l-,-|-lt'lr

P gll I_l c;\l- ! c ot\l orli YSrucnr Issur

Grest Etlitot: Panayotis G. Michaelid€s

CONTENTSWhat Drives the Process of Creative Destruction?

Dietn Bbgenholil

Why Did Scarcity Triumph Over Technology inRicardo's Thinking?

Geotge E. Economakis ID imitris P, S otir op oul o s

Technological Progress and the Labor Market:Sumner Slichter Revisited

Ioannis A. Katseliilis

Employment Determinants in an Input-OutputFramework: Structural Decomposition Analysis andProduction Technology

Athena Belegri-roboli I Maia Markaki

A Note on European Citizenship, InterculfuralEducation and New Technologies

Kostas Theologo , Anastasia Vmeti &Efr o sy ni- alki sti P ar askezt op o ul o u-k o lli a

SERIALS PUBLICATIONS

BULLETIN OF POLITICAL ECONOMYISSN: 0973-5747 @ SERIALS PUBLICATIONS, NEW DELHI-INDIA

EDITOR

Lefteris TsoulfidisDepartment of Economics University of Macedonia 156 Egnatia

Str., 540 06 Thessaloniki, Greece, E-mail: Lnt@uom'gr

MANAGING EDITOR

Theodore MariolisDepartment of Public Administration, Panteion University 136

Syngrou Ave, 17671 Athens, Greece, E-mail: mariolis@panteion.gt

Constantinos Alexiou, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

George Argitis: University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Paul Cockshoft: University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

Oscar De-Juan: University of Casti.lla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain

Eladio Febrero: University of Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain

Eckhard Hein: Berlin School ofEconomics and Law, Berlin, Germany

Seonglin Jeong: Gyeongsang National University, Jiniu, Korea

Costas Lapavitsas: University of London, SOA5, London, UK

Mosh€ Machover: King's College, London, UK

Stavros Mavroudeas: University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece

John Milios: National Technical University, Athens, Greece

Takeshi Nakatani: Kobe University, Kobe, JapanSobei H. Oda: Kyoto Sangyo University, JapanDimitris Papadimitriou: Levy Institute, New York, USAMan-Seop Park: Korea University, Seoul, Korea

Shri Prakash: Birla Institute ofManagementTechnology, Greater Noida, India

Michalis Psalidopoulosi University of Athens, Athens, GreeceDong-Min Rieu: Chungnam National University, Tae.jory KoreaWilli Semmler: New School University, USAPersefoni Tsaliki: Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, GreeceRichard Westra: Pukyong National University, Pusan, Korea

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BULTETINOF

POLITICAL ECONOMY

Volume 4 No. 2 December 2010

Sprcrll Issur

G est Editot: Panayotis G. Michaelides

CONTENTS

What Driv€s the Process of Creative Destruction? 85-107Dietet Biigenholil

Why Did Scarcity Triurnph Over Technology in 109-12ERicardo's Thinking?

George E. Economakis ttDimitri s P. S otitop oulo s

Technological Progress and the Labor Markeft 729-144Sumner Slichter Revisited

Ioannis A. Kntselidis

Employment D€terminants in an Input-Output 145-155Framework: Structural D€composition Analysis andProduction Technology

Athena Belegri-roboli & Mnria Marknki

A Note on European Citizenship, Intercultural 757-768Education and New Technologies

Kostns Theologou , Atnstasia Veneti fiEfro sy ni- nlkist i P arasketsopo u lou -kollia

Editorial

It is with great pleasure that I edited this issue of the Bulletin of PoliticalEconofiy.It is, most of all, a great privilege to have been asked to do sqand I would like to thank the Editors for their kind hvitation. Also, I wouldIike to thank all the reviewers for their collaboration. The issue whichconsists of five (5) peer reviewed articles focuses, partly, on Technologyand Economic Anaiysis in the broader sense of the terms, to includetheoretical, historical, sociological and quantitative aspects.

