International Journal of Industrial Engineering, 19(10), 401-411, 2012.

ISSN 1943-670X © INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

A FRAMEWORK OF INTEGRATED RECYCLABILITY TOOLS FOR AUTOMOBILE DESIGN

Novita Sakundarini 1, Zahari Taha2,

Raja Ariffin Raja Ghazilla1, Salwa Hanim Abdul Rashid1, Julirose Gonzales1

1Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture Center for Product Design and Manufacturing

University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA 2Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

University Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pekan, Pahang, MALAYSIA

N. Sakundarini, email : novitas73@siswa.um.edu.my1

Automobiles are major transportation choice for society around the world. Automotive industries in many countries mostly are one of the drivers of economic growth, job creation and technology advancement. Although automotive industry gives promising return, problem of managing disposal at the end of automotive’s life is quite challenging. Automobile is a very complex product that comprise of thousand components made from various materials that need to be separately treated. In addition, short supply of natural resources has provided opportunities to either reuse, remanufacture or recycle automotive’s components. End of Life Vehicle (ELV) Directive launched by European Union mandated that recyclability rate of automobile must reach 85% by 2015. The aim of this legislation is to minimize the impact of end of life vehicle, contributing to prevention, preservation and improvement of environment quality and energy conservation. Vehicle manufacturers and suppliers requested to include these aspects at earlier stages of the development of new vehicles, in order to facilitate the treatment of vehicles at the time when they reach the end of their life. Therefore, the automobile industry has to establish its voluntary action plan for ELVs, and has numerical target to improve ELV recycling rate, reduce automotive shredder residue (ASR) landfill volume, and reduce lead content. Many innovative approaches in improving recyclability have been implemented, but still called out for more intelligent solutions which integrate recyclability evaluation in product development stage. This paper attempts to review some of current innovative approach that used to improve recyclability and introduce a framework for integrated recyclability tool to improve product recyclability throughout its development phase.

Keywords: End of Life Vehicle, disposal, product life cycle, ELV Directive, recyclability.

(Received 2 June 2009; Accepted in revised form 1 Feb 2012) 1. INTRODUCTION

Automobile industries provide essential need for society to support easiness of mobility. According to OECD, the total number of vehicle are expected to increase by 32% from 1997-2020 (Kanari et al., 2003). In Europe, approximately 23 million units of automotive have been produce in 2007, while in Asia there were 30 million units and the number will be increase every year (Pomykala et al., 2007). Automobile products comprise of thousand parts which 74-75% of them compose from ferrous and non-ferrous material and 8-10% are from plastics, and typically only less than 75% of weights to be recycled and the rest are not. This condition leads to the increasing number of landfill space. Unfortunately, there is no more space available to threat this disposal. According to Kumar and Putnam (2008), the automotive recycling infrastructure successfully recovers 75% of the material weight in end-of-life vehicles mainly through ferrous metal separation. However, this industry faces significant challenges as automotive manufacturers increase the use of nonferrous and non metallic materials. Vehicle composition has been shifting toward light material such as aluminium and polymer that consequence on higher impact to the environment. Vehicle affect the environment through their entire life cycle in energy consumption, waste generation, green house gases, hazardous substances emissions and disposal at the end of their life (Kanari et al., 2003) . To overcome this problem, European Union has established EU Direction for end of life vehicle and underlined that in 2015, recyclability rate of automobile must reach 85%. According to EU Directive, recyclability means the potential for recycling of component parts or materials diverted from an end of life vehicle. Vehicle manufacturers and their supplier are requested to include this aspect at the earlier stage of the development of new vehicle, in order to facilitate the treatment of vehicle at the time when they reach their end of life. Many countries are now refer to the EU legislation and try to demonstrate a strategy in fulfilling this requirement by using less of non-recyclable material in their products, calculating for energy usage, limit waste stream, etc. Additionally, as consumption increases, raw

Sakundarini et al.

