Service delivery, system. The failure ofhandicapped peo.ple,to realize their vocational potential

sitribufed to the systems through which theyrecei Slices or these systeths frequently reinforceindivid is -tb atisplay inappeopriatte behaviors. Indeed,they of tent .aCquIre' new inappropriate behaviors as theyparticipate in' vresentty, seicisting vocational programs.

tv;

87, fr

-'4N

,0

1

Levy

The resulting effect is one of debilitation rather thanhabilitation. .

A substantial change is not only warranted, but required.The alternatives suggested hel-e Oresent their ownproblems. If these suggestions stimulate focusseddiscussion,...bowever,%a new concensus could evolve, onewhich would construct a more effective service systemfor handicapped citizens. Certainly improving the qualityof handicapped peoples' lives will require that we find andemploy better strategies for service delivery in the futurethan those we have employed in the past.

00. I

a .I

4 ,

4.

.

$

.

S.. .

, .

9Z '88. ., .

.,,

.4

.

%

'

Debilitating Effects .

REFERENCE LIST..V

Appel', M. 1., Williams,C.M., & Fishell, K. N. Significantfattors in placing retardates' from a ,workshopsituation. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1962,'41, 260-265.

BellamyG. T., Horner, R. H., & Inman, .P. Vocationalhabilitation of severely retarded a tsi-7-7TWEIservice technology, Baltimore: .University ParkPress, 1979.

Bellamy, G. T., Peterson, L.,,& Close, D. Habilitation oftill severely and profoundly retarded: Illustrationsof co petenc'e. Education and Training of theMental' Retarded, 1975, 10, 174-186.

,..Gold, M. W. Stimulus factors in skin training of the. retarded on a complex assembly taskt.Acquisition,

t transfer, and retention. American ,Journal ofMental Deficiency, 1972, 76, 517-526.

Greenleigh Associates. The ole of the sheltered .

workshop a in thP re ab Ittation of severelyhandicapped. Washingto DC: Department. ofHealth, Education and Welfare, RehabilitationServices Administration; 197/.

Levy, S. M. The development of work skill trainingprocedures for the assembly of printed. circuitboards by the severely handicapped.. AAESPHReview, 1975, 1, 1-10.

Levy, S. M. Pomerantz, D. J., & Gold, M. W. Work skill'development. In N. G. Haring & L. J. Brown (Eds.),Teaching the Handicapped (Vol. ?). Ne?" York:Gr,une St Stratton, 1977. $.

.

,

89%

. Levy

Levy, Sc M. The measurement of retarded and normalworkers'' )ob performance through the use ofnaturalistic observation in sheltered and industrialwork environments. Unpublished doctoraldissertation, University of Illinois, 1978.

Meadow, L. & Greenspan, E. Employability of lower levelretardates. American Journal of Mental Deficiency,1961; 623-628.

Merwin, M. R. The use of match-to-sample techniques totrain retarded adolescents and. adults to assemblyelectronic . circuit beards. Unpublished master'sthesis, University of Illinois, 1973.

MeGv?n, M. R. The 'effects of pretraining, upon the. training, and transfer of circuit board assembly skills

of retarded adults. Unpublished doctoral, dissertation, University of Illinois, 1974.

Nelson, N. Workshops for the handicapped in the UnitedStates: An historical and devleopmental perspective.Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1971.

Patterson, C. H. Methods of assessing the vocational'adjustment potentiai of the mentally, handicapped.Training School Bulletin, 19641 61, 1291'152.

Pomerantz, D. 3., & Marholin, D. *Vocational habilitation:A "time for change in existing service deliverysystems. In 4p. Sontag, N. Certo, do 3, Smith (Eds.),Educational Programming for the SeverelyHandicapped. Reston, VA: Council for ExceptionalChildren, Division of Mental Retardation, 1977.

'Busch, F. R. & Mithaug, D. E. Vocational training formentally retarded adults: A behavior analyticapproai . Champaign; IL: ResearchPress, 1980.

Tiffin, 3. Industrial Psychology (3rd ed.). New York:Prentice -Hall, 1957.

Debilitating Effects

Wagner, E. E. do Hawver,psychological testsperformance forAmerican Journal of685-691.

D. A. Correlations betweenand sheltered workshop

severely retarded adults.Mental Deficiency, 1965, 69,

.

Wehman, P. &McLaughlin, P. J. Vocational curriculumfor developmentallt disabled ersons. Baltimore:

AOP

University Park Press, 1980.

Wehman, P., Hill, J. 4( Koehler, F. Helping severelyhandicapped persons enter competitive employment.AAESPH Review, 1979, 4, 274-290.

REFERENCE NOTES

1. National Association of Sheltered Workshops andHomebound Programs. Resolution passed atAnnual meeting of NASWP H, San Franciscd;CA, December, 1968, from Report" of theNASWPH Sheltered Workshop PolicyCommittee to the Board of Directors,October, 1968.

2. Gold, M. W. The acquisition of a complex assemblytask by retarded adolescents. Final Report,May, 1969, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

K

19g5"

91

0

4Community-Based Vocational Training

and Placement fort4e Severely..Handicapped '

Keith H. Larson'n P. Edwards 0b

3,

In. order to proVide an exam-pie of a reliable, community-based training model',for the severely handicapped, this/chapter -will focus upon the Pontland State. U;niversity ,-eVocational Careers Modti,Thif model it batvd On therecognition that succeslfuI management 4ir Community .training requires a rigid structure .of. control and- datacollection, a stiakcture in which all decisions 4fNcting the_prOgram and its dieros are directed towaLc1. Ansi in 'which .

-all trainer efforts are evaluated ex04lierino, communityvocational placement. Two premiseepridicateithi:trodel:."

a severely handicapped pereop will have a betteru quality of life if he or she can work II-dependently

alongside nonhandicapped workers'in a community setting}and **raining for s9,ch placement is best a complished ohactual community job sites rather than 'n shelteredsettings. 'These premises derive from% .personalexperience and convictions of the authors, who have each'been involyed in work experience' programs for the

t handkappea sthce 1963, as well as fror the convictions; ofothtrs whehave also..valued the influences. of, reality. on

. the training of the severely-handicapped.

b 93, ..11.; ..___..... ..... ...

... . . .

Larson dc Edwards

Among those who have agreed that community training'and placement are desirable and effective, Soptag andSmith. (1978) stressed as a federal government ,,goal theopportunity for the severely handicapped to live to theirmaximum productive potential. Brown, Wilcox, Sontag,Vincent, Dodd, eand Gruenwald. (1977) emphasized theresponsibility of all educators to develop and implementeducational delivery systems that maximize theopportunities of the severely handicapped to learn thenecessary skills for full participation in heterogeneousadult communities.

ilthough Bellamy, and Snyder (1976) and Gold (1974) have. _

clearly demonstrated the availability of instructionaltechnology for teaching severely handicapped individualsuseful and productive vocational tasks;. Pomerantz andMarholian' (1977) surveyed the literature and pointed outthat most sheltered workshop programs, fail' to dO anypiogressive training or to,make job placement efforts inthe ommunity. A 1972 HEW (Note 1) report Indicatedthre major problems found among vocational programs;these programs 1) failed to prepare the environment forstudents as Well as they. prepared the students for theenvironment, 2) failed to take advantage of, .or solicitassistance frxm,,serVices or groups outside the programadministration, and 3) failed to assure the relevance ofprogram content to the job market.

Pointing to problems of another kind, '6Wolfensbergeral (1972) "voiced dissatisfaction with the diagnostic

procedures for the severely handicapped. He stated, "Theliotion of utilizing the, initial performance of severelyhancpcapped young adults on evaluation devices fqr the

, -purpose of judging their feasibility for future employmentis ridiculous. The population is, useful for occupationalsuccess if. they have appropriate training, appropriatemanagement techniques and are assigned appropriatetasks" (I); 71). MOreover, he pronounced that "Diagnosis isquite often a dead end, frequently resulting in afrustrating series of referrals instead of leading tomeaningfdl assignmnt. Diagnostic services are of

4

go, n

3

Community-Based Vocational Training

overdeieloped in comparison to other available resources'(p. 71). Not only diagnostic, but assessment procedures0o have come under scrutiny. aellamy, Peterson, and.'lose (1975), for example, question assessment use thus:

Many of the innovations in services fbrkthe sever*'handicapped have resulted from attempts to serveindividuali who have been previously excludedbecause of poor assessment results. It would seemmore appropriate to find a service procedurethrough whic0 severely handicapped might be servddrather than attempting. assessment proceduresaimed at finding particular individuals for'particular

11 1 vocational activities.(p. 175) . iffel

In addition to problems With diagnostic and assessmentprocedures, financial contingencies which reward

nonplacement of clients 'also impede community-basedtraining efforts and community placement. Manyprograms that purport to provide community, vocationalpldcement and to promote client independence oftenexhibit contradictory actions because of these financialcontingencies. A client, for example, is usually assessedby, a sheltered workshop for as long as an assesstnent feeis being paid; similarly, the time deemed necessary forwork adjustment training is apt to coincide precisely withthe time for which funding is available. Furthermore, theworkers in sheltered' *orkshops or activity centers withthe best production reputations are not easily released forcommunity-based training or job placement,

In order to .,mitigate these ideVied. impediments tocommunity job placement, the VOTational Careers Modelis 'designed to complement and support such placement.Within this model, a Structure ,has been established inwhich all program and client decisions support acommunity, vocational goal and all trainer efforts areevaluated against the specific activities which lead mostefficiently to that goal. The model features five,corn ponents, each of which addresses the roblernsoutlined above: 11 community-based training,

95

1/4

. .

.1

.

I

Larson k Edwards

. ,

for clients, 2) dearly stated trainer responsibilities,including weekly reporting of individual professionalperform4nce, 3) extensive environmental preparation to .assure long-term sutiport of clients; 4) minimalprevocational assessment and training, and 5) use ofproven instructional methods for the severely handicapped(e.g., task analysis, prescriptive teaching and behaviormodification). The structure of tfte Vocational CareersModel is indicated in the Flow Chart (Figure I) ; thearrows in this chart demonstrate the interrelatedness of (all client activities. Very little of the model issequential; rather, the model is designed to immerse theclient into the realities of a community vocational site asrapidly as possible and to draw training priorities from theclient's specific on--;site needs.

Since three manuals, Assessment, Management, and''Training, are. available from the $ocational CareersModel, the discussioti which follows .w111. be limited to 1)illustrating how a trainer works with a single client, 2)explaining the purpose of each of the model components,3) identifying management problems and.solUtiom, and 4)pfesenting data sumrdarrds to indicate typicaf amounts oftraining effort needed for clients and trainers in order for

-clients to reach independent employment status.4

INDIVIDUAL TRAINING ACTIVITIES

The Vocational Careers Model employs a .commuruty.trainer who typically works with seven to ten differentClients at a time. A resource room Or home base isprovided for clients when they ate not involved .in acommunity activity. The resource room activities listedon Figure 1 could be offered in a classroom, an, activitycenter or a sheltered workshop. A trainer's activ4ies,which are directed tplvards the goal of independent

9;j96

..

Community=Based Vocational Training

v, 'Figure 1: AFlowChart of Major Activities in the

Cotteriunity-Based Training Model s

f . 'ils

Scs'eeningInterviewing

..)

RESOURCE ROOM .Work Task Contracts Social Skills:

indeperldent LivinrSkiEs Job.Relital Academic Skills

behavior Problems Recreation

Simulated kb Site Tasks

,

VocationdElastics'

' JobExploration ,

Lon ;-Teem 3". P Itiacem*Pan TimeTranu sSite

ng

Full Time.,

7

IF IT 11 HI_ 1*: Travel Training

. .,

.

employment; follow a defined sequence. As the followingsteps indicate, there are contributing activities whichmust tte carried out and non-contributing activities 'whichmust be avoided. . 1 .' ,

. . I

The first step, in securing employment js to locatepotential job sites, The 'trainer considers the currenteconomic conditions of the -community .and lists severaljob sites of interest to a specific clierit ,which offer a

f variety . of tasks to learn. The trainer, contacts theerriployers at these j'ob, sites and asks if Evan-might be ,arranged. During the visit, the trainer views the setting. .

not only in terms. of jobs as they are cureengy structured,but 'in terms of tasks which might be regrouped for the

. .client's particular skill level. IF After: five or -sixexplorations at different sitesihe-- trainer Yeturns to i.whichever site interests the cl ot, offers the greatest --'poterLtial for: the, client's successful' iserfortnance-eni hesthertenfial for providing a paid position.. . s- ''

7

.

,

;

a

I. .i.s(

.

97 .. ... .. . .

' ..

i

Larson'dc Edwards

The second step occurs hen thi trainer contacts anemployer aod asks permissn to use the site for short-term training. The trainer indicates to the employer thathe or she will be present at all times so that the clientwill not require any supervision from the .employer's ownstaff., As, soon as the employer grants permission, thetrainer bringsthe client to the job site, works side-by-sidewith the client,tand observes which tasks or parts of tasksthe client comketes with minimal instruction and whichrequire more instruction. The trainer then task-analyzesthe latter and writes instructional programs. SinceInitially the trainer and client are on the job she for onlypart of the day, the traine4 usually borrows koductionmaterials to use for task simulation in the resoarce room.In addition; the trainer teaches the client how to usepublic transpOrtation every morning and night and

'provides. additional opportunities for mobility instructionwhen the client is not at the job site.

Finally, the traiter works with his or her client to developand improve th2,se specific behaviors and skills needed atthe specific jab site: The 'trainer does not expectprelhously learned skills. or behaviors to .be generalizedand to 'make the client successful on this job. Insummary, he or shb makes certain that the client learnsall work tasks, social behaviors and travel skills forsuccess on the intended job site. '

So that nothing in 'the setting creates problems for theclient, the trainer does not only work with the clientwhile_at to job site;' he or she works as hard So preparethq job enqiro,nment as to prepare.the client. The trainermakes certain that She other employees understand thetraining process and that everyone involved at a decision-,makihg level 'S informed o4 all training stages. Theimmediate jo supervisor, other management people,personnel, cs ice staff and parents o guardians 'are allencouraged to support the client. The trainer reinforcescooperative attitudes and develops understanding andskill' ,on the part of fell w employees to woCk moreeffectively with the client o the job, in the lunchroom or

1U.98

4,

11

s

,---,,,

Community -Based Vocational Training

-, .

on coffee breaks. ' The ,trainer' makes certain that theprimary hiring authbrity is aware of all the skills gainedby the client and how the client's production compares to

. that of the regular workers. -..

When . the, client.*becomes well, lolown to the employer, e

well accepted by fellow employees, and demonstrates an. a,bility to perform the required work, the traner.is in the

most favorabl% poSition, to discuss permanent: emplpyrrient. Permanent 'employment should be I) for a

rediiced number, of .1-tours a day, 2) on selected tasks theclient has mastered and 3) under employment conditionsattractive to'the employer (e.A., a tax credit is availablewhich effectively reduces -the pay rate to the employer

- ykt.hoUt reducing the client's pay). The trainer -always. guarantees his or her continued assistance after

placement. . ,.

.

Thus, an ideal situation hai occurred for obtaining apositive response from an employer. First, from the jobexploration, the trainer already knows there is a potentialemployment' opportugity. Second, 'the employer and

'employees have had an opportunity to observe the clientworking,4 '',.an acceptable level of performance. And

. third,.. everyone' has come to know the client as anindividual..

In.,surnmary, some of the actions taken in this community-based vocation4I training effort are:

... - . '1. The trainer directed his or her eff81-ts to

... specifk activities. ,Only those activities that.