In this context, the first article by D. Biigenhold is about JosephSchumpeter, probably the most prominent economist of the 20th centurywho wrote extensively on the role of technology in economic development.In this article, the author focuses on two maior aspects of Schumpeter'swork that remain less widely discussed. On the one hand, the article arguesthat Schumpeter developed a theory of entrepreneurship, based onbehavioural and psychological elements, which are purely non-economicin na hre. On the other hand, the article argues that Schumpeter's researchprogram, in its methodological framework, asks for a multidisciplinaryapproach to economic phenomena emphasising the role of institutionalf actors, called soclo-economics.

Next, G. Economakis and D. Sotiropoulos in a second thoughtprovoking article deal with Ricardo's pessimism regarding technology inthe process of capital accumulation. This article claims that David Ricardo'sanalytical insights on technology helped shape the political strategy ofthe industrial capital, providing thus the relevant theoretical backgroundfor the foundation of its political assertions in the first phase of theIndustrial Revolution.

bn the third article, L Katselidis deals with Sumner Slichter, a neglectedindustrial economist of the ftusthalf of the 20th century in America, whosework has been inadequately explored. This article analyses Slichter's ideasregarding the irnpact of technological progress on the labour market. It isargued that Slichter, by emphasising on the role of technological progress,contested the statement of Say's law that full equilibrium would beensured by the functioning of market forces and tried to explain theinability of the economic system to readiust and absorb the unemployedworkers. Furthermore, the author notes a theoretical shift in Slichter's

works around 1930 which is attributed to the consequences of the GreatDepression.

In the forth article, A, Belegri-Roboli and M. Markaki employ a setof quantitative techniques in an input-output framework to examine theimpact of certain structural determinantson employment changes in theGreek economp in the 2000-2008 time span. They employ StructuralDecomposition Analysis (SDA) which breaks down a variable of interestinto the changes of all the relevant deJerminants. Their findings suggestthat the productivity of labour as well as Leontief's inverse matrix changes- implying changes in the production technology of the Greek economy -produce negative effects on laboui changes. In contrast, the impact of thechanges in the final demand is positive, whereas the impact of the changesin the production technology is the least significant one.

Finally, in a brief article K. Theologou, A. Veneti and E,-A.Paraskevopoulou-Kollia, in a sociological spirit, deal with the concept of(European) Citizenship, and claim that no adequate theory of citizenshiphas be-en delivered in the last two decades. In this context, they artue thatsince the use of new technologies (such as Web- and E-I*arning techniquegetc) in education is inevitable, the digitalised and other methods that arecurrently available could serve as important tools for cultivating EuropeanCitizenshio.

I would like to believe that this issue sheds some light on the conceptof Technology in Economic Analysis, broadly defined.

Panayotis G. MichaelidesNntionnl Technical Uniaersity of Athens, Grcece

Cuest Editor. Brrlletin of Politicol Economy

A Note on European Citizenship, InterculturalEducation and New Technologies

Kosras Tnsolocou,' ANasrasn VrNrr" &Ernosylt-atrrsr Penasrrvopolr-ou-KollrA.'"

This paper argues that Education could improve Citizenship. Moreprecisely, since the use of New Technologies (NT) in Education isinevitable, the digital methods that are cunently available (includingWeb & E-Leaming projects, €tc.) could serve as important tools forcultivating European Citizenship.

INTRODUCTIONThe issue of access to knowledge and information plays a crucial rolein the long lasting debate between the two main strands of thoughtconcerning Information Society: those who advocate that a new typeof society is emerging and those who are opposed to this view. On theone hand, Technological Determinists herald the new era of<information society". Thst rtthud the changes occurring in societyby the information technology's (IT) advances and argue about thenew entrance to the so.called "InJormation Economy'' arrd "In{ormationSociety". On thd other hand, Critical Theorists admit the importanceof in{ormation in contemporary societies, but do not accept the idea ofan "in.formation society". They rather regard <informatisation> as theresult of previously existing social relations. In facl they believe thataccess to NT is a privilege for a minority of people.r'