402

materials will be in short supply especially for steel, aluminium, copper and oil. New commodity markets will develop to extract these commodities from end of life products (Bandivandekar et al., 2004). Automobile recycling has long been a profitable business in developed countries such as United States and European Union. Currently, about 75% of the vehicle mass is recycled in the United States (Williams et al., 2007). Steel and aluminium are market driven recycled materials that consequently brings economic benefit to recyclers. Additionally, the more recycled metals will contribute to preserving natural resources. Moreover, recycling would generate an economic value from selling the secondary materials. Plastics, for example, are the fast growing components of waste of automobile’s end of life, although it cannot replace virgin materials (Tsuji, 2006). But yet many have criticized that using more plastics in automobile will produce more automotive shredder residue (ASR). ASR is an important issue because it considered as hazardous material and toxic contaminants to the landfill. In European Union, it has been estimated that 8-9 million vehicles are redundant annually, and it result to produce 20-25% by weight or approximately 2 million tons of automotive shredder residue (ASR). As a result, it is desirable to take fully consideration on how recycling can reach its effectiveness. In line with EU Directive, automobile producer must assure that vehicle they produce has meet following goals: low energy consumption, easy dismantling, suitable recycling and less of toxic metals. To fulfill this goal, the producer needs to understand the technical and economical facilities for ELV. Figure 1 describes the flow of vehicle when they reach their end of life recommend by EU Directive (Williams et al., 2007).

Supplier

User

Producer

End of life Vehicle (ELV)

Collector(Licensed)

Dismantler(licensed)

Hulk

Shredder

Dismantling part for recyclingLiquid batteriesSpare-parts

Materials to be recycled:·∙   Aluminum·∙   Other non ferrous metals·∙   Ferrous metals·∙   Polymers

Combustible

Vehicle assuring :·∙   Low energy

consumptions·∙   Easy dismantling·∙   Suitable recycling·∙   Less toxic materials

To landfill< 5%

Waste control

Depollution and treatment

Special industrial waste

Destruction

Material to be recycled

Other utilization Cement plant

Other utilization

Deregistration

Figure 1. Flow of ELV recycling recommend by EU Directive

ELV is collected by licensed collectors, and then dismantler is separate ELV into three subsequent components: spare parts, liquids batteries and dismantling parts for recycling. Shredding steps include dismantling small parts for recycling, hulk shredding and ferrous/non ferrous metal separation. Energy can be recovered from combustible parts of ELV by using them to replace fossil fuels in industrial process such as in cement plants. The remaining parts of vehicles will go to landfill under strict waste control. Figure 1 show that limiting ELV waste to the landfill for less than 5% and give more preference to recycle ELV is necessary. Utilization of ELV waste is mandatory to lessen environmental impact and prolonging the material usage. Thus, at the end it can reduce the use of natural resources. Design of a product strongly predetermines its behaviour in subsequent phases, for example the design of an automobile will determine feasible options in its end of life phases. Parts or products have to be easily degradable by recycle, reuse, dismantling or disassembly at its end of their life. In order to improve the ability of product to be reusable or recyclable, the strategies must not only focus on curative action but also in preventive action that improve through better design. In this concept, environmental requirements are introduced at the early stages of the design process. During product design, possible utilization of ELV waste must be carried out. Recyclability is one of important aspect to justify the level of the utilization. Earlier the environmental requirements integrated into product design the benefit will be greater. This paper tries to review and compare some of current innovative approach that used to improve recyclability and introduce a framework for improving recyclability.

Recyclability Tools for Automobiles

403

2. RECYCLABILITY EVALUATION There are several methods that have been developed to evaluate recyclability of product, either using traditional weighting system or intelligent approach such as neural network and fuzzy logic. Each of the methods/tools has different perspective and come up with strengths and obstacles. Reviews for approach in recyclability evaluation are providing in these paper.

2.1 Recyclability and Toxicity Score (RTS) Recyclability and Toxicity Score proposed by Hirosige et al. (2001) attempts to calculate recyclability target of automobile in percentage and value of toxicity by using toxic equivalency potential (TEP). TEP metric materials used in a car equivalent as value of toxic substances. The recyclability is determined by summing the masses of the recyclable materials and dividing by ELV weight. Recyclability is measured as:

R=mmrm + mrep + mf +mnf * 100 mv

whereas: mmrm = mass of mandatory removed material mrep = mass of reusable parts mf = mass of ferrous metals mnf = mass of non-ferrous metals mv = mass of vehicle