. -*tad., immediately and effectively lead to",: community job placement for the client were

, : ek0Phasized.. ..

. : /' "

2.% f . .

2 '. %A.'"specific job training site was selected., ,. ,, ,:lointly by the trainer and the,clier,it based on a.

1 ,.', totar iiew of the ,job environment, not just the. .. s.'Pecifit job tasks. The trainer looted at the

'11

4g., ,potential for job placement with a concern for,, . : ..

# - 4, -s - % : ; .. -. .

4 t . 99 102.A ,

A 411

4

.

A

.

.

. .

.

o

'. Larson & Edwards

,..--..Pthe realities of the marketplace, the specific

jbb tasks to be structured and taught it .orderto, constitute a full- or part-time position, andthe job environment's potential ability to

f . sustain a severely handicapped ersoli as anemployee. The trainer allowed the clierit tohelp make the site' selection based on Ns orher own si4eria (e.g., the lunchtibom was nice,the other workers were friendly, or the peoplewore nice uniforms).

- 4 P

3. The trainer .provided instruction primarily atthe site where the client was to surviveindependently and thew all of the trainingpriorities from the specific needs idintified atthat site.

4. The trainer prepared the environment aseffectively.as the client was prepaied.

5. The specific social behaviors deemed mostimportant for survival among. fellow

, ertlployees became priority skills for the clientto learn.

I

-.

Actions not taken by .the trainer include;

1. The trainer did not go to an employer alone,and illustrate the plight of the mentally.retarded with words or a slide show.

,

'--..

2. The trainer did not spend 16 weeks with theclient in .prevocational assessment. Neitherdid the trainer establish job stations in aclassroom setting and attempt to drawconclusions about a client's interests based onthose tasks. The trainers recognized that jobtasks may contribute little to the. job'sdesirability to the client.

'1.03 100

% II

4

t ,

. Community-Based Vocational Trainik .

3. 'The trainer did not request copies 'of theclient's performance on the We-chslerIntelligence Scale for. Adults or other meauresof intelligence to make judgments about his orher ability to master certain work tasks. ,

4. The 'trainer overlooked six months ofprevocational, training on tasks indicated bysome "ex ert" .as potentially useful for 'allseverely ndicapped clients.

5. The trainer did. not task- analyze every phaSe:of the job the client was to perform prior tobringing the client to the site. Rather, eachtask was modeled for-the client and he or shewas allowed to attempt the task./ Taskanalyses were prepared and instruction wasprovided only for those tasks which wereproblematic for the client.

The above actionl, taken and not taken by the trainer andhis or her client, accomplished efficiehtly the placementof severely handicapped adult loo a communityvocational setting with norihandicapped persons.

MODEi. COMPONENTS

The Vocational Careers Model components will bedescribed briefly in the order in which trainers reporttheir activities on the Weekly Agenda and Effort TallySheet (Figure 2). Client activities do not necessarilyoccur in this sequence, as was indicated in Figure 1.Further discussion of the Weekly Agenda will be providedip the section on management problems and solutions.

101

,

/- Larson A Ed Wards

II .., .. ,

1. Client Search. As indicated previously, the procesDof lo Ong clients is different for each agency adoptingthis gel. Clients may be referred by sthool districts,voAt al rehabilitation agencies or parents.

-.4, ,,2/ lient Screening. Client screening initially includesAi, ering available data concerning individual clients and

eting with sthoge clients and others who shareg responsibility for them. The model does not require that

any particular behaviors or skill levels exist at admission.pi /'While all clients thus far have been able to feed, toilet

i and dress themselves, eipetience with the model indicatesthat, given sufficient time and appropriate jobnitedevelopment, most handicapped adults can be successfullyplaced (even those for whom vocational placemeitt iscommonly deemed unfeasible }.

A3. Client Assessment. A Vocational Careers Assessment

. Manual is usecrto obtain data on client performance andbehavior 'relevant to vocational success in a communitywork setting. Data are criterion referenced to determineappropriate intervention levels in a try/help/try againeducational sequence. .

This manual gives an overview of several skill areas oftenrelated to vocational success for She severely_handicapped, prOvides a:vehicle for planning instruction,and serves as the first step of an Individual EducationalPlan for use with parents or surrogate parents. It is to beemphasized that any wail it priorities establishedthrough, the findings of', the 'initial assessment procedureare of a lower, priority than training needs identifiedthrough a client's performance on a sptcific community ..

long-term .,training site or on a job placement. site.Clients are not required to learn a par.tk-tsiar set ofprevocationalsskills prior to placement a a communityjob site. Community training sites are sought for a clienteven if thit client has not achieved competency on.any1ofthe assessment items.-

.

.%

102 e

.

's .

. ..

I.:. %. .

Catisjtiunity-Based Vocational Training.

Figure b Weekly Agenda and Effort Tally Sheet

. e_

...-

1. Client Searcha

,

DATE , t ....

l

(CS) 2t (ST) (CS) It (Cs)

. (CS) 1/4 (PA) . - (CS) it (KH)

. -

2. Client Screening

(CS) 1-1/4v (CS)-

(CS) 3/4v (PA)

3. Client Assessment.

(pW) it (PA)

(py ) 3hr Assessment (PA)

4. Clpssroom Preimaidon Programsb i

.

(CS) lv (ST) '4

.WW13hr Assessment (cr)

(PW)-I "Vol-3 B0-4 -fPW)-1 mol.s DR-5-,

(PW);1 Vol-3 MW-2 , . ipV/3-2 Vol -1 or-2

3

PW )-2 Vcit-2 13G7.2 ft W)-1 Vb1-3 FF.3..., .

(PW)-1, Vol-E, WC-4 .,_. (PV/)3 Voi.1iKK-1..,

a-First Sot o_..-'

f (initials) = slat( membert = number of telephone callsv = number of visits -./

Second set of (initials) 2 client

,.

' ..,

- ,,bThe firsvekample reads as follows: :

(Staff) taught 1 pro ram, vol (VolUnteers) taught' 3 programs, (client)',.. :. has3.0birarns currently available ... v .

. - I._,, --- i

._

.- - . Lid- ,1.93. -

_., ..

,

1...

4

*.'

...

Larson 4 piwaids,

. . .S. 'Classroom Programs Simulating Training Sitel'asici

()4 Nr ow mw-t

(PW)-1 'Vol-2 DRI"

" ' 6. Travel Training

(CS) 3-3/4v WG

:

.

TPW)-1_ ol-I DC- I

(PW)-5, Vol. 1 IT/G-1

(WL) 6v FF. .

(CS) Strt-Met Public (WL) 6-112v BO-Transportation , . , ,. i

Co. (group/training);

. , c .7. Employer Contacts--Training Materials .

.(CS) Iv Amaricln Canter (PW) 2t American Cancer

society SOC.lety. .

(WI.) iv-Intel ElectronicsAdministration Co. (private corporation)

(PW) 2t Bonneville Power

..,

8: Employer Contacts Long -Term Training Sites. ../- (CS) It Portland Recycling -3G (WL) it Health and Physical ,

Education Department

I

-.

.

(CS, St Health and Phyiscalcoucation departmentat t. ortiand stateuniver.sity-1FJAK

.4

' (WL) 112v Mother's Deli -DC .

.I.

t

-.

, 4"

at Portland StateUniversity -BO

4 .(PW) it Sonic -MEW (stereo .

manufacturing?

(PW) It PortlanaltateUniversity Food Service=MEW

1,PW) It Ondine Dormitory 'DR

.,

104

.

..

.4

.

:

-

V 4Community- 'Based VocatiOnat Training -

. I .

- : ' .: . . .

,

o. -..,

*

9 Long-Term Or:-Site Training SessiOns

(CS) iv Portland State. (WL) iv Portland Recyclinguniversity roos -MW

Service.-ro ...

ir

f

(Pw) IsOndine DOreriltory -DR* : (V/.

Iv Portland state. Linty ity .Food Service -B0

-(PW) Ise Health and Physical

- Edtication Departmentat Portland Statethiiyersity -DR

(WL) 1/24 iZ>ndirie Dormitory.

-DR _

.. . ,

10.......,,,,

Employer Contacts=-3ob Exploration

9.

s .

e

(CS) It Portland Motor, Hotel -3G4

(CS) it, Iv BailiwickMotel -DG

i

I.

' II/LIt Ad Mail -B3-, (advertising company)

(WL)Ir Mannino -Restaurant(-B01

(CS)1-1/2v, 3t HiltonHotel -PF

(WL) It, lv,_2L Holladay ParkHospital -DG

I l. Employer contacta--34b Placernerst Training"o

_,

(CS) 3/4v Pay 'n Save -DC " .- (WL) 2t Wilson High School.. . Kitchen -3G

(CS) 20Bonneville power .43 . (11/1.)it Intel -MT/..,.

,: (CS) lv Red Lion Motel Hotel WL) It Sonic -row` -0G . .

(WL) 2t Tektronix -BO . .' (WL) 2v Intel -MW(electronic company)

, , .12. ' 3ob Placement TritinirripSessions

(CS) 2-3/tv Pay 'n Save -DC. .

'iCS31-1/12v Zoo .KK -

(CS) Ifir making holder fortraining program

. 0

% .

,, 1)5. , .

.

(WL) 3v Hilton -FF

n) 3v Red Lion -DC..

I

1. 1 1-c ..)...

,

4

il

'p

4

v I

.

, .

rt

t

A.

As,

. Larson & Edwards., .. .

P. Parent Contacts

. (CS) 2t G

A . .

V

.

...

,. .

(PW) It Frb.

(CS) 2t G

, (CS) 3t K .

(PW) 3t R

(WL).1.1/2v 3;I ;

1 (C5) 3t R.

44Y.

(WL) 3t W

CPW) Si a IP I.) It G..*

.. e14. Other (virlous support Services) '

*(d) 2hri st;fling

(CS) it Mental Health Divison

(CS) lhr graduate student;

(PW) 2rs staffing

N

..

(PW) 1,412 hrs 4raduates ).,

Ow) It special bivmpics .

(WL)2hrs staffingA .

MO It Portland Habilitation

.-(PW) 3t Reglonal*Program forme Deal

a iVF_

t"--..W) It Bill Cardwell-Blind

OMMISSIOTI .

. .(WL) It Department of Vocational

Rehabilitation

(WL) 2t joutnal writing article

...

a. .

4. Clakroom Preirocational Prograrni. TM resourcecenter provides a coordination point for all clieptactivities. In the Vocationaf Careers Model, a client _.isalways fully involved, either in the community or in direct

. instructional prograins related to skills and behaviorsrequired on a current or anticipated community job site. orat a paid,task. A major. goal of the resource room is toincrease a client's work _tolerance and attention to task,

hnd these . *take . precedence over -task -.content.Reinforcement with money may begin with nickels, for a

it _ tew minutes on task4Which may immediately bespentiforfqod,,pr drink) followed by increasingly fonger``delays ofpayment. Training goals can be most easily kept in locut

. . ..,, ..,

. ',106.,

.

.

41

,

.

1'

Community-Based Vocational Training

with volunteer tasks (e.g., sorting and counting materialsfor the "American Cancer Society) where funds forremunerating clients are raised-,from local foundations orservice organizations.' Contract work without dstiveryp ressure can serve! similar purpose. _

5, Classroom Programs Simulating Training Site Tasks,Simulation programs may be developed to replicate any'community skill needed ,by a client. gor-earnple,distinguishing the number five bus from the number two

h. or seven bus ,exemplifies a simulation program to assisttravel' training. Similarly, folding towels,in_the resource.room simulates an initial laundry training Lite. By .usingclassroom simulations of work tasks, clients can receisteadditional training on specific problematic taskcompooentt. ,

6. Trayel Training. Each client is provided theopportunity to learn how to move independently fr.om hisor her herne to the resource room or'job site, using publictransportation or walking. Instructional programs may

/ include both actudl route practice programs as well assimulation programA ;with polaroid prints or slides showinglandmarks, traffic or personal con,duc; and safety rules..Each program is specific to the actual,.commun4y travelneeds of the clients.

7. Employer Contacts Training Materials. A traineroccasionally reqUests . production , materials fromcommunity job sites prior to conducting a job, exploration.The purpose of this activity is to familiarize the clientwith the material and not. for general instruction.

- .8. Employer Contacts: Long-Term Training Sites. Severalcommunity job sites are sought to provide initialcommunity wofk experience,s no,t necessarily consideredto be potential placement 'sites. These sites must be

because,a vainer and client need a placewhereftno4 work sessions, low production, low quality ofwork and inappropriate behaviors do hot upset theemployer or other nonhandicapped employees. This site

107 1.1.0

O

#.

Lirson Edwarils.

analysis may be done independently by a trainer,,iir as aresult of an exploration.

9. Long-Term On-Site Tr.ainkrig Sessions. Long-termtraining sites are used to provide community jobplacement experiences for clients. The skills required canbe Minimal (e.g., sorting or folding), and the initial timeinvolvement can be for as little as one hour a day. After,training' begins, all job-site and resource roominstructional programs and training efforts becomefocused only on those skills and behaviors which will allowthe client to survive independently at that specific site.One-to-one training supervision is necessary inktially atthe site, with a final stggi of supervision requiring onlyspot checks. This, type , ol community experience ismaintained with vgased client time on that job trainingsite or other sites' until a job placement experiencebegins..

. . ,10. Employer ritacts: Job Exploration. The purposeof job exploration is threefold: 1) to allow the client toobserve a variety of . jobs ,inv the community and toparticipate in the- selection of a site, 2) to allow thetrainer to assess the job-placement potential of particularjobsites, arid 3) to allow the trainer to evaluate and trainthe client in approjiate community social behaviors. Itis important to avoid determining a, client's vocationalinterest by figjting him to,work samples from an unseensite, for worasks in themselves are often insignificantand sometimes irrelevant variables in determining jobdesirability. Job exploration further provides theopportunity for;..the employer and other employees tobecome acquainted with a severely handicapped individuplin an unpressured, situation.

11. . Employer Contacts: lot) Placement Training. The4 trainer may return to a community business site and

discuss a particular task (not necessarily for a currently -structured job) which the trainer can use one or swo hoursa da4f to train a client. Examples of actual client jobs inthe Vocational Careers Model include: labeling prices and

',' ° ' .,. .....

. . .,'' r

I... , ,

Community-Base'd Vocational TrainingAS A .

.v

stocking shelves in a variety,store; sorting and packagingin-an electronics manufacturing plant, washing dishes in arestaurant; washing and fold ng laundry' In a mo 1, foldingsheets; in a laundry, cleaning ooms in a retie ent home,completing custodial tasks in otel employe . locker andIciunge area, and cleaning restaurant fixtures nd refilling

",condimenteatteir hours..

Site .phfracteristics contributing to succes ful placementobviously var-with each client,. but -er7few eneralizationscan be, Made. Job sites where' the ork task itselfconsistently cues viork are best for clien s with a recordof deviant behaviors (e.g.,. having dishe coming steadilyfrom a large.-dishwalher, rather than eying a group oftables .to clean): JO sites with low taff turnover arepreferable since developing a upportiv environment is asimportant ashraining the client. Th excessive workerturnover can defeat' placement effo s. Job sites wherefhe task meaningfully, contributei t. the facility's overall

. operation are als8 preferable: For example, a client whois the only sheet 'folder in a ho laundry is perceivedmore positively by co- workers d management than aclient Who isone a ten sheet fo ers.

0

. .

The community trainer only contacts employees regardingclients who have been previous visitors.. Therefore, theclient is somewhat familiar to the prospective employer.In addition,-the drinmunity trainer guarantees to providetotal supervision of and instrtictioh 'for the client. The

-employee is informed that, the Vocational Careers Modelis responsible" for.. thetlientis 'salary, and insurancecoverage during trainin. .

