miieayzkixra

w`n axn

mipiiprd okez

xac gzt7w`n axnzecte iay ly eppnf zepa zenlice zeixehqid zenlic13

iayd ly dixehqida miptn :o ey`x xry¦

onhex laei,zecdia ipicn dyrnk miieay itelige miieay oeictiniipia ini bdep ly ezeedzd - m`lq`ae zexvpa43

xen zibyi`xa iayd on dxfgd ?"aeh lkd - aeh seq" mpn`dzicenlzd zextqd61

oncixt oeei`ocgtn ieayd zqitz iepiy - ze`ivn avrnk ieniczipalvd dtewza xeaibl83

w`n axnmixgeq ,miieay - mdipiay dne melye dngln lralvd irqn ztewza mihneltice109

uiytil wgvi sqeiynen `ly oeictde - bxeaphexn m"xdnd133

dycgd zra mii eay :ipy xry

zecitl crl`ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay151jilail dinreiykre f` mil`xyi miieay181onbxa opex:raexn icewcew oia zegek wa`n - mixcrpde miieayd

zeiyxt ly dixehqida xwgnn zeixwir zepwqnmixcrpde miieayd197

odk .y ixe`zixard zextqde iay215xag opg¤xdfi 'q z`n "ieayd"a zeixg`d xayn247

mixn`nd ixagn269

mipiipre zeny gztn271

151

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zecitl crl`

avnd

zil`xyi zixara dpekny dn ly gztnd zeibeqn zg` onf dfn `id miieayd ziibeqmle` ,dpicnl jiiyy dn lk `ed "ipicnd" ,zipeyl dpigan ."ipicnd megzd"jiiy epi`y dn l` dpicnd ly dqgi :xcben xzei xac x`zn ipicnd megzd l`xyial`xyi zpicna :zipeyl drteza wx xaecn `l la` .dly uegd iqgi xnelk ,dpicnl.dpicnd zedn z` icrla hrnk ote`a xicbn dl uegny dn l` dpicnd ly dqgi,dpicn zpigaa l`xyi ly dzedn xnelk ,l`xyi ly zipicnd dzedny o`kne`et` zewgzdl ywa` df xn`na .miieayd ziibeq ici lr dax dcina meik zxcbenmlerd l` gztnk ,l`xyia igkepd avna driten `idy itk ,miieayd ziibeq xg`

,zipihla eyxeyy byena `haznd ipeirxdstatuszetydn zixarl enebxze ,- zeipxcendstate, stato, état`id ziceqid izprh ."avn"d mbe "dpicn"d mb `ed -

.miieayd ziibeq oexzt ziy`x `ed dpicnd ziibeq xexiay?"il`xyid avn"a ifkxn jk lk mewn dl yi recn ?miieayd ziibeq weica `id dnziibeqy `id ,zlawzn mb aexly daeyz ,dpey`xd dl`yd lr zywaznd daeyzdiigl db`cd .mc` iigl ziyep`d db`cd xnelk ,mnelyl db`cd heyt `id miieaydxyt` ;zipxcend dpicnd zzzyen dilry ziqiqad db`cd lekiak `id enelyle mc`dz` qgiil diihp yi meik ik dnec .mfilxail dl `exwl xyt` ,mfipned ef db`cl `exwldpaena ,zihxwencd dzednl eppnf za zipicnd zeyia mc`d iig jxr ly deabd enewnmiieayd ziibeq ly cgeina ifkxnd dnewn .izednd `l` oaenk ihqilnxetÎ`ldz` zpiit`ny ,mc` iigl cgeina dlecbd db`cdn ef dqitz itl raep l`xyi zpicnaÎihqipnedd dcegii dn mey lre .l`xyi zpicn ly cgein ote`a zihxwencd dzedn?miieayd lxebl cgeina dwenr db`ca dze` oiivnd ,l`xyi ly ihxwencdÎilxailddizeceqi ipy mitxhvn miieayd ziibeqa ik dncp ,xzeia zifkxn `idy ,ef dcewpa- icedide ihxwencd - zil`xyid zipicnd drcezd ly zeaexw dk mizrl mivipd

.zg` zihqipned dqn ickl1enk eizeiekfle mc`d iigl zipxcend dpicnd ly dzb`c

1mixacnd) 30.11.2006 ,ux`d ,"?il`xyi ieay deey dnk" ,`iby ia`e oxhy dicici :lynl e`x

zecitl crl`

152

day zibyend zxbqnd ,jkl m`zda .icedid wegd ly miiyep`d eizeceqia zwfgznzedn l` jxca ieayd zl`y z` geztl `et` yi DAWe miieayd ziibeq meik zaven§¤¨

.miieayd oeict ziibeqn xnelk ,zicedid dklddn `weec `et` dgewl ,dpicnd

"mlekn dyw iay"

ef dqitz .mc`l zexwl lekiy xzeia `xepd xacd xeza qtzp iayd zicedid dkldaxW`e axgl axgl xW`e zeOl zeOl xW` 'd xn` dM" :edinxi xtqn weqt lr zqqeanŸ¨©£¤©¨¤©¨¤©£¤©¤¤©¤¤©£¤weqtl opgei 'x ixac z` `ian ilaad cenlzde ;(a eh) "iaXl iaXl xX`e arxl arxl̈¨¨¨¨¨©£¤©§¦©¤¦dyw iay ,axgn dyw arx ,zenn dyw axg :exiagn dyw df weqta xge`nd lk" :dfiiepir ,rnyn .(a"r g `xza `aa) "[ea mpyi mleky=] dia edpzi` edlekc ,mleknmilkznd ytpde sebd ixeqiie arxa drieebd ;zeenn mirexb ,revtd sebd ia`ke axgdzerxd lk ik ,arxne axgn ,zeenn dyw xzei iayde ;axgd iiepirn mirexb ,mnvrn

.ea zellkp elldrexb zeidl leki dn ?arxe axg ,zeen ekeza llek iayd avn recn ?dpeekd dnlcia `edy" :jk my xiaqn i"yx ?arxa drieebdne axgd iiepirn ,zeendn xzei."arxl m` axgl m` zenl m` evtg lk ea zeyrl [zelfne miakek icaerd=] f"nekrdz` llek `ede ,arxd ixeqiine axgd iiepirn ,zeenn dyw xzei iayd ,rnyn.evtg lkk ea zeyrl xf oevx ly eicia oezp ieayd iayd avnay meyn ,mzyelyea dyriiy e` arxa reebi e` axga dperi ,zeni ieayd iayay `weec xne` df oi`xnelk ,xf gek icia oezp ieayd zeid `id dlek lk iayd zedn ,`axc` - xg` edyn

.ea dwfgdd mvr) wfgend mc`d `ed ieaydcaptive,hlgen ote`a oezp zeidl ernyn wfgen zeidl .(

geka wx `le - egekl ixnbl oezp zeidl xnelk ,xg` ly eci wfegl ,xixXd znxa§¦;mlerl qgia mc` ly ifit avn x`zn `lkd - envr `lkd epi` iayd .lreta mb `l`,mpn` .xq`n `l mb `ed iayd j` .mc` ipa oia miqgi zkxrn `ed z`f znerl iayd`l` iayd `l od ze`lylyd j` ,ze`lylyd `ed iayd ly xzeia hlead ienicddaeyd .ze`lylyd z` xvei iayd - iayd z` zexvei ze`lylyd `l .ely iehia

,zihqipnedd dwixehxd" l` dliaeny ,mil`xyid ly "dreah zihpb zixqen zeyibx" lr'`ln mler livd eli`k zg` ytp livnd lk' gqepa ,zicedide zillkdzpicn ,onbxa opex ;("

,zixqend ,ziz`d zehalzdd" lr riavn `ed) 16 'nr ,ozia dxenf ,zxpk ,lkd dyrz l`xyi,"zeixfk`d len l`" ,iel ixp` x`pxa ;("mixcrpde miieayd lxeb lr zixeaivde zicedid,dpicnl hxtd oia :oixxer oi` eilry ixebhw ev" l`xyi zpicnl qgiin `ed) 2.7.2010 ,ux`d

.("hxta cinz xegal yi

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

153

ze`lylya ieayd z` xqe`iptn.egekl biiq `ll oezpk ieayd z` qtez `edymrhn wfgen `l ieayd mc`d .zexigl hlgend cebipd `ed iayd ,df oaenaedylk

wfgen `ed `l` - okeqn e` dleg `edy oebk - ezexig z` biiqne ezeid mvrn cxtpy.hlgen gekl oezpd mc`k ipexwr ote`a qtzp `ed xnelk ,ezedn mvrn ,ebyen it lr

.miiga ewifgdl gekd `weec `l` ,zindl gekd `l `ed mc` lr hlgend gekdecinz jexk ieayd jk meyne .evtg lk ea zeyrl daeyd cia `ed ieayd okle,ieayl qgi lk qiqaay dl`yd ef ."?ea zeyrl dn" :mivtgl qgia zl`ypd dl`yaeyr dn" .miieayd zrtez mr ,lynl zixehqidd ,zihxe`zd zeccenzdd llekl` zebdpzdd ote` ."?miipiad inia eyr dne ?mi`nexd eyr dne ?miieaya mipeeidly egekl setk ieaydy yexit dn j` .dlabn mey oi` ;"dgezt dl`y" `ed ieaydizla" `ed ieayd lr daeyd ly egek weica oaen dfi`a ?"dlabn `ll" daeyd.laben izla ifit gek lra xnelk ,leki lk `ed daeydy dpeekd oi` ?"laben,lehial zepzipy zelabnd wx oaenk od ,iaya zelhazny ,daeyd gek lr zelabndavna zelhazny zelabnd ,o`k oda xaecny zelabnd .lhal daeyd geka yiyla` ,zeyrl leki ok `edy dn `l` ,zeyrl leki `l daeydy dn `l od ,iayd.epevxn - zeyrl `l xgea `ed ,mipey minrhn ,iayd avnl uegn ,llk jxca.zeiaihnxepd zelabnd `l` zeifitd zelabnd `l od iaya zelhazny zelabndjez geka dwfgd `ed ,mc` ipa oia mieqn qgi ly byenk ,iayd ,zexg` milina,mixixyd zlrtd ote` z` ,geka yeniyd z` xicbnd oexwir lk ly ztxeb dlily

lk lleyn geka dwfgd - dlertd jxc z`weg.,zipeirxd ezxcbda ,card .card oial ieayd oia iceqid lcadd uerp o`k

xnelk ,caer ,zibyendlretzekfa cenrl gxken `l` ,utgk wfgen epi` `ed .- envrqgid z` gzpn ,lynl ,lbd okle .oec`d ly xcbend epevx z` zxyl ick

zercend xnelk ,dnvr z` zrceid zercend ly ziceqi dxevk oec`l card oia.zinvrd2mlerd htyna .d`ixw oniqa `l` dl`y oniqa oezp epi` card lxeb

aeg cvl ,carl did mc` oday zeixwird mikxcd yelyn zg` did iayd ,wizrdp`k ecarzyd ryetde aiigd mle` ,ryte.car ly cnrnl ecxiy ,miiyteg miy

) qeipetnet inexd ohtynd .jetd did carzynd ieayd ly eavnSextus

Pomponius,(3,"car" zinexd dlind z` yxitservuslretdn dribnk ,servare,`ed ,el epzip eiigy xg`n .dpzna eiig z` laiwy in `ed card ,rnyn ."livdl"

2:e`xGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Phänomenologie des Geistes, (1807),

Frankfurt am Main 1986, IV(a)

3:e`xCorpus Juris Civilis, Digesta Iustiniani Augusti, recognovit Theodorus

Mommsen retractavit Paulus Krueger, Berolini 1908, D50.16.239.1

zecitl crl`

154

,xg` icia wfgend ,cnrn lk lehpd mc`d ly ezcnrn xzei ddeab dcnra `vnpcnrnl xg` ly egeka wfgend ly eznwd `id car ly cnrnl ieayd ziilr .ieayd

.wegd xcbl eqpkid xnelk ,i`nvrmeiw ,`axc` .wegd "iptl" `edy e` weg llk ea oi`y avn `l `ed iayd ,mpn`eieayd l` daeyd ly gekd qgi .avnk iayd z` xnelk ,iayd avn z` xicbn wegdavn `ed iayd ,jtdl - llk lkn mzq jk `veid ,yic`e izexixy qgi `l `edllk ly ziztend ezenlbzd od ze`lylyd .ilily :illk wegk gqepny ,iaihnxepitl xq`pd ,ryetdn dpeya .dlabd `ll ,dxwn lka ,onfd lk lrtend gek :lfxad

.weg lk lleyn `ed ik wfgen ieayd ,wegdwx zixebhw `id wegd zlily ?weg lk ixebhw ote`a mc`n lelyl ozip cvik j`

.mc` `ed xy`a mc`n wegd z` zlley `id m`4llypy wegd ,zexg` milinai`pz .llkd on `vei `ll ,mc`d ipa lk lr lgy ,iyep`Îllkd wegd `ed ieaydn

jkitl `ed iayl ibyend zexyt`ddxkddieayl didp ieayd .iyep`Îllkd wega."mc`" byend xcbn ez`ved ici lr ,iyep`Îllkd wegd zlegz xcbn ez`ved ici lrxzei iayd okle ."mc`Î`l" `l` dig `l - mc` ly ililyd byend jkitl `ed ieaydlekiy xzeia rxd xacd `ed iayd .arxa drieebdne axgd iiepirn ,zeendn dyw,iyep`Î`ld wegd ,ililyd iyep`d wegd zgz miig `han `ed ik ,mc`l zexwl

