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Rendiconti LinceiSCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI ISSN 2037-4631Volume 24Number 4 Rend. Fis. Acc. Lincei (2013) 24:309-318DOI 10.1007/s12210-013-0254-0

Air quality in Italian small harbours: aproposed assessment methodology

Davide Astiaso Garcia, FedericoCinquepalmi & Fabrizio Cumo

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Air quality in Italian small harbours: a proposed assessmentmethodology

Davide Astiaso Garcia • Federico Cinquepalmi •

Fabrizio Cumo

Received: 4 July 2013 / Accepted: 11 August 2013 / Published online: 31 August 2013

� Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 2013

Abstract The main objective of this paper is to present

an analytical and easy-to-use method for evaluating the

presence of air pollutants in small harbour areas along the

Italian shores, and the potential exposure of workers to that

risk. The research aims to highlight the possible differences

in air quality characterization among different areas and

periods of any analysed harbour. Therefore, the proposed

method foresees a seasonal monitoring of some atmo-

spheric pollutants within examined ports, identifying

wherever possible the main source of air pollution for each

zone. In particular, to pinpoint the most critical areas, the

methodology foresees the monitoring of concentrations for

some selected pollutants such as volatile organic com-

pounds, particular matter and benzene. The methodology,

developed within the framework of a research project

supported by the Regional Authority of Lazio, has been

tested in four pilot port areas. The acquired results point

out that air pollutant concentrations could significantly

diverge among different areas and periods of a single

harbour and, consequentially, the evaluation of the results

allows a spatial and temporal comparison of pollutants

concentrations in each portal zone. Thus, the described

method represents a useful tool for local administrations to

plan best practices and the use of the best available tech-

nologies for impact mitigation, with the final goal of

reducing air pollution in the most critical portal zones.

Keywords Outdoor maritime air pollution

monitoring � Volatile organic compounds � Particular

matter � Air quality in harbours � Emissions � GIS

database

1 Introduction

Air quality in portal areas is seriously compromised by

many atmospheric pollutants coming from different sour-

ces, such as ground vehicles, fishing boats, recreational

boats, ferries, hydrofoils and merchant ships. More spe-

cifically, emissions of ships have been shown to contribute

significantly to air pollution in harbours (Saxe and Larsen

2004; Schrooten et al. 2009), causing for harbour workers a

generally high exposition to poor air quality (Georgieva

et al. 2007; Marr et al. 2007).

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has

developed guidelines for the prevention of air pollution

coming from shipping activities, establishing a monitoring

programme for reducing emissions in atmosphere, finalized

to the improvement of air quality in portal areas (IMO

2008).

Some pollutants, such as CO2, NOx, SO2, CO, particu-

late matter, metals and a wide range of volatile organic

compounds (VOCs), are generated by the engine combus-

tions; moreover there are many other typologies of

D. Astiaso Garcia (&)

DIAEE (Dipartimento di Ingegneria. Astronautica, Elettrica ed

Energetica, Department of Astronautical, Electrical and Energy

Engineering), Universita ‘‘La Sapienza’’, Roma, Corso Vittorio

Emanuele II 244, 00186 Rome, Italy

e-mail: davide.astiasogarcia@uniroma1.it

F. Cinquepalmi

Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Universita e della Ricerca-

Direzione Generale per l’Internazionalizzazione della Ricerca,

Piazza J.F. Kennedy 20, 00144 Rome, Italy

F. Cumo

CITERA (Centro Interdipartimentale Territorio Edilizia,

Restauro, Ambiente - Interdepartmental Centre for Territory,

Housing, Heritage and Environment), Universita ‘‘La Sapienza’’,

Roma, Corso Vittorio Emanuele II 244, 00186 Rome, Italy

123

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DOI 10.1007/s12210-013-0254-0

Author's personal copy

pollutants, such as radicals, ozone (O3), peroxy radicals

and aldehydes, indirectly generated due to photochemical

reactions in gaseous phase which are usually produced

under conditions of strong solar radiation, low humidity

and high temperatures.

All these pollutants emitted by ships impact human

health (Corbett et al. 2007) and influence acidification and

eutrofization of water and soil in coastal regions (Derwent

et al. 2005).