. it loti Placement *fling Sessions. Training occursafter a community jbb site has been approved bi thetrainer and/ to lh ...degree possible, by the client. Thetrainer works wit the client demonstrag the job andObserving his or her performance. Afte several, worksessions, the t ainer task-analyzes' and writes specificinstructional programs only for those tasks which the,client has demo'n'strated difficulty in learning through

4

109 -114:

*4'

, ;r

Larson & Edwards

.,

Ftio delint. The trainer also makes a careful review of. theihvironment anC,develops instructiogal programs for

dealing appropriatelt.With urxi'qUe job-site characteriiiics..These 'programs' mayr include flow to -interact with a''particular fellow, employee, use the vending machine inthe lunch room o; tell time correctly.. Where apprcipriateVocatiOndl tasks from the job site are, simulated in theresource room .tO allow additional practice. Allinstructional priorities are dictated by the needs of aspecific job site,. Thergfore, .during job.,placementtraini9g sessions,.'thetrainei. has four ,,goals: 1) todemonstr .ate tbe clip Ps ability° to leatn job tasks andappropriate job-related behaviors, 2) 'to, increase the

. client's rate and quality bf perforrriance oil job tasks andbeha4riors, 3) to show the .employees and supervisorsappropriate instructional interactions MO the client and4). to make, certain that all environmental contingencies

. controlling hiring decisiont are as favorable and positiveas possible for the client. .

The trainer's additional responsibility is to help theemployer consider all possible ,options for the client'semployment. These options might include restructuring a

difir job. to encompass fewer tasks, arranging a part-time jobor establishing a hared position. Many possible jobstructures' can avail a severely handicapped individt.tal the, opportunity to travel independently to a work. siA, todisplay., successfully leained.work tasks, to work alongsidenonhanacapped supportive co- workers, to take lunch and-

. coffee breaks in a socraPtitting, and to become partially;-.or totally "financially self-supporting.

13; Parent Contacts. Frequent parent or guardiancontacts establish consistency in training efforts at homeand work alit maintain Sport for the agreed-upon clientgoals... All summary data) such.as client trainingexperiences, work experiences and work references.employers should be shared with the parents so that theycan be the clients' longterm 'advocates.

1.3. 10. 110

ti

Community-Dased Vocational Training

I ,

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

.. ..

Four major .rhanagement problems 'of community-based. training must be solved to avoid trainer' frustration and ,,

excessive paperwork.. These problems are establishing,community vocational contacts, maintaining effiOentinformation exchange -and data recording systems,..

it . recogniling staff effort *and, developing a method for'summarizing overall project effort.

..

., .:

A program must Maintain., throuViapprcipriate letters andcertificates of award, its established community'vocational contaCts. The management, structure mustavoid overlap of. contacts and insure recognition ofcooperative community members. tilling in blanks on aform, signing or adapting a standard letter, or makingemployer contact notes orr a preprfnteci file card are allexamples of efficient ways to. maintain the record-keeping and public relations efforts necessary tocommunity-baselotraining.

Staff 'communication and data recording must ' -becoordinated with various staff members active in the.same business community for the benefit of the sameclient. An efficient information exchange and datarecording system must be devised, .or.,, time spelft inmeetings and recording data may exceed tine spent withclients. A tightly structured Weekly Agenda and EffortTally Sheet (Figure 2) anatommunity Vocational Training .

Staff Effort Summary1Fipre 3) for trainers serves threepurpdses: 1) to control discussion at meetings to,a single;basic component area at a time, 2) to rapidly summarize atrainer's efforts in each component 'area, and 3), to record.different . types of Services afforded to individual clients..As trainers report their efforts in each component aea;other trainees seek expanded information err an item onlyif it is needed., As indicated on the ComoliunityVocational Training Staff Effort Summary p'ii6re '3),arbitrary time allotments are assigner) to fiveirmmon

Ill, Lid.a

I.

Larson & Edwards

activities. Trainers simply tally the activities (end theclient involved) and record the appropriate time -

allotments, thereby avoiding cumbersome time keeping.

Regtillar recognition must be made of all areas of atrainers professional efforts leadirig to vocationalplacement and not only of final 'case closure.Unquestionably, vocational training and placement ofseverely handicapped clients is time consuming.' Thecommunity trainer can easily become frustrated and feelunrewarded if the only indication of appropriateprofessional effort is a final case closure When a client is

, placed on a paid position. To reduce staff frustration, theVocational Careers Model recognizes and rewards trainersfor, working on all training' activates crucial to vocationalplacement for the svierelythandicapped. The processencourages qoperative efforts by recognizing all trainers'contributions to a successful placement.,

The Community VocitiRnal Trqining Staff EffortSummary shown in Ffkvie 3 provides a vehicle to obsetve

'1.easily and direct staffviivities.\. This summary serves. /; three purposes: 1) to' provide a r9isual summary of

individual and total staff effort in each managementcomponent, 2) to :easily faciiiitata program evaluation

-through an ;interpreted visual representation and to show :which components ;were over,ly emphasized or neglectedand 3) to alloy! a sufficiently acctfrate summary of weeklyefforts on which to base future staff direction.

Sample Data Summaries

Supportifig information 'for those interested in adopting-4-ihe Vocational Careers Model IS provided in Table 1. In

this figUre, data for two Clients are displayed tpillustratetypical staff efforts, necessary to complete thetraining/placement process. Also shown in this figure aredata representing ettYck-staff member's efforts across

112

Eumummunumnam i3-rammuummunnumm- IMIIIIIIM11111111111111111111111H111111111111111111111111111111I11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

1111111111111H1111111H1111111111111111111111111111111111110

111111111H1111111011M11111111111111111111111111111111111

1=111111111111111111111111111111111111M111111111111111111111111111111111111111/211111111111111111111111111111111111

4b,

4

'J..

Larson & EdIkartifo 4e. '

1,"model components for a 14-week period: These-rdataillustrate the tithe- and cost-effectiveness of cormtiiily-based training efforts.

y

Client A was hired after '388 hours of stafieThart. Thelargeit percentage of staff time was 'ex'peTodeein jobplacement training sessions (39%), pr,evocatioral opgramsin which the resource room was used t"cp providecommunity support activities (25%) and travel training(16%). Client B was accepted for employment after' only275 how's of staff effort (fully 100 hours less than ClientA). Client B was involved in more job placement training(32%) and prevocational programs (26%) for the samepercentage of time expended by Client A. In contrast,'however, Client B required less time for travel training.

The data are illustrative of typical time expenditures forclients in the Vocational Careers Model. It must benoted, however, that due to the heterotenity of theclients and the job' sites, generalizations must becautiously rendered. For example, the amount of training

.4 time for bu4 travel may be related more tqjob and' homeloCation and frinsfers involved than to a client's learningrate Similarly, the amount of time expended on jobplacement training sessions might be a function of thedemands inherent in the work 'environment, rather than areflection of the client's ability to handle the job itself.

Columns 3 and 4 in Table 1 itemize total efforts oftwo staff members over a.14-week period. These datacontrast the responsibilities of a staff member involved incommunity activities with one responsiblefor communitysupport activities completed. in the resource room. Ascan be seen by examining these data, the resource roomtrainer devotes a considerable percentage of time toprevocational programs amid task simulations, while thecommunity trainer is.mostly involved with job placementcontacts, work training .sessions and travel traininginsPuction.

It

410.6.k. i 1 jt-M .114

Community-Based Vocatilial Taining

5

These data should be viewed only as potential trainercosts, not as the minimum hours of experience necessaryfor a client $o.attain permanent employment. Indeed, nodata are available and no costs are incurred for muchclient training which occurs after initial independence isestablished and the trainer leaves. A' significantadvantage of a community-based training m6 is the

. support available from sources other than project staff:For example, volunteers can carry out instructionalprograms written by prcifessionals. Alternately, the busdriver and a few fellow passengers can model appropriatesocial behaviors even with a nonverbaleclient. In addition,nonhandicapped co-workers can provide "free" modeling.instruction of alpropriate social behaviors, at coffeebreaks and at lunch periods. Co-workers also 3rovide freeinstruction through. their .performances as consistentlyappropriate work models. Such opportunities for utilizingthe service of co- workers and volupteers to promoteLearning of appropriate behaviors are not available In

eltered workshops or activity centers.

A

dlw

CONCLUSION

Severely handicapped individuals are often viewed byvocational rehabilitation Ipr.vice personnel as unsuitablefor any type of vocational placement. These individualscan, however, be successfully trained and placed asindependent community workers. Eleven of 16 Clients inthe Vocational Careers Model Program are now employedin private business or industry. The daily life experiencesof these individuals include independent travel 5 ariafrom work and social interactions with nonhandicappedco- workers. Moreover, they all , are earning self-supporting incomes. In summary, these ,clients haveachieved a' quality of life not availablein institutions, intyiSical activity .centers or in sheltered workshops.

.

4.

. .1 c_. ILL

4

I.TABLE 1 _

SUMMARY DATA FORMA

4

Client Timein Training

Staff EffortOver 14 Weeks

ti

1.

2.

3.

t 5.

--)6.

Client A Client B1

Resource RoomTrainer Community Trainer

% Total Hours % Total Hours % Totil - Hours % TotalHours

Client Search

.Client Screening.

Cli'int Assessment

Prevocation#1 Programs

Task Simulation Programs

Tfavel Training

. 1.0

2.0

4.0

79.0

6.0

61,0

- 4

- t1.0

25.0

'2.0

t 16.0

4.0

2.0

4.0

7-2.0

13.0

19.0

2.0

1.0

2.0

26.0

5.0

8.0

5.0

7.0

20.0

208.0

48.0

14.0

1.0

. 1A'

4.0

38.0

9.0

' 3.0

.

.

4.0

, 1.0

-

57.0

1.0 >

..

13.0

,-

I-pg....4

4

T.,

7. Employer Contacts- -Training Materials

8. Employer Contacts--Long-Term Sites

9: Long-Term On-SiteTraining Sessions

10. Employer Contacts-4otExploration. ,-

11. Employer Contacts-JobPlacement Training i

t12. Job Placement Training

Sessions .

13: Parent Contacts

14. Other,

9.0 `-i

3.0

2.0

44.0

132.0.

20.0 .*

3 0

4

2.0

.1.0

1.0

11.0

49.0.

1.0.

1.0

4.0

9.0

ZO

41.0

90.0

144

1.0.

.

.

,

.,

2.0

3.0

1.0

13.0

32.0

3.0

.-

.

9.0

31.0

71.3.0

4.0

. 2.0

1.0

28.00

139.0

2.0

6.0

3.0

. 1.0

1.0

-

5.0

29.0

:

.

'

210

3.0.

9.0

33.0

119.0

24.0

'102.0

1.0

12.0

42.0

AP 3.0

23.0

Total Hours 388.0 275.Q ..533.& - 446.0

4

. f .a Hours and percents were rounded off; therefore a total of percents in a column may exceed 100%.,'

. sl

1 .

44'

4

,Larson & Edwards

4.1.

The success 21 this model is, due in large part to themanagement System developed in which relevant data canbe efficiently' reported and shared. Thi9 systemfacilitates decisions on clients', programs, reinforceMentand direction of trainers' efforts, and weekly monitoringof total staff effort.

The Vocational Model is--beigg successfully replicated by ametropolitan school district as a component of theirprogram for l7 -2l- year -old severely' handicapped. lriaddition, the Oregon Vocational Rehabiliation Services',agency is applying for federal funds to support'continuation of the program and to provide inservicetraining to aeency counselors.. Any program currentlyserving severely handicapped adults can adopt thiscommunity-based training 'model using-current staff. Themodel can also be structured as a separate _service.Whatever the application, a major impact will occur inthe lives of those served. Training activities becomeimmediately practical and no loi-iger include inaccurateguesses about he unknown or underestimated vocational

. potential of clients: Rather, training objectives are,established for a real site, at a real job, in a real .

environment, with p;eopie from the real world, whereevery handicapped person has a right to become a

. participating member.

C.

.

,. . .C

. .. , ... . . Bellamy: G.T., Peterson, tt, -4( Close, D. Habilitation of

. the severely and piofoundly retarded: Illustrations ..

of competence. Education and Training of theMentally Retaidedi.1975, 10, 174-186. .. 1

:

Community -Based Vocational Training

.

r

4 e. REFERENCE LIST

, 0 .

.Bellamy,G.T., 4,c, Snyder, Sc The trainee performance

sample: Toward the prediction of habilitation costs'fortsevetsely handicapped adults. AAESPH geview,19) "% I 17-36. .

'Brown,- L., Wilcox, B.., Sontag, E., Vincent, B., Dodd, N. &

GruenWald, L. ,Toward the realization of the leastrestrictive educational environment for severely

. handkapped students. AAESPH Review, 1977, 2;195-201. .

. , . , ..-. .

Gold, M. Redundant cue removal in skill training for the, retarded. Education and Training-of the Mentally

Retarded, 1974, 9, 5-8. .. .. ,

.

Pomerantz, D.; & Marho`tian, D. Vocational habilitation:.A time for change. In E. Sontag, 5. t mith -& N.. .

Certo (Eds.), Educational programming for theseverely and profoundly handicapped. Reston, VA:Division , of Mental Retardation; Council for

, Eiceptional Children,,1977. - ,3 '

Sontag, E. & Smith,, 3. BEH and SPH: The interface and-the impact. In N. G. flaring &.D. D.. Bricker.Teathing the severely handicapped, (Vol. 3).Seattle: American Assoication.for the Education of

.. the Severely/Profqundly Handicapped, _I978.. .

Wolfensberger, W. (Ed.). The principle of normalizationin human services. Toronto Institute on MentalRetardation, 1972. ,. .

.- -

119

I24

:

f

r.

. ..

eg

Ltirsqn & Edwards

REFERENCE *NOTE4

IIN

'4.4

,

ti t ..

Improving occupational programs fot the handicapped.. Washington, DC: Department of, Health, Etication,

and Welfare, 1972 , .

4

120

*lb

A.104%bo.

Issues in Community-Based VocationalProgramming: InstitUtionalationof Staff

Sandra AlperJoseph S. Alper

,.(

le.1

The ability of severely handicapped persons to learncomplex vocational tasks through applied behavioranalysis training techqiques has been repeatedlydemonstrated (Bellamy, 1976; Bellamy, Horner, & Inman,1979; dold,'.1973, 1976; Rusch do Mithaug,most severely handicapped adolescents and adults remainunemployed. Where employment opportunities for theseindividuals exist, they are largely limited to shelteredworkshops and work activity centers (Greenleigh

e Associates, 1975), rather than occurring in morenormalized and economically rewarding workenvironments.

. -There are several factors which may contribute to thisstate of affairs. eine .1-night be the deficit of severelyhbndicapPed workers in communication, funttionalacadeTic, and social skill requisites of working in thecommunity (Wehman, 1976; Wehman & Bates, 1978):

ahile it is true that severely handicapped individuals haveitgnificant skill deficits). behavioral training protocols toremediate these ,deficits are available. These skilldeficits need no longer be seen as a major obstacle to

A community placement.

\

Ler

121 ,

Alper &Alper

A second contributing factor is the lack of- a systematicprocess for imple.hkenting community-based vpcationaltraining and placement. Although there has been strongsupport in the literature (e.g., Sontag, Srctith, Certo,19771 ttolfensberger, 1972), from professionalorganizations r- .g., . The Association- for SeverelyHandicapte, 11979), and legislation (e.g.; Eq. 94-142) forthe phil. Eth f training severely handicapped persons innatural ti s, much less emphasis has been placed ondelineating rocedures ftr staff implementation of such2rograms. Recently, Feder f tending agencies have begun

o. Supporfrrprograms which arse potential models forfacilitating the transition from institution to Fornmunity.

