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Sex RolesA Journal of Research ISSN 0360-0025 Sex RolesDOI 10.1007/s11199-013-0334-8

Associations Between Mixed-GenderFriendships, Gender Reference GroupIdentity and Substance Use in CollegeStudents

Clare M. Mehta, Jacqueline Alfonso,Rebecca Delaney & Brian J. Ayotte

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Associations Between Mixed-Gender Friendships, GenderReference Group Identity and Substance Usein College Students

Clare M.Mehta & Jacqueline Alfonso & Rebecca Delaney &

Brian J. Ayotte

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract We investigated the associations between same-gender friendship, gender reference group identity, and sub-stance use in college students (54 % male, M age=19.23,SD =1.23) from the northeastern United States using an onlinesurvey. Male students reported greater weekly marijuana, butnot alcohol use than female students. Regression analysesrevealed that having a greater proportion of same-genderfriendships was associated with greater weekly alcohol usefor male students and lesser weekly alcohol and marijuana usefor female students. Gender reference group identity wasnegatively associated with weekly marijuana use for maleand female students. For female students, gender referencegroup identity mediated the association between proportion ofsame-gender friendships and weekly marijuana use. Our studyhighlights the importance of considering the social context(e.g., the gender of friends) and individual variables relating togender (e.g. gender reference group identity) in substance useresearch. Our findings fit within social constructionist modelsof social development that suggest participation in genderedcontexts (e.g., same-gender or other-gender-peer contexts)over time cue gender-typed behaviors such as usingmarijuana.

Keywords Gender segregation . Same-sex friendships .

Cross-sex friendshipsmarijuana use . Alcohol use . Genderidentity . College students

Introduction

Research conducted in the United States of America (USA)has suggested that throughout childhood and early adoles-cence, boys engage in substance use behaviors to a greaterextent than girls (Bahr et al. 2005; Silverthorn and Frick1999). In adolescence, however, the gender gap in substanceuse behaviors begins to narrow (Dick et al. 2007; Silverthornand Frick 1999; Razzino et al. 2004). One reason for thenarrowing of this gender gap may be that in the USA, adoles-cent boys and girls spend more time in mixed-gender peergroups compared to when they were children (Monsour 2002;Poulin and Pedersen 2007). As peers are believed to be one ofthe most important factors in the development of substanceuse behaviors (Bahr, et al. 2005; Dick et al. 2007: Gaughan2006), the change in the gender composition of the peer groupfrom same-gender to mixed-gender during adolescence andemerging adulthood may be a key determinant in male andfemale college students’ drug use in the USA. The purpose ofthis study is to extend the research on peer influence andsubstance use by using regression models to examine howsame- and other-gender friendships and gender referencegroup identity are related to substance use during emergingadulthood in the USA. Although findings from the USA maynot generalize to other cultures, the prevalence of same-genderover other-gender friendships appears to be culturally univer-sal (Whiting and Edwards 1988). As such, an understandingof the associations among same- and other-gender friendships,gender reference group identity, and substance use in a samplefrom the USA may inform similar research in other cultures.Most of the existing literature on gender, friendships, and

C. M. Mehta (*)Boston Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, EmmanuelCollege, 400 The Fenway, Boston, MA 02115, USAe-mail: mehtac@emmanuel.edu

J. AlfonsoEmmanuel College, 400 The Fenway, Boston, MA 02115, USA

R. DelaneyWest Virginia University, 54 Campus Drive, Morgantown,WV 26505, USA

B. J. AyotteUniversity of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road,North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA

Sex RolesDOI 10.1007/s11199-013-0334-8

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substance use is based upon data collected using samples fromthe United States or Canada (for example see Dick et al. 2007:Gaughan 2006). Consequently, unless otherwise noted, liter-ature cited in this paper is based upon studies conducted inthese countries.

The Development of Mixed-Gender Friendshipsin Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

For both boys and girls, friendships during childhood andpreadolescence are largely segregated by gender (Mehta andStrough 2010). During adolescence, hetero-normative expec-tations regarding the formation of heterosexual romantic rela-tionships lead to an increase in the amount of time spent withother-gender peers (Bukowski et al. 1999; Mehta and Strough2009; Poulin and Pedersen 2007). Thus, the proportion ofother-gender peers in male and female adolescent’s friendshipnetworks is greater than during childhood and preadolescence(Poulin and Pedersen 2007; Strough and Covatto 2002). Infact, by 12th-grade most adolescents report having at least oneother-gender friend (McDougall and Hymel 2007). The inte-gration of other-gender friends into friendship networks con-tinues through adolescence and into emerging adulthood(Mehta and Strough 2009).

