Approaches to International Relations

I. What is IR?

A. What matters in the world?

B. “the study of interactions between and among various

actors in international politics; study of behavior of these

actors as individuals and together in international political

processes”

II. How do we study IR?

A. Theories and models

B. Theories: ideas that attempt to classify a series of

events into a single coherent framework

C. Model: use theory to examine real-world concepts, explain

why things happen and will happen the way they do; models

describe, explain, and predict

D. Social sciences have poor record of being able to

predict, good record in connecting past events.

III. Common IR theories

A. Realism: negative view of human nature—system is

anarchical, states act in own interest, power-driven

B. Liberalism: positive view of human nature—people, groups

cooperate to achieve mutual interests

C. Radicalism: economic view—international system is set to

exploit poor for rich, system is stratified, based on

capitalism

IV. Approaches to IR

A. History: diplomatic history, “lessons of history,”

examine patterns to make generalizations; example:

Thucydides’ The History of the Peloponnesian Wars

B. Philosophy: moral component, not always pleasant, debate

of human nature/

behavior—are we inherently conflictual or cooperative?; what

should be/what is normative?, example: role of the state:

Plato, Marx; humans and government, example: Hobbes,

Rousseau, Locke; Kant’s Perpetual Peace

C. Behavioralism: normative to empirical, application of

more “scientific” approach to social issues, seeks to discern

specific patterns of behavior for individuals, organizations,

states, processes in order to predict; what is and why?

example: COW, PRIO—flawed methodology to define war based on

casualties; problems: findings largely inaccessible to most

people, validity of methods, motives

D. Post-Modernism: deconstruct elements of study; What is a

state, rationality, security?; With so many exceptions, do

you really have a rule?

V. Now What?

A. Examine approaches

B. Analyze actors

C. Explore substantive questions and processes: conflict,

political economy, globalization

History

1648: Treaty of Westphalia, end of Thirty Years War

1815: End of Napoleonic rule

I. Pre-Westphalia

A. Roman Empire: figured out how to maintain an empire

1. Twofold governing practice

2. Rome as dominant influence: border protection,

language, imposition of government

3. Use of home rule: granting Roman citizenship with

protection, autonomy to local rulers to keep empire in

place

4. Merit-based rank—anyone could rise in rank

B. The three empires of the early Middle Ages: Byzantine,

Arabic, Charlemagne

1. Increase in international interaction

2. Characteristics of Middle Ages:

i. Enactment of feudal systems

a. Agrarian-based system

b. Creation of markets

c. Increase in technology and infrastructure

ii. Centralized religious authority

a. State leaders answered to Rome, symbiotic

relationship

b. Divine right of kings

iii. Decentralized political authority

C. Renaissance

1. Proliferation of merchant class, trade

i. Knowledge, books, ideas

ii. Disease

iii. Religion

2. Decentralization

3. Influence of secular humanism; religious conflict

4. Beginning of Colonial Imperialism—immigration plus

raw material markets

II. 1648—Holy Roman Empire breaks apart

A. Thirty Years War (1618-1648): Protestant vs. Catholics,

conflict over overturning papal authority

B. Treaty of Westphalia

1. Notion of Sovereignty

i. Jean Bodin

ii. Nation-state

iii. Definition: no higher authority

iv. Issue of non-interference in the internal

matters of another state

2. Establishment of national armies (against feudal

privatization of military conflict)

i. Discontinuation of mercenary armies

ii. Centralized state authority

iii. Max Weber: monopoly on violence by

government, most basic definition of government,

keeping the peace

3. Establish core group of dominant states:

Netherlands, England, France, Russia, Prussia, Austria

i. East-west split in Europe: east—feudal,

agrarian system, west—capitalist system

ii. Creation of bouguoise = allow for rise of

democracy later

III. Modern Europe and the balance of power

A. Enlightenment—experimentation, complexity, and

advancement in

music, science, philosophy, writing, technology, social

theory

B. Revolution in America and France

C. Two new concepts emerge:

1. Legitimacy: moral and legal right to rule based on

law, custom, heredity, or consent of the governed; rulers

are subject to limitations imposed by man

2. Nationalism: people share devotion and allegiance to

the nation usually based on shared physical

characteristics of the people, common religion,

language, historical experience; congruence between nation

and state

IV. Concert of Europe

A. Demise of Napoleon (1815)— Europe in constant conflict

since 1803

B. Congress of Vienna: Austria, Britain, France, Prussia,

Russia

1. Long-lasting peace in Europe: no major great power

wars

between 1815 and WWI

2. Division of colonial holdings in Asia and Africa

3. European solidarity: Christian, “civilized,” white

4. Elites united by fear of revolution

5. Preoccupied by unification in Germany and Italy

6. Engaged in territorial expansion outside of Europe

C. Balance of power

1. Equally powered states, feared rise of hegemon

2. Five players: Austria, France, Britain, Prussia,

Russia

3. Balance of flexible alliances, adjust depending on

circumstances

4. Primary balancers: Britain and Russia; status quo

usually acceptable

5. Multipolar system (no hegemon)

V. World War I

A. Hardening of alliances: triple vs. dual

B. Secret allies

C. Assassination of Duke Ferdinand

D. System-wide war

E. Treaty of Versailles

1. Allies saddle Germany and Austro-Hungary with

debilitating reparations

2. German structure, army, and economy fall apart

F. Inter-war period

1. End of empires as known at that time: Ottoman and

Hungarian empires collapse into several states

2. End of monarchy: Russian Bolshevik Revolution

3. Beginning of Liberalism: Wilson’s 14 Points—“open

covenants openly arrived at,” free trade, open navigation

on high seas

4. Disillusionment of Liberalism and rise of Hitler

5. Failure of League of Nations

6. German grievances, rise of nationalism, imperial

motivation

G. World War II

1. German rearmament

2. Japanese imperialism

3. Clash of Liberalism, Communism, Fascism

4. Fascism defeated in WWII, leaving Liberalism and

Communism going into the 1950s

5. Defeat Germany and Japan, Europe and Japan in ruins

6. Beginning of new international institutions: Bretton

Woods, the United Nations

7. Transition from multipolar to bipolar system: Europe

and Asia divided by U.S. and C.C.C.P. spheres of

influence

H. Cold War

1. Bipolar world

2. Fundamental incompatibility of interests, goals,

etc. as espoused by George Kennan

i. Geopolitical

ii. Economic

3. New policies

i. Marshall Plan: economic plan to rebuild Europe

outside communist jurisdiction to prevent Soviet

Union from taking over those countries

ii. Truman Doctrine: Mr. “X”, United States would

aid all countries (particularly Greece and Turkey) in

struggle against Communism

iii. Deterrence: missiles

iv. Domino effect: if one state falls to

Communism, then the weak, neighboring states will

inevitably fall as well

4. End of colonialism

i. British colonies: India

ii. African states: independence from France

5. Proxy-wars/3rd party conflicts—US participates in

conflicts through intermediaries

i. Berlin Blockade

ii. Korean War

iii. Cuban Missile Crisis

iv. Vietnam

v. Afghanistan

6. New alliances

i. NATO:

a. To keep the US in, the Soviets out, and

the Germans down

b. Article V: an attack against one NATO ally

is an attack on all allies (invoked after 9-

11)

ii. Warsaw Pact

7. Long peace?

I. Post Cold War

1. Unipolar: single power (US) though not completely

unchecked

2. Proliferation of small, non-traditional conflicts:

civil wars, ethnic conflict, terrorism

3. 1990s, US starts to intervene in intrastate

struggles—Bosnia, Somalia

i. Bosnia: US intervention ended a great deal of

conflict, though a little late

ii. Somalia: US overthrew dictatorship, “CNN

effect” (24 hours news

with pitiable pictures of Somalian refugees)

forced policy-makers hands; US mission/efforts

solved famine; US change in mission to take warlord

failed and US pulled out without decisive end

4. Polarity and power:

5. The “End of History”?: Francis Fukuyama’s book after

fall of Soviet Union, communism’s fall shows “end of

history” and unthreatened dominance of democracy;

however, intrastate conflicts that later arose challenged

this view, showing how much strife was bubbling underneath

6. Era of Terror

i. 9/11 and Al Quaeda

ii. World had to realize that non-state actors do

matter

iii. US Unilateralism: Bush Doctrine—if you harbor

or aid terrorism, we will start unilateral, proactive

wars, if necessary, to defend our national security

iv. Role of IGOs, validity of UN, etc.

Theoretical Approaches

I. Images and perceptions

A. Formation of perceptions from birth: no complete

knowledge of any subject, therefore have to make assumptions

B. Illusion and misperception: we think we understand things

when we don’t, or that we completely understand something when

we only understand part

C. Cognitive maps: how we perceive the world; five elements:

1. Simplify the world

2. Reduce to dichotomous situations

3. Assimilate data

4. Distort thinking: sometimes data cram to fit to our

assumptions—> logical fallacies, cognitive dissonance

(uncomfortable experience when our way of thinking is

challenged)

5. Use “shortcuts” to make judgments (heuristics)

D. Problems with perceptions

1. Code/trigger words: evoke specific frame of

reference, condition our responses, media manipulation

2. Live according to cognitive maps

3. People are lazy perceivers: understand only enough

to draw conclusion, don’t check sources, don’t research

enough

E. Levels of analysis

1. Significant element of IR research

2. Three big levels: individual, state, system

3. Benefits and drawbacks to every level (system—big

picture but lack details; individual—details but not big

picture)

II. Realism

A. Quintessential theory of international relations

B. Accepts the world as anarchic

C. Writings of Thucydides, Hobbes, Machiavelli, etc.

D. Classical Realism (4 key assumptions)

1. State is the primary actor

2. State is a unitary actor, “speaks with one voice”

3. State is a rational actor: challenge—What is

rational behavior?

4. State acts in national interest, power is

everything; amoral—willing to do anything, give up morality

for power

E. When things go bad, realism is default mindset.

III. Neorealism

A. Re-incarnation of Realism

B. 2 big differences

1. Greater emphasis on international system itself

2. Focus on Balance of Power; distribution of power in

the system

C. Example: Kenneth Waltz

IV. Liberalism

A. Def: “the notion that people are basically good, can

improve in moral and material conditions, and can cooperate

for these ends”

B. Bad things in the world are the result of bad

institutions or bad/misinformed leaders

C. Moral component: ills of the world can/should be

moderated/controlled

D. Goal: maximize human freedom by democracy and market

capitalism

E. History

1. Greeks: human rationality; recognition of social

“good”; use of law

2. Enlightenment: Montesquieu, Kant, Locke

3. Modern: Wilson, FDR, Truman, Clinton, Bush, Fukuyama

F. Major characteristics:

1. People/individuals matter

2. Collective action and security: aggression by one

state will be countered by others, cooperation for mutual

gain not necessarily power

3. International institutions

4. Interdependence

5. Promote change

G. Problems with Liberalism

1. Cooperation—can’t guarantee how actors will behave

(Prisoner’s Dilemma, Stag Hunt)

2. What is morality? What is rational?

3. Interdependence actually only among liberal

democracies

H. Development of Liberalism

1. The Democratic Peace: why do democratic states not

fight each other?

i. Treaties

ii. Similar views

iii. Normative behavior

iv. Nothing to keep democracies from fighting non-

democracies

2. Dominate theory

3. Liberal democracy: the “end of history”

V. Radicalism

A. Def: “perspective rooted in economic relationships with a

concentration on the system itself”

B. Characteristics:

1. History as primary methodology

2. Emphasis on class structure

i. Proletariat: common working class

ii. Bourgeoisie: owners of the means of

production, exploit proletariats

3. World system is grounded in superior/subordinate

relationships

C. Emmanuel Wallerstein

1. “Core” of advanced, industrialized nations (1st

world) surrounded by “semi-peripheral” nations that are

developed but not as far advanced (2nd world) which are

surrounded “periphery” nations that are not developed (3rd

world)

2. Core=democratic, 2nd world=post-communism, rising,

3rd world=communist, anarchic, etc.

3. Raw materials from periphery are processed and

refined by semi-

periphery and become products in core

D. Other elements

1. Economic imperialism (as opposed to the colonial

imperialism of the past)

2. Dependency theory: local economies won’t create

sustainable markets, excessive goods from core are

exported to 3rd world (Notre Dame t-shirts rather than

locally made t-shirts)

E. Problems

1. International cooperation—when 1st world nations

cooperate with 3rd world countries without seeking personal

gains (Japan forgive Burma’s huge debt, US sending aid to

Haiti, George W. Bush’s aid to sub-Saharan Africa to

combat AIDS/HIV)

2. Conflict between non-capitalist states

VI. Constructivism

A. New cynical alternative to Radicalism

B. Def: “perspective that dismisses earlier attempts as

incomplete; seeks to construct definitions, elements of the

system not fully evolved”

C. Nature vs. nurture, return to fundamental questions like

What is a state? What is citizenship? What is sovereignty?