. ;

A third contributing factor may be the ).

"institutionalization" of staff. This term refers to thedevelopment of expectations and behaviors in staff wttichserve to maintain the institutional environment ratherthan the independent. functioning of residents. This

"situation arises becaitse the institution may provide anenvironment as protective of staff as of residents. Thisprotective environmentmay foster and maintain passiveresistance to 'cbmrhunity-based programs. Among ;hecharacteristics of institutional staff viNch have beennotedare- tendencies to be protective of Mnd to hold lowexpectations for residents, to maintain the status quot.and

. to avoid active participation in community -basedactivities cFairweather, Sanders do Tprnatzky, 1974; -Schulman, 1980). These behaviors constitute staffinstitutionalization and present a primary obstacle to the.deinstitutionalization of severely handicapped persons.

The institutionatizatiork of staff may be vi4ed as a r suitof a mutual interaction among envircmmental fa rs,personal needs and beliefs, and behaviors of st f`institutional administrators, residents and members of ecommunity. This view represents an application of theprinciple of reciprocal determihism (Bandura, 1977b;1978): From this perspective, psychdocial functioninginvolves a continuous, reciprocal interplay betweenenvironmental, behavioral and cognitive factors.. Within

123122-

eif

ada

Community -Based VocaVnal Prograinming

the current discussion of staff, behavioral factors includethe-overt' behiviois which constitute resistance to the.deinstitutionalization process. Environmental factorsindlp,de the institutional organization, the residents andcommunity"..f. Personal factors include the individual-cognitions,: beliefs and, needs of staff. .

The reciprocal' nature of -these influences is reflected inthe view that the environmental conditions whichinfluence behavior are partly a result of the actions ofindividuals within, the environment. The outcomes ofthose behaviori liffeCt individual beliefs.and expectations.Changes beliefs and expectations subsequentlyinfluence behavicir. For instance, consider the example ofa stag- member who may holden expectation for successin placing a resident in a community work setting. The

.staff member .may put more effort into thedeinstiiutionalizatibp process and_ may. exhibit greater a

perseverepce 4when frustrated., = The community mayrespond with greater acceptanci of the resident and thegoals of normalization. This change in the communityenvironment reinforces the . staff member's positiveexpectancies. The overt behavioral consequence may begreater effort 'exhibited by thi staff member. In. this.example, there is a network of reciprocal positivefeedback between The staff member and the communitywhich facilitates attitudinal . anti behavioral changesfavoring normalization.

An additional component, of this reciprocal determinism isthe mutual influence between personal characteristics of

-individuals; separate from. their beliefs and expectations,Ind environment. .Physical characteristics, social rolesand social `status may produce varying 'environmentalreactions- 'Which, in turn, may affect -self-concept.Subsequent tpeKavior of the individual may maintain orchange theenykropmental reaction.

.,*Seeking to Ittribute causal, priority to these influences is.

, impossible Wapse of the continuous reciprocal nature of.their interyelationships (Bandura, 1978). The specific

123 1 26al

)

lb.

.

,. ,

twAlVer be Alper\

e . I .effects of altering any one aspect of this .dynamicinterchange must be empirically determined. The primarygoal of the present paper if to describe some of thefactors ihvolved In the reciprocal' determinism betweenpersonal factors of staff and their environment whichconstaute resistance to community-based programming:Another goal is to suggest some modes of interventionwith staff which might facilitate the deinsttitutionali-zation process. ; _

, c.- . i ,PERSONAL FACTORS TO THE

(INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF STAFF' . . .

N

I1

Personal factors iithiCh may contriubte to the reciprocaldeterminism between the environment and behavioralresistance to deinstltutionalization include the personalneeds, clesires and belief systems of individual staffmembers. Individuals may be viewed as having personalneeds; or, desires, for survival, certainty, control,autonomy, acceptance and congruity. The terms "need"and "desires" are used here interchangeably to suggest anincentive value of th%se conditions for mptivatingbehavior.

The Mike for Survival'

I

The desire;,:to survive is rooted in the demand6 of thev.-- evolutionary struggle. Economic security has.become one

means .for agsuring physical survival. Community-basedprogramhiing may be viewed as a threat to the economicsecurity and hence, the physical survival of the individual.

i. t 124

,

Jo 1

4

Community-Based Vocational Progkmming-3 ,

.There are survival desires that go beyond preservation ofone's. physical being, There are-also desires for existentialsurvival, or survival of an individual identity, whichseparates 'self fror( the, world. Individuals max defendagainst a loss of deltultion of self even if 'their. physicalsurvival has been ass ,,ed' Much of this self-defi "tioneisderived from work. The contribution of worinterpersonal and intrapersonal development has beenackribwledged for some time. Engels (1940) elaboratedthe view that the evolutionary demands for highercognitive and social development were present only of terour primate ancestors first walked upright, 'freeing theirhands for labor. According to Engels, it was the product-or this labor that created a social demand for theevolution. of physiological processes upon which are basedthe skills for communication and social organization. Heargued that individuals who, do not have work are devoidof information to communicate and of the need to relatewithin a social frameworks

Although the anthropological truth of this sole' 0 evolutionary change as the primary cause of higher

tognitive and social' development may be questioned, therelationship between work and personal-socialdevelopment is undeniable. It has, in pert, been theappreciation of this relationship between work and humandevelopment which has served as implicit justification forthe emergence of vocational training in contemporaryeducation.

. Since the desires for survival of 'body and 'self are sodeeply rooted in the historical experience of individuals,actions initiated In the service of.the need to surviVe maybe performed so automatically as to escape an individual'sawn eness of them ,as survival behaviors. The feats ofcleft of body and death of self may be so great as toresult in a surrehder of reason to self-preservation.'rosocial behaviors may be supplanted by narcissisticbehaviors. The avoidance of the psychologicaldevastation with respect to the loss of identity andavenues for social interaction can thus 6vide one

125

123

Alper dc Alper/

incentive for an individual staff Member ,,to resistdeinstitutionalization. The problem here exists in 'theview of deinstitutionalization as a threat to physical andexistential 'survival. This belief may.stem from a lack ofself-confidence in one's ability to adapt to change andfind alternative meads for assuring physical and(existential survival.(existential

The Desire for Certainty

It has been observed that individuals often tend to resist .

uncertainty (Fairweather & Tornatzky, 1977). A person's ,te .

inability to predict the outcomes of ,a given situation cancause one to view that situation as aversive (Seligman,1975). Any program which has change as its goal

- possesses an inherent uhcertainty as to the rolesindividuals will play following reorganization. Training innatural settings implies that institutional staff may haveto alter their daily routines, professional roles and eventhe physical environment of their work. Individual Staff

. members faced with unpredictable changes in theirprofessional identity, authority* or role within theinstitutional structure may find such change aversive. .

Anothpr threat to the .need forCertainty is present in )heunpredictable responses of residents to unfamiliarsituations encountered in community settings.Community sett1ngs represent new complexes of stimuliwith a high degree of subtle variability. Even incontrolled training environments, it is impossible toidentify and train appropriate responses to all possible

. environmental contingencies. Much of the training must . .

await in vivo exposure. Hence, The responses of residentsto these new Situations may at first be unpredictable and t

S thus threaten an individual staff member's -need, forcertainty. One way to avoid uncertainty is , to resist'innovation and change (Fairweather & Tornatzky, 1977).

- 12:). ,.

126

4

.

Community-Based Vocational Programming12111,21%,

The Desire for Control

The desire for control may be defined as the red' to .cause environmental change so as to obtain ,a desiredeffect. The desire fat control, like the desire forsurvival, may be viewed as rooted in the evolutionaryprocess. Species and Individual survival have beendependent upon the ability of organisms to obtain-controlover the environment, others and self. The ability to .

exercise control has been recognized as having an impacton the self in terms of cognitive self- concepts sucl-f aspower (Minton, 1967), effectance (White, 1959),-ancLself

... efficacy (Bandura, 1977). -A-failure to fulfill consistentlythe desire for control and to establish a sense of efficacy,in manipulating the environment can lead to emotionaldisturbance. Among the psychopathological consequencesof a failure to fulfill desires for control,w,hich have beennoted -are a sense of alienation, social isolation, self -estrangement, meaninglessness, destructiveness anddepression (Allen lc Greenberger, 1980; Seeman, 1959;Seligman, 1974). The threat to an individual staffmemberld,, perceived control over the environment mayprovide aillother incentive for mairrtaining the institutionalenvironment.

The institution provides a variety of external controlsystems. The most widely used techniques formaintaining conti-ol have cote froin the application ofoperant .conditioning to behavioral 'management. Oneassumption implicit in these procedures is that throughcontrolling the environment (i.e., by manipulating stimuli,physical and social rewards, and objects in the physicalenvironment), it is' possible to control behavior. If anindividUal staff member is ineffective in exercising directcontrol over a resident, reserve control systems .(e.g:isolation, physical restraints, medication) may 'Laimplemented.

Community settings impose new environmental variablesand do not include the reserve controls mentioned above.

127

,

t

Alper & Alper

In addition, they require internal coping mechanisms (e.g.,self-control; decision making). In the transition from,institution to community placement, from external tointernal controls, there may exist a threat to an individdalstaff member's desire for control. - Staff may cling. toinstitutional guidelines and procedures, regardless of howlittle they contribute to normalization, because they"provide a certain degree of controt over the residents.

The Desire for Autonomy /Individuals may be viewed as desiring to seekindependence and freedom from external constraints, orto establish autonomy (cf. Angyal, 1941; Fromm, 1955).Autonomy may involve a desire to establish oneself asindependent from others, as well. Deinstitutionalizationmay be viewed as threatening to desires for autonomybecause of the initially increased dependency of residentson staff;

The dependency of residents on staff is an integral part of.their interaction. Floor and Rosen (1975) maintained that

. years of institutional living may foster conformity withlittle opportunity for problem solving or decision making.The institutional environment may .preclude the type ofexperience required for the development of independentcoping behaviors necessary in the.community. In addition,the bureaucratic policies prevalent within the institutionwhich diffuse the personal responsibility of an individualstaff member for a resident (e.g., large group activities)may not be functional in natural settings. Contequently,residents are likely to make more demands on staff timeduring the initial period of community placement than

,e,.within the institution. A staff member may thus resist.' community. programming in order to avoid these threats

to autonomy.

.128

-41

\I

Corhmtinity-Based Vocational Programming

The l'Asire for Acceptance

t

Individuals often desire acceptance from others. Fromm(1955) has described the seeking of acceptance fromothers as the desire for relatedness, or the desire to feelunited with other human beings. Staff may gainacceptance from residents by protecting them from thestress of adaptation inherent in community settings.Similarly, maintaining thdo institutional environment mayresult in acceptance from those community members andparents who believe it is best to. separate retarded personsfrom mainstream society: Even though staff "resistance todeinstitutionaliZation may be rewarded with socialacceptance, it can have a long-range detrimental effecton residents. Normal human growth and developmentinvolve the -risk of being hurt' both physically andemotionally. Perske (1972) argued that, to deny a personof risk precludes the development of new copingstrategies and maintains dependency. Denying a personnormal risk-taking experiences also deprives theindividual of dignity, in that it diminishes that person inthe eyes of others.

The protectiveness of residents rising out of a need foracceptance may also be viewed as an attempt to avoidemotional ambivalence and subsequent personal rejection.Emotional ambivalence refers to the quality of arelationship between individuals characterized bx love andhate, acceptance and rejection. Human relationships arefrequently characterized by investments of dependencyupon others for gratification of personal needs. Peoplemay come to expect their family, friends, co-workers andacquaintances to contribute to the fulfillment of theirpersonal needs. Relationships which possess suchinvestments of dependency may contain some degree ofemotional ambivalence because individuals rarely, if ever,fulfill these needs as consistently as expected. Becauseones needs'and'expectations may at times be fulfilled orfrustrated, an individual may come to feel both toy andhate. Subsequently, one may express both acceptance and

129

.

i

.

4 '%

* Alper 6c Alper

'rejection toward others, as well as being the object *ofthese conflicting attitudes and behaviors.

...

Staff members who support community -basedprogramming acid participate in exposing residents to thestress of 'adaptation may incur the emotional ancbivalenceof individuals in their environment. The staff 'membermay inappropriately attribute the emotional ambivalenceand subsequent. rejection uniquely to thedeinstitutionalization process rather than to theunrealistic expectations for need fulfillment placed uponhim by his environment. Thelndividual may. come to view 1.

the emotional ambivalence characteristic of need-invested relationships as avoidable through resistingdeinstituti9halization. Overcoming this obstacle mayrequire' a . belief in the long-range benefits ofdeinstitutionalization, as well as the development ofrealistic expectations for fulfillment of human needs andacceptance in the individual staff member, residenti.andthe community. ..

The Desite, for Congruity

Another reason individuals may seek to avoid emotionalambivalence is a desire for congruity. Congru'ence, or the

lack of conflict, may be sought hi both interpersonal andintrapersonal spheres of experience (cf., Brehm 6c Cohen,1962; Festinger, 1957; Steiner, 1966; Zirhbardo, 1969). Inan attempt to avoid' Interpersonal conflict and seekcongruity, individuals may conform to a group, institutionor ideology. In any conflict of purpose betweeninstitution ,4nd individual staff member, the individualmay seek to conform to the institutional purpose andattain congruity in addition to fulfillment of the range ofother human needs.

. . ..-Congruence may also be represented in th intrapersonalsphere by the desire to :seek resolution f the conflict

i33130

s

/

I

.

4,

,, 0

.. .

, Community -Based Vocatidnal Programming

, .

surrpunding how one _chooses to gratify needs. FrommQ955) presented the view that choices in life may beviewed as an unavoidable conflict between progressionand regression. Progressive choices are those whichfulfill human needs without subjugation of the needs ofothers. These solutions require a sacrifice of narcissisticinterest. Regressive solutions are narcissistic in natureand require subjugation of the self or others. A regressivesolution may involve well established patterns.Consequently it may be more immediately appealing, notonly because it requires little or no self-sacrifice, but alsobecause of the familiarity and predictability of outcome.Progressive solutiorts may seem less appealing because ofthe uncertainty inherent in situations involving newbehaviors with unpredictable outcomes.

Fromm (1955) viewed individuals as free to choose eitherprogressive or regressive modes for fulfilling their needs.The choice oi either alternative possesses its own sourcesof fear and doubt with respect to the outcome of one'sdecision. The exercise of choice requires the assumptionof responsibility for outcome. Individuals may not onlyattempt to avoid the dissonanke inherent in the freedomof choice, but the responsibility for unfavorableoutcomes. In situations in which one may risk acceptanceand self- esteem by assuming responsibility for choice, anindividf may choose to abrogate control over thedecisio -making process (Rodin, Rennert, 4c Solomon,1980). Fromm (1941) referred to this abrogation of choiceas an "escape from freedom."

Thus, Alb individual may attempt to seek congruity andavoid the conflict and responsibility inherent in freedomof choice. One may attemp; to escape from dissonanceand responsibility through surrender of the authority forchoice to another agent.. In this instance an individualstaff member may conform to the institutional purpose.Resistance to deinstitutionalization may thus be viewed

.-ialPan attempt to resolve the inherent conflict betweengression and regression and to seek congruence through

t e surrendering of responsibility to the institution.r/,

13131

Alper & Alper

Another component of the need' for congruity in the -,intrapersonal sphere ithe need for a belief system whichcan justify behavior. Fromm (1955) referred to this as rneed for a frame of orientation. He viewed the need for aframe of orientation as more immediate than the need fortruth.. Consequently, the frame of orientation may beadopted whether er-not it's true or valid. Rationalizationis a process by which one can make the approach togratifying 'human needs congruent with the frame oforientation (Fromm, 1955). Considerable research oncognitive dissonance and dissonance resolution has-shownthat individuals do not always behave in accordance withtheir beliefs. Rather, people frequently modify theirbeliefs to justify their behavior (Zimbardo, 1969)..