Emerging adulthood is the period of development fromages 18–27 (Arnett 2000). Although some emerging adultsenter the workforce or armed services, many continue theireducation in colleges and universities. In these settings, thereare ample opportunities for students to interact with same-agepeers of both genders in classes, dormitories, and during socialactivities (Mehta and Strough 2009). For those who are het-erosexual, other-gender friendships are common and datingactivity is frequent during this period (Monsour 2002; Wright1989). Thus, the peer context during later adolescence andemerging adulthood looks substantially different from the peercontext in childhood (Mehta and Strough 2009). Because ofthe desire in adolescence and emerging adulthood to formheterosexual romantic relationships, other-gender friendsmay be particularly influential at this transitional developmen-tal phase (Dick et al. 2007).

Mixed-Gender Friendships and Substance Use Behavior

Use of substances during adolescence has been well docu-mented internationally. For example, The European SchoolSurvey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, a cross-nationalinvestigation of substance use patterns of 15- and 16-year-oldsin 36 European countries and the USA, found that the averagerate of alcohol use over the previous 30 days in Europeancountries was nearly double that of students from the USA.Students from the USA, however, ranked first in marijuanause, and third in illicit drug use (Hibell et al. 2012). TheMonitoring the Future (MTF) study by the National Institutes

of Health in the USA, has found that lifetime prevalence ratesfor alcohol, marijuana and illicit drug use in 8th-, 10th- and12th-grade students was 52 %, 31 %, and 35 %, respectively(Johnston et al. 2012). Once adolescents living in the USAtransition into emerging adulthood the rate of current alcoholuse (defined as use in the last 30 days) climbs to 70 %, withpast month marijuana use at 19 % (Substance Abuse andMental Health Services Administration; SAMHSA 2012).

Some studies have posited that experimentation with sub-stances may be a normative part of social development forboth genders (e.g., Arndorfer and Stormshak 2008; Schulteet al. 2009). While national and international research providedata suggesting that at least a third of adolescents have en-gaged in substance use (Hibell et al. 2012; Johnston et al.2012), gender differences exist when examining specific di-mensions of such use. For example, althoughmale and femaleadolescents are equally likely to have experimented withalcohol, male adolescents drink more often, more heavily,and experience more alcohol-related problems than femaleadolescents (Hummer et al. 2012; Huselid and Cooper 1994;Schulte et al. 2009). Male adolescents also use a higherquantity of drugs, use drugs more frequently, and tend to beoverrepresented among users of marijuana and hard drugs(Kulis et al. 2002). The present study investigated genderdifferences in weekly alcohol and marijuana use.

Researchers who adopt a social learning theory (SLT)approach to the development of risk behaviors proposethat risk behaviors, such as substance use, are learnedfrom close associates (Akers 1998; Akers et al. 1979;Steele et al. 2011; Sutherland 1939). The SLT approachto risk behaviors was developed in sociology as anexpansion of Sutherland’s differential association theory(Sutherland 1939). Research suggests that people aremore likely to engage in criminal behavior when theyassociate with others who engage in and endorse crim-inal behavior and when people perceive benefits andlimited costs of engaging in such behavior (Akers1998; Sutherland 1939). SLT is widely supported in theliterature documenting how the peer group is significantlyrelated to adolescents’ substance use patterns (Dick et al.2007; Gaughan 2006; Schulte et al. 2009). Only recently,however, have researchers started investigating how the gen-der composition of the peer group influences substance usebehaviors (Gaughan 2006; Poulin et al. 2011). As notedabove, during adolescence and emerging adulthood, friend-ship groups are usually made up of both males and females(Mehta and Strough 2009). It is during this same period thatwomen’s substance use behaviors increase, leading to anarrowing of the gender gap in substance use behaviors(Room 1996). Thus, it is plausible that for women, spendingtime with other-gender peers (i.e., men) during adolescenceand emerging adulthood is associated with increased sub-stance use behaviors during this period of development.

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Along similar lines, research suggests that boys and meninfluence girls’ and women’s attitudes and behaviors, but girlsand women do not influence boys’ and men’s attitudes andbehaviors (Gaughan 2006;Maccoby 1998). As such, boys andmen may exert a greater influence on the substance usebehaviors of girls and women. This is supported by empiricalwork that finds adolescent girls who spend time with other-gender peers are at increased risk for cigarette (Malow-Iroff2006:Mrug et al. 2011), alcohol (Dick et al. 2007; Poulin et al.2011), and marijuana use (Andrews et al. 2002; Bahr et al.2005; Gaughan 2006). With regards to emerging adults, theodds of binge drinking are higher for college women living inmixed-gender dorms compared to those living in same-genderdorms (Boyd et al. 2008).

While spending time with other-gender peers appears to berisky for girls and women, spending time with same-genderpeers seems to protect girls and women from participating inrisk behaviors. Perhaps this is because girls and women en-gage in less substance use behavior than boys and may be lesslikely to encourage or condone drinking overall (Mrug et al.2011). For boys and men, however, having same-genderfriendships may be more risky. Research investigating peerinfluence on marijuana use found that over a 3-year assess-ment period, college men’s marijuana use was similar to thatof their male friends (Andrews et al. 2002). It is possible thatincreased use results from males who perceive more socialpressure from their same-gender peers to engage in substanceuse behaviors (Mrug et al. 2011).