Nstional Technical Univcrsity ofAthens, School ofApplied Math€matics and Physics, DepattmentofHutnsnities and Soci.l Scienccs & H€llenic Open University, Studies ln European Civilizltion,E-nail : c s I he o l@ce n | ru L ntua. gr

" National and Capodistrian University ofAlh€ns, Faculty of Cornmunication and Msss Mcdia,Athens, Creece, r-rroili anastdsia _veneti@Mhoo.com

"' Univcrsily of Central Creece, Deparlnent of Computer Scicnce and Biomcdical Informstics,E-nail:Itini@ucg,gr

BULLETTN OF POLTTICAL EcONOit y, 4tZ (?Olort 147-167Scrials Publicolioru, Ncw Dclhl, tndio

158 / Bur-rmr op Polmcel Ecolomv

Meanwhile, education is compulsory for all national citizensitherefore ii could be commonly impregnated with values andtechniques for reshaping the fundamental perceptions of nationalidentities and promohng all necessary supranational features.

In this framework, this paper focuses on the relationship betweentechnology, education (methods) and European Citizenship (EC). Itargues that New Technologies (NT) could both promote lnterculturalEducation (IE) and cultivate European Citizenship (EC).

The skucture of the paper is as follows: (1) Introduction, (2) TheConcept of European Citizenship, (3) The Role of MulticulturalEduation (4) The Role of New Technologies in Education, (6)Concluding Comments.

THE CONCEPT OF EUROPEAN CITIZENSHIP

The concept of citizenship made its appearance about 55 years ago. Itwas T. H. Marshall in his keatise Citizenship and SocialClass (1949) whointroduced the theory of citizenship. Academic interpretations or evenabuses of this illuminating but controversial work abound in theliterature. Despite the vivid interest of the research community, it couldbe argued that no widely accepted theory of citizenship has prevailedin the social sciences over the last 20 years or so. '

Acculturation is another relevant concept. It refers exactlv to theprocess of mixing people belonging to diffeient cultu ral milieix, whodemonstrate behaviours dictated by different cultural protocols.'? Inthe world, there is no specific mode olbeingcitizen of a specific country.According to Berry et al. (2002,2006), we are all human beings, and weexpress this common humanity in culturally different ways, botharound the world and within our contemporary nation states. Thus,not only is immigration a normal process, but so is the resulting culturaldiversity within the different countries. These two processes providenovelty and vitality to individuals and communities (Berry,1,992).

One formulat ion has been widely quoted:3 "Accul turat ioncomprehends those phenomena which resul t when groups ofindividuals having different cultures come into continuous first-handcontact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns ofeither or both groups...under this definition, acculturation is to bedistinguished from culture change, of which it is but one aspect, andassimilation, which is at times a phase of acculturation" (Redfield ef al.7936:149-1.52).

Of course, not all groups and individuals r,rndergo acculturation inthe same way; there are large variations in how people seek to engage

A NorE oN Eunopern Cmzergrrp, Irrenculrum EoucfioN lNs... / 159

the process. These variations have been termed occultwation strategies.The two groups in contact (whether dominant or non-dominant)usually have some notion about what they are attempting to do (e.g.colonial policies, or motivations for migration), or what is beingdone to them, during the contact.

However, through a deconstructhte process of the concept of nationalidentity of the European citizen, another equally longstanding"synthetic" procedure emerges: the conskuction or formation of thesupra-national identity. The "new" citizenship merges and containsthe partial fragmental nationalities, i.e. the national identities. A novelcollective identity is thus formed tfuoug)t common life-experience and,interaction, sharing myths and collective memories. This quasi-politicalidentity could eventually function towards the integration of thefragmental nationalities and the fragmented national characteristics ina common mould of qualities for the "new" citizenship.

The amalgam of identities within a specific social or geographicformation such as Europe produces a tather refined citizen, more toleranttowards "othemess". This citizen fights for social solidarity, access toknowledge, and political righb. Citizenship is probably the most essentialingredient for constsucting a "confederation" within the European Union(EU). Thus, a unified European identity could be shaped based on twogroups of actions. The first group of actions includes:

o The unification of the educational system as a mechanism ofpolitical socialization.