The frame of orientation de#loped by an individual staffmember may serve as a jugtification for the choice ofregressive modes of need gritification and the surrenderof responsibility of choice and . decision making to theinstitution. This frame of orientation may be the mostamenable to change of contributions to the resistance todeinstitutionalization because it is comprised of overtverbal responses which both justify and contribute to themaintenance of institutional environments. If the frame

. . of orientation is not effective in making one's actionsconsistent with beliefs, then new behaviors will beattempted or a new frame of orientation will evolve.Ellis (1970) has elaborated a number of clinically observedirrational ideas which have served the function ofjustifying and maintaining habitually dysfunctionalbehavior (e.g., the idea that one needs something strongeror greater than oneself on which to rely; the idea that itis necessary to be loved by everyone for everything onedoes). These beliefs m be seen as maintainingunrewarding behaviors be they enhance congruenceSribetween beliefs and bawd rs. They provide a frameworkfor exploring stallwrattitudes toward self and theenvironment 'which may contribute to deinstitutionali-zation..

1

132

.1

r-

1

r4

.r. 1,

Community -Based Vocational Programming

. , 1 `i .

STRATEGIES FOR DEINSTITUTIONAWIi1G STAFF.

.,

rWith few exceptions (e.g., Schulman, 1980; Watson,Gardper, & Sanders, 1976), , the special educationliterature lacks evidence of programs which focus directlyon the needs of institutional staff. If.44,the position is c:1tenable that staff needs and expectations pose a marorobstacle. to deinstitutionalization, ithen the fate ofinstitutionalized residents becomes intertwined with thefate of staff. This necessitates the development ofstrategies to reduce the" threats, to staff posed bycommunity - based programming.

Participation in community-based programming may beviewed as a prosocial behavior. Kanter (1979) hasdiscussed some, of the psychosocial contributions to therise of individualism and the decline of prosocial behavior.He proposed a model for enhancement of altruism basedon the progressive shaping of prosocial behaviors so thatthey are perceived as contributing to personal fulfillment.Changing the motivational base for. these prosocialbehaviors may at first require a high degree of externalreinforcement from the environment in the forth, of, socialapproval and recognition. The transition from socialmotivation to personal motivation may then be enhanced

*through repeated self-reinforcement in the form of selfr,statements of competence and achievement. Kanterdescribed this transition from social to personalmotivation as analogous to the development of self-control. This similarity makes available the broad rangeof cognitive behavior modification techniques which haveemergdd to facilitate self-control (Mahoney,-I974). In /addition to analyzing the frame of orientation and theirrational beliefs which sustain egocentric behavior, thetransition to prosocial behavior may also be facilitatedthrough the development of contracts and explicit socialagreements. Kanter recommended these be institutedearly in the staff training sequence when the cost to theinklividual is not great. .

f

,

133

74

1f) -.

4.-)U

't-

q.

4

rMit

0 -, .!.

. .., . Alper & Alper ''t ,r .

Kanfer (1979) has also suggested that tile' transition fromsocial-metivatioh to self-thotivation in service ofprosocia, behaviors may be facilitated by strong verbalreinforcement from some external facilitator. As theindividual gains . skill in self-reinforcement irldexperiences repeated rewards for altruistic behav!r,gradual increases 'In the. personal cost associated withsuch behaviors can be instituted. It may be anticipatedthat as an individual continues to experience thii rewardfor prorcial behavior, his beliefs will become consistentwith hls behaviors. At this point, the prosoCialbeh'aidorwill come be viewed as self-initiated rather thandemanded by ottier,s, and should become, more stronglyestablished in the individual's repertoire of responses.

Kanfer's model can, provide a useful starting point indeveloping intervention Strategies for deinstitutionalizingstakt Some implications of this model alre the use of thesocial-democratic milieu - approach, externalreinforcement strttegies, selfreinforcement and gradedexposure to commality settings.

J

Social-Demotiratic Milieu

One specific application of* Kanterts model to thedeinstitutionalization process might include theexploration of staff . needs and ,concerns towarddeinstitutionalizationvithin the framewctrk of small peerreference groups. The effectiveness of such groups hasbeen demonstrated in the social-democratic milieuapproach. This technique itas been used to ?acilitate Thereturn to ,She community of individuals after prolonged

(periods of .institutionaljeation (BeCker & Bayer, 1975; D

Fairweather, Sanders, Maynard, 4(Cressler, 1969). $mall"and autonomous grciiips were formed to encourage and .direct pressure toward community functioning. Thesegrodp.s were ;task oriented and .-etained in defining and 6

/analyzing 'problems,. generating solutions and making

13 134 = *4.

t

A

( -

Community-Based Vocational Programming

- %detislons. Active participation and responsibility for selland others were fostered... The relationship between one'sactions and consequences was stressed.

The inclusion of an external facilitator in sox)) grows maybe of benefit. Such an individual might be capable ofoffering social rewards for the abandonment of egocentricbehaxior in favor of behaviors which facilitate communityprogramming. The input of an external facilitator who isnot -,subject to the lnftuences of the institutionalenvironment might also more readily facilitate change inthe frame of orientation of staff members. If this'strategy were applied with ictstitutional staff, ful4 andactive support from institutional .1dministrators would becrucial. The diffusion of. personal responsibility whichcharacterizes institutions would have to be replaced Withsupport for active input intaae" decision-making processon the part of staff.

. External Reinforcement

AnOther approach to deinstitutionalizing staff might lie Inthe appropciate- use of external reinforcementcontingencies to train staff in prosocial behaviors whichparallel those; or the community. While not a novelapproach to developing new behaviors in staff, inser vicetrainingNIthin institutions often results in no rewards forparticipants. It is all 'too common to see staff inser viceprograms conducted during lunch hours or immediately'before or after a full work day. In addition, staff who tryto implement any new approach or progr?m are rarelyrewarded for their efforts. Attempting to talc, a residentinto the community for something other. than a Yargegroup field trip for _example, often requires filling outforms tlays inadvance of the proposed activity. Too oftenthe staff person atteniptin§ to, do something that differsfrom the normal routine is faded with more work and is,in effect, punished for his/her efforti.

.

Sit

,

AO

I

A.. '''Alper & per ,

If institutional staf are to exhibit new 'les andbehaviors which facilitate community placement, theymust be rewarded for their efforts. While not a startlingconclusion, this is rarely implemented.

While manfollowedfollqwed

,. 1,anduraexternal

Self - Reinforcement...v.

- % -10%--uman behaviors are not immediately -ternal consequences, most behaviors are

uative self-statements Mahoney, (1974)pointed out that even while receivingement, humans do more than learn the

contingenc s between actions and consequences. Theyjudge the progress they are making, set objectives for

- improvement and evaluate their personal competence... # . .

Seif-state'ments about ne's perceived competence, andachievementt are important because they can influentewha activities are chosen, how much effort one willexp d, and how long one will persevere when frustriated(Band a 1978, 1977a). Training staff to use reinforcingself-st tements may prove to be &other useful tool forbringin ut new attitudes, expectations, and behaviors.Meichenb um (1974) has suggested the followingcomponents be included in such' a training program: 1)

.. training in problem definition and anticipation Ofconsequences; 2)traking in identification and, systemiticobservation of srelf-satements; 3) graduated performanceassignments; 4 specific suggestions for modifying self-

, statements; Land 5). modeling and encouragement of.' positive self - evaluation. - CO --

IS.

#

#r #

:. 136

#' a

.

st

4

',.-

.

Community-pased yocaticinacProgrammingII

Graded Exposuke to Community Settings

---,-- . -.:- .Graded eipoeure. of staff to natural training settingsmight Also- promote the deinstitytionalization process.When beliefs and Actuality; differ, more realisticexpectations may :be developed through repeatedexperienct_Oltapdura, 1978). . Graded aposure maycontribute to, the development* of more realisticevaluatiorls of te impact of community placement.SysteMatic and repeated experience in communitysettings could. have several benefits. One might be thatthe perteived threats' to the attainment of the personaldesires of ,,staff posed by deinstitutionalization mightpartially` be- reduced. fl second benefit might be that .thetraining of residentd would become more relevant as staffbeccimeincreasingly&familiar, with the actual demands ofcommunity sitds: "Finally, graded exposure could helpresolve problemi in 'scheduling of staff time, which isoften giyen as a reason for not providing communityprogramming.

,. / . ,

.:r CONCLWi .s.:.- I

. .,

It has been stated that the institutionalization of staffmay presepta major problem Inthe deinstitutionalizationof residents. efforts aimed at community programming /for handicapped, pertni must deiroteas much attentig4 todelnstifu_tiorializIpz ,.s'fiff as to deinstitutionalizine

mere work is needed in this area in order,to: I) ;identify-, reciprdtal interactions bet-Weenvarious aspectspt inscitutionat 'organization and custodialand professional stOiff ',_attitudes toward communityprogramming; :2) iaiit,ify specific staff Attitudes whichinterfere with corytrtipnity programming 3) delineaterelationships betweeii)raff Attitudes and behavior toward

w te

4

a t

137

0

V

.,4

Alper & Alper

.residents; and 4Wcie-velop intervention strategies torestructure institutional variables in order to facilitatedeinstitutionalization.

Until these. types of questions? are addressed, efforts at',community programming for severely' handicapped persons

will rem incomplete. Future efforts which ignore theneeds acid caScerits of institutional staff will provide onlysymbolic support for ,deinstitutionalization rather thaneffective resolution of the problem.

r,

A

138' b

47,

E

e

%Community-Based Vocational Programming

REFERENCE LIST

Allen, V. L.,' tk Greenberger, 0. B. Destruction andperceived control. In A. Baum fr. 3. Singer (Eds,),Advances in environmental psychology (Vol. 2).Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, 1980.

Angyar, A. Foundations for a science of personalit . New. York: Commonwealth Fund, 1941.

Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward abehivioral-change.ychological191-215. (a).

Bandura, A. Social learning theory.NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977. lb).

unifying theory of IReview, 1977, Li,

4

Englewood Cliffs,

Bandura, A. The self system in reciprocal determinism.American Psychologist, 1978, 33, 344-358.

Becket-, P., & Bayer, C. Preparing chronic patients forcommunity placement: \A four-stagE treatmentprogram. Hospital and"Community Psychiatry,1973, 26 (7), 448-450.

-Bellamy, G. T. (Ed.). Habilitation of severely andprofoundly retarded adults: Reports -from thespecialize4 training program. Eugene, OR:, Centeron Human Development, University &Oregon, July1976.

.

Bellamy, G. T., Horner, R., 4( Inman, D. Vocationalhabilitation of severely retarded adults. 1N-Bitservice technology. Baltimore: University ParkPress, 1979.

4Brehm, 3. W., 4( Cohen, A. R. Explorations in cognitive

dissonance. New 'ork: John Wiley & Sons, 1962.

13914,:

I

Alper & Alp

tIlis, A. The essence of rational psychotherapy: Acomprehensive approach to treatment. New Y rk:Institute for Rational Living,"1970. .

Engels, F. Dialectics in nature. (C, Dutt, trans.). NewYork: InternatIonal Publishers, 1940.

*Fairweather, G. W., Sanders,J., Maynard, H., & Cressler,D. Community life for the mentally ill. Chicago:Aldine, 1969.

Fairweather, G. W., Sanders, D., & Tornatzky, L.Crytin change in mental health organizations.New Y.or Pergamon Press, 1974.

Fairweather, G. W. & Tornatzky, L. G. Experimentalmethods for social policy research. New York:Pergamon Press, 1977.

Festinger, LA/theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford:Stanford University Press, 1957.

t Floor, 1.4 & Rosen M. Investigating the phenomenon Ofhelplessness in mentally retarded adults., American f.

7- Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1975, 79 (5), 565-572.

Fromm, E. Escape from freedom. New Yorlf: Hplt,Rinehart & Winston, 1941.

'Fromm, E. The sane sociejy. New York: Holt, Rinehart& Winston, 1965.

Gold, M. W. Task analysis of a complex assembly task bythe retarded blind. Exceptional Children, 1976, 43(2), 78-84.

Greenleigh Associates. The role of the shelteredworkshop in the rehabilitation of the. severelyhandicayped: Report to the Department of Healt ,

, Education and Welfare, Rehabilitation ServicesAdministration. New York, 1975.

'140

Community-Based Vocational Programming,,

Kanter, F. H. Pqrsonal control, .social control, andaltruiski. American Psychologist, 1979, 34,231-239.

Mahoney, M. Coglition and behavior modificatidn.Cambridge:. B linger Publishing, 1974.

Meichenbaum, D. Therapist manual for cognitivebdravior modification. In M. Mahoney, Co nitionand behavior Modification. Cambridge: allinger*fishing, 1.974.

Minton, H. L. Power as a personality construct. In B. A.Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personalityresearch. New York: Academivforess, 1967.

Perske, R. The dignity of risk and the mentally retarded.; Mental Retardation, 1972, 10, 24-27.

Rodin, 3., Rennert, K., Zc' Solomon, S. K. Intrinsic° motivation for control: Fact on fiction. In A. Baum

& 3. Singer (Eds.), Advances in environmentalps choto (Vol. 2). Hillsdale, 113: Lawrence

rlbaum Associates, 1980.

Rusch, F. R., & Mithaugi D. E. Vocational training formentally retarded adults: A behavior analyticapproach. CWarapaign: Reseagh Press, 1980.

Schulman, E. D. Focip on the retarded adult: Programsand services. St. Louis: C. V. Mooby, 1980.

,Seeman, M. On the meaning of alienation: American.Sociological Review, 1959, 24,783-791.

Seligman, M. E. P. Depression and learned helplessness.In R. 3. Friedman & M. M. Katz (Eds.), 'Thepsychology of dep ression: Contemporary theory andresearch. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974:

141 1'1

1

Alper tic Alper

Seligman, M. E. P. Helplessness: On depression,development, and death. San Francisco: W. H.Freeman, 1975.

Sontag, E., Smith, 3., tic Certo, N. (Eds.). Educationalprogramming for the severely and profoun yhandicapped. Reston, VA: Council for ExceptionalChildren, 1977.

Steiner, I. D. Personality and the resolution ofinterpersonal disagreements. In B. A. Maher (Ed.),Progress in experimental personality research. New -York: Academic Press, 1966.

TASH adopts resolution coiling for abolition of-institutions. The Association for the SeverelyHandicapped (TASH) Newsletter, 1979; 6 (IV1.

Watson, L. S., Girtdocer, J., tic Sanders, 5. Shaping" andmaintaining travior modification skills in staffmembers in an MR institution. In R. M. Anderson tic3. Greer (Eds.), Educating the severely andprofoundly retarded. Baltimore: University ParkPress, 1976.

Wehman, P. Vocational training of the severley retarded:Expectations and potential. In 0. C. Karen, P.Wehman, A. Renzaglia, tic R. Schutz. (Eds.),Habilitation practices with the severelydevelopmentallx disabled, (Vol. 1). Madison:University of Wisconsin, 1976.

Wehman, P., 4c, Bates, P. Education curriculum forseverely and piofoundly handicapped persons: Areview. Rehabilitation Literature, 1978, 39 (1),2-14:r

White, R. W. Motivation reconsidered: The concept ofcompetence. Psychological Review, 1959, 66,297-323.