Mass of mandatory removed material consists of mass of tires (mt), mass of batteries (mb), and fluids (mfl), shown as :

mmrm = mt + mb + mfl

Mass of reusable parts consists of body panels and engines. Term mf and mnf represent mass of ferrous and non ferrous metals in the automobile. The next step of scoring process is to determine toxicity score by using Toxic Equivalency Potential (TEP). TEP system is a metric that compare mass of heavy metal with mass of benzene or toluene. Benzene or toluene will determine toxicity based on cancer risks. Heavy metal considered as a toxic metals are lead, mercury, hexavalent chromium, cadmium. Amount of toxic metal in the automobile is calculated as a deduction of recyclability score. This method is a curative action, which might need another action considered if recyclability target reveal to low. In addition, the essential information is not incorporated with product development phase, which make design correction more complicated. 2.2 Recyclability Evaluation Method (REM) Another approach developed by Philis (2005) using Recyclability Evaluation Methods (REM). The methods determine product’s ease of recycling in advance, without complex product prototyping and experimentation and it is desired at the early stage of design. REM based on 100 point of scale that indexed the ease of recycling and cost. The score decreases from 100 as the cost value becomes larger. Two variable used in REM are recyclability evaluation score (E) to access design quality in terms of difficulty of recycling, and estimated recycling cost (K) to project recycling cost. By this way, design improvement is also taking into consideration.

Product

Dismantle

Shredding

Shredder dust

Reuse parts

Reuse material

Lower recycle

cost

Disassemble cost

Profit by sale

Profit by sale

Process cost

Dumping cost

Recycle rate required by law

Both satisfied by REM

Figure 2. Area covered by Recyclability Evaluation Method (REM)

Sakundarini et al.

404

Recyclability Evaluation Score evaluate recyclability as well as recycling cost based 100 scales. The calculation formula using these principles: a. Recyclability evaluation score is basically calculated using recycling cost estimate. b. The score decreases from 100 as the cost value becomes larger. Figure 2 and Figure 3 illustrates area that covers by

REM and the concept of recyclability evaluation.

Part name : CoverPart account : 2Basic Elements :Supplement elements : low positionMaterial :Mass

Analysis Information

Recyclability judgementREM evaluation score : 52 (100 point scale)Disassembly time : 23.4 secRecycle cost elucidationDisassembly costProcessing costSelling income

Evaluation Index

Part name : CoverPart account : 2Basic Elements :Supplement elements : low positionMaterial :Mass

Analysis Information

Analysis of resultsProducts

improvement

Figure 3. Concept of Recyclability Evaluation

Putting recycling expenses components as well as recyclability target was an innovative approach that very useful to guide design engineer in selecting materials used. However, the method does not clarify sensitivity analysis to adjust the changing of recycling expenses. Estimated value of cost only based on the actual or historical data. Further development still needed to integrate this design tool with other environmental assessment tools such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

2.3 Suitability for Recycling (KE) To obtain recyclability score, Zettier (2000) developed Suitability for Recycling (KE). The score compare cost components that arising from materials that are not recycled with cost that occur in the material recycling process chain. The formulation is as follow:

KE (%) = cost of equivalent new material + disposal

cost of dismantling + reprocessing+logistics The suitability for recycling are set to three recycling class as shown in Table 1. R1, R2 and R3 with certain scale. R1 and R2 are defined as “green” components.

Table 1. Recycling class

Recycling class Criteria for suitability for recycling

Problem materials

R1 >100% none R2 80-100% none R3 <80% existing

In order to calculate suitability for recycling, there are several factors that found essential:

a. Works step, which include part weight, number of components, material composition. Work step calculation is used when components can be dismantling within one step. However, one or more components are not yet sufficient for dismantling into material categories, so it need further treatment which is called disassembly step.

b. Disassembly step: dismantling time, tools, nature and number of joining technology, observations concerning positive/negative behaviour during dismantling

In this research, dismantling time is a crucial factor to calculate suitability of recycling. The current method computes suitability of recycling as an overall value for each complete and finished work step, and not for individual components. In order to determine suitability of recycling, the sum of all expenditure for the components in work step is compared with the earnings as follow:

Recyclability Tools for Automobiles

405

KEeconomical = ∑proceeds ≥ 100% ∑ costs

This method proposes for an approach for cost optimization as well suitability of recycling derived from dismantling analysis. However, the scale for suitability for recycling (KE) is not provide with exact value, thus make the designer difficult to determine whether materials are classified as R1, R2 or R3. A more simplified method to classify is needed to develop.