.zenc` ilr mepidibd xnelkz` oiadle zeqpl yi ,iayd avn zernyn ly zicedid dklda dcgd dpadd xe`ldpeekde ,eil`n oaen zeidln ce`n wegx `edy ,byen zervn`a iayd mr dzeccenzddkldd ici lr deevnd dlertd ote` `edy ,miieayd ly mpeict ,ok` .miieay oeictlcg` dpwa dlerd xac ,"dax devn" xeza cenlza qtzp ,iaya ltep mc` eay dxwnalr mxexgy ly oaena ,miieayd oeict mle` .ieayd ly `xepd elxebl zercend mroey`x hana zywaznd daebzd `weec e`l `ed ,dkldd zxacn eay ,sqk melyz ici

.iaya mc` ly dlitpl

4- "minexird miigd" oeirxa oanb` ei'bxe'b xakn `l df ddif wegd gekn weg lk ly dlilyd z`:e`xGeorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer. Le pouvoir souverain et la vie nue, traduit de

l’Italien par Marilène Raiola, Paris 1997,"minexir"d mc`d iig oeirx cvik d`xn oanb` .j` .wegd xivi envra `ed ,weg lkn miiwpe byen lkn milhxernd miibeleiad miigd xnelkoanb` ywan eay byend .eala `weec `l` ,wegl uegn minexird miigd z` ytgn `l oanb`

"xw`q ened" :dxcbd ezedn lky ,wdaen ihtyn cnrn `ed wegd illeyn miigd z`ened"d .cvik d`xn oanb` .htynd jeza xaerd htynd ly ilqwecxt leab deedn "xw`qoeirx

- dnbicxtd `ed "xw`q ened"d oanb` xear ,rnyn .wegd zedna `ed wegd illeyn miigdepi`y byen ly dnbicxtd `ed ,z`f znerl ,ieayd .llka iyep`d wegd ly - ziziirad

.wegd zxbqna xcben

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

155

n zi`xpd daebzdzextqa oey`xd mewna driten iaya mc` ly dlitpl zywazeqiady miklnd zece` lr xtqn ziy`xa xtqa c"i wxt .iayd riten eay zicediddyer dne .mdxa` ig` oa hel z` mb iaya mnr egwle dxenre mecq jln z` dnglnaxteqn weqtd eze`a cer :ywazny dn z` ?iaya gwlp epiig`y rnyyk mdxa`miaeyd ixg` scex `ed `ad weqta xake ;miaeyd xg` secxl eiyp` mr `vei `edyepi` `ed - rexfd geka miieayd z` xxgyn mdxa` .miieayd z` xifgne mda dknzeevnl qiqad z` o`k ze`xl xyt` z`f lka `ny ,wtq xqd ornle .mxear mlynly mkln ,mecq jlnn edylk melyz lawl mdxa` axqn ,sqka miieayd oeictgeka miieayd xexgy .(bk ci ziy`xa) "lrp KFxU cre hEgn m`" ,exxgeyy miieayd¦¦§©§©©xW` cr" ikaa mlew z` epzpy ixg` ,eiyp`e ciec jlnd ly dprnd mb `ed rexfd©£¤

.(c l ` l`eny) blwv iieay zgiwl lr "zFMal gM mdA oi ¥̀¨¤Ÿ©¦§.`xwnl uegn wx zicedid dkldd ly dnlerl `a sqka miieayd oeict byen5

z` l"fg ly dwenrd mzpada aygzda ,`xwnd ly dyegpd zeiznglnd znerleoiieayd z` oicet oi`" :`iltn weti`a mdixac z` egqip md ,ieayd ly eavn zxneg"mlerd oewiz iptn ,oiieayd z` oigixan oi`e .mlerd oewiz iptn ,odinc ick lr xzixxgyl oi` xnelk ,miieayd z` "oigixan oi`" ,lk mcew ,rnyn .(e c oihib ,dpyn);sqka `l` rexfd geka `l mpeict dzernyn miieayd oeict zeevn - geka mze`m` ,xen`k .miieayd ly "odinc"n deabd xign mlyl oi` - xign yi oeictl ,zipyehana zegxken elld zeriawd ,"mlekn dyw iay" oeirxd zernyn `elnl micxeimipeicd lk .lilra zepaen izla `l` ,odil`n zepaen `l wx `l zeidl oey`xoeiqip jezn zeaexw mizrl ,elld zelabdl xaqd `evnl miqpn ef dibeqa miizkldd

xyt`d lkk onvnvl6dywd avndn mc` xxgyl zexyt`d z` liabdl recn ixdy -?xzeia rexbd avndn edyin ly exexgyl xign zeidl leki llka ji` ?yiy xzeia

?"mlerd oewiz" weica ednelkl qgiizn okle mlerd lkl oeeknd ,illkd wegd byen weica `ed mlerd oewiz,ilily weg avn `edy ,iayd ly wiecnd ecebip `ed mlerd oewiz df oaena .mc`

wegd eay avn xnelkynyn wegd ;lwlwn `ed owzl mewna mle` ,mlerl `a xakdaeyzd ,jkitle .laben izla gek ly avn ,weg lleyn avn zxivil `weec

5dngln oia oigadl ilan "icedid qez`a avrn jxr `ed miieayd oeict" ik zqxebd dqitzlicenil xz` ,zrc ,"!xign lka `l - miieay oeict" ,dcebie l`kin lynl e`x ,sqk melyzl

.333 'qn oeilib ,h"qyz ,jl jl zyxt ,gexe zecdi6lr l`ilnb oax wleg dpyna xak ,"ogixadl" ,geka miieayd z` xxgyl xeqi`l rbepa ,jk

mewn xizen jkitle xzei mvnevn mrh `edy ,"miieayd zpwz" rivne "mlerd oewiz" mrhd.illkd xeqi`d on dbixgl

zecitl crl`

156

`l i`ceE ,gek ly dlrtd `l `id ,laben izlad gekd wegl xnelk ,iayl zipexwrdlen l` .wegd l` dxfgd ,daeyzd xnelk ,"mlerd oewiz" `l` ,laben izla gek lyiqiqad dprnd .wegd gek z` zeaivn zeipeaix izlad zeicedid zelidwd ,gekd wegmc`d l` zeqgiizdd ote`a zexcb raewy ,biiqny - weg - zebdpzd llk `ed iaylzeyrl zekfd zgiwl xnelk ,ieayd l` daeyd ly zlaben izlad ezeqgiizd .ieayd

.dfkk wegd lehial d`ian dpi` ,lkdda wxy zipexwrd ziaihnxepd zxbqna dxkd deedn ieayd oeictl xignd zriaw,znieqn mikxr zkxrn yi eay ,wegd avn zlilyk iayd avn miiwzdl llka leki,ieayd iigl reawd jxrd zavd .weya car xeza elit` edylk jxr yi mc` iigle.wegd jeza ieayd z` daivne iayd ly ililyd iaihnxepd avnl zcbpzn ,"einc".idylk dnxepl qgia ,mieqn xigna wfgen wfgend :oeictd zligz `id xignd zriaweay avnd rpnp jka .weg lk lleyn epi` xak ,laben izla epi` xak wifgnd gekd

,mnvr miaeyd s`e ,dlek dlidwd iyp`7.gekd iieayl eidi8mler iaya mc`n dyw.iaya

avnd aey

.miieayd ziibeqa oeicl zxbqn l`xyia meik mb ynyn miieayd oeict byen ,xen`kie`xy xignd zl`y `id zl`ypy zifkxnd dl`yd meid ly l`xyi zpicna mbepi` mpn` il`xyid oeicd ,izkldd oeicdn dpeya .miieayd xexgy zxenz mlyl,lretae ,zernyn xqgk qtzidl leki dfd lcadd j` ,sqka miieayd oeicta wqer,okez lkn eze` mipwexne oihelgl epnn minlrzn mpn` ,llkd on `vei `ll hrnk

.geka yeniy llek ,ixyt` dyrn lk oiivl ick "xign mlyl" milina yeniya9

ik d`xp ,wfgend mc`d byen `edy ,"ieay" byend z` oeayga mi`ian m` la`ieayd xexgy zxenz eilr mixacny "xign"d :xzeia izernyn lcada xaecniyp` ,l`xyi zpicn ici lr miwfgend miyp` xexgy `l` epi` ,liigd ,il`xyid

gwlp `l ea xaecny ieaydy `ed xzei cer izernyn .q`ngd oebx`iaya,jkitle

7;"ediiytp miakek icaer exqnii `lc" :izkldd biiqd z` ,x`yd oia ,i"yx yxtn cvik e`x.iayd lr mytp z` xeqnl mnvr miaeydn repnl ick xnelk

8dibeqa diipyd dqxibd zaehl oerih meyn jka yi ik d`xp ,irnynÎcg ote`a `ly mbdmekq zlabday mlerd oewiz m` dl`yd xnelk ,cenlza miieayd oeict biiq xxerny ziceqid

.mitqep miieay zgiwl ccerl `ly e` xeaivd lr ilklkd lhpd mevnvl oeekn oeictd9,a"qyz ,glya zyxt ,gexe zecdi icenil xz` ,zrc ,"miieay oeict lr" ,dcebie l`kin e`x

.60 xtqn oeilib

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

157

wfgen epi``l`xacd dfe ,rnyn .ezxenz miyxcpd miwfgend miyp`d xexgy jxevlrven `l llka mvra ea xaecny "xign"d ,xzeia izernyndici lrl`xyi zpicn

zpicnl `l`,liigd xexgy zxenz rveny q`ngd iyp` xexgya xaecn oi` :l`xyi,zexg` milina .q`ngd iyp` xexgy zxenz rveny `ed liigd xexgy ,jtdl `l`z`e il`xyid liigd zwfgd z`y `ed q`ngd oebx` ici lr l`xyi zpicnl rveny dn

.iay :byend eze` zervn`a oiadl jixv q`ngd iyp` zwfgdzpicn ly dzpigan .l`xyi ly zipicnd dznyp z` zrfrfn efd i`xd zpenzcvne ,sehg lr ,cg` cvn ,`l` ,miieay lr ,my `le o`k `l ,xaecn `l ,l`xyimc` `ed sehgd :wegd gekn ziyrp elld mibyend ipy oia dpgadd .mixiq` lr ipyzpicn `idy ,l`xyi zpicn .wegd itl wfgeny mc` `ed xiq`d ;wegl cebipa wfgenymiyp`dn edyiny jka ,o`k `ly i`ceeae my `l ,xikdl swez lka zaxqn ,wegryt `l` dpi` mixiq` xexgy jxevl dtihgd .wegd zlily swezn wfgen miwfgendiel ixp` x`pxa .wegd oeirx mvr cbp `l` ,wegd zpicn cbp wx `l ltekne letk

."q`ngd ly ziteqpi`d zenil`d" z`f dpik10."xexh" `ed meik jkl laewnd byendfkxnl eqipkd miieayd ziibeq z`y epigad `l oir icg mippeazn mb ik oiiprn."xexh ipebx`" mi`xwpd ,miizpicnÎ`l mipebx` zipicnd zil`xyid drcezdzqpkd lr elld mipebx`d ly mwa`n weica `id zigkepd miieayd ziibeq ,dyrnlziibeq ,rnyn .dgek lka eze` dgecy ,zipicnd drcezd fkxnl "ieay"d byen.mneiwa dxkdl wa`nd `l` ,mnelyl db`cd `l `id meik l`xyi zpicna miieaydizlad egekn `l miyp` miwfgen ,o`k mbe ,q`ngd lv` ,my mby dxkdl wa`ndoewizl cebipay dxkd lr `ed wa`nd .ezlabd gekn `weec `l` wegd ly laben,iayd avnl ezedna cbepnd iyep`Îllk weg ,zicedid dkldd zpeekn eil`y ,mlerdihxwencÎ`le icediÎ`l `ed ,igkepd davna dpicnd zcaer eze`y ilqxaipe`d wegdwenr dverp miieayd ziibeq zeidl mxebde .exwir iayde egex gekdy weg `ed `l`jxca oey`xd crvd .geka wx axql dpicnd dleki efd dxkdly ,`ed dpicnd zrceza

.dpicnd zrceza iayd zxkd `et` `di miieayd ziibeq oexztl

ozie eld

kweg zlily ,edylk mc`n weg lk ly zixebhwd dlilyd zexyt`l i`pzd ,xen`dxkdd `ed ,iayd avna xnelk ,laben izlad geka dwfgda z`haznd zhlgenzcbepn iyep`Îllkd wegd zlily ik d`xp mle` .iyep`Îllkd wega zincwnd

10.1 'rd lirl ,iel e`x

zecitl crl`

158

Îllkd wegd ly dlily lk ik d`xp .mc` lk lr lg `ed ezxcbda ixdy ,ezeillkl`id ,iyep`Îllkd wegl m`zda `ly edylk mc`l zeqgiizd lk ,edylk mc`n iyep``l dleki iyep`Îllkd wega dxkdd cvik oiadl dyw ,ok` .dfd wegd lr dxar heyt¥`l` ,ezxtdk zqtzp dpi`y dfd wegd ly dxtdl lreta liaedl `l` leaql wxdleki laben izlad wegd ly dlabdd cvik .weg lleyn mewnA ,el uegn dievnk§¨