. The institutional facilitation for obtaining propetty in othercounhies.

. The broadening of the workers mobility within the EuropeanUnion.{

The second and parallel group includes innovative actions such as:. Iflprooed access to public discussions: How could one induce a

sense of constitutional awareness for the democratic rules,reflection, respect and tolerance for diversity and difference?

. Improaed access to public informafion: How the lntemet (or othertechnological pladorms) could be used to facilitate access topublic information? What should the principles of opennessand transparency mean in a European public sphere?s

. Imprcoed access to knowledge: How could the use of NT fosterIife{ong leaming, since the well-educated citizen is the bestfoundation for a democratic society, and the basis for theEuropeanization of the civic society?

160 / BuLrmn or Pormcrr EcoHor'rv

For instance, thanks to the Internet and to other similar tools, theinhabitants of the EU (and the whole plandt) are in a position ofexchanging messages regardless of distance, and other crucialcharacteristics (e.g. Levy 1998: 354).

THE ROLE OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Multicultural education is a term that was first introduced in the 50'swhen the United States (US) schooling system was being criticised forits practices regarding students from other cultures (Weil, 1.998:16). Inthe early 70s, multicultural education was considered as the solutionto the dysfunct ions brought about by the cul tural diversi ty.Multicultural education was considered to be the answer to theproblems of underprivileged minorities' students, regarding issues ofschool success and acceptance of di f ferent iated at t i tudes andbehaviours . This process led from u nicultural to multicultural edtcation(May, 1999:1).

Nowadays, it can be safely argued that multicultural education isassociated to different tendencies and orientations with regard to theeducational reality. In other words, it is about the exploitation ofdifferent or deviating approaches. The term refers to the effort ofrecognising the equal aalues of crsJtuses and oI the education capital ol allindividuals that is characterised by different cultural identities.6

Multicultural education substantially tries to deconstruct thisstructure. It vindicates the right that everybody has to a free build-upof her life. It ensures creative and spontaneous thought and judgementfor the students and later citizens of world (Freire, 1970).

According to Mogdll et al. (1997:22), multicultural education "forthe conservative decriers it expresses an effort to politicize the educationaiming at the fostering of minority requirements, while for certainradical scholars it is the most familiar ideological invention for theperpetuation of reality of r&cist exploitation of national minorities, byencouraging their cultural sensitivities".

Whereas Katz mentions that: "multicultural education is thepreparation for social, political and economic realities that theindividuals experience in culturally various and compl.ex humanmeetings" (cited in Mogdil et aI. 1.997: 21.-22).

Multicultural education is essential in a multicultural context.Firstly, it is a way for the cultural minority to develop a 'we-feeling'

and thus perceive l tsel f as a part of the educat ional process;consequently, the foreigners in question will be open to different waysof life. Moreover, in the multicultural education, students stand critical

A Norr oru Europem Cmzetsrrp, Iurrnculruul Eoucmot m0... / 161

and act consciously towards the existence of "the othe/', while this isa way to initiate tolerance to diversity and ensure the equality amongculfures.

In fact, according to Klein (1992), multicultural education has beencreated in order to "describe practices that seek to highlight the mostsuitable education for the multicultural society" and it is still used inthis same way in America in comparison to Europe, where the termhas been replaced with the one of an antiracist education.Multiculturaiism as an objective of the educational process led to implya tolerance to being different. Of course "The multiculturalism theoristsadvise that instead of trying to digest the cultural diffetences into ourpluralist society, schools should be supposed to celebrate thesedifferences in an atmosphere of "investigation" (Weil, 1998:15).

Gundara (2002: 7) stressed even more the segregation betweenmulticulturalism and cross-culture showing that in Europemulticulturalism constitutes actuallv a descriotive term of existence of"the other", implying that it has becbme a synonym to racism. In otherwords, a multicultural system is one that assembles populations fromseveral cultures without necessarily attempting to bridge the gapbetween the congesting diversities.