2.4 Environmentally Weighted Recycling Quotes (EWRQ) EWRQ has been introduced by Xiaoming et al.(2007) and Huisman et al. (2000) presents new approach in calculating recycling quotes. The general idea of EWRQ is to replace conventional weight-based recyclability that only address weight factor for material fraction and does not represent the actual environmental value. In EWRQ method, recyclability is reflected from environmental impact, since various type of material has different environment load. The EWRQ calculation is weighted using eco-indicators 95, eco-indicator 99 and Toxic Potential Indicator (TPI). Then, the result is transferred to a 0% to 100% scale by using normalization step. There were three steps to generate EWRQ:

a. Quantification of the actual impact of a product by using several data as follows: b. The product’s overall material composition c. The percentages (and grades) in which every material is appearing in every fraction for each end-of life

treatment An environmental assessment model to obtain environmental score by using eco-indicator 95, eco-indicator 99 and TPI define the reference values that consequence for a minimum and maximum environmental impact. In this case, maximum environment impact is the highest environmental damage, which all materials in ending up in the environment such as water, soil and air. The environmental impact contribution from material fraction is then positioned in the scale between 0% - 100% using normalization steps as illustrate in Figure 4.

All materials fully recovered

EWRQ loss

EWRQ

Maximum

Actual Impact

Minimum 100%

0%

All the materials emitted to the environment

Figure 4. Normalization step To achieve recyclability score, EWRQ is very useful to give insight what environmental aspects that relevant to the use of each material. However, the effectiveness of this method used to assist design engineer has to be questioned because not all of environmental impact data for each material fraction is available. In addition, the model is based on end point score that use subjective weighting steps; therefore detailed information for specific fractions of material to specific environmental problem is needed.

2.5. Intelligent Approach for Recyclability Evaluation Some of researcher has established intelligent computation to determine product’s recyclability. One has been introduced by Philis (2005) is using fuzzy logic approach to evaluate material recyclability. Variable that consider in the research are the technology recovery, economics of the recycling processes, legislative support for recycling, quality of recycled materials and environment impact of waste. The author attempts to incorporate recycling indicator as many as possible, thus recyclability (RECY) evaluate based on five components as described in Fig 5.

Sakundarini et al.

406

RECY

POLICY

PHYHUM

ECON TECH PROP ENV

Figure 5. Recycling indicator

Recyclability method proposed by Philis (2005) emphasizing more on how to achieve recyclability based on 5 indicators: policy, economy, technology, properties, and environment. Although the method is promising to provide consistent assessment, but the indicator is board in context which might only suitable for policy decision making. Recyclability evaluation using artificial neural network also has been demonstrated by Rose and Ishii (1999). By using the AHP method, six factors are chosen. Factors that consider in this research are materials compatibility, accessibility of the component, recycling benefit/recycling cost, personnel ability demanded, time of the disassembly, and number of disassembly tools. The six factors form the input vector of the neural network model U=(u1,u2,u3,u4,u5,u6). The six factors were quantified and then sent to a group of experts. Each expert scored on product recyclability. Then, expert’s score will be a sample set that use to train the network. After training is completed, the network is used to assess new object. The score depend on expert perspective which might very subjective and based on their knowledge and experience. 2.6 Review on Recyclability Evaluation Vehicle, particularly automobile, comprise from thousand of material components that give significant impact to environment throughout its life cycle in energy consumption, waste generation, green house gases, hazardous substances emission and disposal at the end of their life. Enforcement of ELV regulation has strong focus on reuse and recycling target that in 2015 should achieve 85% by average weight per vehicle. This regulation has shift full responsibility to manufacturer to facilitate end of life treatment. Thus, it is obvious to strategically develop a way that can reduce environmental burden, by improving recyclability of vehicle. Based on literature review, recyclability methods/tools are described below to recognize the availability of the tools to cater problem arising as illustrate in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison of existing recyclability evaluation