1 4'44

et

,

Ab

Con?Aunity-Based, Vocational Programming.

Wolfensberger, W. Normalization: The principle ofnormalization in human services. TorontO: NationalInstitute on Mental Retardation, 1972.

Zimbardo,. P. G., The cognitive contrbi of motivation.Glenview, IL: Stott, Foresman, 1969..

-

4.

,,

a

143

4

I,

C

146

s

.

I

.... a

. ' .

Toward Competitive Employment forModerately and Severely RetardedIndividuals

Paul Wehinan#

V

' Recent literature and government reports suggest thatthe vocational training and job, placemedtpractices formost severely retarded persons, are inconsistent with thelevel of expertise nand training technology which iscurrently available. O'Connors (1972) reported that of the90339 mentally retarded individuals living in communityliving,t facilities which .were surveyed, fewer than 14%were engaged in competitive employment and only a littlemore than half were in sheltered work or work activitycenters. Bellamy and Horner (Note 1), in a survey, foundthat between 80,000. and 100,000 mentally and/orphysically; handicapped persons attended adult day care,develop ental, or actigy centers, many of whichfocused inimilly on vo tional training and placement.Whitehe d (1979) also reported a. large number of

dicapped individuals in activity centers with ad roportionate few competitively employed. Similarly,th epartment of Labor reports thtt only 41% of alldisab individuals are employed (Federal Register,1978). These statistics suggest that the employmentsituation for handicapped people 'in this country is less'than desirable.

:..

1451 4.;'

Wehman

The purpose of the present chapter is to discuss arationale for emplOyment in nonsheltered settings formoderitely and severely retarded persons (IQ 29.51).Along with this rationale, critical factbrs in assessmentand job site intervention are also discussed. The finalsection of this chapter is devoted to strategies for fadingstaff from job sites.

A RATIONALE FOR COMi'ETI1'14E EMPLOYMENT

For deica des, Professionals and parents alike have loweredthe vocational expectations for moderately and sekerelyretarded persons by excluding them from opportunities forcompetitive employment (see Revell & Wehnfan, 1978, forexample, in relation to vocational evaluation practices).Continued writings .swhich support this .philosophy onlyproliferate the acceptance of segregated programs whichprovide no access to real work environments withnonhandicapped workers and consumers. Thus, thephilosophy in this chapter is not to condemn more*restrictive work settings (e.g., work activity center,sheltered workshop) but instead to suggest that they formonly one part of a developmental continuum enroute tosheltered enclaves in industry, or, ultimately, competitiveemployment. A number of reasons are considered whycompetitive employment must receive seriousconsideration by rehabilitation and special educationpersqnnel involved with work training programs.

Wages and Benefits

The first and most obvious point in favor of competitiveemployment placement is the increased opportunity for

4)

1 4 146

C

Toward Competitive Employment

greater wages and benefits. With the tremendous cost.ofmaintaining severely retarded individuals in centers whichare nonvocationally ed or which raregy lead tocompetitive employment, is Arent that thoseindividuals who can earn com'petitive' "vel wages will bemost favorably vrewed. These persbn will require lesssupplemental social security (SSI) assistance from thefederal government, and perhaps equally important, willdear At: way for other more severely handicappedclients. ..-

En a cogent .analysis oft its problem, Whitehead (1979)-discusses the deplorable state which handicapped wageearners are in, especially those who are mentallyretarded. Whitehead says:

, The average hourly wage for all workshop clients of40.81 per hour represented Only 35% of 'the

minimum wage rate (at that time) of..$2.30. Theannual earnings were even less favorable, showing

"Nn average of $666 for the total client populationand only $417 for largest disability group -- thementally retarded. The earnings fall far below the1976 poverty level of $2870 (the level suggested, bythe Social Security Administration),(p. 75)

In a iimilar vein, the Connecticut Division of VocationalReabilitation points but that of approximately12,000,060 potentially employable disabled persoris, only4,100,000 are actually working.' The following logic ispresented:

" -Of disa%led persons of worigpg age tvgo,are not ininstitutions, 42% are empflofid as compard to 59%of the, national population -- a difference cif 17% or2,100,000 people, it would mean ,$10,500,000 peryear added to thee economy plus what would besaved 'in private and public support. (C9nnecticutDivision of Voctfonal Rehabilitation 'Project withIndustry, 1979, p. 4)

44714;)

air

4

C,

Wehman.

Clearly, competitive wages will ' increase theindependence df moderately to severely, retardedindividuals. The benefits may include insurance. policies,medical insurance, dental insurance and retirement. Oft:course, not in all cases will this range of benefiti be,available; .compared with the offerings of developmental'

, . .. centers and post Shetltered workshops, however, ,there is amach greater likellhbod of this type;of, fringe support.

.The wages ercd-beriefits advabtage, although the mostobvious, may also be the ni-Olf profound in the long run:Working all day for four to five dollars 'is not aparticularly dignified remuneration for one's dailyvocational pursuits. It is only that the, disabled individualeventually comes to look at himself or herself as an

inferior person. Furthermore, nonhandicappethindividualswho visit sheltered centers may leave with a perceptionthat the person's economic value is only worth four to fivedollars a day:- This is an insidious and =fair conclusion.

4.

Integration with Nonhancficaived Individuals

4Closely linked in importance to wages and benefits is theopportunity to work with nonhandicapped people anri notbe segregated with handicapped individuals. .This issuealso touches on the opportunity to serye nonhandicappedconsumers and ito see these consumers Sitnilarly,the likelihood of meeting new indivrivals and makingfriends- with nonhandicapped persons must be noted.Working with nonhandicapped peers provides theopportunity for handicapped workers to learn to.acceptcriticism and ridicule to which all individuals must adjust.

,

'The increa visibility of handic-Apped workers incommunity ,settings also cannokbe discounted as a majoradvantage of competitive employment., In order toelevate the expectations and perceptions of employerstoward severely retarded individuals, direct contact and

-s1 148

.l.

Toward CompetPtive Emtployment.

observation of their work abilities Will, faqiiitatecontinued hiring practice and retention.

NormalizationC.

Working fOr s'a company or 'organization, or* that is.hotorganized necessarily for therapeutic religbilitaIlon of itsemployeles, is a substantial, part of nonhandicappedOrsons' livet.' The opportunity to' work reg6larly and. nothave 49 'depend prImalily on the vacillations of contractand - sub-co tract oilers' -should, -be available to allhandicap'pe ople, Wolfensberger' (1972) and Bellamy,Horner and In '(1979) point out that work is a sociallyequitable activity ' which should be available forhandicapped individuals.. rom work comes. a feeling offulfillment anciinproyed self- doncept (Brolin, 1976).

Greater Opportunity for AdvanCesnent.

- ,,

Whitehead (19'79) observed that ry few. of the clients inworkihops leave for competiti employment. According.to a recent U. S., Departme f Labor report (1977.) only.12% of tegGiar workshop is and 7% of work activities '

* center clients are pla to competitive situations eachyear.' These data t that ,segregated. work, cent*

, are not usuall to° place significant numbers . ofclients into eal'world. Consequently, the likelihoodof incr wages. and job responsibilities appears rather.re for many moderately and severely retarded Pperp ...

. . ,8 -

.

On t e other hand; :e<impetitive placement max renderopportunity for area ttp anent. This may take theform of- ebetten wbrk. t,,rn regular work hours, amore pleasant job; supervisory v ork or better wages. '

k

149 1. y

-

4Wehman

. Such ancements are not certain by any means and anadvocat may well be necessary; however, it 'May be

. easterjomove to a different job with another companyfrom a-competitive placement as opposed to coming fromla sheltered workshop or activities center. .

C IMproved Perceptions by Family and Friends

sys

..'One areas which requires far more atte on thah it hag.- .

received so far is that of attitudes pectations ofparents and other family members. F xample, Lynch(1979) obsei:ved: . ,

. # . , V i

. - Following graduation. from these early educationalenterprises, most moderately, severely, andprofoundly retarded students merely walked acrossthe hall to the games and crafts occurring in the

' ", adult 'activity centers. Thus, for the severelyhandicapped Child. and his/her- parents, the .expectations fort a full and productive life that

& woul3 reflect 'the abilities of the child arid the% quality of training were dashed at birth and

continuously quashed 'throughout the child'sdevelopmeht. It is not surprising that the parents ofolder moderately and severely retarded personsfrequidtly 'prove to-be barriers td the sheltered qnd

1 'competitive employment of their mature scins anddantiters in those communities fortunale enough to

41 hive appro,priate adult services (p..26).. . ..... ,

7:, I-, Farents play a major and ever critical role in facilitatingthe advantageous aspects of competitive employment. 134

.. , helping overcome transportation problems, working out, . SSI limitations, and providiTg strong moral support to

their on or daughter in the job placement, parents can. make a competitive placement successful or completely

block it. . .

.

z

S

1 5A=:-. ;o.

ti

1 4

Toward Competitive, Employment

-Improved Percep tions by Employers

Employers also communicate about the nature of theirWork force. With the $3,000 tax-credit program foremploying 'handicapped individuals, moderately andseverely retarded clients are receiving closer scrutiny foremployment. In some cases, employers'?iill allow theirareas to be used for nonpaid training sites. Thisarrangement can be beneficial as a form of shelteredtraining which'provides a basis for ultimately coping withreal situations. It also gives employers and supervisors abetter means of undetstandinrhandicapped individualsand viewing them on a human level rath0 than as a label.

; '

Improved Perceptions by Legislators4

-'The information discussed earlier and reported byWhitehead (1979) about the percentage of individuals who

leave workshops is not especially encouraging forconvincing legislators of the viability of workshops as .

optimal preemployment centers. It behooves teachers andcounselors to monitor .carefully the number ofplacements, retention rates, wages earned, employerreactionlr and 0 on, for presentation to legislators andother influentl'al advocacy groups.

Actually,, even- with all of the potential advantagesaccrued from competitive employment placement, what isparamount is altering attitudes of critical forces, i.e.,parents, employers and legislators. Since it is known thatattitude change is best fostered through behavior changeand demonstration (Bandura, 1969), it is evident that moreefforts -at training and advocating for moderately,andSeverely retarded individuals are necessary. To improve44or alter current perceptions which are presently held bythese significant 'forces, professionals must help severelydisabled clients demonstrate their abilities : This can best

r

155

I.

.

Wellman

be ,. accomplished utilizing the rehabilitationengineering (Malik, 1,9) and behavioral training'technology whichis amenable (Bellamy et al., 1979).

Vitt)* a dear rationale for competitive employment, it isnecessary now to turn to programmatidrconsiderations.The next Imo sections are concerned with vocational

assessment.

. . VOCATIONAL ASSESSMENT' I : ,.,.,

. , 1

. CRITICAL FACTORSv

.The initial step in designin g' an employment program formoderately/severely retarded, persons. is a9sessrott ofvocational factors. The ptesent section is devoted- tospecifically assessing five factors necessary for success incompetitive employment,. :These factors includes I)proficiency, 2) rate, 3) quality, 4) perseveration level, and5) endurance. , '

I .A

These factors may be assessed in blic school work-studyprograms, extended evalUation volunteer or paid workcompetitive employment settings' or, sithulated work inshort-term evaluations. Clearly, the Best, option is thatwhidi would bringi`pay for,,w6ik whiff receiving. training,in a real work environment with rionl-Ohdicapped co-,workers. ,Unfortunately, as'Karan (19Y7).n&es, extendedevaluation has not been extensively used; Work prAgrems.for adolescents also have not bean es useful as they mightbe since the training content all tOo oftennonfunctional, i.e., putting together p4zIeS; stackingchips, or stringing beads.

152

,

Toward Competitive Employment -

Work Proficiency

Proficiency refers to competence in performing a skillcorrectly' A proficient worker is one who demonstratesthe completion of a specifiC job accurately the majorityof the time.. The, most efficient and direct means ofverifying the presence or absence of the skill(s) is toobserve and record what parts (steps) of the skill theworker can do correctly.

For example; if anevaivatoir or teacher knows that theclient desires placement in the landscaping industry or agreenhouse, then the work skills which maw ,up .therequirement for this occupation should be identified forassessment.. Task analyses of these skills male be found itcommercial texts (e.g., Wehman & McLaughlirt, 1980),oranalyzed. by the evaluators after. consulting a guide suchas the Dictionary of Occupational Titles for identification

- of the necessary skills.. . . ,

The assessment process involves a two-phase process.- 'Phase I includes the initial assessment which may occur

over 'several days. Here is, the process: .

Step .l: Have necessary materials available whichare being used in the assessment.

Step 2: Give a verbal cue: "34k, sprinkle, theseplants."

Step 3: Observe whiCh steps in the plant-sprinkling. task analysis Jack completescorrectly. :

. . .... Step 4:... ReEord..ihe ,steps .v(hith are Completed

e 1 . " ,withs a plus4:,' ..... ., . -.." .1.

,- Step 5: Tell Jack he %Is done'. for today on the.

.0 . V . plant - sprinkling assessment - ..' . ,...V.1;A 0

.

6 v

.153

Wehman

IStep 6: Repeat process -with, the next skill.

tPhase II covers instructional assessment. The principle,difference in this phase is that instead of a neutral(noninstructional) assessment, the teacher providesappropriate instruction, feedback and positiveconsequences for correct responses. The. client is allowedto complete steps independently for which no previousassistance was necessary.

The instructional assessment phase is valuable even if theclient does not learn all the steps because it providesempirical data on the individual's. rate of learning onspecific skills. It indicates how quickhe Client learns,what motor aspects of the task consistently ,provedifficult, and it .begins to establish the viability of aparticular servite ,industry for placement. Althoughsimilar to work try-out ,(Brolin, 1976), this form ofassessment yields' data which are,usually more objectiveand Specific. fOP

. .

0.{ Work RateLI

4' 4 A A

The speed with which a client completes a job is calledthe date. -The most proficient client is not employable if.he .or she cannot work at .a rate which is commensuratewith the speed required by the employer. Yet many ifnot- moil, of the vocational diagnostic tools notsystematically evaluate 'work rate on specific skills withina selected Industry. Only after a placement is made isthe determination made thaalent is "too sldw."

Work rate 'May be assessed by recording in many' ways.Tile specific mode of Measurement will, probabj.y be'

jdetermined by what is critical to ,the job. The followingaresome of the ways of 'verifying a worker's speed: 1}percentage of on-task versus off-task behavior, 2) numberof units completed within a specific time interval, and 3)

154

Toward Competitive Employment

evaluation by co-workeis or supervisors of client's abilityto get the job done in a reasonable period of time.

The ritiral feature in the work rate assessment processis eterminil what -`the acceptable standard is for thejob(s)' and/or industry in which the client is to7be, placed.Traditionally, it has been assumed pat because a !swagsfast on bench work, i.e., assembling heat sealers, he orshe will also be fast on jobs in *.treenhouLi. There arevery limited, data to suppor. thiAinotion. Worradjustinentservices which are purchased for the purpose of increasingproduction' rates should be.4-targeted for the Industry inwhich the client is to be' placed. Emaluators must beaware of what rate standards are required in differentjobs in coMpetitive employment. en*

.

Work Quality

(,

The quality of work refers' to how well the job or task iscompleted. This factor can be quantified by recording thenumber of errors which are made daily. However, workquality frequently goes beyond recording errors. Forexample, in cleaning a floor area it may be that whencompleted there is no food or other trash on the floor, yetthe floor is not really clean. It may be spotted orstreaked in certain areas. Hence, quality becomes a moredifficult work variable to assess. Quality. may also be anindividual perception from employer to employer. One

.supervisor may accept a certain level of -performance andwant the client to. move on quickly to the next job;

. another will impose a more stringent criterion.9

.157155

Wehman .