?zrcd lr lawzdl llkazyxcp `ide zrcd lr llka mixacd ly mzelawzd zl`yl dliaen ef dl`yllka lretA deedzne zxyt`zn cvik ziteqelitd dl`yd .llka zrcd zl`yl§ywap cer .dgezt `et` `id laben izlad wegd ly ,zlaben f`e ,zlabenÎ`l dqitzlretA dxkdd zexev eli`ae dcin efi`a ,zixehqidd dl`yd z` dgezt o`k xi`ydl§dn .ezlabda - mipey mipnfae mipey zenewna - zra da dzeEl iyep`Îllkd wegalaben izlad wegd zlabd zexyt` ,ax onf dfne ,meiky `ed xexa ok z`f znerlyznybzn mpn` (iyep`Îllkd wegd byenn ipexwr ote`a zraep ,xen`k ,xy`)zxyt`zn dlabdd zeillk .rbx lkae mewn lka xnelk ,illk ote`a z`fe ,lreta,laben izlade iyep`Îllkd wegd mr cg` dpwa dlerk wx zqtzp `l dlabddy ,jkwegd byen ly eze`ivne .ezedn mvr z`e eneiwl i`pzd z` deednk ,`axc` ,`l`lr xnelk ,iyep`Îllkd wegd zlabd lr qqeany ,laben izlade iyep`Îllkd

.zipeaixd dpicnd ly dze`ivn `id ,ezlilybyenl xzei ze`pd ixard mebxzdy okzisovereign statedpicnd" `l `ed

iyep`d avnd ly iceqid oiit`nd ixdy ."ipeaixd avnd" `weec `l` "zipeaixd`l` ,"dpicn"d zqqean eilry "oic"d `l `weec `ed dfd byend qgiizn eil`ymipey`xd cg` dze` xicbdy itk .xzeia axd xnelk ,oeilrd gekd `idy ,zepeaixdhlgend gekd `id zepeaixd" :(1576) ocea o`'f ,meik laewnd dpaena da ynzydlxzeia lecbd gekd xnelk ,'hay jnez' dl mi`xew miixard ...dwilaetxd ly igvpde

."cwtl11ote`a .wegl i`pzd `ed gekd - gekl iehia `ed wegd ,ipeaixd avna ,mpn`e`ed ,mc` xeza mc`a xiknd wegd xnelk ,laben izlade iyep`Îllkd wegd ,df

gekd ly wdaend iehiad envra,wwegl zlaben izlad zlekid ly ,laben izlad.zepeaixd ly xnelk

izlad zepeaixd ,zipxcend dpicnd oeirx ly zppeknd zebda ik dnec ,jkeavnl xnelk ,wegd zelabenÎi`l igxkdd i`pzk zqtzp zrxten izlade zlaben

11:e`xJean Bodin, Les Six Livres de la République, Un abrégé du texte de l’édition

de Paris de 1538, ed. Gérard Mairet, Paris 1993, p. 111iriyz wxt ,oey`x xtq ,.(l"` - ily mebxzd)

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

159

- wegdthe state of law,dwilaetxd ,dnvr zihiletd zeyid ."wegd zpicn" `ed -,"ozieel" zpigaa dpicnd meiw z` x`zl zepeiqpd o`kne .gekd lr letepenk zpaenlecb oziel eze`" :1651 zpya qaed xiaqny itk ,gek zax zvltn xeza xnelk

zipihlae) dpicn iexwdcivitas) dpicnd e` (a common-wealth, or stateepi`y ,(xy` ,irahd mc`d on eznverae eznewa `ed lecb mpn`y ,izek`ln mc` `l`

ea xy`e ;crep ezlvdle ezpbdlzepea ixd`iddnyp`id xy`a ,zizek`ln."elek sebl drepze miig dwiprn12.gekd egexy hwiiaeq `ed ozieeld

`id dpicnd gxf` ly dnbicxtd ,gek ly letepen `id dpicnde li`ed ,jkl m`zdaziyep`Îllkd ze`ivnd weica idef .ieaydn xg` `l xnelk ,biiq ila gekl oezpd mc`clep mc`d" :zipicnd ezebdl `vend zcewp `ide ,1762 zpya eqex w`'fÎo`'fa dknd

."milaka oezp `ed mewn lkae ,iyteg13gekd avna d`ex `ly ,qaedl cebipa ,rnynipa oia zirahd dnglnd ly xnelk ,irahd gekd avn ly irah jynd `l` ipeaixd

,"mc` lk cbpk ,mc` lk ly" ,mc`d14,erahn xnelk ,dciln `ed mc`d eqex lv`d`xp .dwcvd yxec eqex xear ,xaqd `l` jixvn `l qaed lv`y dn ,jkitle .iyteg`id dax dcina xy` ,eqex z`xyda divtivpn`d ly miiceqid miaihendn cg` ik`l` gekd cbp `l wa`nd `ed ,meid cr zihiletd divtivpn`d zerepzl ztenexikda xnelk ,yxetnae ,dil` envr z` liabn eqexy dniynd weica idef .ezwcvdlxeq` mc`l iyteg clepy mc`n l"x] dfd iepiyd llegzd cvik" :dzelabenaxeztl izlekia yiy ipnec ?zeinihibl el wiprdl ieyr dn .ipnn mlrp ?[milaka

."ef dl`y15

ddzipeaixd dhlgdd xy`n zxg` `l `id oeaixd icia hlgend gekd ly dwcvizpicnd wegd z` jli`e dzrn xicbn dfd i`pzde .iyep`Îllkd wega xikdl

yxcp `l` ebyen mvrn dfkk xken epi` mc`d eay ,iyep`Îllkdzekflqgid .ly dwprda ielz - mc` ezeid mvra dxkdd ,mc`k mc`l qgid xnelk - iyep`dmc`d yxcp mc`l aygidl ick .ezeid mvrn iyep` qgi lawn epi`y inl ,mc` zeiekflaiwy in `ed dpicnd gxf` .oeaixd xnelk ,hlgend gekd lra cvn ecnrna dxkdljkitle ,oeaixd ly egek it lr wx dpdp `ed efd zekfdne - miigl zekfd z` oeaixdn

12,mieaxaxel mgpn zkixra ,xin` oexd` iciÎlr zilbp`n mbxez ,ozieel ,qaed q`nez e`x.5 'nr ,dncwd ,2009 milyexi

13qenr zkixra ,weqa ecir iciÎlr ziztxvn mbxez ,zizxagd dpn`d ,eqex w`'fÎo`'f e`x.48 'nr ,oey`x wxt ,oey`x xtq ,2006 aia`Îlz ,onted

14.88 'nr ,13 wxt ,oey`x xtq ,(12 'rd ,lirl) qaed15.my ,(13 'rd ,lirl) eqex

zecitl crl`

160

,xird htyn jxc lr ,zepeaixd zeneg jeza zewpren mc`d zeiekf .eizeleaba wx."wegd" xeza heyt ilqxaipe` ote`a xkene meik dpekny dn `edy

ly dgek zeleaba xnelk ,zepeaixd zeleaba ezedna laben zipeaixd dpicnd wegzl`y `id dpicnd wega ihtyn oeic lk ly ceqid zel`yn zg` okle ,dpicnd

dlegzd,gek lra ,swez lra xnelk ,swz wegd llka m` dl`yd xnelk ,wegd ly`edy ,epkez itl ,wegd m` xnelk ,zipkez dl`ya xaecn `l :wece .oecipd dxwnaokezl xyw mey oi` dlegzd zl`yl - ihxtd dxwnd l` qgiizn mpn` ,illk cinziyep`Îllk weg zenca gexd ly xivi okzi df ote`a wx .egekl wxe j` `l` ,wegddixdpl zipetv lg epi`y ,"ezexige mc`d ceak" ceqidÎweg lynl enk ,laben

.fx` meqgnl zinexcedze`ivna miiynnd mdiiehiae ipeaixd gekd weg oeirx xxerny miibyend miiywdzepexg`d mipya .mipeye miax mibed ici lr dagxda epecip zipxcend dpicnd ly

) mxg ly opekn dyrnk ipeaixd wegd z` ddify ,oanb` lynl df didbanxnelk ,(avnd cvik mb d`xn oanb` .wegd it lr dpbdd zwprd jxevl ,wegl uegn l` d`ved`ll zetwz" zpigaa ipeaixd wegd ly ziziirad ezxev l` liaen dfd iceqid

) "zernynGeltung ohne Bedeutung.(16miiywdyn xzei llk jxca ik dnec j`wegd zednn raepd qwecxtk miqtzp md ,ipeaixd wegd ly miiywk miqtzp elldwegd byena oeicde envra wegd avn xeza qtzp dpicnd weg ,zexg` milina .dfkklx`w enk ,okle .zepeaixd oeirxl setkae dpicnd gek zeleaba diae dipn ldpzn

,eizeawrae ,hinyzpicn zqqean eilry gekd weg ly eze`ivn z` ddfn oanb` mb,wegd ziiryd avn `ed mexigd avn ."mexigd avn" zxeva wx zipeaixd wegd

.egekne wegd jeza ,lekiak ilqwecxt ote`a ,riteny17

.qwecxta o`k xaecn `ly ,zn`a ,e` ,xeztl xyt` dfd qwecxtd z` ik d`xp j`hpnen `ed ,oeaixd zhlgdl oezpd avn ,wegd ziiryd ly mexigd avn ixdyon `veik `l :zipeaix dhlgd lr qqean envra wegd xy`k wx wegd ly ihpxdpi`,onfd jxe`l miiwl ozip `l zipeaixd dhlgdd z` .envr llkd xeza `l` ,llkd,dhlgdd z` lhal `ly zcnzn zipeaix dhlgd gekn `l` ,weg ly dxiav avna

`l` miiw epi` dpicnd weg .mexg avn lr fixkdl `ly rnynswYkoaena z`fe , ¨¥

16xhleel mely meyxb ly azknn oanb` a`y dfd iehiad z` .61 'nr ,(4 'rd ,lirl) oanb` e`x.`wtwl "htynd" lr xacn mely eay ,oinipa

17:e`xCarl Schmitt, Politische Theologie, Berlin 1922ened .mexigd avn" ,oanb` ei'bxe'b ;xw`qI,IIbixgd - oicd zxeyn miptl ,xev xiace ipeqpew dl`epn iciÎlr ziwlhi`n mbxez ,"

ueaiwde milyexia xil oe oekn ,mixg`e adpy dcedi zkixra ,2006 xil oe xpinq ,mexigd avne.217-129 'nr ,2009 cge`nd

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

161

) bixgd avndy `vei o`kne .gek lrak xMn ly mieqndstate of exceptiondrynd ,( ª¨) wegd avn z`state of lawly ziqiqad dnxepd `weec `ed ,zipeaixd dpicna (

ilqxaipe` iaihnxep avn xxey zepeaixd zeleabl uegn .dizeleabl uegn lgd avnd) dnglnd avn xnelk ,gekd weg ly avn ,weg lleyn iyep`Îllkestate of war.(

llga xxeyd wegd `ed zipeaixd dpicnd zcaer eze`y ililyd iyep`Îllkd wegdef zecxtene zexey eay ,mlerd llg .diccv lkn dze` siwnde dizeleabl uegnygekd weg ly enye ,"ine`lÎoiad agxnd" `xwp zeipeaixd zepicnd lk efnhtyna ."ine`lÎoiad htynd" `ed qqean ine`lÎoiad agxnd eilry ilqxaipe`doldl epywaa .zepeaixd weg ly ceqid ibyen zyxetnd mzxeva miriten ine`lÎoiad`l` zipeaixd dpicnd zeleab jeza `l dpicnd weg ceqiay iyep`Îllkd wegd z`xzeia miiceqid daihwtqxtd zepexwrn cg` lr mixrxrn `vOp ,mdl dvegn `weec¦¨¤

,eqex f`n zegtd lkl zihtynde zipicnd daygnd ly18lr exeaig z` mkqnd:ze`ad milina zizxagd dpn`d

dpicnd z` qqal oeiqip dyrpe ipicnd htynd ly miizin`d zepexwrd ebvedy xg`l

lelkl xen`y dn - dly uegd iqgi xywda dnewin oiipr xzep ,df htyn lr

` ,yeaikde dnglnd iweg z` ,xgqnd z` ,minrd htyn z`,ixeaivd htynd z

,ycg `yep xcba `ed df lk j` .'eke zepn` ,mipzneÎmi`yn zkixr ,zezixa zzixk

l` aexw xzei cer dze` oeekl jixv iziid ,`axc` :dxvwd izii`x xear icn agx

.invr19

Inter populos plures

itk ?"ine`lÎoia htyn" byend zernyn llka idn ?ine`lÎoiad htynd `ed dnhtynd ,eppnfa ine`lÎoiad htynd zea`n cg`l aygpy in ,miidpte` dql oiivny¨¨dpicnd yi`e ohtynl millk ly zizhiy zkxrnk eneiw z` ag" envr ine`lÎoiaddrited 'mixtq dyelya ,melyde dnglnd weg lr' ezxiviy ,qeihexb ebed icpledd

."zeicizrd zeiegztzdd lk ly oqiqal dzide 1625 zpya20ibyen z` yextl ick

18,lbd 't 'e bxe`b z`n htynd ly diteqelitd `ed df llkl mihlead mibixgd cg` ik dnecdriaw mle` ;"dpicnd" ,iyily wlg ,2011 milyexi ,obxti` ipit :jxer ,bxacleb icb :mebxz

.dnvr ipta dxiwg zyxec ef19,"mekiq" ,iriyz wxt ,iriax xtq ,(13 'rd ,lirl) eqex e`x188 'nrmiiepiya `aen mebxzd .