A: RTS, B: REM, C:KE, D:EWRQ, D:IA

The rating system is intended to quantify the environmental impacts of end-of-life vehicles by using material listing and its composition to an automobile weight. The objective is to provide an index or score that can be quantify for automobile recyclability. There are many rating systems that has been developed and but most of them are deal with complexity and a standalone evaluation that still need to be integrated with product design tool. In addition, the complicated measurement is a double task for designer to incorporate environmental requirements into product design. Many studies regard to recyclability tool has well demonstrated, but several obstacles detectable:

Features

Methods/tools A B C D E

Estimation of recyclability score

CAD based recyclability evaluation

The model consider cost optimization

Provide evaluation guidelines to minimize ASR

Provide end of life solution to fraction of materials

Recyclability Tools for Automobiles

407

a. The evaluation is not incorporate with the product development phase that makes design correction more complicated.

b. Some methods found are not simply understandable, thus it makes double task for design engineer c. Least of the tools have automatic linkage with design tool (CAD system). d. Fraction of material is very important to determine the recyclability, but less of the literature emphasizes on

how to predict recyclability based on material fraction. e. The calculation is not extensively considered Automotive Shredder Residue as a variable that need to reduce,

whereas ASR is very potential to cause hazard and toxic to environment. Thus, its existence and usage should be minimizing.

3. FRAMEWORK OF INTEGRATED RECYCLABILITY TOOL This section presents an integrated framework of integrated recyclability tool. To cater the problem previously define, there is the need for integrated solution that can link design tools (CAD system) with recyclability tools. In addition, it is crucial to formulize recyclability based on material fraction and make an effort to minimize Automotive Shredder Residue (ASR). Figure 6 is the proposed framework that aims to integrate and develop connectivity between design tools and end-of-life strategies of automobile, particularly its recyclability. The framework proposed for a linkage between design tools with recyclability tool, and provides end-of-life guideline for designer to be able to make design correction during product design.

Decision Support System for

Cost optimizationVBA *.frm

Environmentally sound product

design

Knowledge Based End Of Life (EOL)

StrategyVBA *.fm

ELV Agents Database

*.xls

Cost Database

*.xls

Design Environment

EnvironmentallyDesign

Improvements

VBAMacro *swp

CAD data in STEP format

CAD system

Recyclability Module

Environmental parameter based

material selection

Product’s recyclability

evaluation using Fuzzy Logic

Recyclability value

Product Designer

Application Programming Interface (API)

Add on

Figure 6. Framework for integrated recyclability tool

The framework is divided into two parts as follow:

Design Environment Design activity for many products is carried out using 3D software tools. The software tool is equipped with virtual prototyping platforms, where a product can have virtual geometric properties such as size, volume, features, weight, and material composition which generated from product design database. Current availability of design tool software integrated with environmental tool is very limited; therefore designer who runs this application is not prepared with environmental knowledge. Design tool significantly modify geometric form of a product and does not included design guidance on material selection and its recyclability. On the other hand, ELV regulation called out for recyclability target that must be fulfilled. Thus, in design environment, product designer will determine part and material that compose a product then use the CAD data as an input to recyclability evaluation. Most current environment assessment tools did not automate adjustment of assessment to changes the product state. On the proposed framework, recyclability evaluation builds inside CAD systems using Macro Visual Basic Application (VBA), so that no data transformation needed and the evaluation could be undertaken in the same model. In this way, it

Sakundarini et al.

408

will avoid switching to other systems, therefore decrease design cycles. CAD data are store in Standard for Product Data Exchange (STEP) format, a complete format that most of application compatible and can carry large amount of machining information including the model, material and tool information. STEP format is standardized ISO 10303 that form exchangeable files, application programming interfaces and database implementation. This leads to the possibility of using the same standard data throughout the system and avoiding data losses. Recyclability module that add-on in the CAD system aims to provide estimation of a product’s ability to be recycled. This tool is connected with design tool application using object library that available in CAD system. Thus, from this point of view, designer can easily make prediction to meet recyclability target. The first step to determine recyclability value is to get data from CAD system. Data that needed in recyclability evaluation is material fraction and mass for every part. Then, parameter that significantly influenced recyclability is set according Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data. LCI is chosen because it provides a more comprehensive data of a product that picture the whole life cycle phases of a product. Once parameter is set then recyclability evaluation is then formulized using fuzzy approach to determine recyclability value based on material composition of parts that has been inputted by design engineer as described in Figure 7.