D. Elements/characteristics:

1. State behavior shaped by elite beliefs, identities,

social norms

2. Downplay concept of material structure

3. Emphasizes norms, identities

4. Power—not just military; soft power

5. Issue of sovereignty, gender, etc.

E. Problems

1. No real set of constructs—What is real?

2. No real explanatory power

3. Question everything, caught in dialectical pattern

(thesis, antithesis, synthesis,.…)

International System

I. Systems Theory

A. Def: “assembly of units, objects, parts united by some

form of regular interaction.”

B. Structure: actual assembly of parts, etc.

C. Function: processes the system undertakes

D. Systems are “open circuits”; if closed then no change, no

change then no adoption=death

E. Example: David Easton’s Political Systems Model:

environment { Inputs—>Throughputs—>Outputs }

environment

^______ feedback ______|

F. Realists and Systems

1. See world as anarchic

2. Disagree on nature of international systems

3. Classical: states act and shape systems

4. Neo: states are constrained by systems

5. Issue is polarity

i. Multi-polar systems:

a. Number of states exerting power in

international system

b. For a balance of power, must have at least

5 states

c. At least 3 states have relative power

parity

d. Norms are understood; if violated=system

weakens

e. If number falls to 3, then unstable b/c of

alliances—2 vs. 1

f. Alliances in general have short duration,

specific purposes, flexibility

g. System supports limited war (not system-

wide conflict) to preserve the balance of power

ii. Bi-polar systems:

a. Two great powers with associated blocs

b. Consistent negotiation, not direct

conflict

c. Minor wars over spheres of influence

d. Major wars only to eliminate blocs

(chances of major war in bi-polar system = slim

to none)

e. Long term alliances for permanent

interests, inflexible

f. International organizations?

iii. Uni-polar systems:

a. 1 dominant state/bloc

b. No counterweight

c. Stability?

d. Example: US post Cold War—EU still

consolidating, Soviet Union collapsed

e. “Hegemonic stability” theory (HST):

unitary power can enforce its will, norms, and

peace by preponderance of power

f. Argument against HST: “death by a thousand

cuts”—there will be multiple groups who

challenge unipolar power

II. Systems Management, Stability, and Change (Realists)

A. Bi-polar

1. Pros:

i. Focus on each other, moderate violence

ii. Stable and predictable

iii. Most stable according to Waltz

2. Cons:

i. Hard to formally regulate

B. Multi-Polar

1. Pros:

i. Formal regulation

ii. Interconnected & cross-cutting ties: i.e.

shared resources, shared challenges

iii. Less likely to target one state in system

2. Cons:

i. Complicated relationships

ii. Balance of power can shift: Power Transition

theory

iii. Major war to change system—can be

catastrophic

C. Uni-Polar:

1. Pros:

i. One concentrated center of power

ii. Most stable?: Hegemonic Stability theory

(Keohane)—unilaterally enforces norms

2. Cons:

i. No accountability

ii. If power declines=unstable system?

iii. Goals and motivations become vague, supersede

nations and politics

III. Liberalism & the International System

A. System not central to liberals; much more interested in

function of system rather than structure

B. 3 conceptions of the system:

1. Process of multiple interactions: if continuing

interaction between states is favorable, there is no

reason to discontinue; tit for tat; can’t withdraw from

system, can only choose to not communicate with certain states

2. International Society (H. Bull)

3. Neo-Liberal Institutionalism: champion institutions

that reflect democratic, capitalist ideology, reinforce

our norms

C. System change:

1. Can occur from outside (exogenous)

2. Issue areas may change system

3. New actors may change system

III. Radicals & the System

A. Explain by concept of stratification:

1. Uneven distribution of resources

2. North v. South

B. Ambition and development = conflict

C. Issues with stratification:

1. Wealthier countries are continuing to become

wealthier, poor countries continuing to become poorer

2. Reject Social Darwinism: strongest thrive

3. Disparity built into system

IV. The System

A. Pros:

1. Holistic, top-down model

2. Generalizations = predictability

B. Cons:

1. Overly broad—lose detail, abstract

2. Testing is hard

The State, the Nation

I. What is a state?

A. Fundamental conditions for statehood:

1. Territorial base typically with defined borders

2. Stable population

3. Government to which population owes some form of

recognition

4. That govt. has monopoly on violence

5. International recognition

B. Exceptions to these conditions

1. Border disputes

2. Nomadic populations (ex. Sudan)

3. Rebellion, secession (ex. Syria)

4. Govt. loss of monopoly, control (ex. Somalia)

5. Not recognized as legitimate by some countries,

entities (ex. Israel and Palestine)

II. What is a nation?

A. Def: group of people who share a set of characteristics—

history, heritage, ritual, customs, culture, language,

lifestyles, etc.

B. Primordialism theory: certain distinct groups of people

have roamed the earth from the beginning (not really accepted

in academia)

C. Instrumentalism theory: social construct,

ethnicities/nations are invented vehicles by which we are able

to identify as a nation

D. What makes a nation?

1. No government, territory mentioned in def.

2. Psychological connection

3. Rituals

i. Divide space and time, show transition in

status (ex. pledge to member, girl to woman, etc.)

ii. Mark relations with the Divine

E. Rise of nationalism: the idea that nations should have/be

their own states, nationality=statehood; problems=definition of

nation, immigration, mixed heritage, not set in stone

F. What about…

1. Nations without states? (ex. Kurds)

2. Nations within states? (ex. Navajo)

3. States without nations? (ex. US—multinational state

or nationless state)

Power & the State

I. What is power?

A. Ability to carry out own objectives

B. Influence or compel others to do something, change

behavior of others

C. Project force, control outcomes

D. Security

II. In IR

A. In relation to other states

B. Influence

C. For Realists, power is the “currency” of IR

III. Different kinds of power

A. Natural sources: size(?), location, resources, manpower,

demographics (health, age, homogeneity, etc.), development,

economy

B. Tangible sources: military, access to natural resources,

trade, stable government, infrastructure

C. Intangible sources: reputation/image, public support,

leadership/vision, resource use (people, profits, etc.), values

(morals, culture, language— exportable)

IV. Exercise of State Power

A. Diplomacy

1. Create and maintain relationships/communication

between governments

2. Bargaining—depends on credibility

3. Public diplomacy

i. Soft power—being able to exert influence

without forceful stance

ii. Smart power—knowing when to use force versus

diplomacy, when to use which tool in tool case

B. Economic statecraft

1. Sanctions

i. Positive: trade agreements, foreign aid,

directed aid

ii. Negative: embargoes, freeze access to bank

accounts in foreign countries

2. Non-state issues

3. Power potential

C. Force, based on:

1. Compellance: usually past the point of threats

2. Deterrence: success is a non-event, so how do you

judge whether your efforts have been successful? post hoc

ergo propter hoc (“after therefore because”) ex: nuclear

deterrence—mutually assured destruction MAD

3. Credibility: have to have ability to carry through

threats even if you take no action or else threats

won’t be heeded

V. Different perceptions of the State

A. Realists

1. State centric/Statist/d’Etat—state is primary actor

2. State is autonomous, rational, unitary

3. Consistent goal: national interest

4. Minor consideration of alternate sources of power,

ideas, ideology, etc.