.o`k mixacd xywd xear ezernyn z` miyibcnd ,milw20:e`xLassa Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, 1, Peace, London 1905, p. 4

zecitl crl`

162

qeihexb ly ezaygn jldn xg` zewgzdl `et` ywap ,ine`lÎoiad htynd ly ceqid§.dxen`d ezxivia21

Îd z` qeihexb aivn mixacd gztajus civilehtynd" meid dpekny dn `l `edy ,Îd .lynl izwegd e` ililtd htyndn licadl ,"igxf`djus civileillk ote`a `ed

Îd ly htynd xzeicivitasitk ,ezxcbda ,dpicnd weg .dpicnd htyn xnelk ,Îd jkitle ,dpicnd zeleabl laben ,lirl xaqedyjus civilelgd htynd z` oiivn

) dpicne dpicn lk jezaquod cuique patrium est.dpicnl dpicnn dpzyne ,(htyn mxwega ,miphtynd llk jxca eqgiizd eil`y htynd dfy d`xn qeihexbxewgl ywan qeihexby dn ,miphtynd x`yn dpeya ,z`f mr .edylk mieqn izpicn

lgy htynd z` `l` ,znieqn dpicna lgy dpicn htyn cer `l `edinter populos

plures,yweand htynd ly eny o`kne .mipey minr oia xnelk ,jus gentium,mizrle ,"ine`lÎoiad htynd" ,zixara meik dpekn `edy itk ,e` ,"minrd htyn"

."ine`lpiad htynd" ,dlina byend zerlaid jez ,xzeie xzei zeaexwrcn ly ixwn xqg ielina e` "dpit zxibq"a `l` o`k xaecn `l ,lekiak

- htynd,sqep hana mle` .eic xwgp mxhy xac xewgl heyt rivnk d`xp qeihexb.zizedn dl`y o`k dlbzn

zizednd dl`ydxzi - qeihexbl ixnbl dxexa ine`lÎoiad htynd hwiext xxeryriavn qeihexb jkitle xeaigd zxhn weica `id dz` zeccenzdd ik d`xp ,ok lrmvrn ,dpicnd htyn m` :ef `id dl`yd ?dl`yd dn okae .ciin da oce dilr,xg` htyn xxey zxg` dpicn ly dizeleabay xikdl yie ,dpicnl laben ,ezxcbdqgiay ,xnelk ?iaihnxep wix ly llg rxzyn odilrne zepicnd oiay xne` df oi`d¦ipexwrd excrda ,htynd ly ziceqi zecig`Îi`a xikdl jxev yi mc`d ipa llklweg ik xnel oi`d ,rnyn ?mc` ipa md xy`a ,lkd lr lgd cg` ilqxaipe` weg lyz` qeihexb hhvny itk ?iyep`Îllkd wegd z` lley ezedn mvrn zipeaixd dpicnd

) qeintE` z` hhvnd qciciwezEuphemiusmey zepeaix ilra xir e` jln xear" :( ¤) "wcev izla epi` liren xacregi aut civitati imperium habenti nihil injustum

quod utile.(22) dpicnd htyn oeirx oi`d ,zexg` milinajus civiledlily deedn () htynd oeirx lyjus?llka (

e` ,xyt`znd ,weg lk zlily ly ibyend jldnd xnelk ,weica dfd jldndely dbyen l` qeihexb z` liaen ,dpicnd weg oeirxn d`vezk aiigznd ,dyrnl

21:e`xHugonis Grotii, De Jure Belli et Pacis, Libri Tres (1625), accompanied by an

abridged translation by William Whewell, Cambridge 1853

22'nr ,3 sirq ,dncwd ,myxxxiii.

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

163

xnelk ,eicbpzn itn exaca ,mpn`e .dnglnd avn xnelk ,weg lk zlleynd ze`ivndhtyn ,izpicnÎ`ld htynde ,llka weg ly iynn byen dyrnl oi` ik mixeaqd el`

) "wix mW" `ed ,minrdinane nomenzeixehqid ,zeax zei`x qeihexb `ian ,( ¥¥yibcd qeihexb :wece .dngln ly avn iqiqa ote`a xxey minrd oiay ,zeizextqe

) dlert `l `id dnglndyactioavn `l` ,dnigl ly ,geka yeniy ly zil`ehw` ()status) gekd zervn`a el` mr el` miccenznd mc` ipa ly (per vim certantium.(

z`e jixtn `l qeihexb minrd oia iceqid dnglnd avnl zei`xd z`zeprhavn l` dpicnd htynn xarnd ,xen`k ,`axc` - yigkn `l `ed df oiipra eicbpznhtyny oeeikn mle` .zibyen dwqd `l` ixitn` jldn `l `ed izpicnÎoiad dnglndxzei eilr oi`y ziy`x oeirx ,ipxcend htynd oeirxl `vend zcewp `ed dpicnd,ipxcend dpicnde htynd rcn ly zizyzd ilrtnn cg`l qeihexb ybip ,oixxerxeza ,jtdl weica `l` ,wegd zlily ly avnk `l dnglnd avn zepyxt xnelk

.eze` opekne wegd iptl zipeirx dpigan `vnpy avndeil`ixebhwd agxnd xne` deed ,dfd ibyend ceqid lrtn gezitl dxifd zxfbp o`kn

,wegd iptly ze`ivnd z` dzrn oiivn jkitle xird htyn zenegl uegn `vnpyepiidcrahdzpigaa mieed mpi` mdyk ,zepicnde mixrd zeleabl uegn ,mpn`e .

Îd igxf`civitasoind" zpigaa wxe j` mc`d ipa z` qeihexb qtez ,"raha" `l` ,) "iyep`dgenus humanizxnen htynd byen mvr lr zipeirxd dl`yd ,df ote`a .(

ly izcaerd eneiw lr zibeletexzp` dl`ya,irah htynlaben epi`y xnelk.mc`d rahn raepy `l` ,edylk mrl ,idylk dpicnl

z` oiivnd ilily byen diae dipn `ed "rah"d ,efd zipeirxd zxbqnae li`ed j`ly exezi` ,dlabd `ll olek z` liknde zepeyd zepicnd iwegl uegny avnd,dngln ly avn xeza rahd ly exe`iz `ide ,zncew dniyna dpzen irahd htyndavn z` qeihexb x`zn jke .zirahd dnglnd oeirx ly epepik ,dyrnl ,xnelk,zixitn` zitvz ly oiiprk wx `l z`fe ,`zeeva miigd ly irahd avnk dnglnddtya dngln dlindy ,dxaqd z` df xywda hhvn qeihexb :zibyen dpaezk `l`

) zipihldbellum() "miipy"a meiwdn zibelenih` dpigan zraepduomewna ,jke .(avnk dnglnd z` obrn `ed ,dngln zxxey minrd oiay zixehqidd dprhl cbpzdl,gekd lkae xign lka ,zg` lk zewwezynd ,zeiyep`d zeigd oia irah ote`a xxeyd

.invrd xeniyd l`,gibdl wegl dpey`xl `et` ozip ei`pzae dfd irahd dnglnd avn jezn wxeaxrnd zebda ekfi cer dihxte efd dgibd ly wiecnd dxetiq ;"mc`" byend enrejk meyn `weecy ,dly icnl ircne i`fext hp`ixe bivn qeihexb .ze`qxib daxdl

igzn zepdl epinia ieyrly zigvpde dxnd zecxyidd zngln jezn .zycegn di

zecitl crl`

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digd z` zcgiind dweyz ly dzervn`a mc`d z` qeihexb sley rahd mler) "dxagl dweyzd" `id ,miigd ilra x`y lkn ziyep`dappetitus societatis,(

,dzxcbda zilily `id zizxagd dweyzd ,zirahd dnglnd avnl biiq dzeidaedeely dlidw"l ,ely ihqi`eb`d zecxyidd xvi s` lr ,mc`d ly ezweyz `id xnelk

) "epin ipa mrcommunitatis tranquillae cum his qui sui sunt generisdweyzde .(dlwyn caek `eln lhen o`ke ,xne` deed .irahd htynd ly exewn `id efd zpqxndz` silgdl ywand weg `l `ed irahd htynd ,df xywda "rah"d ziixebhw lyyeniyd z` xicqdl ywand weg `l` ,mc`d rahl cbepn `edy xac ,geka yeniyd

exwiry ,oqxn gek xnelk ,ilily gek ezedna `ed wegd .exicbdle gekaalieni

abstinentia.xg`l jiiyy dnn zerpnidd -avnd lr qqeand htynd byen ly xnelk ,irahd wegd ly zililyd ezednnezxev `id irahd wegd ly zixewnd ezxev .ezxev mb zraep ,dnglnd ly irahdxcrd avn z` xnyne df xcrd gipnd ,wegd xcrda dpzend zebdpzdd llk ly

epiidc ,ezeig lk z` wpei `ed epnny xcrd ,wegdmkqddqiqaa ziceqid dnkqdd .leki mkqdd oeirx okle .weg xcrd lr xnelk ,mikqdl `ly ytegd lr `id mkqd lkz` xiaqdl icka mbc xeza ,mixg` lv` enk qeihexb lv` ,ynyn mpn`e ,ynylipicnd wegd zxbqna ,oaenk .micigi mc` ipa oia zipeaixd dpicnd htyn zxivi,dpicnd htyn zkxrn ly dzwcvdl ixyt` ihxe`z mbc wxe j` deedn mkqdd oeirxozpida mle` .zeipeaix zehlgdk `l` minkqdk migqepn mpi` da miwegd xy`zeipeaixd zepicnd ,mbyena weg illeyn xnelk - mzxcbda miipeaix mihwiiaeq`l` epi` ine`lÎoiad htynd ,mpn`e .zixewnd ezxeva ililyd wegd riten - onvrz` zelley ozednay ,"zepn`" xnelk ,zeipeaix zepicn oia minkqd ly zkxrnxywda .weg oi` dpn` `lly `id ziqiqad dgpdd .wegd ly i`nvrd eneiwa dxkddine`lÎoiad htynd zxeva izpn`d htynl itelg xewna dxkdl `zeax mey oi` df

.zeaezk izlad zenkqend `l` epi`y ,ibdpndÎd ,mkqdd zxev xnelk ,ine`lÎoiad wegd ly zililyd ezxevpactum`idy ,

htynd ly melyd byen qiqaa mb driten ,dnglnd avn lr qqeand wegd zxevÎd ,ine`lÎoiadpaxdnglnd lehia `l `ed ine`lÎoiad mlera gtehnd melyd .

,(c a ediryi) "miY`l mzFaxg EzYke" gqep ,wypd wexita xaecn oi` ;dz`twd `l`§¦§©§¨§¦¦ibelehkq`d oefgd ly qiqad zgqep jk meyne .ezxiavae wyp zziaya `l`zwtzqn dpi` ,l`xyia jk lk zxken dgqep ,eil` oeekn ine`lÎoiad htyndyof`l xen`y cbp lwyn enk - melyd l` siqedl mlerl zyxcp `l` "mely"aceqiay dpn`d z` zegzetd milind dilr exidvdy zilkzd idef ."oeghiae" - eze`biydle ine`lÎoiad dlertd seziy z` mcwl ick" :1920 zpya ,"mine`ld xag"

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

165

) "miine`lÎoia oeghiae melyto promote international co-operation and to

achieve international peace and security.(23"miine`lÎoia oeghiae mely")international peace and securityzlibn biydl zywany crid mb weica md (

miigde zeplaeq"d xg`l ciin `ad crid `ed - 1945 zpya dnzgpy zecge`nd zene`d) "miaeh mipkyk ipyd mr cg` melya eicgito practice tolerance and live together

in peace with one another as good neighborsmiraep cgi mb elld micrid ipye .(mi`ad zexecd z` livdl" :zecge`nd zene`d zweg z` gzetd ipeirxd oefgdn

) "dnglnd zeprxetnto save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.(24

oaend edf .dnglnd weg eziy`xay iyep`Îllk htyn `ed ine`lÎoiad htynd) hk`txhe`l yxd ly mqxetnd hehivd z` lawle oiadl yi eay wiecndHersch

Lauterpachtixikan cg` ,(htynd m`" :mixyrd d`na ine`lÎoiad htynd iyp`zcewpa mi`vnp dnglnd ipic ,htynd ly zenlridd zcewp `ed ine`lÎoiad

) "ine`lÎoiad htynd ly zenlriddIf international law is the vanishing point

of law, the law of war is at the vanishing point of international law.(25z`ipic :jk oiadl bedp ,aeye aey zhhevnd d`yilwl miizpia dzidy ,efd dxin`dixwird enegzl xarn xak dievnd dcewpa lekiak mi`vnp dnglnd avne dnglnd,"mlrp" ,ernynk eheyt ,ine`lÎoiad htynd day dcewp ,ine`lÎoiad htynd lycibdl weica dvx envr hk`txhe`l dn gkeezdl xyt` .miweg oi` dnglna .miiw `lzcewp" ,onvr ipta xn` `edy milind lr milkzqn m` mle` ,efd dxin`a

) "zenlriddvanishing pointeay mewnd mzq `l `id edyn ly ("edyn"dxakdn ,dpenzd ly daihwtqxtd lk z` xicbny d`xp izlad fkxnd `l` ,miiw `l

."febnd zcewp" mb dpekny26dnglnd lreta m`y jkitl `ed efd dxin`d ly dpaen`l` ,my z`vnp `l `idy iptn df oi` ine`lÎoiad htynd ly efkxnk zi`xp `linler weg zpigaa ine`lÎoiad htynd ly mlrpd efkxn `id dnglnd :jtdl weica

.ecqnl `l` dnglnd avn z` lhal `l ezilkzy iyep`Îllk,ine`lÎoiad htynd ly ziy`xa xtq ,qeihexb ly extq zxzek jk meyn weicaeoeirxd qeqial elek ycwen xtqd ly oey`xd jxkd .melyde dnglnd weg lr `id

23The Covenant of the League of Nations (Including Amendments adopted to

December, 1924), The Avalon Project. Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy

http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp (March 15, 2013)

24Ibid., Charter of the United Nations; June 26, 1945

25:e`xHersch Lauterpacht, “The Problem of the Revision of the Law of War”, 29

British Yearbook of International Law 382 (1952), p. 383

26.dpenzd ly daihwtqxtd z` xicbny d`xp izlad fkxnd `id febnd zcewp

zecitl crl`

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wicvdl leki hlgda irahd htyndy `l` ,wegl dzedna zcbepn dpi` dnglndyyi jkitle ,dnglnd z`zwcev dnglnweg `l` epi` irahd htynde li`ed .