On the otler hand, cross-cultural education that resulted from oldermulticultural practices includes rlgre active and critical processes oflearning and knowledge. For instance, According to Fennes andHapgood (1997: 11), intercultural education is "an education that aimsto a constructive acquaintance with the foreigner, resulting to lessracism and xenophobia, an education that aims to a critical viewing ofideologies and to a comprehension of structural discriminations, aneducation that aims to an ability to emphasize into accent, to relateitself and interact with the foreigner, an education that aims to beinvolved in the process of growth of the m'irlticultural society".

ln practical terms, intercultural education is a tool for the studentsto exchange views, to communicate their cultures and to coexist, awareof the impact that every culture has on the others. Conclusively,intercultural education implies ar underctanding for the iwliuidual, thercason fot urhich she is dffirent, an interaction and a cooperctioe rclationship.

Of course, the choice between multi-culturalism and inter-culturalism depends on the state objectives in order to achieveassimilation or integration. A rather indicative masure of theassimilation and integration policies is the level of adoption of thesovereign cultures ftom the natives and foreign populations. Thepolicies depend also on the way that the state fixes and points out its

162 / Buurnr op PoLmcr- Ecoromv

interests concerning the culturally dissimilar individual. Assimilationis achieved when the immigrants and mainly those of a secondgeneration or the cultural "other" have no differences from the sovereigngroup, exceptperhaps of their sumame (Doomemik, 1998). On the otherhand, integration is practically achieved when the societSr's new comerskeep their cultural features active and have common social andinstitutional advantages and obligations (Doomernik, 1998).

THE ROLE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN EDUCATION: SOMEREMARKS

The schooling system seems like the appropriate play-ground for theprocess of fermenting and shaping a common European identity. Therelationship between education and civic participation is documentedby many studies and some explore causal links. In fact, economistsargue that education provides important social benefits throughenhanced civic participation (Hanushek, 2002: 2015-21,47).7

The purpose of education is to initiate the young into theseexcellences, through which one acquires the disposition to proceed tosound intellectual and moral judgments and choices. In an essentiallyAristotelian way of definitions the outcomes of a school represent boththe extent to which its goals are achieved and any unintendedconsequences of the processes involved. Therefore, outcomes areassumed to be principally of two broad kinds: cognitive and moral(Hargreaves, 2001: 488).

Inside the school individual micro-society (Mialaret, 1997) thepedagogic processes result from social processes that occur outsidefrom it (Durkheim,1997\ and vice versa. This fact converts educationinto a process that is not mechanistic, but that constitutes a part ofsocial relations. Those facts that take place inside the classroom are ina way terms of "negotiation and conflict" (Mavrogiorgos, 1,992: 4l) oIa further social framework and of its characteristics.

Society seems to be inlluenced to a great extentby the field and thevolume of learning activities revealed in Education. This claim leadsto the perception that every young man/woman should not onlyacquire basic knowledge but technologicai skills, as well. Thus, theeducation of the educators shouldn't only be limited to a uniquelytheoretical level, but should offer its future citizens ali necessaryknowledge and skills so that they meet the demands of the InformationSociety, the Society of Knowledge and Life Learning. In other words,the aalues of citizenship should be inseminated both as knowledge and asskills.

A Nore ol Eunopem Cmzrtsnrp, IMTERCuLTURAL Eoucllot mo... / 163

All kinds of teaching models take advantage of NT in order tofacilitate the achievement of their educative and acculturative goals.Curricula must be developed to take into account the role of NT andICTs (Information Communication Technologies) and promoteinformation literacy. Learning resources must also be adapted todifferent contexts and cultures, while at the same time encompassingan international dimension (GuttmarU 2003: 26-7). Technology mustbe viewed along a broad continuum, from books, black-board, radio,television and film to videoconferencing, web-based communication,and CD-ROM instructional resolrces. In particular, the World WideWeb (WWW) was specifically designed for coilaborative work. In thisway, WWW creates a new educational platform, reconfiguring theway students learn. Moreover, the use of Internet based projects hasencouraged the rise of virtual leaming communities which enhancesstudents' interactivity. The NT enhance apparently these possibilities.The state could easily take advantage of this fact and promote theirgoals of cultivating a common European Identity through schoolingmethods.s