It is important to note that it is possible that emerging adultwomen who use substances are more likely to develop friend-ships with other-gender peers, and that emerging adult menwho use substances are more likely to develop relationshipswith same-gender peers. Alternatively, both behaviors mayresult from other common causes such as being in collegewhere substance use behavior is normative (Mrug et al. 2011).

Taken together, the above research suggests that havingother-gender friends for girls and women, and having same-gender friends for boys and men increases substance usebehavior. In the present study, we investigated the associationsbetween emerging adults’ proportion of same-gender friendsand weekly alcohol and marijuana use.

Proportion of Same-Gender Friends, Gender Reference GroupIdentity, and Substance Use

Gender reference group identity can be defined as the extent towhich a person identifies and psychologically connects withhis or her gender, feels a subjective sense of male/femaleness,and feels his or her gender is a positive and central part of whohe or she is (Kulis et al. 2002; Michaelieu 1997; Wade 2008).Research indicates that gender reference group identity isassociated with proportion of same-gender friends (Mehtaand Strough 2010). Associations between gender reference

group identity and the selection of same-gender peers couldreflect that peers have an influence in socializing genderreference group identity (Carter 1987). Thus, predominantlyspending time with same-gender friends could result in agreater sense of belongingness to that group. Over time, areciprocal process may emerge such that choosing same-gender friends increases identification with others of the samegender, which in turn strengthens the desire to spend time withsame-gender friends (Mehta and Strough 2010). Althoughevidence suggests that gender reference group identity isassociated with the number of same-gender peers in a person’ssocial network, the association between gender referencegroup identity and substance use has yet to be investigated.It is widely believed that those with more same-gender friendsare likely to exhibit greater gender-typed behaviors (Arndorferand Stormshak 2008; Martin and Fabes 2001; Rose andRudolph 2006). In his qualitative study of British undergrad-uates, Dempster (2011) found that for men, male peer groupsplayed a role in the maintenance and reaffirmation of mascu-line statuses. Qualitative research conducted in the USA (DeVisser and Smith 2007) and Great Britain (Dempster 2011)found that college students believed that men and women whoused alcohol were more masculine than those who didn’t usealcohol. This is supported by quantitative studies that suggestthat regardless of gender, those who identify as masculine aremore likely to engage in drinking behavior (Iwamoto andSmiler 2013; Iwamoto et al. 2011; Peralta et al. 2010). Assuch, male college students who strongly identify with othermen (i.e., their own-gender reference group) may use alcoholand marijuana more than male college students who do notstrongly identify with other men. While masculinity is linkedwith increased alcohol use, femininity is linked with de-creased alcohol use in both men and women (Chomak andCollins 1987; Huselid and Cooper 1994). If this is the case,female college students who strongly identify with otherwomen (i.e. their own gender reference group) may use alco-hol and marijuana less than female college students who donot identify with or feel similar to other women.

If substance use behaviors are predominantly associatedwith one gender, being socialized to identify with that partic-ular gender within same- or other-gender peer groups maylead to an increase in substance use behavior. In the presentstudy we investigated the associations between gender refer-ence group identity and alcohol and/or marijuana use. We alsoinvestigated whether having more same-gender friends formen or more other-gender friends for women was associatedwith increased substance use through the socialization ofgender reference group identity.

The Present Study

To review, the change in the gender composition of the peergroup from same- to mixed-gender during emerging

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adulthood may influence male and female college students’drug use by influencing emerging adults’ gender referencegroup identity. Using the social-constructionist model of gen-der development, which posits that gender typed behaviorsand characteristics (such as substance use and gender refer-ence group identity) are cued by the gender of those in theimmediate context, and the available literature as our theoret-ical foundation, we investigated the associations between thegender composition of college student’s peer context, theirgender reference group identity, and their substance use be-haviors. Given the compelling documented differences in therates of current alcohol (70 %) and marijuana (19 %) useamong emerging adults 18–25, analyses were conducted sep-arately for alcohol and marijuana (SAMHSA 2012).

Hypotheses

Based on the social-constructionist model of gender develop-ment and the research reviewed above, we hypothesized that:(1) male college students would report greater weekly alcoholand marijuana use than female college students. This hypoth-esis is a predicted replication of earlier work. For femalecollege students we hypothesized that: (2) reporting a greaterproportion of same-gender than other-gender friends would benegatively associated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use,(3) gender reference group identity would be negatively asso-ciated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use, and (4) genderreference group identity would mediate the association be-tween the proportion of same-gender friends and weeklyalcohol and marijuana use. Specifically, we hypothesized thathaving a greater proportion of same-gender friends would beassociated with greater gender reference group identity whichin turn would be associated with greater weekly alcohol and/ormarijuana use for women. For male college students wehypothesized that: (5) reporting a greater proportion ofsame-gender friends would be positively associated withweekly alcohol and marijuana use, (6) gender reference groupidentity would be positively associated with weekly alcoholand marijuana use, and (7) gender reference group identitywould mediate the association between the proportion ofsame-gender friends and weekly alcohol and marijuana use.Specifically, we hypothesized that having a greater proportionof same-gender friends would be associated with greater gen-der reference group identity which in turn would be associatedwith greater weekly alcohol and/or marijuana use for men.