`id zwcevd dnglnd ,zirahd dnglnd ly zxrxern izlad dze`ivn znerl ililyraep o`kne .xg` ly ezekfa zrbet dpi`y xnelk ,zwcevÎ`l dpi`y dngln lk,geka yeniyl ine`lÎoiad htynd wiprny laben izlad xzidd xtql ipyd jxka

epiidcgek cbpmpn`y ,zinvrd dpbdd zekf ,dnglnl zwdaend dlird oaenk idef ..m"e`d zlibn ly 51 sirqa zirah ceqi zekfk meik zxken27zekfdy oeeikne

zirahdly ezny`n `le invrd xeniyd ly irahd oexwirdn zraep zinvr dpbdlzeida ,drahn zpkeqn `idy ,sxh ziig zpigaa ,aie`d ,xg`d o`k qtzp ,xg`djxka raep o`kne .gekd `id eznypy hwiiaeq xnelk ,zipeaix zeyi ezxcbda aie`d

) "dnglna xzen dn" ,iyilydquantum in bello liceatweg ly oey`xd xaicd ,() bexdl :ine`lÎoiad dnglndoccidere, jus belli vocaturdpnp `ed xy`a ,mc` lk (

.miclie miyp ,mixab ,eghya `vnp s` e` aie`d mrd mr,ililyd ebyen itl .mc` ly ilily byen yi ililyd iyep`Îllkd wegd ceqia.byen lk dzxcbda zlleynd dqitz ly `yen `ed ,mc` `ed xy`a weica ,mc`dbyena xaecn `l .hlgen gek ly `yen `ed mc`d ililyd ebyen itl ,xne` deeddlery ,"iyep`d oind" meik geexd gpendn dxe`kl dlery itk ,mzq ibeleiacrep `l ,"miigd" ,ibeleiad gepind .miig lra ly beq cer lekiak `ed mc`dy epnnz` `l` ,ipbxe`Î`ld rahdn ,lynl ,mc`d z` dpigand ,ziaeig dpaez o`k oiivllr ,jkl m`zda .iyep`Îllkd wegd epnn raepy ,mc`d ly iaeigd byend zlily

lr obdl icke ,dnglnd ly lekiak irahd avnd rwxdizepaxewipic mippekn ,oinl wiprnd weg :dlily ly dlily `edy weg `l` ,iaeig iyep`Îllk weg `l dnglnd

qgi iyep`dipnedine`lÎoiad htynd `ed dfd iyep`Îllkd wegd .ixhipnedd.

ixhipnedd htynd

ine`lÎoiad htynd" dpekny dn meik dpdp epnny deabd cnrna mifbdl dywdnxepd xeza wx qtzp epi` df htyn ."ixhipnedd htynd" xeviwa e` ,"ixhipneddmlerd lk z` eaiaq cg`n ,ynn ilelin ote`ae ,`ed `l` ,xzeia ddeabd zihtyndlertl wx `l ernyn ixhipnedd htynd z` cakl .oeilrd ixqend llkd zpigaa

27) dreahd zekfa rbti `l dlibna xen`dn xac"inherentzizveaw e` ziphxt zinvr dpbdl () "zecge`nd zene`a dxag cbpk zygxzn zpiefn dtwzd m`“Nothing in the present

Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an

armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations”.(

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

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,"ixhipned" byend mvrn raepd irahd xqenl m`zda lertl `l` wegl m`zdamlv ca`l ynn ,zeyep`d cbp reytl rnyn dap'f zepn` z` xtdl ."iyep`" xnelkzeyep`d daivny dn `ed ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd ,mixyrd d`nd f`n .yep`

.hlgend rexd lenzeyep`d zbdep eay ote`d xnelk ,ixhipnedd htynd ly ditxbeixehqidd ,dfkk

z` dnvrl aezkle xtqlxard zbvdl zten aexl `id ,ixhipnedd htynd ini ixacdixehqidd ,dfkxna "mec`d alvd" z` migipnyk .deedd ly zgzetn izla dxevk,miipiad ini "zkyg" jxc ,dwizrd zra zelgzddn ,"dglvd xetiq"k z`xwp dnvrwx el` mle` ,mipprn miiwp mpi` minyd ,i`ce .dycgd zrd ly "ynyd xe`" l`ixhipnedd htynd meyiia mdilr riavdl mibdepy miiywd .ynyd z` miyibcn

`l" `ed ine`lÎoiad ixhipnedd htyndy ze`xdl ick llk jxca miynynwxxetiqmipnfae mipey zenewna ,mday mipeyd mipte`d ly mixe`iza xaecn aexl ."dglvdhtyn xzei jixv :zg` `id dpwqnde - ecaek `l ixhipnedd htynd ze`xed ,mipey

.ixhipneddfd htynd weica dn lr ?ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd weica `ed dn la`oeiqipd `id df xn`na zeiqiqad zenzd zg` ?ixhipnedd htynd xne` dn ?xacn¥.diiyw lre htynd byen ly zbdepd ziceqid dpadd ly dneiw mvr lr riavdldn" dl`yl dprn zzl wx `l iyewd `ed elld miiceqide mihlead miiywdn cg`- "?il`xyid htynd xne` dn" .dzernyn z` oiadl llka `l` "?htynd xne`oia ,iaihifetd wegd ly ebyen mvrn ixdy .zernyn llk oi` efd dl`yl ik d`xpipta zcner dxin` lk jkitle .wzp yi ,etwez xnelk ,weg xeza eneiw oial epkez,miccead miwegd lk ly sqe`d .zxg` dxin` meya ,lekiak ,dielz dpi`e dnvrizla ote`a miqgiin miphtynd xy`k ,okle .xac `et` xne` `l ,ezellka htyndly eil`n oaen `l ynne icegii jildk qtzp xacd ,xg` wegl cg` weg rpnp.zipkez dpigan envr ipta cner dwiwg xac lky `id mdly `vend zgpd .zepyxtl` miqgiizne mi`han ,envr ipta wege weg lk jkitle ,mipeyd miwegdy oeirxd,jkitle ,wegd ly lreta ezeidle ezeedzdl cbepn ynn d`xp ,cg` ibyen mler

.divwexhqpewk xzeid lkl df oeirx qtzp ,zecbepn zei`x xcrdadfd iyewd ccgzd ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd dpeknd eppnfÎoa ihtynd megzahrnk meik miaygpd miknqnd lr dnizgd mr ,diipyd mlerd zngln ixg` cgeinazepn` rax` :xnelk ,ezail z` mieedn mewn lkne ixhipnedd htynl ztcxp dlinl

xebyd ony ;1949 hqebe`a 12În dap'f28jix`zd z`e mewnd z` `l` xibqn epi`

28:zinyxd ozxzekn licadlConvention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the

zecitl crl`

168

elld zepn`d rax` ,odl encwy zeixhipnedd zepn`d lkn licadl .enzgp od mdayo`'f itl .odly ipeirxd rwxd lr edyn mixne`d `eane dgizt ixac zellek opi`z` jxry ,mec`d alvd ly zine`lÎoiad dcreed ly icb`d ohtynd ,dhwit`l heyt zepn`d lr enzgy zepicnd ,1949 zpyn dap'f zepn` lr iqlwd xhpnewd

.odl minrhd lr mikqdl egilvd29

zpyn dap'f zepn` mr dlgd xaky dnbn ewfig 1949 zpyn dap'f zepn` ,mpn`exnelk ,ipeirxd oxywd zecg`n ixhipnedd htynd ze`xed wezip dzednye ,1929`edy itk dnglnd ipic ly ibyend lelknd z` zewxtn dap'f zepn` .dnglnd ipicly mibdpnde mipicd xaca odizy ,1907 zpyne 1899 zpyn b`d zepn`a rawp"dyaia dnglnd ly mibdpnde mipicd xaca zepwz" gtqpde dyaia dnglnd

)Convention concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre et son

Annex: Règlement concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre.(30

epbery dnglnd ipic ly xzeia zeiceqid zeixebhwdn miizy oxywdn ze`iven oddap'fa zltehn elld zeixebhwdn zg` lk .yeakd ghyde dnglnd ieay :b`daziriaxd dap'f zpn`e dngln iieayl qgid xaca ziyilyd dap'f zpn` :zxg` dpn`a

) migxf` miyp` lr dpbdd xacaCivilian Personselld zepn`d izye ;dngln onfa (ly d`lnd ozxzek `lnl` .dnglnd ipic xaca b`d zepn` cvl zrk zecnerllka ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynly dcaerd ixnbl yhyhdl dzid dlelr ,zepn`d¦gpend mb wgcp 1949 zpyn dap'f zepn`a ixdy - dnglnd xnelk ,mieqn xywd yi

) "oiefn jeqkq" gpend zaehl zieef oxwl "dngln"armed conflict.(mr zizxewiad zeccenzdd dligzn o`ke - dnglnd weg `ed ixhipnedd htynd

."ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd" byendxaqdke `eank zelaewnd zeedzdd ze`gqepn zg`a xak xxerzn izednd iyewd

.ipxcend ixhipnedd htynd ly dglvdd xetiql31zeiegztzdd ,xetiqd itl

Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field. Geneva, 12 August 1949;

Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and

Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea. Geneva, 12 August 1949;

Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Geneva, 12 August

1949; Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War.

Geneva, 12 August 1949

29:e`xJean Pictet (ed.), Commentary on the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949,

3, The Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva

1994, p. 16

30http://www.icrc.org/dih.nsf/INTRO/150?OpenDocument

31:e`xGeoffrey Best, War and Law since 1945, Oxford 1994, p. 26

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zeibelepkhdxzeie xzei dzyrp "zipxcend dnglnd"y jkl e`iad zeibele`ci`dedpbd wtql jxevd ,lcbe ,xvep "zilheh" xzei dzid dnglndy lkke .zlaben izlaxaqdd itl ,zeyep`d dgilvd dnglnd zepaxewl efd dpbdd z` weicae .dizepaxewlly zitxbeixehqid dqxib `l` oaenk ef oi` .ixhipnedd htynd zervn`a wtql ,dfdygnen dfd ibyend oeriha iyewde .dnglna wegd ly exewn xaca ibyend oerihd

ezernyna xexa ote`aziywenddn z` iyep` byidk bbegy ,ixehqidd xaqdd lylr obdl jxevd xnelk ,zeyep`d avna zexcxczd ly onnq `l` deedn epi`y

.zilhehl dzkitd awr dnglnd zepaxewicka hiny lxw ohtynd ea ynzydy rlewd byena `hazn dfd iqiqad iyewd

) "zxcebnd dnglnd" :dnglnd ipic zrtez z` oiit`lgehegter Krieg.(32enk`qib jci`n mle` zlaben `qib cgn `id zxcebnd dnglnd mb ,zxcebnd dpibdly eicv ipyk ixhipnedd htynd e` dnglnd ipic ly efd zernyndÎec .zgtehnezcil xetiq `edy ,dpey`xd zixhipnedd dpn`d ly dxetiqa z`hazn rahnd eze`

) epixtleq axwa ligzn xetiqd .ine`lÎoiad ixhipnedd htynd lySolferino,(.miicxqÎmiiztxv zegekl miixhqe` zegek oia ,dicxanela 1859 ipeia 24Îa jxrpy

) opic ixp` o`'f .5,500 ebxdpe miliig 23,300 ervtp axwd zery ryzaJean Henri

Dunantdid ,(1901) melyl laep qxta oey`xd dkefd didi minily ,ixvieey gxf` ,() "epixtleqn zepexkf" xtqd z` mqxt `ed 1862 zpya .dywd dfgnl crUn

souvenir de Solférino.axwd dcya mirevtd ly mi`xepd mdi`pz z` x`izy ,(1864 hqebe`a 22Îa dnizgle ,mec`d alvd oebx` znwdl daeyg d`xyd deeid xtqd.dcya ze`avd irevt ly mavn xetiyl dixehqida dpey`xd dpn`d ,dap'f zpn` lr

.ixhipnedd htynd xn`y oey`xd xacd df`l` d`vezd wx mpi` ixd dcya ze`avd irevt ?zxkfpd dxin`d zernyn dn`id dnglnd ly dzeygxzd ;dnglnd ly zirvn` izlad zenybzdd mvr

revt ly mavn l` zeqgiizdd .dcya ze`avd irevt ly mzexveeiddcya ze`avd iz` xtyl zywan dpn`d ?dcnr efi`e .dnvr dnglnl qgia dcnr zhiwp `et` `idixdy ,dnglnl ixnbl zcbepny dcnra xaecn ik `et` d`xp .mirevtd ly mavnillk ote`ae mrvetl ,mze` bexdl :aie`d iliiga dribtd `id dnglnd ly dlek lk,mzrivtl zcbepn dlert `ed mirevtd avn xetiy ik dncp .mavn z` ce`n rxdloi` :xenbd jtdd z` zxne` dpn`d dyrnl mle` .ziznglnÎihp` dcnr zhiwp jkitle

ly mavn xetiya xaecnmiliigdxeza miliig ly ,mirevtd ly mavn xetiya `l` ,mirevt.dnEciwa `weec `l` ,mirevtd ly mze`ivn lehiaa xaecn `l ,xnelk .