Start

Geometric data input of product and material

composition

Set environmental parameter for recyclability

Recyclability evaluation

Recyclability value

End

CAD

Method/Tool

Fuzzy Logic

Life Cycle Inventory

Figure 7. Steps in determining recyclability value In Figure 6, material database is added in the tool so that designer can easily track which material that has environmental warning. The main concern of material composition is to limit or minimize ASR in the product. The result of this evaluation is recyclability value that then becomes input variable for eco-innovative tool. Eco-Innovative Tool Eco-innovative tool is a decision making engine to optimize and guide the designer to make decision on their design model whether it has been meeting certain environmental requirements and minimizing the cost under chosen materials. End of Life Vehicle Agents is the database that gives list of possible ELV agents that provide ELV service such as recycler, dismantler or shredder. Data of ELV agents and material cost is represented in Excel format. The tool also provides a knowledge base module on end of life strategy that might be considered if the recyclability achieved low value. Product designers should take into consideration possible end of life strategy that the product will experience when recyclability meet low value. In this way ELV waste will have optimum utilization. This EOL module has been previously developed by Centre of Product Design and Manufacture, University Malaya. With this tool, the designer is well informed, so there will be optimal decision in terms of cost and environmental performance. Figure 8 demonstrated how eco innovative tool work. In Figure 8, CAD data provide geometric features which can generate material fraction of parts that composed in the product model. Then, environmental parameter will set to calculate environmental impact based on material selection. After that, recyclability value is determined. If recyclability value is high, cost optimization can be run. Variable consider in the optimization is material cost, recycling cost, availability of ELV agents and amount of ASR in the product. On the contrary, if recyclability is low, then other possible end of life strategy should be select so that cost optimization can be calculated.

Recyclability Tools for Automobiles

409

CAD File

Geometric Feature

Material FractionEnvironmental

parameter based on material selection

Recyclability value

High?

Cost optimizationPossible EOL Strategy

Design need improvements?

ELV Agents

Finish

Yes

No

Yes

No

Figure 8. Judgment flow in eco innovative tool

The proposed system works in integrated manner via Application Programming Interface (API) for flexibility of attaching any further applications to assist designer and make possible improvements regards to environmental requirements. The current system found in current literature showed that information isolation occurred during product design. Usually, design tools and recyclability evaluation tool are not integrated, so that information gathering from both tools is isolated. This makes design correction complicated and double task for designer. With this proposed system, designer can eliminate time that used to gather both environmental data with technical data. The framework can allow designer to make optimal decision during product design as well as meet environmental requirements.

4. CONCLUSION This paper has demonstrated a review on the recyclability assessment as well as comparison between different methods. Literature highlighted that there is a need to develop recyclability assessment method which can be use concurrently during product design. A framework of integrated recyclability tool has also been introduced. CAD based recyclability evaluation is necessary to develop for a more simplify and easy environmental guidelines in product development phase to assist designers in finding the product’s recycling potential. In addition, proposed tool will optimize the life cycle decision that will ensure environmentally preferable materials during product design. Further works that need to be carried out for initial point is establish a case study on recyclability evaluation. More comprehensive data gathering between stakeholders should be added in the proposed method, such as economical benefits of recycling and the amount of Automotive Shredder Residue (ASR). The parameter can be expanded as many as possible to handle the needs of managing stakeholders’ requirements. 5. REFERENCES

1. Kanari, “End-of-Life Vehicle in European Union”, Journal of Metal, Mineral and Material Society, Vol. 55 No. 8,

pp. 15-19, 2003. 2. “OICA website”, Available : http://oica.net/category/production-statistics/ 3. J.A , Pomykala, B.J. Jody, E. J.Daniels, , and J.S.Spangenberger, “Automotive recycling in the United States:

Energy conservation and environmental benefits”, Journal of Metal, Mineral and Material Society, Vol 11, pp. 41-45, 2007.

4. J. A. S Williams, S. Wongweragiat, X. Qu, J. B. McGlinch, Bonawitan, J. K. Choi, and J.Schiff, “An Automotive Bulk Recycling Planning Model”, European Journal of Operation Research, Vol. 177, pp. 969-981,2007.

5. S. Kumar and V. Putnam, Cradle-to-cradle: Reverse Logistic Strategies and Opportunities Across Three Industry Sector, International Journal of Production Economics, 2008.