Method

Participants

All students enrolled in introductory psychology classes (ap-proximately 500) at a mid-sized regional university were

invited to participate in the study in exchange for coursecredit. Data from a total of 254 students were analyzed (141males, 113 females; 52 % male), aged 18–24 (Mage=19.23 years, SD =1.23, Mage females=18.95 years, SD fe-males=1.51, Mage males=18.98 years, SD males=1.37).Overall, males reported significantly more alcohol and mari-juana use, higher gender identity scores, and were significant-ly more likely to be White compared to females (see Table 1for significance tests). Additional descriptive statistics for thesample can be found in Table 1.

Procedure

This study was approved by the college’s institutional reviewboard and adhered to the American Psychological Associa-tion’s ethical standards (American Psychological Association2002). Participants were recruited through an introductorypsychology class and received course credit for participation.Measures included in the survey were taken from previousresearch on same- and other-gender friendships and from theNIH MTF study. All measures were completed online usingSurvey Monkey and took approximately 40 min to complete.

Measures

Same and other-gender friendships

We assessed same- and other-gender friendships using anunrestricted peer nomination measure (Mehta and Strough2010). This measure asks participants to list the first and lastinitials and gender of all their closest friends and to indicatewhether the friend is a friend from home or from school. Wethen computed scores representing participants’ proportion ofsame-gender friends by dividing the number of same-genderfriends nominated by the total number of friends nominated.The average proportion of same-gender friends nominated byparticipants was .70 (Males=.72, Females=.69).

Weekly alcohol use

A single item taken from the MTF study assessed currentweekly alcohol use. Participants were asked to report thenumber of times a week, on average, they use alcohol. Malesreported using alcohol, on average, 1.55 times a week (Range0–13). Females reported drinking alcohol, on average, 1.34times per week (Range 0–5).

Weekly marijuana use

A single item taken from the MTF study assessed currentmarijuana use. Participants were asked to report the numberof times on average they use marijuana per week. Malesreported using marijuana, on average, 6.23 times a week

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(Range=0–42). Females reported usingmarijuana, on average1.36 times per week (Range=0–14).

Gender reference group identity

A revised version of Michaelieu’s (1997) gender identitysubscale (six items) assessed participants’ affiliation with theirown gender. Females answered questions about their identifi-cation with females, and males answered questions about theiridentification with males using a 6-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 6=strongly agree). A sample item for fe-males is “being female is an important part of my identity.” Asample item for males is “being a male is an important part ofmy identity.” In the present study Cronbach’s alpha was .70for males and .81 for females.

Results

Data Analyses

Gender differences in weekly alcohol and marijuana use wereinvestigated using independent t-tests. Associations betweenproportion of same-gender friends, weekly alcohol and mari-juana use, and gender reference group identity were investi-gated using linear regressions. Separate regressions were runfor men and women and for alcohol and marijuana. Resultscan be found in Table 3 (female college students), and Table 4(male college students). Variance Inflation Factor scores were

below 2.0 for all models suggesting that multicollinearity ofvariables was not a problem. Correlations between all vari-ables can be found in Table 2. Correlations for men andwomen differed. As such we conducted Fishers R to Z anal-yses to examine whether these differences were statisticallysignificant. There were significant differences in the correla-tions between proportion of same gender friends and genderreference group identity, z=−1.70, p =.01, weekly alcoholuse, z=−2.33, p =.02, and weekly marijuana use, z=3.82,p =<.001,

Gender Differences in Weekly Alcohol and Marijuana Use

Hypothesis 1, that male college students would report greaterweekly alcohol and marijuana use than female college stu-dents, was partially supported. Specifically, while there wasno significant difference in weekly alcohol use for men (M =1.55, SD= 1.67) and women (M =1.34, SD= 1.45) t (223)=1.01, p =. 82, men reported greater weekly marijuana use(M =6.23, SD= 8.36) compared to women (M =1.36, SD=2.75), t (189)=5.16, p <.001.

Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Usefor Women

Hypothesis 2, that proportion of same-gender friends wouldbe negatively associated with greater weekly alcohol andmarijuana, and hypothesis 3, that gender reference group

Table 1 Descriptive statistics

Gender reference group identityscored on a six-point Likert scale(range=1.33–5.50; possible range1–6). Higher scores representgreater gender reference groupidentity. Weekly substance usescores represent participants’ self-reported estimates of the frequen-cy of use per week (range alco-hol=0–13; range marijuana=0–42). Age ranged from 18 to23 years and proportion of same-gender friends ranged from .00 to1.00 (possible range .00–1.00)

Variable Gender Significance test

Male N= 139 Female N= 111

M SD M SD t (df) p

Age 19.09 1.20 19.32 1.10 .11 (249) .57

Proportion of same-gender friends .72 .19 .69 .20 1.37 (247) .22

Gender reference group identity 3.93 .58 3.53 1.06 3.59 (231) <.001

Weekly substance use

Alcohol 1.55 1.67 1.34 1.45 1.01 (223) .82

Marijuana 6.23 8.36 1.36 2.75 5.16 (189) <.001

n (%) n (%) χ2 (df) p

Race 13.72 (3) .01

White 117 (84.2) 76 (68.5)

Black/African American 7 (5.0) 18 (16.2)

Mixed 6 (4.3) 12 (10.8)

Other 9 (6.5) 5 (4.5)

Year in school .55 (3) .90

Freshman 82 (59.0) 67 (59.8)

Sophomore 38 (27.3) 29 (27.1)

Junior 16 (11.5) 10 (8.9)

Senior 3 (2.2) 5 (4.5)

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identity would be negatively associated with greater weeklyalcohol and marijuana use, were tested using a linear regres-sion (See Table 3). For marijuana use, results indicated thathaving more same-gender friends and increased gender refer-ence group identity were both associated with less use. Foralcohol use, having more same-gender friends was associatedwith less use, while gender reference group identity was notrelated to use.

Hypothesis 4, that the association between proportion ofsame-gender friends and weekly alcohol and marijuana usewould be mediated by gender reference group identity, wastested using linear regressions (Baron and Kenny 1986) andthe Sobel test. First, we examined whether the associationbetween proportion of same-gender friends and weekly alco-hol use was mediated by gender reference group identity forwomen. In step 1 of the mediation model, weekly alcohol usewas regressed onto proportion of same-gender friends. Theassociation between proportion of same-gender friends andweekly alcohol use was significant (β=−0.26, p =.009). Instep 2, weekly alcohol use was regressed on the mediator,gender reference group identity. Results indicated that genderreference group identity was not significantly related to alco-hol use (β=−0.05, p =.62). As such, the requirements formediation were not met. This suggests that in our sample,gender reference group identity did not mediate the relation-ship between proportion of same-gender friends and weeklyalcohol use among female college students.

Next, we examined whether the association betweenproportion of same-gender friends and weekly marijuanause was mediated by gender reference group identity for

women. In step 1 of the mediation model, weeklymarijuana use was regressed onto proportion of same-gender friends. The association between proportion ofsame-gender friends and weekly marijuana use was sig-nificant (β=−0.38, p >.001). In step 2, we found thatgender reference group identity was significantly relatedto weekly marijuana use (β=−0.46, p <.001); In step 3,weekly marijuana use was regressed onto proportion ofsame-gender friends, controlling for the mediator, gen-der identity. With gender identity in the model, thesignificance of the association between proportion ofsame-gender friends and weekly marijuana use was re-duced but still significant (β=−0.24, p =.02), suggestingpartial mediation (see Fig. 1). A Sobel test confirmedthe hierarchical regression, suggesting that gender refer-ence group identity partially mediated the associationbetween proportion of same-gender friends and weeklymarijuana use for women, Sobel=−2.42, p =.01.

Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Use for Men

Hypothesis 5 that proportion of same-gender friends would bepositively associated with greater weekly alcohol and mari-juana, and hypothesis 6, that gender reference group identitywould be positively associated with greater weekly alcoholand marijuana use, were tested using a linear regression (SeeTable 4). For marijuana use, results indicated that havingmoresame-gender friends was not associated with greater use.However, lower gender reference group identity was associ-ated with greater use. For alcohol use, having more same-gender friends was associated with greater use, while genderreference group identity was not related to use.

Hypothesis 7, that the association between proportion ofsame-gender friends and weekly alcohol and marijuana usewould bemediated by gender reference group identity was notsupported. According to our results, the requirements formediation were not met for either weekly alcohol use orweekly marijuana use (Baron and Kenny 1986). This suggeststhat in our sample, gender reference group identity did notmediate the relationship between proportion of same-genderfriends and weekly alcohol use among male college students.

Table 3 Predictors of self-re-ported weekly alcohol and mari-juana use in female collegestudents

*p <.05, ** p <.01

Variables Self-reported weekly alcohol use Self-reported weekly marijuana use

B SE B β B SE B β

Proportion of same-gender friends −1.83 .68 −0.26** −5.10 1.36 −0.38**Gender reference group identity −0.07 .15 .05 −1.16 .25 −0.46**Total R2 .07* .26**

Total F (2,95)=3.50, p =.03 (2,82)=14.32, p =<.001

Table 2 Correlations between all variables

Variable 1 2 3 4

1. Proportion of same-gender friends – .31* −.26** −.38*2. Gender reference group identity .10 – −.05 −.46**3. Weekly alcohol use .31** .08 – .18

4. Weekly marijuana use .17 .27** .05 –

Correlations for women are provided above the diagonal, correlations formen are below the diagonal