32:e`xCarl Schmitt, Theorie des Partisanen, Berlin 1963, p. 17

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milegde mirevtd avn xetiyl dpn`l `eana zexywznd zepicnd exidvdy itkmez xg`l mipy dxyr zg` - 1929 ileia 27Îa dap'fa dnzgpy ,dcya ze`avaiptl mipy xyre ,miliig oeilin cg`e mixyr ervtp day ,dpey`xd mlerd znglnoeilin dyinge miraya jxren mibexdd xtqn wx day ,diipyd mlerd zngln zligz"dnglndn zecxtp izlad zerxd z` ,xyt`d zcina ,zigtdl" did opevx - yi`

)to lessen, so far as lies in their power, the evils inseparable from war.(33

ipic xaca 1907 zpyne 1899 zpyn b`d zepn` ly `eand ?"xyt`d zcina"mii`avd mikxvdy dcina dnglnd zerx z` mvnvl" :dpeekd z` xidan dnglnd

."z`f mixyt`nzihxwpewd zenlbzdd `ed ine`lÎoiad htyna dnglnd ly ixhipnedd getihdavnd okle .iyep`Îllkd wegd qiqak ziyep`Îllkd dnglnd avn ly zyxetndipa ly szeyn meiw `ed miixhipnedd dnglnd ipic mippekny iaihnxepd izxagd

.iayd ,geka dwfgdd avn xnelk ,weg lk lleyn avna mc`

dnglnd ii eay

zepn`a xfrip `l miixhipnedd dnglnd ipic ly zibyend zizyzd ztiyg jxevljnqn zebivnd b`d zepn`a `weec `l` ,lirl exaqedy minrhdn ,1949 zpyn dap'fzepwzd zexne` dn ,ok m` .dyaia dnglnd ipic xaca zepwzd ly aleyne cig`miccvd lr" `id dnglnd zepwz ly oey`xd wlgd zxzek ?dnglnd ipic xaca

) "dnglnlOn Belligerentscv ly cnrnd `ed oey`xd wlgd ly oey`xd wxtd .() "dnglnl cv" `ed dnglnd zepwz ly gztnd byen ,mpn`e .dnglnlBelligerent.(

mebxz edf j` ,"mgel cv" `ed dfd ipihld gpend ly zixarl laewnd mebxzdiziirabyend cera ,dnigld zlert l` qgiizn "mgel cv" gpend .Belligerent

ly zizcaer zixwz `l `id dnglnd ,lirl xen`k .avn xeza dnglnd l` oeekndnglnl cvd .ea wegd `ed geka yeniydy ,iaihnxep avn drahn `l` geka yeniyx`zn epi` `ed .dnglnd weg zxbqna hwiiaeqd ly iqiqad ihtynd cnrnd `edmc`d byen xnelk ,dnglna mc` ly byen xvei `l` dnigla mc` ly dcaer

.mil`d mc`d xnelk ,weg `ll geka ynzyndxeza ,mil`d mc`d ?mil`d mc`d `ed in ?"dnglnl cv" weica `et` `ed inipic zepwza .ozieeld xnelk ,xedhd gekd hwiiaeq byenn egek z` a`ey ,byen

33Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in

Armies in the Field, Geneva, 27 July 1929 http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/

300?OpenDocument

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) "mipiefnd zegekd" mya minil`d mc`d ipa `et` mipekn dnglndarmed forces(meik mixken mdy itk miilqxaipe`d eizeceqi z`y iyep`d cqend edf .zepicnd lycqend xnelk ,xicqd `avd `ed dnglnl cvd .dpicnd `av :ixhipnedd htynd gipngezitl ,meciwl ycew elek lk xy` ,zipeaixd dpicna jk lk ifkxnd izxagdzeax zeipeaix zepicn ly ogek m`e .laben izla gek zlrtd ly mirvn` meyiileavn iley l` mixrd zeaegxn `avd z` wegcl ,zil`efie dpigan ,odl xyt`nzegekd iyp` z` dyer miixhipnedd dnglnd ipic ly dpey`xd d`xedd ,mexgdzepwzl 1 sirq oeyl efe .ine`lÎoiad dnglnd avn ly miicrlad eigxf`l mipiefnd

:dnglnd ipic xaca

.1 sirq

divilin lr s` `l` ,cala `avd lr `l milg dnglnd ly zeaegde zeiekfd ,mipicd

:mi`ad mi`pzd ixg` ze`lnnd miacpzn zecigi lre

;eicewitl i`xg`d mc` mdilr cwtn .`

dl yi .a;wegxn ea oigadl xyt`y reaw xkid oniq m

oke ;ielba wyp mi`yep md .b

.dibdpne dnglnd ipicl m`zda mdizelert z` mildpn md .c

od ,epnn wlg e` `avd z` miacpzn zecigi e` divilind zeedn oday zevx`a

."`av" gpena zellkp34

,dnglnl cvd ly ihtynd cnrndy `ed o`k hhevy sirqd ly iceqid oexwirdribn eznver `iy l` .zepeaixd ly hlgend gekdn raep ,mil`d mc`d byen xnelkmiyp`dn dpeya ,xzeia zewfgd zepicna meik dxewy itk ,xy`k zepeaixd oeirxz` mizxynd miyp`d ,mixheyd xnelk ,diwege dpicnd zeleaba gekd z` mizxynd.minil` miyp`k miqtzp `l ,miliigd xnelk ,geka laben izlad izpicnd yeniyd

z` migihany ,lirl mixen`d mi`pzd zrax` mizxyn dfd oexwird z`zexicq.xkene cqenn oebx`k eneiw z` xnelk ,oiefnd gekd35

34“Article 1. The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, but also to

militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following conditions: 1. To be commanded

by a person responsible for his subordinates; 2. To have a fixed distinctive emblem

recognizable at a distance; 3. To carry arms openly; and 4. To conduct their

operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war. In countries where

militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or form part of it, they are included

under the denomination ‘army’” – http://www.btselem.org/hebrew/international_

law/hague_convention_and_regulations

35byen z` mippeknd mixcqddn cg` `ed ixhipnedd htyna mipiefnd zegekd cnrn :wece

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xe`iz `le ihtyn cnrn `ed mil`d mc`d ik yxetna mb xdazn oexwird eze`nmiccv ly mipiefnd zegekd" ,3 sirqa zeyibcn dnglnd ipic zepwzy itk .dcaer

) "mingelÎ`lne mingeln miakxen zeidl mileki dnglnlThe armed forces of the

belligerent parties may consist of combatants and non-combatantsbyen .(opeknd ,mixicqd mipiefnd zegekd yi` ly ihtynd cnrnd qiqaa `ed mil`d mc`dcvd cnrn oepik xg`l ciin ,dniypd dze`ae ."liigd" ly eppnf za eze`ivn z`zepwzd zexiaqn ,ixhipnedd htynd ly gztn ziixebhwk ,liigd zenca dnglnlly dxwna" :cg`k mgelÎ`lde mgeld ,liigd ziixebhw ly zixwird zernynd z`

) "dngln ieay ly qgi lawl zekfd mdipyl ,aie`d iaya dlitpIn case of capture

by the enemy both have a right to be treated as prisoners of wardxevd idef .() geka wfgen eppi` ieayd .ieayd ly ixhipnedd byend ly dpey`xdcaptiveote`a (

`ed `l` ieay mzq `l `ed xnelk ,gekd weg gekn `l` inzqdnglnd xiq`)prisoner-of-war.(

ieay e` dnglnd xiq` cnrn oial dnglnl cvd cnrn oia xywdipic itl dnglnd.yxetne ielb `ed miixhipnedd dnglnd36zernyn wiprnd `ed dnglnd ieay cnrn

."liig" gpend ly epkez oirxb `ed "dngln ieay" byend .dnglnl cvd cnrnldzeaiygae dxcqa dpey`xd mc`d zekf `id dngln ieay ly qgi lawl zekfdxnelk ,mzxcbd it lr minil` mc` ipal wxe j` zipwen `ide ,ixhipnedd htynaly zedfd zcerz ,1949 zpyn ziyilyd dap'f zpn`l 17 sirq gekn ,jke .miliigl

htynd ly zexge`nd zepn`dn zg` dwtiq xzei zccegn dxcbd .llka meik zepeaixd) "dap'f zepn`l milynd lewehextd" dpeknd dpn` ,ixhipneddProtocol Additional to the

Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims

of Non-International Armed Conflicts [Protocol II], 8 June 1977(oiadl ozipy itk .ef dpn` ,dnyn xakhtynd ze`xed z` xicgdl zywan ,1949 zpyn dap'f zepn` zeawra ,

mle` .zizpicnd dxe`kl xnelk ,"zine`lÎoiaÎ`l"d dxitqd jez l` ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiadoeirxl `id s` zyxcp ,miizpicnÎ`l mipiefn zegekl mb dnglnl cv ly cnrn oirn dzepwdadcina [dpicnd ly] dixehixhdn wlg lr dhilya ewifgi" elld zegekd ik dyxeca ,zepeaixd

exne mikyenn mii`av mirvan rval mdl xyt`zy;1 sirq) "mifk“exercise such control

over a part of [the state’] territory as to enable them to carry out sustained and

concerted military operations” – www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?action

=openDocument&documentId=AA0C5 BCBAB5C4A85C12563CD002D6D09(.36mikex`d mipeicd ,1907Îae 1899Îa melyd zecireea" :(29 'rd ,lirl) dhwit o`'f xtqn jk

zeaiyg zlra dibeq ef .'dnglnl cvd cnrn'l zerbepd ze`xeda ecwnzd xzeia miaeygdez` dwiprne dnglnd ipic zeaega aeigl d`ian dnglnl cv ly cnrnd zwprd .zi`lirieayk xken zeidl ,iaya dlitp xg`l ,zekfd `id olekn daeygd .mda zepzipd zeiekfd

.(47-46 'nr) "m`zda qgi lawle ,dngln

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173

lky jnqn `id ef dcerz - liigd xnelk ,dnglnl cvd ,ine`lÎoiad mlerd gxf`dn `id - ziwqcde ziyi`d zyeagzd mr cgia ,zr lka enr z`yl yxcp liigmlerd gxf` `ed liigdy `et` xnel lkep ."iayd qwpt" zil`xyi zixara dpekny

.dngln xiq`k`ed dnglnd iieayl qgid oaen dfi`a ?dngln iieayl wiprdl yiy qgid `ed dn

?ef dpbd ly daih dne dpbd e` zekfdgekl mipezp dnglnd iieay" :dnglnd zepwzl 4 sirqa zpzip ziqiqad d`xedd

) "mze` eayy zeqiibd e` miyp`d icia `l mle` ,aie`d zlynn lyPrisoners of

war are in the power of the hostile Government, but not in that of the

individuals of corps who captured them(gekl oezp mc`d zeid ,lirl xen`k .lawn epi` df oeirx .zipeaixd dpicnd gxf` ly zipeirxd `vend zcewp weica `edilqxaipe`d wegd ly zililyd ezxeva wx `l` ,dfkk yxetn iehia dpicnd wegai`pzd `id zlaben izlad dwfgdd j` ."mc` zeiekf" mc`l wiprny ,izpicndlkei ,mc`Î`l ezeida ,f`y ick mc`n iyep` byen lk zlily xnelk ,ililyd ibyenditk ,el wprei dzrny fixkdle mc`d ipa zlidwl dpey`xl lekiak eliahdl oeaixditk ."iyep`" xnelk ,"ipned qgi" yxetna xne`e b`d zepn`l 4 sirq jiynny

) "mc` ipa xeza miyp`"l qgiizdl `ed oeirxd ,dhwit xiaqnypeople as human

beings) mc` oa l` qgiizdl dpekpd jxcd" `ed ,"ipned qgi" ;(human being."(37

al qgiizdl dpekpd jxcd `id dn ?ipned qgi llek dnez` mi`xewyk ?mc` ipdze` mix`znd yi recn mipian ,dngln iieayl qgid xaca 1949 zpyn dap'f zpn``hxk dpbnd" :zipeaixd dpicna mc`d zeiekf oeirxl illk ienic zeedl ieyry ote`a