B. Liberals

1. State is sovereign, not autonomous; domestic and

international influences on state actions

2. Pluralist arena, conflict to maintain rules

3. Fair competition: open trade, international

agreements, arms control

4. No consistent national interests, change with

different times, concerns, and threats

C. Radicals

1. View state as tied to capitalist system

2. Instrumental Radicals: state is agent (instrument)

of the bourgeoisie

3. Structural Radicals: state as element in capitalist

system

4. No true national interest; no state sovereignty;

state reacts to systemic pressures

D. Constructivists

1. Reciprocal relationship: state make system, system

makes state

2. National interests: ideas, identity, ever evolving,

changing with domestic and international pressure

3. State preferences change state behavior: power,

security but also anything that motivates state

E. Example: 2003 Invasion of Iraq

1. Realist: “our (US) security is directly threatened”

2. Liberal: “Global security is threatened, human

rights are violated, democracy is needed”

3. Radical: “US wants a stable, cheap oil supply”

4. Constructivist: “Combating terrorism was the state

interest at the time”

Individuals in IR

I. Three groupings

A. Elites

B. Private individuals

C. The masses

II. Elites

A. Who are elites? High ranking individuals with the

capacity to influence policy.

B. Might be elected, appointed, senior specialists, etc.

C. Foreign Policy and elites

1. State leaders and policy advisors

2. Impact: debatable

D. Elites and personality

1. Two main orientations:

i. Independent

a. Advance power

b. Distrust others

c. Take advantage of opportunities

d. People are likely to trust this leader in

times of crises (security, economy, etc.)

ii. Group

a. Seeks consensus

b. Discussion and debate

2. Other personality traits

i. Narcissism: grandiose sense of entitlement,

believing that you and you alone can make decisions,

self-confidence; can be dangerous if leader no longer

confides in advisors

ii. Megalomania: sense of personal infallibility,

self-glorification—>

dangerous

E. Belief systems (cognitive maps)

1. Cognitive consistency: what one experiences fits

into understanding of the world for the most part

2. Evoked set: comparing current policy issue to one

from the past, trying to match them up exactly—> can be

problematic in IR, can be pitfalls in decision-making

3. Mirror images: seeing opponent as the exact opposite

reflection of self; can be problematic because defines

the “other” in wholly negative way,

cuts off any possibility of mutual interest, benefit

4. Groupthink: dissent or minority opinions are

downplayed or discouraged 5. Satisficing: settling for

“good enough” instead of best, willing to sacrifice some

degree of quality, expansiveness, depth, or thoroughness to

satisfy

demands

6. Heuristics: mental shortcuts, muscle memory

7. Poly-heuristics: two stage process—

i. Heuristics: immediately eliminate options you

know you can’t handle

ii. Rational choice: sort through the remaining

options rational decision-making

III. Private Individuals

A. Different capabilities, motivations, outcomes

B. Two-track diplomacy: individual negotiations apart from

official diplomacy (ex. ex-presidents)

C. Can carry out quasi-governmental actions due to their

degree of influence even though they aren’t government

officials

D. Informal negotiations: personal connections—> backdoor

approach

E. Informal advisors

F. Influence?—potential issues with accountability, conflict

of interests

IV. Mass Public

A. Areas of interest:

1. Commonality with elites (ex. fuel, food,

transportation, safety, collective fears and desires

etc.)—tautological issue: do elites influence masses or

vice versa?

2. Mass opinion

i. Does mass opinion and/or media affect foreign

policy?

ii. CNN affect—news perpetually before the eyes of

the people

3. Mass actions:

i. Protests, boycotts, uprisings, migration, etc.

ii. Revolution = “restructuring of elites”?

iii. Migration and longterm refugees change state

domestic interests, priorities, and politics

V. Groups not covered in book: women and children

A. Most affected by violence and conflict

B. Trafficking—huge international problem

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

I. What is an IGO?

A. International organization

B. Membership is limited to states only

C. Exist for specific/short term issues or board/long term

issues

D. Structure and functions negotiated

E. 3 main explanations for the existence of IGOs:

1. Federalism

i. Eliminate competition over sovereignty, join

higher body

ii. Who volunteers to give up sovereignty first?

2. Functionalism/efficiency

i. Common interests—common, functional solutions

ii. Resolve conflict over economic disparity

3. Collective goods

i. Universal elements available to all, things

enjoyed by the public but not paid for—clean air,

fresh water, etc.

ii. Some activities have negative consequences:

free-rider problem

iii. Overcome consequences: force, change

preferences, change size

II. What do they do?

A. Contribute to habits of cooperation

B. Operational activities: health, security, etc.

C. Institute international regimes

D. Assist states in making foreign policy

E. Can also constrain states

1. Example: the United Nations

2. Not all states have equal inclusion

3. Selective enforcement of sovereignty

4. Concerned with much more than simply international

peace & security

III. Organs of the UN

A. Security Council

1. During Cold War, inactive due to veto

i. Development of peacekeeping

2. Post Cold War, increase in activities

i. Informal consultations

ii. Greater use of consensus decision making

iii. Expanded definition of security

B. General Assembly

1. Bulk of work in 6 functional committees

2. Membership expands with decolonization

3. Increase in bloc voting: countries with similar

interests vote together

4. Increasingly marginalized in post-Cold War era as

power shifts back to Security Council

C. Secretariat/Secretary-General

1. Secretary-General power depends on occupant

2. Increasingly activist agenda in post-Cold War era

D. UN organs diminished in power

1. ECOSOC—impossible task of coordinating expanding

socio-economic activities

2. Trusteeship Council—end of colonization, no longer

have supervisory role

3. Why diminished power?: new programs created for

temporary assignments (ex. refugee program created

separate from ECOSOC rather than using ECOSOC itself)