* p =<.01, ** p=<.000

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Discussion

Our results indicated that male college students reportedgreater weekly marijuana use, but not alcohol use, than femalecollege students. We also found that proportion of same-gender friends was differentially associated with substanceuse for males and females. For males, the correlations betweenproportion of same-gender friends and alcohol use were stron-ger than for females, and reporting more same-gender friendswas positively associated with weekly alcohol use. However,for females, reporting more same-gender friends was nega-tively associated with weekly marijuana and alcohol use.Correlations between proportion of same-gender friends andmarijuana use were stronger for women than men. For malesand females, greater gender reference group identity wasnegatively associated with weekly marijuana use, but wasnot associated with weekly alcohol use. Correlations betweenproportion of same-gender friends and gender reference groupidentity were stronger for females than males. Finally, ourresults suggested that gender reference group identity mediat-ed the association between the proportion of same-genderfriends and weekly marijuana use in females but not for males.

Gender Differences in Weekly Alcohol and Marijuana Use

We hypothesized that male college students would reportgreater weekly alcohol and marijuana use than female college

students. This hypothesis was partially supported. Male stu-dents did not report greater weekly alcohol use than femalestudents, but did report greater weekly marijuana use. Thatthere was no significant difference in college men andwomen’s weekly alcohol use in our sample supports researchthat suggests the gender gap in alcohol use is closing (Capraro2000; Dick et al. 2007; Silverthorn and Frick 1999). Hoeppnerand colleagues found that college women exceeded the Na-tional Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism’s (NIAAA)guidelines for weekly drinking limits, and that women wereno different from men on exceeding daily consumption limits(Hoeppner et al. 2013). Additionally, national survey datafrom the USA support the narrowing of the gender gap inalcohol use in those aged 12–20, with males’ reported currentalcohol use rate at 25.6 %, and female use at 24.6 %(SAMHSA 2012).

Although there were no significant gender differencesin weekly alcohol use, as hypothesized, male collegestudents reported greater weekly marijuana use thanfemale college students. This fits with research thathas suggested that males are heavier substance users(Hummer et al. 2012; Mullen et al. 2007; Schulteet al. 2009). It could be that while both males andfemales engage in drug experimentation and use alco-hol, males engage in behaviors more indicative of prob-lem substance use, such as using illicit drugs and usingdrugs more frequently (i.e., more times per week).

-.38**, (-.24*)

.31** .46**

Gender Reference Group Identity

Weekly Marijuana Use Proportion of Same-Gender Friends

Fig. 1 Standardized regression coefficients for the association betweenproportion of same-gender friends and weekly marijuana use in femalecollege students as mediated by gender reference group identity. Thestandardized regression coefficient between proportion of same-genderfriends and weekly marijuana use with gender reference group identity in

the model is in parentheses. A significant Sobel test indicated that genderreference group identity mediated the association between proportion ofsame-gender friends and weekly marijuana use (Sobel=−2.42, p =.01)*p <.05, ** p <.001

Table 4 Predictors of self-reported weekly alcohol and marijuana use in male college students

Variables Self-reported weekly alcohol use Self-reported weekly marijuana use

B SE B β B SE B β

Proportion of same-gender friends 2.65 .72 .30* 7.25 4.12 .17

Gender reference group identity .23 .28 .08 −4.44 1.66 −0.27**Total R2 .08** .10**

Total F (2,115)=5.03, p =.008 (2,94)=5.12, p=.008

*p <.05, ** p <.01

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Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Usefor Women

Because marijuana and alcohol use are typically believed to bemasculine behaviors, we hypothesized that females with agreater proportion of other-gender friends in their friendshipnetwork would report greater weekly alcohol andmarijuana usethan those with a greater proportion of same-gender friends intheir friendship network. We predicted this in part becausefemales with fewer other-gender friends would be less likelyto be exposed to peers (i.e., males) who engage in greatersubstance use. This fits with SLT explanations of deviant be-havior (Akers 1998; Peralta and Steele 2010; Steele et al. 2011;Sutherland 1939). This hypothesis was supported. College-aged females with more other-gender friends in their friendshipnetworks reported greater weekly marijuana and alcohol usethan those with more same-gender friends in their peer net-works. This finding is consistent with previous research thatsuggests that for adolescent girls, having more other-genderfriends is associated with increased substance use (Bahr et al.2005; Gaughan 2006; Poulin et al. 2011). There are severalpossible explanations for this finding. First, research looking atfriendships and alcohol use suggests that students who drinkheavily select friends who also drink heavily (Knecht et al.2011). It could be that female college students who are frequentusers of alcohol and marijuana select male friends based on thebelief that males use these substances to a greater extent thanfemales. Alternatively, female college students with other-gender friendsmay bemore likely to use alcohol andmarijuana.This explanation is consistent with peer influence and SLTmodels that emphasize the significant impact of peers on ado-lescents’ substance use behavior patterns (Akers 1998; Dicket al. 2007; Gaughan 2006). It could also be that both havingother-gender friendships and using alcohol and marijuana areinfluenced by a third variable, such as being in college orgender reference group identity.