Of course, the evolution of an educational system is alwaysconnected with political, social, economic and cultural factors that haveprevailed in various periods. The evolution of the educationalinstitutions is connected to the formation of educational traditions(scientific, philosophical and pedagogic) in the European space thatinfluenced significantly the constitution of knowledge systems, theformation of the Curricula content and the school knowledge transfermodes (Gotovos, 1986).e

In order for the school to meet with post modern models of societvand education, it has to invest to stiuctures, to incorporate neimeanings and understandings of the society and to spare well educatedpersormel. Theories and structures have to be flexible aiming at thesocial standards whereas agents such as teacheres and scientificpersonnel need to create dialogical relationships with each other andwith the social environment.

Conclusively, "an effective school mobilises its intellectual capital(especially its capacity to create and transfer knowledge) and its socialcapital (especially its capacity to generate trust and sustain networks)to achieve the desired educational outcomes of intellectual and moralexcellences, through the successful use of high leverage strategiesgrounded in evidence-informed and innovative professional practice"and "an improving school increases its intellectual capital (especiallyits capacity to create and transfer knowledge) and its social capital

164 / Buu-enn or Pomcel Economv

(especially its capacity to generate trust and sustain networks) toachieve the educational outcomes of intellectual and moral excellences(Hargreaves, 2001: 490-1).

CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The NI emerge as a crucial parameter of enhancing the multiculturaleducation towards the comprehension of the goals of a system thatsmoothens the structural discriminations and enhances the interactionand the cooperative relationship between ethnic or cultural groups. Ofcourse, the choice of an intercultural education depends on the state'sobjectives in order to achieve integration of the population; the choiceis facilitated through the concept of a supranational citizenship.

The educational institutional frame and methods could adoptteaching and learning methods through discovery in order to cultivatethe foundations for an Intercultural Society. The Intercultural Societyis closely related to the notion of acculturation, offered as the basicferment for cultivating the European Citizenship.

Ethnic and linguistic heterogeneity consists of a factor importantat the community level (national or supranational) (Glaeser,2001,2002).Thus, this perspective could be attached to the notion of InterculturalEducation. Intercultural Education is detached frorn all kinds oflocalisms and nationalisms, reiects partialities and visualizes theformation of broader and wider collectiuities (idennttes). These conceptscan be enhanced by the use of New Technologies, familiar and commonto all European students.

The new citizenship will cover the partial nationalities; therefore themultiethnic identities are going to mould in a new citizership by utilizingall the discussions about nationality and multiculturalism. This newquality of the citizen coruists of a new challenge ibelf, and according tothe conditiors that are forming it will finally allow us to presewe optimistperspectives to (federal) Europe. Towards Europeanisation anintermediary sphere of independent institutions and organisationsshould be created in order to constitute a form of "protective veil" againstthe arbitrary authority of the state Makrydemetres, 2002).

The humanities and the social sciences will need to create new trans-national and interdisciplinary infrastructures and networks, in orderto promote the well being of citizens. The digitally globalised methodscould be the best tool for cultivating a common European identity andthis paper dealt with exactly the formation of this new identity throughthe concept of the European Citizenship and its potential enhancementthrough Education and NT.

5.

A Norr or Eunopem Cmzetsxlp, Iulrnculruar Eoucmon rto... / 165

Ackttowledgements

We would like to thank Panayotis C. Michaelides and two anonymousReferees for several helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paperthat helped us to improve it significantly. Any remaining erors oromissions are ours alone.

Notes

On the technophiles, see: Daniel (1999), Toffler (1980), Negroponte (1995) andGates (1995). On the critical theorists, see: Schiller (1996) and Moscow (1989).For a general overview, see Webster (1999) and Castells (1996).