Among atmospheric particulate matter, particles smaller

than 10 lm, called PM10, are the most dangerous for

human health, since these suspended particles can deeply

penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, pro-

voking asthma, lung cancer, and other cardiovascular and

respiratory diseases (MacNee and Donaldson 2003; Med-

ina-Ramon et al. 2006). Considering PM10 pollution in

harbours, the particulate matters can be trapped in land–sea

breeze circulations (Bouchlaghem et al. 2007; Rimetz-

Planchon et al. 2008).

VOCs include both hydrocarbons containing carbon and

hydrogen as the only elements (alkenes and aromatic

compounds) and compounds containing also oxygen,

chlorine or other elements, such as aldehydes, ethers,

alcohols, esters, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydro-

chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). VOCs seem to play a key

role in climate changes (Murrells and Derwent 2007)

contributing to ozone formation in the troposphere (Hu

et al. 2012).

Among VOCs, benzene increases the risk of cancer and

other acute and chronic health effects (Jamall and Willhite

2008); indeed, it has been identified as a Class A carcin-

ogenic by the US Environmental Protection Agency.

In the light of this, the aim of the present research was to

elaborate a simple method for identifying areas and periods

where the concentration of air pollutions was higher.

The elaboration of analytical methods for air quality

monitoring in portal areas is included in the strategy

recommended by the European Sea Port Organisation to

increase environmental awareness and to improve

environmental monitoring in European harbours (ESPO

2003).

2 Methods

Almost all the atmospheric pollutants in harbour zones

come from combustion processes in vehicles and boat

engines (Schrooten et al. 2008). In portal areas, usually

there are many different engines with different fuel typol-

ogies: cars, camions, forklifts, ferryboats, hydrofoils, big

and small fishing boats and recreational boats (pleasure

boats). Therefore the proposed methodology foresees aFig. 1 A PM10 high-volume air sampler in the port of Formia

Fig. 2 Seasonal average values

of the PM10 concentration in

each port recorded with a high-

volume sampler

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primary subdivision within portal areas in different zones

according to the main source of air pollutants.

Considering a typical portal area, the methodology

proposes the identification of the following different zones:

pleasure boats for leisure, fishing boats and passenger ships

such as ferry boats and hydrofoils.

Furthermore, the seasonality of some harbour activities

is another parameter to be considered for the assessment of

air quality in portal areas. Indeed, in the same portal zones,

the concentrations of air pollutants may change signifi-

cantly depending on the intensity of portal activities in a

given season. Since in autumn and winter the intensity of

portal activities is almost the same, to simplify the data

gathering work, autumn and winter can be analysed jointly.

Considering these spatial and temporal partitions, the

application of the proposed methodology will allow com-

parative analysis of air quality inside each examined port,

identifying zones and seasons where the pollutant con-

centration is higher. Therefore, it will be possible to pin-

point the most critical zones of each port in each different

season and consequentially to plan specific actions for

improving air quality in those areas.

To elaborate an easy-to-use method, we propose the

monitoring of few selected pollutants: PM10, the total

amount of VOCs concentrations and benzene. This method

does not consider SO2 analysis because these concentra-

tions were found to decrease significantly (average

decrease of 66 %) from 2009 to 2010 in three out of the

four EU harbours (Schembari et al. 2012), since from

January 1, 2010, a European Union directive requires that

all ships at berth or anchorage in European harbours use

fuels with a sulphur content of less than 0.1 % by weight,

while previously, outside of sulphur emission control areas,

up to 4.5 % was allowed. In fact, the monitoring of these

contaminants is adequate to obtain an air quality index

(Odabasi et al. 2005) as well as to compare air pollution

data of different areas.

Considering the VOCs monitoring, the total VOC con-

centration derives from the sum of all the following VOC

Table 1 Benzo(a)pyrene concentrations in the four studied harbours

Seasonal values of the benzo(a)pyrene concentrations (ng/m3)

Harbour Spring Summer Autumn–winter

Anzio 0.05 0.06 0.05

Terracina 0.05 0.04 0.07

Formia 0.02 0.03 0.06

Ventotene 0.02 0.05 0.04

Fig. 3 PM10 concentrations recorded with dust track sampler in each intended use zone of the four case study port

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sources: dichloromethane; 2-methylpentane; hexane;

methylcyclopentane; chloroform; 2-methylhexane; cyclo-

hexane; benzene; heptane; trichloroethylene; methylcy-

clohexane; toluene; tetrachloroethylene; ethylbenzene;

m- p- xylene; o-xylene; 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene; 1,2-

dichlorobenzene.