) "lizd xcb ixeg`ny mlerd lydie Magna Carta der Welt hinter dem

Stacheldraht.(38dribte zenil` lk iptn dpbd lk mcew llek ipnedd qgid ,oaenkdxinyd z`e mteb lr dnglnd iieay ly mzekf z` gihan 14 sirq .(13 sirq) zifitd`lnd zihtynd mzexiyk z`e miypl ipeieey qgie deey dpbd gihan `ed ;mceak lrxqe` 16 sirq .miieayd zlklkl be`cl daeyd gekd z` aiign 15 sirq .miieayd ly.okeqn xef` lkn wgxd dnglnd iieay z` zeptl dxen 19 sirq .dilt` lk lr,minieqn zenewnl dnglnd iieay ly mzrepz z` liabdl mixyt`n 24-21 mitirq

wxt .zigxf` dpbde milw` ,d`exaz i`pz meiw jez ,"zepgn"IIoefn ,xeic" gihanwxt .zepihpw llek ,"cebiaeIIIwxt ."mii`etx miletihe dpiibd" gihanVwtqn

zexyt`d z` xicqn dpn`l iyilyd wlgd ."zeiptebe zeil`ehwlhpi` zeielirt ,zc"

37.28 'nr ,my38:e`xJoachim Hinz, Das Kriegsgefangenenrecht, Berlin 1955, p. ii

zecitl crl`

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micaer i`pzl mdi`pz z`eeyd jez ,zeigxf` zeceara dnglnd iieay z` wiqrdl.migxf`lawl mi`kfy ,"dnglnd iieay ly miitqk mia`yn"a wqer iriaxd wlgd

iyingd wlgd .iyi` oeayga ciwtdl mi`kf md eze`y ,daeyd gekdn iyceg melyzwlgd .zeliag ,x`ec ,zerced - "uegd mr dnglnd iieay ly xywd" z` zizyniepin ,zepelz ldep ea rawpe ,"zeieyxd mr dnglnd iieay iqgi" z` xicqn iyiyd

.miililte miizrnyn oic ixcq mihxetne dnglnd iieayl mibivpmc` ipa l` zeqgiizdd ,yep` ipa l` iyep`d qgid ?`l recn ,zn`ae .ipned qgillka mvray cr ,miibelehe`h jk lk ,mdil`n mipaen jk lk mi`xp ,mc` ipa xezadpiga efi`n xexa `l mvra xnelk .dl`y o`k xxerzdl dleki recne okid xexa `loeaix lk aiigzny zillkd dpbdl xarn ,dpbd e` idylk zekf ozna llka o`k xaecnoeicd ly exywda ,jke .zenil` iyrn iptn egeka miwfgend miyp`d lr obdlzlegz z` aigxdl zepeiqpd zxbqna ,dnglnd iieay ziibeqa ipkcrd ixhipnedd

l` dfd obend ine`lÎoiad cnrndzeyrl mikxcd zg` ,zeniiwd zepn`d oeyll xarnote`a wiprdl eaiigzd zeipeaix zepicny ,mc`d zeiekf l` zeptl heyt `id z`f

.mc` `ed xy`a mc` lkl illk39dpicnd dkixv weica in iptne dn iptn ,zn`ae?dicia eltpy miliigl `weec zppekne zcgein dpbd wtql daeyd

rebtl dpicnd ivn`n md dnglnd ly dlekÎlk ik .dnvr iptn :dxexa daeyzd,dngel zeaiqpaye ,wypa miwifgny minil` mc` ipa xeza mixcbend ,aie`d iliiga,iplhw yeniy dfd wypa eyr ,iaya mzlitp iptl zexetq zeipy mb ,zeaexw mizrlzenly ,mc`d iig lr dpbdde zenil`d zripn ,lekiak ,ixde .dligz dpeekae ielbmfipnedd lk ik d`xp .zipeaixd dpicnd ly zppeknd dzniyn `id ,eze`ixae eteb,opkezne oeekn ,ipend bxd irvan ly mzqitz xg`l recn xiaqdl leki `l mleray,zeine`lÎoiad zepn`de mc`d zeiekf zelibn lk ceaik jez ,zi`yx dpicnd oi`zihqipnedd db`cd ,`axc` .oicl mcinrdle iwegd ipeaixd dgek z` mcbp lirtdl

.ok zeyrl `ly mrhd edn le`yl dkixv mc`d iig ceaklzekf dap'fe b`d zepn` itl dnglnd ieay cnrn deedn jk lya weicazepiqg `id dngln ieay xeza xkeny inl zpzipd dpbdd zernyn .jk lk zizernyn

wegd iptnihtyna zixadÎzevx` mrhn mii`avd miraezdn cg` ,xeliih cxetlh .dzebdpzd z` oga `ed eay xtq mixyrd d`nd ly mirayd zepya azky ,bxapxip,bxapxip ihtyna erawpy mihxcphqd xe`l m`phie znglna zixadÎzevx` ly¤

,dngln iieayl zwpreny ,z`fd dpbdd z` dpik) "zepiqgd dhrn"blanket of

39:e`xEmily Crawford, The Treatment of Combatants and Insurgents under the Laws

of Armed Conflict, Oxford 2010, Chap. 4

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175

immunity.(40iehia mey dap'fe b`d zepn`a dlaiw `l efd zepiqgd ik oiivl oiiprn."dnglnd ieay" byend qiqaa iceqid oeirxd `id mle` ,yxetn iaihifet41oeirxd

htynd uaewa xzeia xexad iehiad z` milawn eil`n oaende rnzynd ecnrne) ibdpnd ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiadCustomary International Humanitarian Law,(

,uaewl 33 wxt .mec`d alvd ly zine`lÎoiad dvrend ici lr mqxetne jxrpy) "dngln iieay ly cnrne mingel" ezxzekyCombatants and Prisoner-of-War

Status:d`ad dxrda ligzn ,(

wxe li`ed ,zeizernyn od ine`lÎoia oiefn jeqkqa mgelk dxkdd ly zeklydd

cinrdl xeq` ,iaya mzlitp mr ...dai`Îiyrna zexiyi szzydl zekf yi mingell

oiba e` dai`d iyrna mzetzzyd oiba dngln iieay ly cnrnl mi`kfd mingel oicl

.ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd z` zextn opi`y zelert42

40:e`xTelford Taylor, Nuremberg and Vietnam: An American Tragedy, New York

1970, p. 137

41iptl cer ,"dnglnd ieay" ipxcend byend z` exicbdy mipey`xd miihtynd miknqndn cg`) xail cew `ed ,zeine`lÎoiad zepn`dLieber Codely oiiepikn cg` `edy ,1863 zpyn (

) xail qiqpxt ohtynd ici lr exaegy ze`xeddFrancis Lieber`iypd ici lr e`vedye ,() "cegi`d" zegekl olewpil mdxa` i`wixn`dThe Union,(Îzevx`a migxf`d zngln jldna

dnglnd ieay" :onwlck raew xail cewl 56 sirq ,"dnglnd ieay" oeirx z` exiaqda .zixadzpeekn dnixb ici lr dnwp lk eilr zyez `le ,xeaivd aie` ezeid oiba yper lkl setk `di `l

ly"dltyd e` laq)“A prisoner of war is subject to no punishment for being a public

enemy, nor is any revenge wreaked upon him by the intentional infliction of

any suffering, or disgrace” – http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp.(lr dnglnd ipicl 1880 zpyn cxetqwe` jixcna xzei xge`n mipy dxyr ray `hea oeirx eze`

) diip`en ahqeb ici lr xaeg xy` ,dyaidGustave Moyniericqiinn cg` didy ohtyn ,(htynl oeknd ici lr une`y ,mec`d alvd ly zine`lÎoiad dvrendz` deeidye ine`lÎoia

iieay" ezxzeky ,cxetqwe` jixcn ly iyilyd wlgd .b`d zepn`l qiqad) "dnglnPrisoners

of wardngln iieay ly drepzd zlabd" :ze`ad milina ligzn ,(;ryt lr yper deedn dpi`"ililt ite` lk `ll ,cala ipnf xvrn `id .dnwp dyrn dppi` mb `id)“The confinement of

prisoners of war is not in the nature of a penalty for crime: neither is it an act of

vengence. It is a temporary detention only, entirely without penal character”

– http://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/INTRO/140? OpenDocument.(42“The implications of being recognized as a combatant in an international armed

conflict are significant, as only combatants have the right to participate directly in

hostilities... Upon capture, combatants entitled to prisoner-of-war status may neither

be tried for their participation in the hostilities nor for acts that do not violate

international humanitarian law” – Jean-Marie Henckaerts & Lousie Doswald-Beck,

Customary International Humanitarian Law, Inrternational Commitee of the Red

Cross, Cambridge 2005

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zepeaixl ixhipnedd htynd ozep "dngln iieay" cnrnd lr efixkda ,xne` deedweg `edy ,geka yeniyd weg z` xnelk ,bieqn izlade xedhd diehia z` dpicndici lr geka yeniyd xeqi` lr xeqi` deedn dnglnd iieay cnrn .weg lk zlilyelit` xaecn oi` mvra .miliigd md ,zipeaixd dpicnd ly mipiefnd zegekd iyp`.eze` aiign `l` geka yeniy dyxn wx epi`y ynn ly iaihifet wega `l` ,zepiqgaxnelk ,"zipeaixd dpicnd" byen ly zeppeknd zeixehqidd eizeienybzdn zg`iciin ote`a dzeel ,ziztxvd dktdnd dfixkd dilry ,mrd zepeaixa ezenybzdzepaez mvra mieednd ,elld mixacd ."daegd qeib" cqenae "mrd `av" byenaziibeqa mipcd miiqlwd mixtqdn cg`a wiecn ote`a egqep ,meik xzeia zeyecpaezkiy ,lciiy upxt ici lr ,1943 zpya ,oilxaa xe`l `viy ,zixhipnedd miieaydmey xar `l ieayd" :ziv`pÎe`pd zextqd ly zewiqlwdn zeax mb minid zeaxagxf`k ezaeg - zine`lÎoiad zxkend ezaeg z` `lin `l` ,wypa eynzyda dxiar

."dpicnd43.dnglnd xiq` dlind oaen `elna `ed liigd eay agxd oaend edf44

oia ixhipnedd htynd ly zibyend dpgadd zernyn dpey`xl zxfbp o`kn wxezeleaba zxkend dpgaddn xzei zilqxaipe`e ziqiqa dpgad `idy ,gxf` oial liiggxf` oia dpgadd xnelk ,dreahd ezelaben z` weica z`hande izpicnd wegdibdpnd ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd uaew .dly gxf` `l `edy mc` oial dpicnd.ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd ly 1 xtqn llkk gxf`l liig oia dpgadd z` aivn"mingel oial migxf` oia oigadl daegd" ?da xaecny ziceqid dpgadd zedn idne

)The parties to the conflict must at all times distinguish between civilians

and combatants.(45oia ixhipnedd htynd ly ziqiqad dpgadd ,lekiak ,xnelk,1 xtqn llk xfeb ,okle .mglp epi`y mc` oial mglpy mc` oia `id ,gxf` oial liig

43:e`xFranz Scheidl, Kriegsgefangenschaft, Berlin 1943, p. 245

44miwfgend aie`d iliig l` qgiizdl dap'fe b`d zepn`a zeipeaixd zepicnd zeaiigzn jkitleuegn miwfgeny ,dnglnd ixiq` md el` enk el` ixdy :odly miliigd l` enk weica odiciaik raew dnglnd zepwzl 7 sirq .dpgna - liz zexcb ixeg`n ,aeyi mewn lkl uegn ,wegldzayy dlynnd zeligak ,yealle xeicl ,dlklkl rbepd lka ,dnglnd iieaya bedpl yi"`ava mibdepd mieevle zepwzl ,mipicl mitetk eidi dnglnd iieay" ,8 sirq itl ;"mze`

:7 sirq) "mipezp md dgekay dpicnd“prisoners of war shall be treated as regards board,

lodging and clothing on the same footing as the troops of the Government who

captured them”:8 sirq ;“Prisoners of war shall be subject to the laws, regulations

and orders in force in the army of the State in whose power they are”[30 'rd e`x].(iieayl llka zqgiiznd il`xyid dpicnd oica zecigid ze`xeddn zg`a z`hazn ef d`xedz` l`xyia xicqnd ,1955-e"hyz ,i`avd hetiyd wegl 10 sirq z`xed `id ,dnglnd

."dngln iieay lr wegd zlegz" ezxzeky sirq ,il`xyid `avd iliig ly mcnrn45.3 'nr ,(42 dxrd ,lirl) waÎcleeqece qhxwpd e`x