See the lecture by Beny f.W., titled Acculturation and Adaptation AmongImmigrants: Leaming to Live in Another Culture, given to the AlumAssociation of the Onassis Foundation,2006 (our translation).

The initial interest in acculturation grew out of a concem for the effects ofEuropean domination (see Thumwald, 1927).

See also Heath and McMahon (2000).

To have a public sphere of discussion another prerequisite should be futfilled:that of having procedures, which allow a fairdiscussion. See La Torre (1999).

This refers to the concept of Cultural Relativism, see e.g. Rachels (1995:15-29).

Of course, education generates other benefits to society that are not reflectedon the earnings of the educated; one such example is enhanced political andsocial behaviour (Milligan et al. 2003: 1667-8).

The critical analysis of the power and knowledge relations within theeducational field is linked to processes of ideological perception, socialintegration, cultural reproduction and control. The way that every societyselects, classifies, consttucts, transfers and evaluates the educationalknowledge as a public and social good, reflects both the dominant powerrelations and the principles of social control (Althusser, 1990; Bourdieu andPasseron, 1977; Frangoudaki, 1985). Of course, several scholars claim thatthe critical understanding of the function of educational systems demandsfor a critical understanding of the nature, the content and the function of theknowledge produced in {ducation, both as a historical form of authorrryand as a process of legalising the dominant ideology and the power relationswithin a society (Bierstedt 1959, Emereon 1962, Cox 1983, Althusser 1990,Young 2002).

An approach to educational policies conceptualizes education as humancapital. Human capital theory considers education relevant in so far aseducation shapes skills and helps to acquire knowledge contributing to theproductivity of the hunan being as an economic production factor. Thus,education is important because it allows workers to be more productive,thereby being able to earn a better wage. This persp€ctive regards skills andknowledge as an invesEnent in one's labour productivity, and consequentlyeconomists can estimate the economic returns to education for different

7.

9.

166 / Bur-lmr or Pormcrr Ecor'ror,ry

educational levels, types of education, etc. (Robeyns, 2006: 72), Nowadays,human capital is an established part of standard economic theory, This isdue to the University of Chicago economists Gary Becker and TheodoreSchultz who, among others, pioneered the so-called human capital thebry(Becker, 1993; Schultz, 1963). The human capital approach makes aninteresting point: the skills and knowledge acquired through educationconstitute a major accessory to a person's income generating capacity. Theattention paid to education as human capital to include people as central toeconomic development efforts has broadened development discourses thatused to focus on technical progress and macro-economic development only(Robeyns,2006: 72).

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works around 1930 which is attributed to the consequences of the GreatDepression.

In the forth article, A. Belegri-Roboli and M. Markaki ernploy a setof quantitative techniques in an input-output framework to examine theimpact of certain structural determinants on emplo)rment changes in theGreek economy, in the 2000-2008 time span. They employ StructuralDecomposition Analysis (SDA) which breaks down a variable of interestinto the changes of all the relevant delerminants. Their findings suggestthat the productivity of labour as well as Leontief's inverse matrix changes- implying changes in the production technology of the Greek economy -produce netative effects on labour changes. In contrast, the impact of thechanges in the final demand is positive, whereas the irnpact of the changesin the production technology is the least significant one.

Finally, in a brief article K. Theologou, A. Veneti and E,-A.Paraskevopoulou-Kollia, in a sociological spirit, deal with the concept of(European) Citizenship, and claim that no adequate theory of citizenshiphas been delivered in the last two decades. In this context, they artue thatsince the use of new technologies (suc-h as Web- and E-Leaming techniquetetc) in education is inevitable, the digitalised and other methods that arecurrently available could serve as important tools for cultivating EuropeanCitizenship.

I would like to believe that this issue sheds some light on the conceptof Technology in Economic Analysis, broadly defined.

Panayotis G. MichaelidesNntionol Tccluricol Uniuersity of Athens, Grecce

Cuest Editor, Blll/lctin of Politicnl Economy