The concentrations of these substances should be sam-

pled leaving many radial diffusive samplers called ‘‘Radi-

ello �’’ (Bruno et al. 2008) for a period ranging between 7

and 10 days per season.

To have a reference value to define the ‘‘minimum’’

VOCs and benzene pollution of each port, a Radiello

should be placed in the farthest zone from every detectable

sources of pollutant emissions, which usually is the end of

the breakwater, during the season with lower portal activity

(usually winter).

On the other hand, considering PM10 concentrations,

the reference value should be assessed for each port in each

season using a PM10 high-volume (HV) air sampler

(Fig. 1), giving an average value of daily PM concentra-

tions. Samples were taken on random days for 24 consec-

utive hours (Contini et al. 2012).

The use of HV samplers allows the elaboration of

chemical analysis measuring also polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations. In particular, ben-

zo(a)pyrene pollution was analysed.

Moreover, PM10 concentrations in any intended use

area of an analysed port should be gathered using optical

detectors (dust track sampler), which could overestimateFig. 4 Seasonal average values of the benzene concentrations in each

port

Fig. 5 Total VOCs concentrations recorded in each intended use zone of the four case study ports

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PM10 concentrations but represents a useful instrument for

a spatial and temporal comparison of particulate matter

pollution without great sampling efforts (Contini et al.

2011; Stein et al. 2011; Kinghama et al. 2006). In fact, a

dust track sampler is highly portable (handheld) and allows

a real-time monitoring of PM10 concentrations.

Each dust sampling lasted five consecutive hours and

was realized by means of mobile platforms in fixed posi-

tions. The collected data were averaged using dust track

monitors which run at 1 s resolution.

3 Results

To validate this simple methodology, four ports of the

Lazio region were selected as case studies: Anzio, Formia,

Terracina and Ventotene harbours located in the centre of

Italy, where annual field data were gathered for detecting

VOCs, benzene and PM10 concentrations during the years

2010 and 2011.

As foreseen, each port was divided into subareas according

to its different intended use zones; then in each zone a data

gathering campaign was carried out in all seasons for VOCs

and benzene, while for PM10 pollution a single data collec-

tion was done during autumn and winter. The overall sam-

pling campaign was done by employing one instrumental

setup for each harbour, to have synchronous measurements of

the four study areas. All the obtained pollutant concentrations

were compared spatially and seasonally to pinpoint intended

use areas and seasons where air pollution was higher.

Figure 2 shows the reference values of each port in each

season obtained with the HV air sampler. The results show

that the temporal trend of PM concentration is the same in

the ports of Terracina and Ventotene, with the highest air

pollution in summer, while during spring and summer

months PM10 concentrations were similar in the ports of

Anzio and Formia; furthermore, in each port the lower

concentration data were recorded during autumn and win-

ter. Lastly, these results evidence that Anzio and Formia

are the ports with higher PM10 concentrations.

Fig. 6 Maps of the PM10

concentration values in the

different areas of the harbour of

Anzio in each season

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Considering the PAHs concentrations, Table 1 shows

the values of benzo(a)pyrene in the four studied harbours.

Figure 3 summarizes the PM10 concentration monitor-

ing results recorded seasonally in each intended use zone of

the four examined ports with a dust track instrument. These

results confirm the same temporal trends obtained with the

high-volume air sampler, with the highest pollution levels

during summer. Moreover, with regard to the spatial

comparison of the different intended use areas inside each

port, the fishing boat zone is the area with lower air quality

of all the examined ports. The ports of Anzio and Formia

(Fig. 3) show a different seasonality from that reported in

Fig. 4 These differences could be attributed to some par-

ticular ongoing activities during dust track sampling.

With regard to benzene concentrations, Fig. 4 shows the

seasonal averages for each port, corroborating the same

comparison of PM10 monitoring.

Moreover, the sum of all the 18 VOC concentrations

recorded during each data gathering campaign was com-

pared to rank in each port the intended use areas and the

seasons according to their VOCs pollution (Fig. 5). These

results provide a comparative analysis of VOC concen-

trations in each port between any intended use zone and

the area with lower VOCs pollution (the end of the

breakwater) during the winter, when portal activities are

reduced. In particular, Fig. 5 shows that VOC concen-

trations vary significantly inside each analysed port. In

Anzio and Formia harbours, the highest concentrations are

four to six times greater than the lower ones in the

same ports; this is even more evident in the port of

Ventotene where VOCs concentrations range between 2

and 88 lg/m3.