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

177

) "migxf` cbpk zetwzd oeekl oi` ;mingel cbpk wx zetwzd oeekl xzen"Attacks

may only be directed against combatants. Attacks must not be directed

against civilians.(46

zxhnl ,gekd zlrtd `yenl zrbep gxf`l liig oia dpgaddy ,dxe`kl rnynlirl exn`py mixacl jyndae ,envrlyk ."zpeekd lr" `vnpy mc`l ,dtwzddoia lcadd ik d`xp ,ixhipnedd ilqxaipe`d wegd ly iziirad eite` lr illk ote`aceqik aven `edyk iziira `ed eze` bexdl xeq`y in oial eze` bexdl xzeny inwx `l ,xzeia iceqid llkd zn`a meik edf ik dnec mle` .zihtyn dhiy ly cqendixdy ;migxf`a rebtl oi` :iyep`Îllkd xqend ly `l` ine`lÎoiad htynd ly`id migxf`a dribt ."rytn mitg" iehial ztcxp dlin enk `ed "migxf`" gpendd`xp .rex ,zehyta ,xnelk ,dnyl dribt `l` dpi` jkitle ,rytn mitga dribtxarne lrn ,ryx ly dxedh drtezk qtzpd ,"xexh"d ly wenrd ixqend iepibd ikzeqiibzd ickl cr ,"zeihilet"d zel`yl xarn ,zeinewnde zeipnfd zeibeqlezqitzn dax dcina raep ,"ryxd xiv" zpigaa "xexha dngln"l ziyep`Îllk

.migxf` itlk oeeknd geka yeniykqgia lirl x`ea xaky itke ,1 xtqn llk ly geqipdn dpeya ,dyrnl mle`zizcaerd dpgadd `l `id gxf` oial liig oia zixhipnedd dpgadd ,"liig" byenl.geka ynzyn epi`y mc` oial geka ynzyny mc` oia xnelk ,mgelÎ`ll mgel oia:ibdpnd ixhipnedd htynd uaew ly 5 xtqn llka `evnl xyt` wiecnd geqipd z`

) "mipiefnd zegeka mixag mpi`y miyp` md migxf`"Civilians are persons who

are not members of the armed forces;(47deed .miliig mpi`y in md migxf``mglpy in oia izcaerd lcadd lr zqqean dpi` gxf` oial liig oia dpgadd ,xne

`yen iabl mibiiq zriaw `l `id ziceqid dzernyn okle ,mglp epi`y in oial`l` ,geka ecbp ynzydl xeq`y in `ed gxf`d lekiak xy`k ,dnglna gekd zlrtddpgadd lr zqqean ixhipnedd htyna gxf` oial liig oia dpgadd .jtdl weicaxnelk ,el i`kf epi`y in oial dngln ieay ly cnrnl i`kfy in oia zihtyndi`kf epi`y in oial gek lirtdl i`kfy in oia oigadl `id ziceqid dzernynly mipiefnd zegekl zekiizydd on wxe j` zxfbp geka ynzydl zekfd .elirtdl,migxf` cbpk geka yeniyÎi`y wx `l .zipeaix dpicn ly rnyn ,dnglnl cvdl`yd ,`axc` ,`l` ,df oiiprl rixknd dcind dpw epi` ,rytn mitg e` mingelÎ`l

yi mipiefnd zegekl m` xnelk ,zepeaixd zl`y `id dcigid zizernyndicicka gek

46.my47.17 'nr ,my

zecitl crl`

178

xzeia zelecbd zepeeknd zetwzdd .laben izlade oeilrd gekd edylk ghya zeidldid diipyd mlerd znglna .zeipeaix zepicn ici lr ervea migxf` cbpk dixehqida,zekxrdd itl ,w`xir znglnae ,`avd illg xtqnn letk miigxf`d millgd xtqn

.zg`l mixyr ly qgi lr cner xak `ed48dpgadd `id gxf` oial liig oia dpgadd.gek ly `yen zeidl `id ezxcbd lky in oial gek lirtn ezxcbday in oia

dpicn ly mipiefnd zegekd yi` epi`y in xnelk ,gxf` `ed xy`a ,gxf`d ,mpn`e`l` lret hwiiaeqk ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htyna qtzp `l llka ,zipeaixwlgd `ed ixhipnedd htyna dpey`xl gxf`d riten eay ipeirxd mewnd .hwiiae`kzpicn ly ghy lr zi`avd zeknqd" ezxzeky ,b`dn dnglnd zepwz ly iyilyd

) "aie`dMilitary Authority over the Territory of the Hostile State,rnyn .(ghy ?ghy dfi`e .ghy ly mieqn haidk `l` ixhipnedd htyna qtzp epi` gxf`dghy edne ."yeak ghy" miipxcend dnglnd ipica dpeknd ,zi`av zeknql oezpdyeakl aygp ghy" 1949 zpyn dap'f zpn`le b`d zepwzl 42 sirq itl ?yeakmighy lr `l` rxzyn epi` yeaikd .aie`d `av zeknql lreta oezp `ed xy`k

."dlirtdl ozipe dnw ef zeknq mday49yd ,xne` deedwfgend ghyd `ed yeakd ghlaben izla ote`a oezpd xnelk ,zipeaix dpicn ly mipiefnd zegekd ici lr lretadwfgdd ici lr ,diae dipn ,ixhipnedd htyna xcben gxf`de .laben izla gekl,xy` byen ,ieayd ly ixhipnedd byend ly diipyd dxeva `et` qtzpe efd zipgekd,meid cre 1899 zpyn dpey`xd b`d zpn` f`n dpzyd `l ,dnglnd ieay byend enk

"yeakd ghyd ayez" epiidc)Inhabitants of Occupied Territorydpicnd :wece .(ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd z` dxitn dpi` zyaekdzyaek `id xy`a;

.zigxf` diqelke` cbp zenil`a yeniyk qtzp `l llka envrlyk yeaikd50

xy`a migxf` cbp geka yeniy lr xeqi` mey oi` ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynaxzeq dyrnle ,biiqny ,ibdpnd ixhipnedd htynd ly 6 xtqn llk .jkn wegx - mdcbpk mipben migxf`d" :onwlck raew ,1 xtqn llk ly ixebhwd evd z` oihelgl"onfd eze` jynl wx f`e dai`d iyrna lirt wlg migwel md ok m` `l` ,dtwzd

48.my mihhevnd zexewnde ,15 'nr ,(39 'rd ,lirl) cxete`xw e`x49“Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of

the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority

has been established and can be exercised”

50- ine`lÎoiad htynd itl yeaikd zeiweg lr mibiiq meiw xaca zixhipnedd dl`yd mb o`kne:lynl e`xOrna Ben Naftali, Eyal Gross & Keren Michaeli, “Illegal Occupation:

Framing the Occupied Palestinian Territory”, Berkeley Journal of International Law

23 (2005), pp. 551–614

ine`lÎoia htyne dpicn ,weg - dnglnd iieay

179

)Civilians are protected against attacks unless and for such time as they take

a direct part in hostilities.(51ici lr zerveand zei`avd zelertd aex ,mpn`e`avd ly mirvand lk hrnk enk ,xexha dnglnd zxbqna zeipeaixd zepicnd¦§¨¦miaygpy in cbp xdven ote`a ,mipeekne ,epeek ,zepexg`d mipyd miyelya il`xyidxexha dnglnd ly dzedn lk ,`axc` .migxf`l ixhipnedd ine`lÎoiad htynd itl

mingela dnglnd xnelk ,minglpy migxf`a dnglnd `idiptndeed ,migxf` mdycx`'vix xirdy itk - `ed mglpy gxf`d .geka ynzydl zekf lk illeyn xne`

b`da ine`lÎoiad htynd ziaa htey didy ,xhqwa52itl "iweg izla mgel" `l -sicrn xhqwa .ine`lÎoiad htynd ipic lr xaer `l `ed xnelk ,ine`lÎoiad htynd

) "qgein izla" mgel ,xzei jx gpenunprivilegedzepiqgl i`kf epi`y mgel xnelk ,(.dnglnd iieayl zwprenybiiq lk `ll seyg mgeld gxf`dy ,`id xacd zernyn

mirvn`d lkle dly oeghiad zerexf lkl ,zipeaixd dpicnd ly gekd zecqen lkl`l` "ecbp" dngln `l `id dnglnd .dpicnd oeghal dpkqk `l` ryetk `l ,dlylklkny ,eilr obny ,eze` onnny - el riiqny in lkae ;eneiw mvra ,"ea" dnglnly zeccenzd `l `id ,hqixexh zpigaa ,mgeld gxf`a dnglnd .ea jnezye eze`gekd zwcvd xy`k ,wcven izla geka wcven gek ly dnxeg zngln `l` geka gek

,ipeaixd gekd `ed ixhipnedd htynd itl wcvend gekd :eznvern `l` zraep dpi`53

.xzeia wfgd gekd ,zehytae ,xnelk

"avn"l dxfga

ala meik z`vnp miieayd ziibeq m`e ."ipeaixd avn"k dpicnd xwir `ed iayd.wdaen "ipeaix avn" `id l`xyi zpicny iptn df ixd zil`xyid zipicnd drcezd

51Customary International Humanitarian Law, p. 19.(45 'rd ,lirl)52:e`xRichard Baxter, “So-Called ‘Unprivileged Belligerency’: Spies, Guerillas and

Saboteurs”, 28 British Yearbook of International Law 323 (1951), p. 343

53miigxf` mipebx` .mingel migxf`l zepiqg zepwdl hilgdl dleki zipeaixd dpicnd oklextqn dfn mibybynd miihxtd ze`avd lly znbeck ,zewfg zepicn ici lr mixkend mingels`e ,xexh ipebx`l llk jxca miaygp mpi` ,iaxrnd mlerd zenvrn ly oditpk zgz mipyzepicnd ici lr miknzpde migtehnd miizpicnÎ`ld mingeld mipebx`l mieeyen mpi`mi`kf mpi` axgd ixiky mb ine`lÎoiad htynd itl :wece .iaxrnd mlerd zeaie`l zeaygpd

lewehextl 47 sirq lynl e`x - dngln iieay ly cnrnlIdap'f zepn`l sqepd lewehextl .lewehext) miine`lpia mipiefn mikeqkq zepaxew zpbd xaca ,1949 hqebe`a 12ÎnI8 mein ,(

:e`x ± 1977 ipeiawww.btselem.org/sites/default/files/additional_protocol_i_to_

geneva_conventions.pdf

zecitl crl`

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ly zeycewnde zehlgend ,zeirahd zeiekfd" `l `ed dcleeid mein opeknd dpiiprdwilaetxd z` dppeky gxf`de mc`d zeiekf zxdvd dqqazd odilry ,"mc`d

ziztxvd54zeyxa cner mre mr lkk zeidl icedid mrd ly zirahd ezekf" `l` ,."zipeaixd ezpicna envr55.dpicnd oeirxl ztenk dfxked l`xyi zpicn df oaena

`le dnyl dpicn ;yxetnd dny `ed "dpicn"y mlera zeccead zepicndn zg` `id,zipeaixd dpicnd ly dibelezind .dxaga miigd zilkzl xnelk ,dwilaetxd mylda wegd .l`xyi zpicn ly dxetiq `id ,ezlilya xyt`zn iyep`Îllkd wegd day

.diweg zlabdl dpten dgek lk `l` ,gekd zeleaba laben wx epi`avn .zixhipned `l` zihxwenc `le zicedi `l `id l`xyi ly zizednd dzweg okle

ifkxnd onewn o`kne .mexigd avn `ed libxd avnd ;dngln avn `ed da wegdlk,ixhipnedd htynd ly zeiceqid zeixebhwd izy ly zil`xyid zipicnd drceza jkxnelk ,dnglnd ieay ly zexev izy ,ieayd ly ipxcend byend ly zexevd izy,ok lr xzi .mipexg`a wifgdl miaiegn mipey`xde .yeakd ghyd iayeze miliigds` `l` ywan epi`y wx `l il`xyid oeaixd geka mze` ewifgda ,mipexg`l qgiaghy iayeza xaecn ditly ,ine`lÎoiad htyna zrvend dwcvdd z` yxetna dgecdnglnl cvk l`xyi zpicn ici lr miwfgen mighyd iayez .xg` oeaixn yakpy

.mxear cgeina azkpy wegd `ed mdn llypy wegd .mglidl mdilr xq`p daymeik mieednd ,l`xyi icia miwfgend "mighyd" iayez ly mdingel oklemixcben mpi` mb ,mc` ipa mitl` zxyrk ,l`xyia mi`elkd llkn feg` mirax`k

`l` ,miililt mixiq`k xnelk ,wegd lr exary miryetkmiip egha mixiq`kmd .mdy `ed mcbp cigid oerihd xy`k ,eznybdl `l` zepeaixd oeirx cbp minglp `ldlertd `id liig ly miiga dwfgdd ,gekd ly df oeibida .miic miwfg `l cer:ine`lÎoiad htynd itl rval mileki miyeakd mighyd ingely xzeia zinihibld

iptn zepiqg liigl mwiprdamdly mdiwegdxkd ly ipeaix dyrn mirvan mdoebx` gilvd ,ahid zxzqen ,dphw dxica ,dfra reci izla mewna ,jke .zepeaixa`l` zil`xyid zepeaixl zcbepn dzid `ly zepeaix mei 1,941 jyna miiwl q`ngd.l`xyi zpicn z` i`avd ezexiy dzid q`ngd iaya liigd zaiyi :dci lr dxcbedz` xxgyl ick ?iaydn mxxgyl cvik ?miieayd ziibeql oexztd `et` ednycgn oegal jxev `di jk myle - `avdn mze` xxgyl didi jixv iaydn miieayd.dnglnl oexztd `id dpicnd eitly ,igkepd avna melyd oefg ly iceqid oeirxd z`

54“les droits naturels, inaliénables et sacrés de l’Homme”:e`x -J. Godechot, Les

constitutions de France depuis 1789, Paris 1984.(`ean)55.inyx oezir ,("ze`nvrd zlibn" dpeknd) "l`xyi zpicn znwd lr dfxkd" e`x