VII. Key political issues for the UN

A. Success in decolonization (1950s, 1960s)

B. Development of peacekeeping: military force not there to

take sides but to enforce whatever agreement was made

C. Post-Cold War Chapter VII enforcement: assist stability,

peace, and security of states going through transition

D. Continuous efforts to reform: questionable outcomes,

emphasis on social humanitarian aid and advocacy, counter-push

to make UN more monetarily efficient

VIII. UN and peacekeeping

A. Response of organization to Cold War stalemate

B. Traditional peacekeeping

1. Using 3rd party military forces drawn from

nonpermanent members of Security Council

2. Prevent conflicts from escalating

3. Security border, patrol demarcation, maintain cease-

fires

C. Complex peacekeeping operations

1. Respond to civil wars and domestic unrest

2. Use of military and civilian personnel (including

those drawn from Security Council)

3. Activities include verifying troop withdrawals,

conducting and supervising elections, aiding civil

administration to insure law and order

D. Success in Namibia

1. Supervised ceasefire among factions

2. Supervised South African withdrawal

3. Oversaw new civilian police force

4. Arranged release of political prisoners

5. Organized and conducted democratic elections

E. Failure in Rwanda

1. Too small of a contingent to prevent genocide

2. Request for additional troops was denied

3. Tried to establish humanitarian protection zones

4. Organized relief and refugee programs

IX. UN Charter VII: enforcement action defined

A. Security Council “shall determine the existence of any

threat to peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression and shall

make recommendations

B. ...may include “complete or partial interruption of

economic relations… and the severance of diplomatic relations.”

C. Enforcement really only works when everyone agrees to it

(Stag Hunt, Prisoner’s Dilemma)

D. “…it may take action by air, sea, or land forces as may

be necessary”

E. Gulf War I and Iraq War compared

1. Gulf War (1991)—SC authorized members to use all

necessary means, leading to military action by

multinational coalition under US command

2. Iraq War (2003) SC divided so US did not seek formal

authorization for use of force; US-led operation was not

authorized by US

X. Reforms taken without Charter revision

A. Efforts to reduce number of people in Secretariat

B. New financial accountability measures

C. Create High Commissioner of Human Rights

D. Create Counter-Terrorism Committee

1. Problem: lack of consensus (“one person’s terrorist

is another’s revolutionary”)

E. Expand Department of Peacekeeping Operations

F. Coordination with World Bank and IMF for economic

development—stabilize currency, maintain debt, etc.

Non-Governmental Organizations

I. Definition

A. Private volunteer, organized for common purpose

B. May be local and specific, international and broad

C. Membership might be open to anyone, closed to a few

D. Funded with wide range of sources

E. May be illicit in nature

F. Overlap in government function and NGO activity—mixed

results: privatized armed conflict in Afghanistan

II. Examples

A. GONGOs—government organized

B. BINGOs—big international

C. CRNGOs—crime related

D. Multi-National Corporation (major organs in different

countries) vs. International Corporation (major organs in

one country but does business with other countries)

E. International Committee of the Red Cross

F. Amnesty International

G. Oxfam

III. Origins

A. Advocacy and operational groups to influence policy or

fill gaps in govt. operations

B. Civic society:

1. Def.: Associations or groups of people that bridge

gap between individual/private enterprise and government

2. Reinforces democratic ideas and leads to political

involvement and civic trust (Bowling Alone—Putnam)

3. Examples: bowling league, religious

church/organization, professional associations

IV. Growth

A. 1970s-1980s took international persona—proliferation of

international NGOs

B. Parallel conferences—state makes own decisions but also

NGOs also meet to discuss the same issue

C. Fall of the CCCP (Combined Community Codec Pack)

D. Explosion of Tech—individuals more aware, informed,

involved

V. Functions

A. Advocate for changes to state policy

B. Mobilize public support: international and grassroots

C. Provide expertise, service, or critical assistance that

state govt. can’t or won’t do on its own

D. Stand in for state functions (ex. elections)

E. Create networks

F. Sometimes engage in illicit behavior

VI. Powers and restraints

A. Soft power—outside of official diplomatic process, sway

public opinion, largely free of institutional constraints,

depend on credibility for influence (can have more

credibility than government or private business), moral

authority

B. Flexibility—few institutional/statutory constraints and

obligations

C. Political independence—

D. Funding—funders influence how money is spent

E. Contracts—govt. contracts reins in independence and

flexibility

F. Government funding—research, potential for political

wedge

G. Private donations—accountability

International Law

I. General misunderstandings of law

A. Question of enforcement

B. Slow process

C. Breaking the law vs. committing a crime

1. Civil law—parties sue, consequences include fines,

restitution, etc.

2. Criminal law—prosecution for crimes, higher burden

of proof, consequence is jail time

D. States don’t commit crimes, only individuals do

II. What is international law?

A. Basis for all international law: Reciprocity—cannot force

states to show up at conventions, use of force would

damage ability to negotiate/relate with other states

B. Mechanism for regulation/interaction: states, IGOs,

individuals, (NGOs?)

C. Exists for expectations, order, status quo, settling

disputes, and authorizing force

D. Enforcement: no authoritative body; compliance?

E. Accepted binding rules, generally accepted norm

III. Sources of international law

A. Customs (ex. law of the seas)

B. Treaties—dependent on willingness of states to enforce

C. Courts

1. Old court cases have been accepted long enough to be

seen as customary norms—the older a law or ruling, the

more permanence it has;

2. Use of international court judgements as

template/precedent for domestic law

3. International courts—very temporary, limitation

D. Authoritative bodies

1. Institutional—can issue edicts that can be enforced

2. Scholarship and research—scholarly works and experts

in field can be called on for their opinions, can have

force of law—carry more weight internationally than they

do domestically

IV. Enforcement

A. Universal jurisdiction—how much sovereignty are states

allowed when committing heinous acts? (war crimes, crimes

against humanity, etc.)