The use of a geographic information system (GIS) was

considered the best tool, not only for geo-referencing the

recovered environmental data, but also for producing maps

for informing local stakeholders and decision makers about

the environmental monitoring and the potential risk (Gi-

ordano et al. 2013; Astiaso Garcia et al. 2013a; Testi et al.

2007). All results were recorded in a GIS database, con-

taining a comparative spatial analysis of pollutant

Fig. 7 Maps of the PM10

concentration values in the

different areas of the harbour of

Formia in each season

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concentrations, to produce thematic maps showing areas

where the air pollution was higher or lower.

Some examples of these maps for PM10 pollution are

shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9.

To facilitate the comprehension and comparison of the

results, the PM10 concentrations were subdivided into

three categories: low pollution level (for values under the

25th percentile, corresponding to green boxes); medium

pollution level (for values between the 25th and the 75th

percentile, corresponding to yellow boxes), and high pol-

lution level (for values over the 75th percentile, corre-

sponding to red boxes).

4 Discussions and conclusions

Tacking into account the obtained PM10 concentration val-

ues, it is important to consider that sea salt aerosol can

contribute significantly to the total PM10 concentrations in

coastal areas (Athanasopoulou et al. 2008). Anyway, since

this research aimed at a spatial and temporal comparison of

atmospheric pollution, sea salt aerosol influenced equally the

PM10 values in each intended use area of the ports, without

altering the differences between the considered areas.

After the monitoring campaigns, conducted in the four

harbours designated as case study, it was evident that

factors such as intended use areas and season appeared to

have significant influence on air pollutant levels. Consid-

ering the temporal scale analysis, almost all the analysed

pollutants have the same seasonal trend, with higher values

during the summer and lower values during autumn and

winter, when in these harbours portal activities are reduced.

The obtained marked seasonal pattern with the maxi-

mum values of pollutants concentrations recorded in spring

and summer confirms the results obtained in a previous

study in the island of Lampedusa (Becagli et al. 2012).

Fig. 8 Maps of the PM10 concentration values in the different areas of the harbour of Terracina in each season

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Contrary to the significant seasonality of the other pol-

lutants values, the benzo(a)pyrene concentrations obtained

using HV samplers do not reveal substantial changes

between the different seasons.

Furthermore, the results obtained in this research work

have been used for implementing a national GIS database

elaborated by Sapienza University of Rome, for the mon-

itoring of water and air pollution in coastal areas providing

air pollution data in addition to oil pollution risk analysis

(Cumo et al. 2008), elaboration of local environmental

contingency plans (De Santoli et al. 2011), environmental

sensitivity assessment (Gugliermetti et al. 2007) and haz-

ardous and noxious substances (HNS) risk assessment

(Astiaso Garcia et al. 2013b).

This methodology could be considered a useful tool for

monitoring and improving air quality in portal areas for

stakeholders and decision makers such as port/maritime

authorities, licensed port company operators and local and

governmental authorities involved in port jurisdiction.

The air pollution, evidenced thought the maps obtained

using the proposed methodology could be mitigated

applying selected best practices (Cumo et al. 2012) and the

best available technologies (Astiaso Garcia et al. 2012), to

minimize the general anthropic pressures on the coastal

environment.

Lastly, considering the EU targets at the 2020 date,

aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emission and halting

climate changes, the introduction of a percentage of 10 %

of renewable energy for transportation, should also include

sustainable solutions for transportation by sea (Setti and

Balzani 2011).

Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank all the members of

this project for their active contribution to this research, in particular,

Fig. 9 Maps of the PM10 concentration values in the different areas of the harbour of Ventotene in each season

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Dr. Federica Barbanera, Dr. Daniele Bruschi and Dr. Teresita Gra-

vina. We also wish to thank Dr. Sergio Fuselli, Dr. Marco De Felice

and Dr. Roberta Morlino of the Istituto Superiore di Sanita (ISS)

(Superior Health Institute) for their major contribution in providing

tools and analysis for VOC concentration monitoring. We specially

thank the whole staff of Anzio, Formia and Terracina Coast Guards

for supporting out team during the data gathering works in their portal

areas. Finally, the whole research group wishes to thank the Regione

Lazio, Dipartimento Istituzionale e Territorio, Direzione Regionale

Trasporti–Area Porti for the financial contribution to this project.

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Author's personal copy