6. M. Finkbeiner, R. Hoffmann, K. Ruhland, D. Liebhart, and B. Stark, Application of LCA for the Environment Certificate of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class, International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, Vol 11, pp 240-246, 2006.

7. Bandivadekar, V. Kumar, K. Gunter and J. Sutherland, “A Model of Material Flows and Economic Exchanges within the US Automotive Life Cycle Chain, Journal of Manufacturing Systems, Volume 23, pp 22-29, 2004.

8. C.Griffith, and M. Rossi, “Moving Towards Sustainable Plastic: A Report Card on the Six Leading Automakers,

Sakundarini et al.

410

Ecology Center, 2005 9. A.Tsuji, “Recyclability Index for Automobiles, Thesis, California Polytechnic State University, 2006. 10. Y. Hiroshige, T. Nishi, and T. Ohashi, “Recyclability Evaluation Method (REM) and Its Application, Journal of

IEEE, 2001. 11. T. Zettier, M. Essenpreis and K. Vornberger, “Evaluation of the Recyclability of Vehicle during the Product

Development Phases, Proceeding of Total Life Cycle Conference and Exposition, 2000. 12. J. Huisman, C. Boks and Ab. Stevels, “Environmentally Weighted Recycling Quotes-Better Justifiable and

Environmentally More Correct”, Journal of IEEE, 2000. 13. J. Huisman, Ab. Stevels and A. Middendorf, “Calculating Environmentally Weighted Recyclability of Consumer

Electronic Products Using Different Environmental Assessment Model”, IEEE Journal, 2001 14. Y. A. Phillis, V. S. Kouikoglou, and X. Zhu, “A Fuzzy Logic Approach to the Evaluation of Material Recyclability,

Journal of IEEE, 2005. 15. Liu, Z. F., Liu X. P., and Wang, S. W., 2002, Recycling Strategy and a Recyclability Assessment Model Based on

An Artificial Neural Network, Journal of Materials Processing Technology Volume 129, Issues 1-3, 11 October 2002, Pages 500-506

16. N. Oyasato, H. Kobayashi and K. Haruki, “Development of Recyclability Evaluation Tool”, Journal of IEEE, 2001.

Recyclability Tools for Automobiles

411

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Novita Sakundarini, is a PhD student at the Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture, Faculty Engineering, University Malaya, Malaysia. She is also a researcher at the Center for Product Design and Manufacturing, University Malaya. She involved in many research projects in the Design of Environment area . Her research interest is in Design for Environment, Design for Recycling, and intelligent approach for Sustainable Manufacturing.

Zahari Taha, is a Professor at the Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia. He completed his PhD in Dynamics and Control of Robots from the University of Wales Cardiff. He is a chartered engineer registered with the Engineering Council, United Kingdom and a member of the Institution of Engineering Designers, UK. He is a fellow of The Academy of Science Malaysia, vice president of the Asia Pacific Industrial Engineering and Management Society and secretary of the Innovation and Industrial Cluster of National Professors Council. He published more than 100 papers in academic books, international journals and proceedings. His major research interest includes robotics, ergonomics design, sport engineering and sustainable manufacturing.

Raja Ariffin Raja Ghazilla, is a Lecturer in Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture, Faculty Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia. He is also a principal researcher at the Centre for Product Design and Manufacture, University of Malaya. His involvement in various industrial and research based projects contribute to his registration as a Charted Engineer of UK. He is currently pursuing a doctoral degree at the University of Malaya. His teaching and research interests include design methods, human factors design and design for environment.

Salwa Hanim Abdul Rashid, is a Lecturer in Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture, Faculty Engineering, University Malaya. She holds a Bachelor of Engineering in Manufacturing Management from Salford University, MSc in Manufacturing Management form Loughborough University and finished her PhD in Sustainable Manufacturing at Cranfield University, UK. Her research interest is in Material Efficiency, Eco Design, Lean Manufacturing and Change Management.

Julirose Gonzales, is a PhD student at the Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture, Faculty of Engineering, University Malaya, Malaysia. Her research interest is Sustainable Manufacturing, Eco Design, and Green Manufacturing Process.

Copyright of International Journal of Industrial Engineering is the property of International Journal of Industrial

Engineering and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the

copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for

individual use.