Gender reference group identity has not previously beeninvestigated in conjunction with substance use. However,research investigating stereotypical gender-typed traits andsubstance use does indicate that there is an association be-tween femininity/expressivity and alcohol use (Chomak andCollins 1987; Huselid and Cooper 1992). As such, we hy-pothesized that gender reference group identity would beassociated with weekly alcohol and marijuana use. In oursample, we found that gender reference group identity wasnot associated with women’s weekly alcohol use, but wasassociated with women’s weekly marijuana use. That genderreference group identity was not associated with women’sweekly alcohol use could be because of the prevalence ofalcohol use among women attending college. As the presentstudy and others suggest, the gender gap in alcohol use isnarrowing (Capraro 2000; Dick et al. 2007; SAMHSA 2012;

Silverthorn and Frick 1999). As alcohol use becomes norma-tive for women in college, identifying with others of the samegender may not be protective against alcohol use.

Although gender reference group identity was not associ-ated with weekly alcohol use it was negatively associated withweekly marijuana use. This indicates that the more womenidentified with and felt a psychological connection to theirown gender, the less frequently they used marijuana. Unlikealcohol, these findings suggest that identifying with others ofthe same gender may protect against marijuana use in femalecollege students.

Although having more same-gender friends is associatedwith substance use (Poulin et al. 2011), little is known aboutthe potential mechanism for this association, particularly amongemerging adults. Because both proportion of same-genderfriends and gender reference group identity were associatedwith weeklymarijuana use in female college students, we testeda mediation model with gender reference group identity as amediator of proportion of same-gender friends and weeklymarijuana use. We hypothesized that having a greater propor-tion of same gender friends would be associated with greatergender reference group identity, which in turn, would be asso-ciated with greater marijuana use. We found that gender refer-ence group identity accounted for a significant amount of thevariance in the association between proportion of same-genderfriends and weekly marijuana use. Specifically, our resultssuggest that among female college students gender referencegroup identity mediates the association between proportion ofsame-gender friends and substance use. Having more same-gender friendships may socialize gender reference group iden-tity, which may then reduce the likelihood of female collegestudents using marijuana. These findings fit with social con-structionist models of social development (see Deaux andMajor 1987) that suggest that participation in gendered contexts(e.g., same-gender or other-gender peer contexts) over time cuegender-typed behaviors (e.g., using alcohol and/or marijuana).

Associations Between Proportion of Same-Gender Friends,Gender Reference Group Identity, and Substance Use for Men

As noted above, alcohol and marijuana use are typicallybelieved to be masculine behaviors. We expected that menwith more same-gender friends in their friendship networkwould report greater weekly alcohol and marijuana use thanthose with fewer same-gender friends in their friendship net-works. This hypothesis was partially supported. Specifically,we found that men who reported a greater proportion of same-gender friends reported greater weekly alcohol, but not mar-ijuana use. Men with more same- than other-gender friends intheir social network may report greater weekly alcohol usebecause of perceived social pressure from their same-genderpeers to engage in substance use behaviors (Mrug et al. 2011).This supports SLT models that propose that peers have a

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substantial influence on adolescents’ substance use behaviorpatterns (Akers 1998; Dick et al. 2007; Schulte et al. 2009).Research from the United Kingdom suggests that masculinityis often enacted in males’ same-gender peer groups (Dempster2011). If alcohol use is a masculine behavior enacted with inmen’s same-gender peer groups, it follows that men whospend more time with other men use alcohol to a greaterextent. As with female college students, there are alternativeexplanations for this finding. First, research looking at friend-ships and alcohol use suggests that students who drink heavilyselect friends who also drink heavily (Knecht et al. 2011). Itcould be that male college students who are frequent users ofalcohol select same-gender friends based on the belief thatmen use alcohol more than women. It could also be that malecollege students with same-gender friends may be more likelyto use substances. Finally, it could also be that having bothother-gender friendships and using alcohol and marijuana areinfluenced by a third variable, such as being in college wheresubstance use behavior is normative (Mrug et al. 2011), oridentifying with others of the same gender.

Research indicates that college men’s marijuana use is sim-ilar to their male friends’ use (Andrews et al. 2002). However,our hypothesis that college men with a greater proportion ofsame gender friends would report greater weekly marijuana usewas not supported. This finding suggests that although collegemen’s marijuana use may be similar to that of their friends,having more male than female friends is not associated with anincrease (or decrease) in weekly marijuana use.

We hypothesized that gender reference group identitywould be associated with weekly alcohol and marijuana usein men. Gender reference group identity was not associatedwith weekly alcohol use in male college students. Whilegender reference group identity may be a component of mas-culinity, it may not be associated with correlates of masculin-ity such as alcohol use because it is an internal rather thanexternal component of gender. Specifically, having an internalsense of belonging and connection with those of the samegender does not necessary require a person to publicly enactstereotypically masculine behaviors such as alcohol use.