Work Perseveration Level '

Many severely disabled individuals who are moderately or.severely retarded or severely sensory impaired exhibitrepeated nonfunctional (stereotypical) motor behaviors.When this happens on the job or in the -context of job.completion it,be2ornes a serious impediment to successfuladjustment. As an illustration,"consider groundsman,:who feels he .must pick up- every piece of trash on thehospital grounds. This type of inappropriatediscrimination reflects a need to persevgrate on all itemswhich appear trashlike. Similarly, the bus boy who wipesa table for 25 minutemen a repeated back-and-forth

e motion will not be very useful. Perseveration is a form ofself-stimulating bbhavior which erodes work rate andinterferes with quality of performance as well.

Level of perseveration can be assessed by identifying theinappropriate stimulating behaviors and then recordingtheir presence or absence 'in short time periods throilhoutseveral days of job evaluation. These data also help inprescribing,a relevant worksadjustrnent program that canpinpoint the interfering behaviors in slow work rate.

Work En raneer.

Even if a client shows positive endurance on all ot theprevious assessment indicators, without the physicalstrength to work for eight hours a day, five days a week,the person cannot succeed. Unfortunately, this is moreoften the case than it shodtd Pe, largely becau.se of thesedentary jobs in sheltered workshops. Coleman, Ayouband Friedrich (1976) conducted a study to assess thephysical work capacity of educable and trainable levelretarded males. They found" the work capacity level 20%,p:) 30% below that of nonretarded individuals of the sameage and sex.

1 L5S . 156

e.

se

t

Toward Competitive Employment /

This endurance assessment should also reflect whether theindividual has health problems, such_ epilepsy, diabetes,asthma, or any other impairmen lctt might affect'work endurance. Although these other Impairmentsmight not'interfere with a job placement, the requirementfor s'elf-administration of, medication would have to beassessed. .

:k.If assessment of an individual's world endurance indicatesthat work performance is markedly dropping off in themid-point to latter part of the day, it may be that part-time employment will be necessarpinitially. This will beespecially true in those occupations where' it is necessary

.. to stand alb day. Clearix, selection of jobs should reflectan 'analysis of the Itysical requirements given

4.,occupation. '

r. .

k

' VOCATIONAL ASSESSMENT II :

EVALUATING THE SOCIAL AND

PHYSICAL ,FEATURES OF THE WORK

ENVIRONMENT ROLE OF CO- WORKERSI

In addition to the above fictors which must be evaluated,there are other aspects of the potential work environmentwhich must be taken into consideration. For example, anassessment of-the co-workers who are in the client's workenvironment must be undertaken. Co-workers play asignificant role in the long-term: retention of severelyretarded clients. Several coniplaints tct the supervisorfrorri co-worke'rs may well influerIce the, supervisor'sperception of the client's work perfSrinance: Co-workerscan provide advocacron behalf of a client if they choose.They can also be good models and/or teachers for how to

. .i .

157ID ,./

1

1 .

i.

Wehman

do new or complex tasks. Their role cannot be taken:lightly in determining where to place a severely disabledclient. ',

--, .

Evaluators and other instr ctional personnel must ask thefollowing questions in visits to potential, , work'environments: ).

I. How many co-workers are there in the vicinity.of where the client would be?

2. How often do the co-workers interacttogether?

3. What is the rate of co-worker turnover?4. What is the to- workers attitude toward

management?5. Are there any other disabled employees

working,there?6. What is.the predominant age of coworkers?7. What is the predominant sex of co-workers?8. What is the-predominant race of co-workers?9. Are the co-workers in any union organization?

The answers to these questions will, not only help inidentifying an appropriate placement, but they will alsoprovide insight to staff who might be involved in an on-,the-job intervention program.

Employer Perceptions

If the em ployer is not willing to hires a handicappedemplOyee, then this evaluation need go no further, for thetime being at least. In most cases, however, if a job isavailable and the client is qualified, it is unlikely' that ablank re ction will be 'forthcoming. However, whatmust be ev ted is whether the employer will follomtthrough on promises of employment or back out when thetime actually comes to hire. Also, tilt degree ofemployer support wh'kh will be provided for the client in

..

i

i

Toward Competitive Employmenti '

the initial stages of employment must be determined.Although these areas are not easy to assess, localrehabilitation counselors can generally give someinforqation on how selected employers or industries reactto handicapped employees. Some employers may bewilling to sign short-term contracts on trial employmentfor disabled workers. This is usually a good indicator ofcommitmerit.

rr Consumers

I.

. With certain jobs the worker will have little or ho. opportunity to see' or interact with the customers or

consumers of the service which the client provides, i.e,,pot scrubber. In other situations, ).e., working in egreenhouse or garage, there may be ample opportunity tobe around .consumers. As with co-workers, friendlyconsumers who are laudatory of' the client can beImportant allies in helping the individual eetain his or her,job. If it is evident, that the job requi0s significantamounts of. time with consumers; then a carefulassessment of the client's social skills must be conducted.

. Physical Layout of Work Environment

The physical design of the work area will play animportatIt part in leciding whether to make a placement.Narrow doorways, inappropriately designed, toilets orother physical barriers may prohibit those in wheelchairsfrom. working despite Section 504 assurance. Mobilityarid drientatio requirements for completion of the' jobshould,be eval ated at an early point in the analysis of thework enviro ment. For example, in a groundskeepingposition o college carpus, it is necessary to able' tofind one's w y around without gettihg lost, althoug this is:.

. c a skill of ten,taken for granted. . .

159 i (5i :

,

V.%

.

<

.Wehman.

.The next section is directed toward the problems whichcan occur during job site intervention with moderately/severely retarded workers. -

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

IN 30B-SITE TRAIN RIG

.Once moderately/severely retarded individuals areassessed, an oe-the-job training program may be initiatedin a nonsheitered work environment. Placements in realwork environments can result in a host of unexpectedproblems. Of course, problems may be more frequentand/or diverse in nature as the functioning level -of ,theperson decreases. For- example, some Moderately toseverely retarded individuals (those in the general IQrange of between 20-51) are fikely 'to piesent fewermotivational deficiencies and more work: profiCiencyproble3s,, i.e., speed: quality.. =Higher functioningindividual seem to present Mdre off-task [andnoncompliant behaviors, although they usually grasp jobrequirements quickly. Five major problem. areas are,discussed.whith' must be addrAssed 'across all functioning

-: - levels of handicapped workers ,")vhep , trained in)nonthelterecl work settings. These problem areas includebroadening. .the ranger, of jobs a <tient can perform,improving.. job quglity,, increasing work' rate, workingwithout supeAfision and fading trainee assistance:

. IC ,, .

.I'.0

..

.2

4, ..

.Broadening the Rabge of.Jobt a Client Can perform

. .. ,

. Fr : :,.,...

Traditionally, moderately and severely retarded personshave tec ,iived emPloymept tsaining which wat limited in

. ' .., r , .

V4.....,

4 ,)60

a

Toward Competitive Employment qa,

scope and which did not sufficiently prepare the individualfor the local job market. Training has taken place in

nonfunctional Allis which purportedly help the .client7 become "ready" for work, i.e., sorting colors or shapes.

Yet the range of job competencies required, even inunskilled food service or custodial utility positions, can befar-reaching, depending on the size and location of thecafeteria or hotel.

A

If a client cannot quiCkly learn new jobs, then it isunlikely he or she will be able to maintain employment.Hence,.one problem' which most training programs do notadequately address is the development- of work skillswhich are generalizable across a variety of specific jobsand settings.

,Improving Job Quality

Each place of employment has certain standards andmethods by which a job must be done. These standardsvary within every company and organization. It is criticalthat teachers and placement specialists be able to analyze;fob requirements and employer expectations for differentjobs. Both aspects must be analyzed. Ma supervisor feelsthat a client has beeh "pushed" on him or her by thePersonnel Director, the requirements of the job may beinterpreted more stringently by the supeArsor. Forexample, pickihg up trash on the grounds could be a verydifficult job to master if the supervisor is'rigorous in whatis accepted as clean or not clean. The severelyhandicapped worker mutt be competent on the job andmaintain a level of quality equivalent to nbnhandicappedno-workers. ,

":

Incl'easing 'Work Rate

Wehmin

Even if performance is errorless, speed will also. be(considered. The worker who picks up every piece of trash.,but takes three days to do it might be terminated from hisor her job. What is critical in this situation iS analyzing

the person is slow. By assessi% "Flat factors arebinterfe(ing with rate, an eventual' straNf can be devised. to improve rate. There are several possible reasons for:

diminished or inconsistent rate: I) lack of reinforcementor positive consequences associated with the job, 2)physical or health-related problems which make itdifficult to perform at an adequate speed; 3) frequentdistracting factors in jgp areas, and. 4) poor memory bythe client, thus requiring continual repetition, of earlierparts of task.

-An analysis, of the trainee's work characteristics and thejob setting "over a period of several consecutive days *illusually yield, information which will facifitate 'programplanning.

Working Without Supervision :

Self - Initiated Performance

Probably °fie of the most, frequently 'heard complaintsfrom employers about severely disabled workers who arementally retarded is that they cannot work independentlyover sust4ined periods of time. The lack of self-initiatedwork performance can partly be altributed to educationalprograms which foster dependence on the teacher bystudents. Limitations in self-initiated work can also betraced to the initial problem noted, i.e., the ability toper-form only a limited number -of jobs. Those ,workers'who do not . self-initiaperformance limit theiremployability in three significant ways. First, the

. 4.Ul162

-

..t0*,

Toward'Capetitive Employrhehr .

.. . .... .....,'"

Pi

. ptgbability of advancement to more stimulattng work is,greatly diminished: Second, the perceptions of0

# workers may be negativied) the client, may lose

° job if the employer geti tiof continually reminding. him or her of what to be done,

o. -.

419

, .

lf.:Most. on- the -4ob training pisogif%agis TAch are effective

wiith severQty ttindicapped individuals provide fordirkttwiner assistance and guidance. Helping the ,client adjust

',to the job is Ran important part, of the stiperviior's tole.This form of intervention is usually welcomed by., thecornpan illisupervisOr, who. is looking for assistance aswell. Unfortunately, the individual will becomedependent on the trainer unless there is a sy teMdticeffort to fade '(reduce) the amount of 'ass ce Theaumbei of hours and mwutes provided ning should

'& be ,recorded, therebt- yielding a daily eekly ,beechmark of guidance;

It

Fading Trainee- Assistance '

ads

4?

;

oo MO ,

TECHNIQUES FOR OV WO

ON-THE-JO/FTRANING PROBLE

4

v . .,i..

There are, several basic instructional .tiliques whichmay be used to oyercome the ..pro ms describedpreviously. These techniques-ire not coMplex,'and when

A,provided an orderly se uenpe, Can facilitate. behaviorgichan0 (Aefto & Sato eld, 1979; York, Williams &

.4 7

4*A

4

grown, 1976).

don

.

tro

163JJ

.4k Verbal Instruction

i sr

Wehman

V

The' initial fog of as sistance of ferel.should be a verbalcue or. instruction to correct the problem. .A verbal cuemay also be used to increase rate or, to prompt a sequenceof self - initiated work behaviors. Verbal instructions arethe most natural form of cue or asistance provided inWork settings ($chutz, Keller, RtSch, be Lamson, 1979).With severely; handicapped workeks, instructions should beancl short and direct and minimize extraneous words(Wehman fc Garrett, 1978). Inservice training ofemployers and co-workers in the trainee's workenvironment should include the type of verbal cueingwhich is optimal for the trainee..

O

Gestural Assistance

Pointing is. another effective means of elicAing behaviorfrom sevemly handicapped workers: Pairin§ra verbal piewith a gelture or looking in the- desired direction areother acceptable formats of communication in most workestablishments. Gestures lreqdently aredmore,effectivethan verbal, cues alone with clients who have' difficulty inpiocetsing, what the'supervisq: is asking. Gesturing is alsoa more universal form of communication which aLlowsnonverbal clients to initiate and receive socialinteractions.

Modeling Demonstration

Showing a client how to did a -job 'is a more involved andtime-consuming form of instruction than merely using

44 cues. Ideally,"preemploytnent training should. arreadyhave,taken place so that job proficiency is not a question.

111101111,

164ot.t.

i

.

k.. .

0 . .Toward Competitive %mplayment

rAlsb, for modeling to be a successful instructionalstrategy, the client should be able to imitate. 1nser viseof employers in Modeling techniques should reflett thenecessity of demonstrating skills in small steps orblusters,

Physical Guidance,

. .

Some clients will requirehands-on assistance and manual,gtirdance in completing portions - of a skill. Fast-paced"wOrk environments are not usually the ideal places. for_this type, of training, which requires precise instruction.

- It may be, however, that a new piee of equipment- isintroduced ctr the client' b role is expanded to includenew tasks; if so, th physical assistance may benecessary. ' .

.

,.

t

.

Practice

. Establishing a' work routine' which provides substantialpractice and repeated trials on a task(s) is the surest way ,.of- increasing work proficiency, even, though extendedpractice will probably not he possible,while on the job. rn .

training' of severely retarded workers, however,, it is agood pritctice to start on a job with few tasks initially,

-,. re., running a -freight elevator, cleaning pots, or wrappingsilverware. .

;

t

lb ,

I,

providing.informAtiOn so a client as to how he is doing ona job- is, termed feedback. Feedback lets the individual

t

a.

245..

11

4

.

.

(

..... /Wehman

know tha the.work breitiscompleted is not correct or thatit is ye y well done. n either event, it is. goodinstrticti hal strategy to infirm the indislidual as soon aspossible, specially w?tb a new triknee

l . g

\ISdcial/Reirdorcement

.IN

Social reinforcement includes praise, approval, attentionand compliments. Social reinforcers can me fromparents, co- orkers, training staff, employe or evenro the wor er hhltself. To be effective the should bec invent, 1 at Is,. immediately folliktv the target

. . avtors ein developed. Wherra..severe handicappeda .. .client is nelAI o the job, immediacy of reinforcement will

help him under tand the relationship between the specialattention that is being receiyed and the job justcompleted. la lin .or telling why reinforcement is'beinegiien nice job of 'scraping all the platesl"),

- will also help the tent understand.4 o

in. fast-paced work -, establishments- with allnonhandicapped wor ers, 4 is still possible to follow these

',prihciples. It may ty.of olurs.p2...be possible throughoutthe workday, but t e client `mayi ne'ed this specific

t.- ' . assistake only on se ected parts of the job. The keyfactor in inservice or employers is to stress the '.importanCe of each f the above points in utilizingreinforce.thent. Also, involving other individuals whopreviously have been e luded, i.e., family members, inreinforcement of the tient may prove fruitful inmotivaiing the worker. , ,

. .

i

.

.

e

I66

a

..

r

.... : .

.

. '

.

-

s

0

O

Toward Competitive Emplo?rn'ent ",

. SPECIFIC ADYOCACY STRATEGIES

As was noted in an earlier section, it may not always bepossible to foresee all possible circumstances which arisein a work environment. Therefore, it is necessary to planadvocacy strategies which utilize other nonhandicappedindividuals who may be willing to assist severelyhandicapped, clients. Advocacy involves speaking for oracting on behalf of the handicapped individual. It cannotbe. a passive process; it must be plahned, riot left tochance. Ultimately, if nonhandicapped individuals in thewort environment can be enlisted to assist the client., inwork adjustment, the probability of long-term jobretention is higher. Several specific advocacy strategies,will be described which may be utilized in job placementand retention programs for severely handicapped persons.The basic assumption is made that a teacher or counseloris initially present in the work environment to providetraining and 'advocacy. .