B. Weak judicial structures—criminals can be fostered by

governments

C. Most states, most of the time...follow norms, act with

reciprocity, etc.; therefore problem lies in dealing with few

individuals who thumb noses at these things and cause problems

D. Compelled jurisdiction—more often voluntary adjudication

E. Frequency of ad hoc (created for specific purpose/case)

courts, tribunals

F. International Criminal Court (ICC), International Court

of Justice (ICJ)

1. Voluntary rather than compelled

2. ICJ gained credibility when ruled against US in

Nicaragua mining case

3. ICC—war crimes, US refuses to sign because of

possibility of state leaders who order military action

(war, drones, etc.) being prosecuted for war crimes

Conflict

I. The numbers:

A. Recorded in known history: 14,500-14,800 “armed

conflicts”

B. 3.5 billion deaths—direct or indirect

C. Modern Age (1816- ) (End of Napoleonic War)

1. Between 224-559 wars

2. Since 1991, decrease in interstate war, increasing

significance of civil wars

D. Relatively rare occurrence in human history, yet with

devastating results

E. Human nature or human aberration?

F. Study to understand causes, dynamics, termination,

control, prevention

II. Classifying wars

A. General war—many participants, goal to conquer and occupy

enemy territory

B. Limited war—smaller in scope, may be limited by specific

goals pursued, type of weapons, targets (ex. Cold War)

C. Civil war—war between factions within state over control

of territory or

institutions, may have international repercussions (3rd

party material support, territory/safe haven support, refugees,

etc.)

D. Asymmetric warfare—between parties of unequal strength;

weaker seeks to neutralize opponent’s strength by exploiting

weakness

E. Problems of definition: war is war

III. Irony of security dilemma

A. One state’s increasing security diminishes the security

of others

B. Vicious cycle of power accumulation

C. Permanent condition of tension

Conflict II: Interstate War

I. What causes these things?

A. Making sense: necessary vs. sufficient

1. Condition is necessary, not sufficient = no war

2. Condition is sufficient, not necessary = maybe war

(ex. border dispute)

3. Condition is necessary and sufficient = war

4. Condition is neither necessary nor sufficient = no

war (ex. rivalry)

B. Border disputes most common cause

C. Historic rivalries reinforce all other conditions/causes

D. Causes of war: by levels of analysis

1. Individual level

i. Leaders and elites

ii. Aggressive leadership: Hitler, Stalin, Hussein

iii. Hardliners—nostalgic of something better,

draw ideological lines, more prone to have conflict

iv. Misperception by leaders: Iraq ’90—Iraqi UN

rep asked US rep about border dispute between Kuwait

and Iraq: “US has no concern with border disputes in

the Middle East” led Iraq to think that US would not

interfere

v. Human nature: self-survival tied in with

territory

vi. Calculated leaders: rationality

2. State level

i. Regime type

a. Actors: hardliners?

b. Methods: power politics

ii. Economic type

a. Trade vs. protectionism (ex. tariffs)

b. Radicals and their cynicism

iii. Ideology

a. More frequent in civil wars but can work

for inter-state too

b. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1970)—

reaction against rise of anti-Communist, Muslim

Afghan leaders

iv. Diversion

a. Wag the Dog (movie)—US pretended to invade

Albania, sold it to masses, leaders maintained

power

b. Domestic leader with domestic issues gets

reputation and power bump from declaring war—

rally around the flag, people more likely to

respect/give deference to leader engaged in

international conflict

c. Bosnia—airstrikes during the height of the

Lewinsky trials

3. System level

i. Classical security dilemma

ii. Territory

iii. Ideology: related to territory—land buffers

between ideologically different countries (China,

NKorea, SKorea)

iv. Power transition

v. Alliances: depending on the era, alliances can

clearly lead either to conflict or peace,

demonstrates limits of political science to fully

predict/explain situation

vi. Arms races: how can you know how much the

other country is spending/expanding program?;

unpredictable, undefinable results, mystery

E. Dimensions of Civil War

1. Why do they start?

i. Greed—primarily economic factors, commodities,

fixed resources combined with stable infrastructure

used to mine them—oil, precious metals, diamonds,

etc. (usually result in state capture)

ii. Grievance—social political factors (usually

result in secession)

iii. IR literature focuses on greed; Comparative

PSC literature focuses on grievances

iv. Idea: personal enrichment after state capture,

resource control in newly independent territory

2. Types

i. State capture

ii. Secession

3. Duration depends on:

i. State and rebel strength—capacity, power parity

ii. Type of action: secessionist (“Sons of the

Soil”) vs. state capture

iii. Funding

a. Rebel side: “lootable resources” (drugs,

timber, diamonds, etc.)

b. Outside sources: third party intervention

(border sanctuaries, diaspora—people leave

country but send back support to homeland)

4. Ethnicity, insurgency, and civil war (Fearon and

Laitin reading)

i. The wealthier a nation, the less likely they

are to have civil war

ii. Conditions that encourage insurgency:

a. Ethnicity—use Ethno-Linguistic Fracture

index to determine how much a people group that

does not speak national language is

marginalized

b. Territory

c. Borders

iii. Address missing link: insurgency

a. Causes (hypothesized): poverty, political

instability, rough terrain, large population

b. Results: ethnicity, territory, borders,

stability

5. Termination

i. Military victory—decisive victory by one side

over the other (usually state squelching

rebellion)

ii. Exhaustion—least likely to work

iii. Negotiated settlement—higher likelihood of

working than exhaustion but lower likelihood than

military victory

6. Recurrence

i. Rearming

ii. New funding

iii. New leadership

7. Outside intervention

i. Diaspora funding

ii. Cross-border sanctuaries

iii. Refugee flows

iv. Covert rebel support

a. Send refugees back

b. New allies

c. Problem: friends can become enemies later

v. Ethnic homeland support

vi. Humanitarian intervention

a. Limits to humanitarian intervention

b. Blurred line between humanitarian

intervention and enforcing peace

c. Primarily Western nations

II. Terrorism

A. Definition: poorly defined, poorly understood

B. Primarily a tactic of the weak and desperate

C. Objectives: more psychological than physical/military

D. Law enforcement vs. military problem

E. Anti-terror vs. counter-terror

International Political Economy

I. Definition: “the interconnected relationships between politics

and economics, state and markets”

A. Mercantilist/Statist (Realist)

B. Radicals

C. Economic Liberalism (Liberal)

II. Mercantilism

A. States drive markets: act in their own interests, control

economic activity, unitary actor

B. Done by maximizing power (wealth, assets, etc.)

C. Positive balance of payments: export more than import,

govt. debt=bad

D. Protectionist trade strategy: tariffs, promote domestic

production and discourage reliance on external materials

E. Control multinational corporations: tax, market

access/entry (licenses, restrictions on where things can be sold

and who can sell them)

III. Radicals

A. Bourgeoisie: owners of means of production

B. Proletariats: workers

C. Capitalist system exploits workers

D. State supports bourgeoisie

E. Owners seek new markets

F. V.T. Lenin Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, W.W. Rostow

G. See foreign investment as negative—path to exploitation

H. Goals:

1. Put equity in system (not free trade but fair trade)

2. Balanced voting in IGOs

IV. Economic liberalism

A. Based on free markets—”laissez-faire”

B. Rational people make value-maximizing choices

1. Problems:

i. Human bounded rationality (ex. irrational,

unwise financial decisions before the housing market

crashed)

ii. Market failure (ex. monopoly)

C. Create markets to self-regulate supply/demand prices,

etc.

D. Government has a place in ordering society but stays out

of markets

E. Concepts

1. Open free markets

2. Comparative advantage (ex. advantageous to pay

someone else to do something outside your specialization—

lawyer paying a mechanic even if he knows how to change

his oil)

F. Problems:

1. Markets are amoral: focus on efficiency and profit

2. Not universally applied: still use tariffs, limits

(sometimes for purely political reasons)

3. Domestic protections (ex. right to know origin of

fish (usually from Asia))

4. Reality: govt. influences markets, markets influence

govt.

5. Market failure, monopoly, incomplete information,

externalities

V. Bretton Woods and beyond

A. Pre-World War II

1. World System: coming out of colonial era, trade

among great states

2. Multinational Corporations: East India Co, Hudson’s

Bay Co, North West Co, etc.—skewed benefits

3. Statist worldview

4. WWI—destroyed Germany

5. Conditions favorable for WII and US

6. Depression

B. Creation of Bretton Woods

1. July 1944—estate near Bretton Woods, MA; 44 nations

met

2. Approved Anglo-American Plan

i. Belief that pure markets failed, required

publicly managed system

ii. Created two institutions:

a. World Bank (then International Bank of

Reconstruction and Development): invest in

less-developed states

b. International Monetary Fund (IMF): help

states stabilize currency value

iii. 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(now element of World Trade Organizations)

3. Result: American dollar became world standard

C. International Bank of Reconstruction and Development

1. Designed to finance the re-building of Europe

2. Used with private capital; lends with interest

3. Financed roads, dams, technological improvements,

etc.

4. Added 1956 International Development Association for

very poor states

5. Becomes World Bank

6. Pushes the Washington Consensus: privatization,

liberal trade, tax reform, deregulation, etc. for

development

D. International Monetary Fund

1. Stabilize monetary exchange rates

2. Provides short term loans for adjustment

3. Tied to $ on gold until 1972

4. Focuses on:

i. Debt adjustment

ii. Market transition

E. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

1. Support the liberalization of trade

2. Pushes non-discrimination of trade

3. Tariffs on protecting domestic markets only

4. Stimulate development in South

5. 1995 incorporated into World Trade Organization

6. Negotiated in rounds

7. Controversial and political

VI. System change

A. 1977-89: interdependence—states tied to one another

economically

B. 3rd World debt crisis

C. 1989-Today: globalization

D. Present day

1. World Bank, IMF, WTO: still exist, work is now

controversial

2. Floating exchange rates?

3. Impact of globalization?

V. Governing the world economy

A. Important terms

1. Monetary policy: manages money supply, costs of

borrowing money

2. Fiscal policy: govt.’s use of money (taxes,

spending, discretionary, etc.) based on preferred

outcomes and highly political

3. Liquidity: availability of sufficient currency to

settle accounts

4. Adjustment: policies enabling a state to adjust

structure to world conditions

5. Confidence: perception of savers/investors that

system is secure from collapse

B. Recent economic activity

1. 2000s: high consumer credit, stable oil prices,

govt. spending and high confidence

i. Sub-prime mortgages: low/no interest loans for

“questionable borrowers”

ii. Govt. spending

iii. When economy=good

a. High tax revenue

b. Low social spending

c. Interest collection

iv. When economy=bad

a. Low tax revenue

b. High social spending

c. No interest

2. Beginning of crisis

i. Surge in oil prices, energy costs, contraction

of consumer spending

ii. Real estate market: prices down, confidence

drops

iii. Stability of sub-prime assets drops,

liquidity drops

iv. No initial adjustment

v. Banks restrict lending to each other, liquidity

drops further

3. Crisis development

i. Liquidity problems, confidence problems

ii. Real estate market crashes, value lost,

defaults begin

iii. Financial sector hit as assets crash

iv. Auto industry hit by credit crunch and gas

shocks

v. Firms begin to collapse, Lehman Bros, Merrill

Lynch, etc.

vi. Bonds downgraded, ripple effect through stock

market

4. Reaction

i. Interest rates cut

ii. Stimulus package

iii. Bailout packages

iv. Surge of liquidity

v. Confidence problem

vi. Inflation?

Globalization

I. Definition: process of increasing levels of global

interaction, primarily possible through technological development

II. Results: unprecedented levels of interconnectivity and

growth; millions lifted out of poverty, changing face of

business, education, etc.

III. Negatives: unsustainable growth, millions unaffected, uneven

growth, affected culture/political

IV. Epidemics and pandemics

A. Historical precedence, followed trade routes

B. Responses: malaria, smallpox, polio, measles can be

eradicated

C. But, Ebola, SARS, avian (swine?) flu, AIDS are still very

dangerous and travel quickly

D. AIDS

1. 25,000,000 deaths in 25 years

2. Annual mortality: 3.1 million, 33-46 million active

cases

3. WHO estimates the cost of fighting AIDS in Africa at

$1 billion/yr.; from 1988-1998 only $15 million/yr.

spent

4. Two separate epidemics: Africa and the rest of the

world

i. Largely due to sexual behavior patterns

ii. Linear vs. network

iii. In Africa, monogamous sexual behavior not as

much of a cultural value

iv. In other countries, most ppl have linear

sexual behavior (one person at a time)

5. Cultural issues

i. Most affected populations: gay men and sex

workers

ii. Policy problems?

iii. Russia: culturally conservative, role of

orthodox church

iv. USA: public support for condoms, behavior

intervention, etc.

v. Africa: belief structures

6. Monetary issues

i. Pharmaceutical companies: little incentive to

create antibiotics for sporadic, short-term dosage

(compared to long-term, regular dosage)

ii. Places with most need usually have weakest

negotiation and delivery capabilities

iii. Drug costs, effectiveness

iv. Treat vs. prevent: should more money go

towards treatment or prevention research and

education?

v. United States President’s Emergency Relief for

AIDS

7. Gathering storm

i. Some African states 20-30% infection

ii. Economies

iii. Functioning state: government, military, etc.

iv. Result is failed states full of infected

people

V. Thomas Friedman

A. Journalist

B. Petropolitics

1. Inverse relationship between measures of freedom and

energy costs

2. End of Cold War and oil prices

3. Calls for reform: Middle East, Africa, Russia

i. Foreign policy with OPEC countries: cheap oil,

don’t mess with Israel, we don’t care what goes on

in your backyard

4. Then-spike and sustained prices

5. Results: backsliding particularly in Russia

6. Putin, etc.

VI. Globalization: the world is flat

A. Explosion in technology=broad and deep international ties

—economic, social, political, etc.

1. Collaboration, integration

2. Costs of specialization, outsourcing

B. Population surge

1. About 7 billion ppl, 2050—9.2 billion ppl

2. US/Europe population: stable but declining and aging

3. Surge in underdeveloped world- youth especially

males with low prospects

4. Developing world wants modernity (cellphones, cars,

homes, technology, etc.)

5. All depends on fossil-fuel natural resources,

unimaginable demand for oil, coal, gas. etc.

C. Energy problems

1. Surge in energy demand: China, US, India, Brazil,

etc.

2. Question of stable supply, price, and politics that

accompany

3. Issues: supply, costs, system

4. Add environmental impact:

i. Surge in pollution

ii. Climate change

D. Problems and solutions

1. Religious and social constraints

2. Energy and environmental concerns

3. New ideas

4. Education: tech, innovation, collaboration

5. New energy: supply, delivery, consumption

6. Sustained development

Summarization of Course

I. Topics of this course:

A. Sovereignty

B. Syria

C. Terrorism

D. N. Korea

E. Individuals v. masses

F. North Africa

II. Problems and solutions

A. Social and religious constraints

1. Resurgence of conservatism and radicalism

2. Social and political pressure on how to react to

these things

B. Energy and environmental concerns

C. New ideas

D. Education: tech, innovation, collaboration

E. New energy: supply, delivery, consumption

F. Sustained development

Critical Texts

I. Thucydides—The History of the Peloponnesian Wars

A. “The strong do what they will, and the weak suffer what

they must.”

B. Realist

II. Kant—Perpetual Peace

A. Must have increased trade and communication in order to

have peace

B. Every nation should be republican (had problems with

direct democracy)

III. Woodrow Wilson—Fourteen Points

A. Idealist, Liberalism

IV. Kennan

V. Hans Morgenthau—Politics among Nations

A. International politics characterized by struggle for

power

B. Resurgence of realist thinking related to failure of

Wilson’s idealism/liberalism to prevent WWII

C. Even puts liberalism in the frame of power

D. Distinguishes between political power and military power

E. Summation: all politics are based on gaining power

(rather than simply violence)

VI. Mearsheimmer—Neo-Realism

A. All states pursue power

B. Difficulty of being hegemony: people dislike you, want to

overthrow you

C. Stretches understanding of power: different kinds of

power

D. States are constrained by system

E. Realism: state is unconstrained primary actor; Neo-

Realism: international system matters, there are limits on

states

F. Security still matters, but nation doesn’t necessarily

have to use brute force or be aggressive, could be defensive

VII. Doyle

A. Liberalism differs from person to person (Machiavelli,

Kant, Shumpeter)

VIII. Krasner—alternatives to conventional sovereignty

A. Shared sovereignty—long term, joint contract, formal

agreement, less specific

B. Trusteeship—short term, formally agreed to, very specific

IX. Huntington—The Clash of Civilizations?

A. Division and conflict between nations will be based on

culture

B. Micro and macro levels

C. Fault lines between conflicting nations

D. Predicted major conflict of the next century: “West vs.

the Rest,” the West versus Islam

X. Robert Jervis

A. People will see things the way they want to in light of

their worldviews—prone to misconceptions

B. Evoked set leads people to act on their perceptions

rather than reality

C. Shouldn’t completely rely on old theories

XI. Kissinger

A. Pitfalls of universal jurisdiction

1. Can turn into witch hunt

2. Dictatorship of the virtuous—a few people can think

they know what the right answer is

3. Assault on sovereignty—exposing state decision to

reactions from adversaries

4. Arbitrary—too broad

5. Extradition

B. Some reasonable, applicable mechanisms

1. Short term tribunals with specific objectives

2. If US embraces human rights, should champion it

internationally even if it means scrutinizing ourselves

XII. Vasquez/Diehl War Puzzle and Steps to War

A. Linear cascade of events that takes countries to war

B. Step 1: Recurring indivisible issue (usually territory)—

creates assumption of rivalry, strikes at the identity of both

countries

C. Step 2: Heightening of tensions on domestic level—

hardliners and power politics, resurrect rivalry and

indivisible issues back to forefront of domestic politics

D. Step 3: Signaling—diplomatic negotiations diminish;

instead, power politics—

military build-ups, arms race, alliances

E. Step 4: Locking in spiral mode—perception of enemies and

domestic support, mirror-imaging

F. Step 5: Trigger event, catalyst

G. Step 6: War

XIII. Fearon—“Rationalist Explanation for War” (1995)

A. Five main arguments as to why wars occur:

1. Anarchy

i. War is not constant because there are some

constraints on states

2. Positive expected utility

i. Cost-benefit analysis

ii. External variables

3. Rational preventative

4. Rational miscalculation: lack of information

5. Rational miscalculation: disagreement over power

B. Lack of information and power disagreements

1. Relative power

2. Emotional judgments

3. Varying degrees of analysis

4. Private information—rational explanation

5. State’s willingness to fight

6. Incentives to misrepresent in bargaining

i. Poker analogy

a. If strong hand, incentive to misrepresent

is to draw other player into trap

b. If weak hand, incentive to misrepresent is

to intimidate other player

7. Commitment problems—follow through with obligations,

treaties, etc.

i. Credibility issue—states who abide by

commitments have greater credibility

Reading Scholarly Articles

I. Main elements (more or less)

A. Peer reviewed

B. Preliminary Abstract—what, how, why, etc.

C. Introduction—idea, background, research question,

outline, thesis, models…

D. Review of the literature

1. Frame debate, show problems/contradictions

2. Hypotheses/research questions

E. Methodology: surveys, interviews, compilation of data?

F. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

1. Quantitative:

i. Hypotheses, data explicitly stated, tests,

models, definitions,

ii. Results—statistical outputs, significance,

etc.

iii. Discussion—causality

2. Qualitative:

i. Survey, interviews, archives, case selection

ii. Cases—dynamics of….

iii. Discussion—compare/contrast, implications,

causal argument/

limitations

iv. Conclusion—validity of study, expanding work