Contrary to our prediction, gender reference group identitywas negatively associated with weekly marijuana use in malecollege students. That gender reference group identity wasnegatively associated with weekly marijuana use is inconsistentwith previous research that has found positive associationsbetween substance use and masculinity (Iwamoto and Smiler2013; Kulis et al. 2002). One possible explanation of this findingis that males who identify less with their gender reference-groupexperience gender-role stress. Gender-role stress occurs whenpeople feel as though they are failing to live up to sociallysanctioned gender scripts (Copenhaver and Eisler 1996), andis associated with substance use (Capraro 2000; Monk andRicciardelli 2003). Gender-role stress may lead to substanceuse for two different reasons. First, a male experiencing

gender-role stress may “self-medicate” by using marijuana tocope (Courtenay 2000; Monk and Ricciardelli 2003). Second, amale experiencing gender-role stress may use marijuana in anattempt to demonstrate their masculinity. Research suggests thatmen who feel inadequate about their masculinity drink alcoholto excess to enhance their masculine status (Dempster 2011; DeVisser and Smith 2007; Iwamoto et al. 2011; Peralta 2007).

Alternatively, gender reference group identity and weeklymarijuana use could be negatively associated because smokingmarijuana may be a less masculine behavior than drinkingalcohol. This could also explain why proportion of same-gender friends was not associated with weekly marijuana use.Among teenage males, traditional masculinity was found tocontribute to heavy drinking but not marijuana use (Lye andWaldron 1998). The finding that gender reference group identitywas negatively related to weekly marijuana use for male collegestudents fits with popular stereotypes and media representationsof male marijuana users as “laid back” and non-aggressive.

Limitations and Future Directions

When interpreting the results of the current study, the follow-ing limitations should be taken into consideration. First, oursample was relatively small, and because of this we may nothave had enough statistical power to detect associations be-tween variables. However, our results contribute to the litera-ture by proposing a mechanism through which the gender offriends may influence substance use. Second, similar to manystudies on both friendships and substance use, we rely on self-report measures. These reports may not accurately reflectcollege student’s actual weekly marijuana and alcohol use asthey may over or underestimate their weekly substance use. Itis likely that college students, especially heavy substanceusers, forget the number of times they typically use alcoholor marijuana in a given week. In addition, the same- and other-gender friendship measure may not accurately capture thenumber of same- and other-gender friends with whom collegestudents spend time. College students may nominate friendswho they rarely see, or with whom they are not very close. Toaddress both of these issues, future research could use mo-mentary sampling methodology that allows for real-timereporting of both social context and substance use. Third,our data is cross-sectional and did not benefit from a randomsampling method; as such, we cannot determine whether aperson’s proportion of same-gender friends or gender identityinfluence substance use, or if substance use influences aperson’s proportion of same-gender friends and gender iden-tity. It will be important for future studies to employ a longi-tudinal design that will help us elucidate the direction of theseassociations. Fourth, although we were interested in investi-gating same-and other- gender friendships, gender identity,and substance use in college students due to the higher rate ofsubstance use in college (versus non-college emerging adults),

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our findings may not generalize to those who choose not topursue a higher education. It is also important to note thatparticipants were recruited from an introductory psychologyclass, and as such are primarily first year students. Our find-ings therefore may not generalize to other college students.Future research should investigate friendships, gender identi-ty, and substance use in emerging adults who are further alongin their college careers and who are in the workforce, wheredrinking and drug use may be less normative. Fifth, althoughsexual orientation was assessed, we did not manage to recruitenough sexual minorities to be able to examine how theassociations between same-and other gender friends, genderidentity, and substance use are similar differ in non-heterosexual college students. Those who identify as gay orlesbian may have more other-gender friends than heterosex-uals (Diamond and Dubé 2002) and may be more likely toengage in substance use (Marshal et al. 2008).

Conclusion

Our study highlights the importance of including the gender ofpeers when conducting research or developing theoreticalmodels of peer networks and substance use in college students.Interventions targeting substance use behaviors in college stu-dents should not only consider the gender composition of stu-dent’s social networks, but should also include peers in inter-vention efforts, as peers may be more effective at limiting druguse than authority figures (Andrews et al. 2002; Room 1996).

Our study also highlights the importance of moving beyondbinary gender measures to consider socialized gender, such asgender reference group identity, when looking for gender dif-ferences in substance use behaviors. Our findings also providepotential avenues for substance use interventions. For malecollege students who identify as masculine, interventions thatencourage healthy masculine behaviors such as engaging inathletic activities and sports may provide an alternative forsubstance use as a way for constructing masculine identities(De Visser and Smith 2007). For female college students,interventions that promote internal feelings of connection withone’s gender, as well as increased opportunities to socializewith same-gender peers, may help reduce substance use.

Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the two anony-mous reviewers who provided feedback on earlier versions of this man-uscript. We would also like to thank Grant Kuehl, Kelly R. Smith, andDanielle Rose for their comments.

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