.

Informing Co-Workers of Client's

Behavioral Characteristics

. .In order to facilitate co-workers' sensitivity tov.eard theclient, it is usdally a 'good practice to discuss the

, incoming client with workers. For example, if Robert isbeginning work for the first time and is deaf and severelymentally retarded, it will be nec.eswy.. to alert co-workers of these disabilitiet..In additiW, by pointing outthe positive ,features of Robert's abilities 'arid hisstrengths,' ile,; 'strong work' attitude and/or pirentalsupport, co-workers will bA able to view Robert with amore balanced perspective. .

t.

. ,

167 . I 6tri

$

A

Wehman

In a similar fashionrit is generally wise to discuss some ofthe expectation/ Ind potential which a disabled client willhave for a.certain job. There is wide variability betweennonhandicapfed co-workers' perceptioats of the disabled A

employee's work capacity. This is especially true in jobswhere.there are many uneducated nonhandicapped persons

-ern-otoyed. If co-workers can be prepared for the client'spersonality and learning characteristics, the initialsteps /stages, of the placement are facilitated and it iseasier for the staff to fadeassistance.

Maintaining Regfdar On-Site COntact

Perhaps tide, most critical element in successful on-the-lobtraining programs with severely disabled.,workeri is thesustained Resence ie. training and/or advocacy: of thejob counselor ,or Teacher. peering in mind that mostmoderately, or severely. retarded .individuals have little 'experieke at independent functioning in the real work or.i. .community environments, it should be apparentinitial entry to these settings will be difficult without:."assistance. ,.. -

a ...

The presence of staff, .initiall , is necessary for ibe.following reasons:. 1) to he p train client in ...spe.cific jobfunctions; 2) to help train client in appropriate socialbehaviors; 3) to heir, client and co-workers communicate,or, at least get adjuated to each other's cornrriuilictionsystem; . 4) to demonstrate to superior the staffcommitment to client adjustment; 5) to, derrionStrate.toparelus the commitment to,helping the Client adjuitanji6) to observe an recordolient progresi.

.. :... , ,Although this approach may be criticized -as biibng..toocostly or resulting. in a difficult fading-off of staff, v,

,realistically it is .the only way' with many severely ,

.retarded persons, especially those wo have ,never ..received '. trai9Ing -inb competitive ',..enviponments. . . ,

.... . ... ',. ..

1 I 1../. , . ,

. ::. 1 .%. I .

.4

r '".40 4,I.

0.

Toward Competitive Employment

Furthermore, it is possibly the most effective form ofadvocacy because it is ongoing and sensitive to changes inthe attitudes of workers and supervisors.

Helping Client Complete Job

As an extension of the previous advocacy strategy,helping a client complete a job may also be utilized as anadvocacy strategy. This should not necessarily beconstrued as, performing the job for the worker. In somecases, however, it may be quite appropriate to provide'physical assistance when a worker is having difficultylearning a particular aspect of the job.

Reinforcement of Nonhandcapped Co-Workters

Looking ,for opportunities to praise, compliment, or thanknonhandicapped co-workers for their supportassistance in helping a client adjust is another advocacy

,strategy.--Providing recognition,to an employee through awritten letter with a copy to the personnel director canbe an even More effective means of displaying gratitudeto co-workers. It. is critical that a positive co-workerattitude toward handicapped 'employees not be taken for-.granted. It cannot be assumed that this alfiluffe is= normaland therefore should go .unreinforced. , Without

= 'embarrassing co-workers, subtle reinforcement can serveto strengthen relationships between handicapped andnonhandicapped employees.

,

d%

1169,

al

Wehman

r

Providing parental. Support in Problem Situations

Parental assistance' Arad support plus_ regularcommunication eventualirmay lead to conversion of themost recalcitrant parents to becoming more supportive.Placing a client competitively for the first time mayresult in the following type of questions:

1. Whiat happens to John's SS1 payment?2. How does Johnet to work?3. Will John get too tired'A He's never worked 40

hours a week.4. Will' John be alright? Will his co`- workers take

advantage of him?5. John doesn't need to work -- we give him all

the money he needs.

In order to respond intelligently and persuasively t() thesepoints, reasonable answers must be carefully thought out.'It may be that parents Who are extremely concernedmight come to the job placement from time to -time tosee John work. Once parents trust staff, then they maybecome Strong advocate of a job placement program.Such parents can help influence ttluctant parents as well.Before reaching this letel of trust, hOwever,' theinformational advocacy described previously is necessary.Parents may respond negatively only because they arefrustrated and do not know t'where to gpt satisfactoryanswers.

Reinforcing EmploYers

As noted earlier, ca- worker reinforcement is neces ry.Equally important is recognition for employers who re.willing to hire severely retarded employees. There a anumber of ways to drawattention to the floor supervisor .or department director who supports disabled employees.

17..170

Toward Competitive Employment.

These include: I) employer plaques or commendationswhich leave a permanent product in the employer's office;2) reports to the television or newspaper media describingthe employer's efforts; 3) newsletter for other employerswhich describes the affirmative action efforts of youremployer; 4) letters to the employer's supervisorexpressing thanks for assistance and support; and 5)

, written or verbal thanks and compliments directly givento the supervisor.

Although these techniques are not extensive, it is onceagain a question of not leaving the. willing employerunattended or taken for granted. Employers can and dovacillate; that is, they may change their minds abouthiring handicapped persons. Also, they may be 'under.covert pressure from other subordinates not to hiremoderately/severely retarded people to do jobs similar totli* of nonhandicapped ,,co-workers. Meeting thesepressbres successfully and maintaining an affirmativeactieti program for severely handicapped workers must bereinforced.

. FADING STAFF ASSISTANCE

FROM THE 308 SiTE

To thii point, discussion has centered on appropriate'assessment variables, job -'site training problems andtechniques for solving these problems and client advocacyat the job site. It is also importatit, however, to considerstrategies for fading staff assistance, i.e., the gradualremoval of the teacher or counselor from the job site.The strategies below may be -*utilized to facilitate asystematic reduction of staff time.

,

J171 17,3.

Wehman

Transferring Verbal Control from

7taff Trainer to Real Supervisor

Initially, all training, prompts, and job requests may befiltered from the real supervisor through the trainer tdthe client. This is especially true with nonverbal traineesor other clients with special problems which mightnormally inhibit employer communication. As the numberof trainer prompts approaches those normally required todirect a nonhandicapped worker, the trainer beginsinvolving the real supervisor in the worker program. Thisis done initially by modeling worker prompts while the'real supervisor is in close proximity. The trainer canlater explain to the real supervisor what prompts havebeen necessary to ensure the client doing his or her job.In addition, it must be restated that the trainer will notalways be able to remain on site full time. .

Reduction of Supervision and Client

Accessibility to Trainers

A second technique for overcoming employero and clientdependence on staff is to reduce systematically thetrainer's presence. This promotes the number ofsupervisor-client interactions and transfers the locus ofcontrol to. the real supervisor. The initial periods oftrainer absence should be during a- time when theoperation is at a slower pace and when the manager is notunder pressure. The manager will be more likely.to offer

o additional-time to work with the client. Eventually thetrainer's presence is, reduced over more days And duringhigher pressure times. Each client will regal% differingtrainer reduction schedules. In addition, some minimalassistance may be necessary on atontinuing basis forclients with more sever' disabilities, where ldss disabled

I 7 't172

. ,

Towatd Competitive Employment.. ,

e

clients may be maintained littlei or no folloW-upservitg. . . .

- 1 .

Tmnserring Reinforcement

,of Client to Real Supeivisot

Early in 'training the client is frequently prompted and,reinforcet by the gainer. In some cases, the client, mayeven nireive his or tier payroll check trorn the, trainer whocan help the.. client through the' check-cashing and ,

depositing process. Once the <Merit realizes thesignificance of ,the paycheck; howiver, it is important forthe., supervisor .to present.,he clients check. Modelingverbal reInforceinent while supervisory "staff is present,and explaining to the supervisor the benefits of 'payingattention to work well done must be initiated as thetrainer begins a reduction intthe time that he or she ispresent. Changing prbject stiff during training facilitateseasier'generplizatiore from supervisor to supervisor.

Teaching SelfReinforcement

.Teaching the client the 'significance of the paycheck andproducing a chart showing daily earnings may facilitate orillustrate a basic self-reinforcement 'technique. For.example, one client's job is to remove and stack dishes,pots and as they come through the dishwashingmchine. If the client is not fast enough'the machine willstop automatically until he or she can catch up. Theclient may be taught to self-monitor and self-reinfdee.byMaking statements to himself or herself such as: "Good

job, the machine has only stopped two times this.morning." Anothtt ssif-reinforcement technique ismatching high levels of behavior with reinforcement such

173. 17

v

1

as allowing the client to give himself or herself shodbreaks when caught .up o1 when working ahead ofcriterion., Self-reinfordement techniques cantbe utilizedto help maintain criterion levels of performance as thetrainer begins reduting his or her time out.

Use of Co-Workers

Enlisting nonhandicapped co-workers in the trainingprocess will, in the long run, facilitate job retention. Itmust be recognized that once a trainer begins torithdrawfrom the work site, the co-workers are the peer groupwith which the .client must interact acceptably. If theseindividuals are helpful and supportive, then the effects ofthe client's disability may very well be minimized. On theother hand, if the individual is not accerpted, thencomplaints to the supervisor may eventually result intermination of the client.

A suggested practice for having co-workers becomeinvolved is for the trainer to gain rapport with them byexplaining about the client's disability, background andrellfted behavioral characteristics. In this way, co-

. workers will not be shocked or upset at the intrusion of adisabled inclicidual into their work environment.

_

Unobtrusive Observation Schedules,

When workers, handicapped or nonhandicapped, know theirbehavior is being recorded and observed, they usuallywork faster (e.g., Fisher, Wehman, do Young, Note 2).This finding suggests that the presence of a trainer mayaffect the performance of clients. Therefore, anothersuggestion for fading involves trainers observing clientsunobtrusively or sending unfamiliar staff members torecord an individual's progress.

# "

174 .

.

Toward tompetitive Employment

*. CONCLUSION

This chapter has presented some critical program issues-relevant to the placement of moderately and severelyretarded youth and adults in nonsheltered work settings.The approach advocated in this chapter is characterized.by! 1) behavioral assessment, 2) analysis of potentialwork environments for the severely retarded worker, 3)problems which arise on the job site and methods formanaging these problems, if) advocacy guidelines, and 5)Strategies for fading staff time from a job site. Forsupportive long-term data and case studies whichempirically document this approach, the reader isreferred to Rusch and Mithaug (1980), Wehman and Hill(in press), andWehman (in press).

The placement of moderately and severely retardedindividuals into competitive employment has taken placeinfrequently. Yet die training technology is available forthis type of vocational placement to become a reality formany more severely, handicapped persons. It is incumbentupon teachers, counselors, and administrators to Workclosely with employers and parenth toward this vitalhabilitation goal.

..I

,. - .

..

e

.

.

.

c

.

REFERENCE LISTs .

Wehman-k

-.)

.

Alberto, P., ZitSchofield, P. An instructional interactionpattern for the severely handicapped. TeachingExceptional Children, 1979, 12 (1), 16-19.

Bandura, A. Principles of behavior modification.Chicago: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969...

.,. , Bellamy, G. ., Homer, R., & Inman, D. Vocationalhabilitation of severely retarded adults. Bat nores

University Ptlpress, 1979.

Coleman, A., Ayoub, M., & Friedrich, D. Assessment ofi the physical work capacity of institutionalized

s mentally retarded males. American Journal' of-: -

Pc

'Mental Deficiency, 1976, 80 (6}, 629-635.

Karan, 0. Gruated habilitation programming for theseverely developmentally disabled. RehabilitationLiterature, 1977, 38, 322-327. '. .

.

Lynqh, K. Toward a skill-oriented Kevocational programk for trainable and severely mentally . improved

students. In G. T. Bellamy; G. O'Connors, & 0. CKern (Eds.), Vocational rehabilitation of severelyhandicapped persons. Baltimore: University ParkPress, 1979.

Malik, K. Job accomodation through job restructuring andenvironment modificAon. In D. Vandergoot do 3.Worrell (Eds.), Placement in /rehabilitation.

'`... Balthore: University Park Press, 1979.

Revell, W. G., & Wehman, P. Vocational evaluation ofseverely and profoundly retarded clients,......,Rehabilitation Literature, 1978, 39 (2). 226 -231.

1 70 ,t.- .

".; '., . i ...,

176

Toward Competitive Employment.0.. 0

Rusch, F. R., & Mithaug, 0.1111k/o.eational training for

... .

mental.* retarded adults: Champaign: Research, 4 Press, 1980. - .

.

.... ..,oSchutz -R.,-R., Keller, K. Ritisclh'. F. # Lamson, D. :Theet

. contingent useK.,

- pre-instrudtion and sociti.validation .in the acquisition, generalization, and...,,...maintenance, of sweeping, and mopping responses.Education and training of the mentally retarded, inpress. .

..,.- . - 'RPM:. 0

. . `curriculumA 4*. Wehman, P., & McLaughlin, P. VocItional "Curriculum forlt

. ' 'developmentally. 'disabled yersons. Baltimore:- . University Park Press, 1980.

4 -.4..

Wehman, P., tic Garrett, S. Language, instruction for4. . severely, profoundlY, and / ffulti-handicapped. students: Two years. of' data. 'Mental retardation;

' a. '. ^ 1974,16,40-412: -

.. .. . 4.:,,..

.. .Wehman, P., ,,:c Hind 3. Competitive employment for

- moderately andk severely handicapped individuals, . EICeptiOnal children, in priss:

#0 , ..

PI 0

dt . Weimar; . Cornrietitive'Employmeht. Hod s for1.

Severe!; Disabled Individuals,' Saltimorec ook-es. . publisfmmon press: . .- .0 *

.. /Whitehiad, C. Sheltered wokkIfflopt in the decade ahead:Whitehead, ....

". , . work, and wages, or Welfare: In.G. T BellarqrG..-;-1 O'.Connors, & 0. C, Karan (Eds.), Vocational.

rehabilitati4 of severely handleappeds., ;.t . ,, BZImorei-Tiniyersity4Park P ress, 1979.. ".,,.

if Violftnsbergar; W. Princisl4pi norrnalizatioit , Toronto:, ,, , 4 ' " le I

? 1 Natiopal Ipstitute,of Mental Retardatiop,n972:4° .t ": ; ,:. . ^ et 'York,..114). Williams; 4W:, & Brown; P. Teacher modeling '

'and student. timitatioia: .' At Instructional procedure

... (8); 11 5.: ,' 1- .,-. V. .. b. % 6. .. . .., -1

..

1 and tea et' competency. AAESPH Review 1976 1

4. ;.10 ** 17"7, 7ti II

.

4.11111111 4 *.

, . . ,....41 '

. ,. ' ,4

REVERENCE NOTES

Wehm aoffl

, 1 oBellatny,.G: T., 4( Horner, R. A Report' froth the,

SPeciVizoil Training Program.. Paper presented at-.AsSociation for Sperely Handicapped Conference,

, Chicago, October' 979. ." ' .

2.." Fisher, 3., Wehman, P., 44-Younvit. geactivity andits effects on the performance of severelyhandicapped food/ service workers. 'Manuscriptsubmitted for publication, 1979.

4

406

4

'OW .

. OFft

I

4Air

t.

tspi.

V

11.

P4'

vA14.9.

. ,

4

178,

: