Post on 27-Jan-2023
THE VIDEO TELECONFERENCE: THE STATE OF THE ART
by
John Blair Marder, B.A., M.A.
A DISSERTATION
IN
EDUCATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Approved
December, 1985
9r>l
14o • 1^-^ l^P* ^ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Michael Mezack III,
chairman, for his expert guidance and help in all matters
concerning this dissertation; to Dr. Clyde Kelsey for
support and instruction; to Dr. Alexis Tan for his kind,
caring attitude and experienced direction with statistical
matters; to Dr. E. Dale Cluff for help with the
corrections that separate excellence from mediocrity; to
Dr. Joe Cornett for helping me develop a philosophy of
education and appreciation of statistical thinking; and to
Dr. Dennis Harp for his insight and knowledge in
telecommunications as well as our conversations and
friendship. I honestly don't know how anyone could have
had a better committee or a better chairman.
I also want to thank Dr. Billy I. Ross, chairman of
mass communications, for his encouragement to complete the
doctorate. Thanks also go to Dr. Hower Hsia, Institute
for Mass Communications Research, and to Dr. Clive
Kinghorn, for help with the questionnaire mailing. A warm
thanks is extended to my mother for her support that made
all of this possible. And thanks go to my daughter,
Dawna, for all the understanding she .has given while I
worked on the doctorate. This dissertation is dedicated
to the memory of my father who died while I worked on the
Master's degree.
ii
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES xv
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Video Teleconferencing: An Evolving
Definition 3
Video Teleconferencing: A Working Definition 9
Definition of Terms 10
Video Teleconferencing In Higher Education
and Business 15
Scope and Rationale of the Problem 20
Purpose of the Study 22
Definition of the Problem and Significance of
the Study 24
Research Problem and Questions 27
Procedures 28
Limitations of the Study 29
II. LITERATURE REVIEW 31
The Evolution of the Video Teleconference 31
The Communications Satellite 32
The Passive Satellite 33
The Active Satellite 35
The Active, Direct Broadcast Distribution
Satellite 36
Telstar 37
The Relay Satellites 38 111
Major Legislation Developed for Communication Satellites 39
The Communications Satellite and
Education 41
The Concept of Distance Learning 46
The PBS Adult Learning Service 53 Narrowcasting and the National Narrowcast
Service (NNS) 54 Eastern New Mexico University and the
Talk-Back Television Communication System 55
Televised Instruction and the Coordina-ting Board of the Texas College and University System 57
The Association for Graduate Education and Research in North Texas (TAGER) 57
Continuing Education and the Video Teleconference Potential 59
Educational Video Teleconferencing
Emerges 62
The Video Teleconference in Business 65
Biznet 65
IBM 6 6
Business Research Findings: The Intra-
Company System 66 Business and Educational Video
Teleconferences Merge 68
Research Findings 71
The Korzenny.and Bauer Study 77 The Rushton Study: Teleconferencing Versus
Conventional Delivery of Instruction 80
The Skinner Study: Distributed Computer Control for a Multinode Video Teleconferencing System 82
IV
Findings of the Bretz Study 84
Findings of the Rice Study 87
Findings of the Krueger Study 9 2
The Redd Study 93
Sandra O'Connell and the lABC Study 94
Understanding the Video Teleconference "System" 9 9
Developing a Philosophy of Video Teleconferencing Consistent with the Rapidly Changing Technology 101
The Alternative Solution: An Examination of Two Video Teleconference Educational Networks 111
British Columbia's Knowledge Network 111
The Indiana Higher Education
Telecommunications System (IHETS) 115
Conclusions and Implications 117
III. METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND FINDINGS 121
Design and Methodology of the Study 121
Findings from the University/College
Administrator Questionnaire 125
Geographical Regional Organization 125
Organization of the University/College Administrator Questionnaire 126
Responses to Demographic Statements on the University/College Administrator Questionnaire 129
Responses to Yes/No Statements on the University/College Administrator Questionnaire 133
Agreement/Disagreement Responses to Attitude Statements on the Univer-sity/College Administrator Questionnaire 135
V
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by All Administrator Responses 138
Geographical Distribution of Organizations 138
Findings from the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 147
Organization of the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 147
Responses to Demographic Statements on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 148
Responses to Agreement/Disagreement Attitude Statements on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 160
Responses to Yes/No, True/False State-ments on The Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 165
Responses to Degree of Importance Statements On the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 167
Responses to Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences with Various Subjects as Listed on the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire 180
Responses to Variables Necessary for a Successful and Advantageous Video Teleconference 185
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Demographic Responses 191
r
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization Institution by Agree-ment/Disagreement Attitude Responses 195
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by Yes/No, True/False Responses 200
VI
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Degree of Importance Variables for a Success-ful Video Teleconference 203
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences on Various Subjects 214
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Variables Necessary for a Successful Video Teleconference 219
Video Teleconferences Best Used with Groups of More Than 25 Compared with Degree of Importance and Subject Success 222
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 227
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Yes/No, True/False) 230
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 232
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Subject Success) 235
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Demographics) 239
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Success/Length) 239
V l l
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Demographics) 239
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 242
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Yes/No) 245
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 247
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Subject Success) 251
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Success/Length) 254
Discussion 254
IV. SUMMATION, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
Summation of the Literature Review 256
Understanding the Results of the Two Surveys 263
Empirical Evidence: The Research Questions
Answered 266
What Is Scientific Truth?: An Overview 266
Demographics of the Respondents 266 Do Successes and Failures Relate to How One Uses Or Formats Video Telecon-ferencing? 268
Vlll
Do Some Topics Work Well with Video Teleconferencing While Others Do Not? 269
What Should be the "Mix" of Personal and Electronic Contact? 270
Does the Type of Educational Institution Or Business Relate to Successful Video Teleconferencing? 272
What is the Importance of the Size of the Video Teleconference; the Diversity of Subject Matter; and the Previous Experience of Persons Involved with Video Teleconferencing? 274
Size of the Video Teleconference 274
Diversity of Subject Matter 276
Previous Experience 277
A Perspective In Understanding the Survey Results 278
Additional Developments, Research and
Predictions About the Future 283
Final Conclusions 286
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 290
APPENDICES 3 07
A. User Questionnaire (Questionnaire One) And Cover Letters 308
B. Administrator Questionnaire (Questionnaire
Two) and Cover Letter 321
C. Open-Ended Comments from the User Questionnaire 325
D. Open-Ended Comments from the Administrator Questionnaire 342
IX
LIST OF TABLES
1. Summary of lABC Study Areas for Appropriate/in-appropriate Video Teleconferencing 97
2. Summary of lABC Study Evaluation of Format Changes 98
3. Regional Distribution of Video Teleconference
Administrators 127
4. Regional Distribution of Population Sample 128
5. Demographics of Administrators/Colleges/Uni-versities 130
6. Yes/No Responses By Administrators on Video Teleconferencing 134
7. Agreement/Disagreement Responses By Admini-strators On Video Teleconferencing 136
8. Type of Organization/Institution and Demogra-phics of Administrators/Colleges/Universities 139
9. Type of Organization/Institution and Yes/No Responses By Administrators on Video Tele-conferencing 141
10. Type of Organization/Institution and Demo-graphics of Administrators/Colleges/Uni-versities 143
11. Regional Distribution of Video Teleconference
Users 146
12. Demographics of Video Teleconference Users 149
13. Agreement/Disagreement Responses By Users of Video Teleconferencing 161
14. Yes/No and True/False Responses By Video Teleconference Users 166
15. Perceptions of Degree of Importance for Successful Video Teleconferencing 169
16. Subject Success With Video Teleconferencing 181
17. Success and Advantages/Disadvantages By Users of Video Teleconferencing 186
18. Type of Organization/Institution and Demo-graphics of Video Teleconference Users 192
19. Type of Organization/lnstitution and User Agree/Disagree Responses 196
20. Type of Organization/Institution with Yes/No and True/False Responses 201
21. Type of Organization/lnstitution and Percep-tions of Degree of Importance for Successful Video Teleconferencing 204
22. Type of Organization/Institution and Perceptions of Subject Success with Video Teleconferencing 215
23. Type of Organization/Institution and Success and Advantages/Disadvantages By Users of Video Teleconferencing 220
24. Video Teleconferences Best Used with Groups of More Than 25 and Degree of Importance 223
25. Video Teleconferences Best Used with Groups of More Than 25 and Degree of Subject Success 224
26. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 228
27. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Yes/No) 231
28. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 233
29. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Subject Success 236
30. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Demographics) 240
31. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Demographics) 241
XI
32. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 243
33. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Yes/No) 246
34. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 248
35. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Subject Success) 252
Xll
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
We are too prone to make technological instruments the scapegoats for the sins of those who wield them. The products of modern science are not in themselves good or bad; it is the way they are used that determines their value.
David Sarnoff accepting honorary Notre Dame degree. (McLuhan 1972, p. 104)
That [Sarnoff's above statement] is the voice of the current somnambulism. Suppose we were to say, "Apple pie is in itself neither good nor bad; it is the way it is used that determines its value." Or, "The smallpox virus is in itself neither good nor bad; it is the way it is used that determines its value." Again, "Firearms are in themselves neither good nor bad; it is the way they are used that determines their value." That is, if the slugs reach the right people, firearms are good. If the TV tube fires the right ammunition at the right people, it is good. I am not being perverse. There is simply nothing in the Sarnoff statement that will bear scrutiny, for it ignores the nature of the medium of any and all media, in the true Narcissus style of one hypnotized by the amputa-tion and extension of his own being in a new technical form. Sarnoff went on to explain his attitude to the technology of print, saying that it was true that print caused much trash to circulate, but it had also disseminated the Bible and the thoughts of seers and philoso-phers. It has never occurred to Sarnoff that any technology could do anything but add itself on to what we already are.
Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan, 197 2, p. 104)
In 1948 George Orwell wrote about a time when "Big
Brother" watched all through television monitors and
"home" video teleconferencing. The government controlled
thought through the language called "Newspeak." Behavior
could be dictated by linguistic techniques advanced
through telecommunications. "Doublethink" values
permeated the society and allowed anyone to hold two
identical but contradictory points of view as authors
describing philosophical positions have indicated (Ozman &
Craver, 1981) . War became peace; love became hate.
The year depicted was 1984; the vision was futuristic
horror.
Today, the modern, satellite oriented video
teleconference has replaced some long distance travel and
reportedly aided in a faster, less expensive means of
communication (Bennison, 1984). To understand video
teleconferencing is to understand a medium that is more
than the sum of its parts, just as television is more than
radio plus pictures. The "first law" of mass commun-
ications is that every major technological change in the
means of communication produces profound changes in the
way people live, spend time and money, and relate to
each other through social, economic and political insti-
tutions (Mendelsohn & Crespi, 1972). Who can deny that
tremendous technological advances have been made during
the last decade with home computers, word processing
units, interactive video, laser medicine and space travel
(Paulsen, 1982)? Although the technology of Orwell's 1984
is a present-day reality, the society Orwell discussed has
not happened; at least, not yet.
In the book, Megatrends (Naisbitt, 1982), the author
reports that the last twenty years has been the age of
microelectronics. The source of power in the society of
today and in the future, Naisbitt asserts, rests with the
ability to gather information quickly, using the new
technology that continues to change. Naisbitt dismisses
the video teleconference as so rational it will never
succeed. Thus, he writes it is another trend that will
not happen. In the book, The Second Self: Computers and
the Human Spirit (Turkle, 1984) the author argues that
working with computers stimulates discussion along philo-
sophical and sociological lines that can provoke new
questions and definitions about what is human. Some have
suggested that the human mind is akin to an emotional
machine. Video teleconferencing, as a medium, involves
the human element transmitted through electronic machines.
Video Teleconferencing: An Evolving Definition
Video teleconferencing has been defined in various
ways. Randall Glen Bretz, University of Nebraska, defines
teleconferencing in his dissertation, Satellite
Teleconferencinq in Continuing Education, as the process
of joining two or more people or groups together electron-
ically for information exchange, problem solving, program
planning, or similar activities (Bretz, 1982). The tech-
nical means of teleconferencing in general can range from
telephone lines to satellite television (Al Bond, 1984).
Pinches (1976) defines teleconferencing as a
conference call telephone network expanded above the two
locations that a conference call normally provides.
Braby, Henry, Parrish and Swope (1975) defined a
teleconferencing system as a telecommunication system that
allows audio and visual two-way communication between two
or more remote locations. In his dissertation, Con-
ferencinq and Teleconferencing in Three Communication
Modes as a Function of the Number of Conferees, Gerald
Peter Krueger (1976), Johns Hopkins University, defines
teleconferencing as the conduct of interactive commun-
ication among two or more physically separated people via
electronic media. Krueger emphasizes that the interactive
nature of communications among teleconference conferees
distinguishes teleconferencing from such one-way, or
non-interactive, forms of communication (most radio and
television broadcasts, for example).
Part of the problem in defining video telecon-
ferencing is to understand what the medium involves.
Video teleconferencing is not limited to the telephone
medium (Cortes-Vergara, 1983), and a variety of electronic
devices allow groups of physically separated users to
communicate via television, audio, and sometimes
teletypewriter and telautograph (handwriting) linkages
(Lu, 1984). Computer-assisted teleconferencing systems
have provided geographically dispersed groups with
immediate printed records of messages to be retrieved ^n
masse or selectively by date, sender, or topic (Block,
1984) .
Video teleconferencing "productions" can be complex
and involve pre-produced tape inserts, electronic graph-
ics, digital video effects, still stores and much live
broadcasting (Al Bond, 1982). For example, Carl Sagan,
Cornell University, used slides with scientific calcu-
lations in a video teleconference discussing the atmos-
pheric and climatic consequences of nuclear war with the
Russians (Sagan, 1983). Although the moderator of the
program, Thomas F. Malone, Butler University, said that
participants of the video teleconference had agreed not to
use the forum for political purposes or to debate govern-
ment policy, the ability of the medium to allow open
discussion on the possible destruction of all of mankind,
well illustrates the potential to understand problem areas
through video teleconferencing. The Soviet and American
scientists involved in the video teleconference (hosted in
Washington, D.C. and Moscow) well represented higher
education in the United States and the Soviet Union, thus
illustrating how highér education can be involved in such
video teleconferences. In addition to Dr. Malone and Dr.
Sagan, video teleconference participants included Dr. Paul
R. Ehrlich, Stanford University; Academician Yevgeniy
Velikhov, vice president U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences; Dr.
Yuri Izrael, chairman U.S.S.R. Committee for Hydro-
Meteorology and Environmental Control; R. Sagdeev,
director, Institute for Cosmic Research, U.S.S.R. Academy
of Sciences; and Georgiy K. Skryabin, academician, main
scientific secretary, U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences (Sagan,
1983). The video teleconference found U.S. and Soviet
scientists in basic agreement about the consequences of
"nuclear winter." One could argue that the opportunity of
Soviets and Americans to interact with one another via the
video teleconference medium and satellite technology can
aid in understanding and help prevent a nuclear war
(Conquest, 1985) .
One might define video teleconferencing in terms of
risk, benefits and the amount of money spent (Nanberg,
1984). Budgets for large-scale video teleconferences in
the private sector can cost between $50,000 and $300,000
(Pensinger, 1982), although costs continue to drop. The
cost to purchase a satellite receiver dish for video
conferences decreased from $65,000 in 1975 to $10,000 in
1980 (Gould & Singletary, 1983). By 1984 the cost had
dropped to somewhere between $3,000 and $5,000 with an
hour of satellite transponder time declining dramatically
to about $300 to $400 (Kullen, 1984). Corporations have
lowered costs by sharing facilities ("Shared Telecom
Services," 1983). Given budget cuts and zero growth
levels in higher education in the 1980s, the need exists
for low cost facilities.
A researcher might define video teleconferencing in
terms of the goal sought ("University Sets Pace," 1983).
For example, in 1984 the University of Illinois (eighth in
the U.S. in full-time enrollment among all universities
and third among the Big Ten; Illinois has led all American
universities in the number of doctoral degrees conferred)
continued a $100 million fund-raising effort that began in
1979. The University of Illinois hired the Washington,
D.C., firm of Wetacom, experienced in the video telecon-
ferencing medium (Yore, 1984). The final fund-raising
stage was made through satellite video teleconferencing
and reached 4,000 key alumni in 19 cities which
represented 70 percent of the living alumni population.
The video teleconference was hosted by University of
8
Illinois graduates John Chancellor (NBC) and retired
chairman of General Motors, Thomas A. Murphy. Live video
and audio broadcasts happened in Los Angeles,
Philadelphia, New York City, Chicago and Urbana, Illinois,
with live audio from 14 other cities. With the goal of a
permanent network nationwide of supporters, assignment
"packages" were discussed with alumni from the sites
interacting with such questions as, "How does one pop the
question? How do you ask for a gift?" (Delavan, 1984,
p.2) .
Kullen (1984) writes that a non-profit agency that
chooses to video teleconference will want to consider the
following questions:
(1) How will the video teleconference contribute to achieving stated organization objectives?
(2) How often will video teleconferences be used?
(3) Will the communicators always be at the same limited number of sites, or will they be spread across a large geographical area?
(4) How important is timeliness in reaching the sites?
(5) In what instances might a less expensive technology such as a simple telephone call or an electronic mail computer network be more appropriate? (p. 160)
The video teleconference definition might include the
"tools" of the teleconferencing facility such as a
conference room with associated video and audio
electronics; a number of television cameras (color or
black and white), video monitors, microphones and speakers
to provide basic inputs and outputs to the conference net-
work; auxiliary graphics devices (Elton & Boomstein, 1983)
such as overhead projectors and/or slide projectors
(possibly multi media equipment); interconnections to word
processing/computer systems; and video recording/playback
facilities. Further, in order to simulate a natural
face-to-face meeting among speakers, one form of dynamic
video source switching is needed (Skinner, 1982) .
Video Teleconferencing: A Working Definition
In order to narrow the subject of teleconferencing
for dissertation purposes, video teleconferencing will be
the primary focus of discussion, although other types of
teleconferencing must be mentioned to understand the
unique relationship of video teleconferencing with other
types of communication. Thus, as defined for this
dissertation, video teleconferencing is simply a means of
permitting groups and individuals in disparate locations
to conduct meetings together and hear and see each other
through various options that can include the use of
microprocessor technology and satellite and cable hook-ups
including fibre optic and laser technology (Mascioni,
1982). Further, this definition does not preclude the
integration of video teleconferencing with other types of
related technology, including the use of home or business
10
computers (Caramanico, 1984). This definition does,
however, mean that sight and voice must be present to have
video teleconferencing.
Definition of Terms
A discussion of the technical terms used in this
dissertation will appear as introduced in the text.
However, for reference purposes, the following terms and
definitions are used throughout the dissertation:
Active Satellite: A type of communications
satellite designed to transmit electronic
signals from the satellite to earth. Early
active satellites were "store and forward"
(Feldman & Kelly, 1970) as high orbits were not
possible with early satellites (see Direct
Broadcast Distribution Satellite).
Cable Communications Act of 1984: The act
by Congress that made it legal to own a home
satellite reception system (Vizard, 1985).
Communications Satellite: In one sense, all
satellites today are communications satellites
in that data is received by earth stations.
Generally, communications satellites have been
defined as a link to provide telephone,
television and other types of communications for
private or commercial distribution (Feldman &
Kelly, 1970).
11
Direct Broadcast Distribution Satellite
(DBDS): Such satellites, common today, broadcast
a more powerful signal developed within the
satellite (Chiaviello & Macy, 1982) . Today,
most satellite signals are relayed to earth over
the 3.7 to 4.2 GHz (billions of cycles per
second) frequencies, known as the C-band.
Because microwave telephone transmissions on
earth use the same range of frequencies,
broadcast power is limited to 5 to 9 watts. By
the end of the 1980s DBDS satellites will shift
to the Ku band of higher frequencies (11.7 to
12.2 GHz) and will allow much stronger signals
for DBDS satellites that will result in much
smaller dish antennas on earth (Vizard, 1985).
Distance Learning: A method of teaching
that allows student and instructor to be in
different geographical locations. Commonly
associated with independent study by corres-
pondence, distance learning by teleconfer-
ence has recently allowed teacher/student
interaction by computer (Cross, 1983) and, thus,
audio and video teleconferencing.
Full-Motion Video: A video image similar to
normal television (30 frames per second in the
United States) delivery (A. Brown, 1982) .
12
Microwave Tower: A costly method of sending
video and audio signals by line-of-sight from
land tower to tower over large distances. All
early television networking used this method of
transmission delivery (Martin, 1978) .
Narrowcastinq: A low-power, omnidirection-
al, television signal capable of short range
broadcast ("National Narrowcast Service," 1985).
Passive Satellite: Designed to transmit a
signal from one point on earth via a reflection.
Although no longer used today, passive
satellites were either large balloons or a metal
ring around the earth in the "West Ford"
experiment of 1963 (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).
Satellite: A man-made object or vehicle
intended to orbit the earth, moon or other
celestial body which is, today, instrumented for
the transmission of data (Martin, 1978).
Satellite Dish Antenna: Type of antenna
needed to receive signals from a satellite. The
signal collected by the dish is reflected upward
(or outward) toward a feedhorn suspended over
the dish. Connected to the feedhorn is the
low-noise amplifier which boosts the weak
satellite signal (Vizard, 1985).
13
Slow-scan Video: A video image that repre-
sents an amount of time greater that normal U.S.
television (30 frames per second). Thus, one
frame or "picture" may represent several seconds
depending upon the slow-scan time (Southworth,
1982). This method of video delivery has been
used in certain "picture phone" systems and
represents a method of saving money because of
transmission delivery cost (Kelleher, 1983).
Stationary Orbit: A satellite that revolves
at the same speed as the earth rotates. Thus,
from an earth perspective, the satellite does
not move or change distance, as a stationary is
achieved at 22,300 miles above the earth.
Today, 13 of the 18 DBDS satellites that
transmit TV programming across North America are
Satcom Fl, Galaxy Gl, Satcom F3, Comstar D4,
Westar W5, Spacenet Sl, Anik Dl, Westar W4,
Westar W3, Satcom F4, Westar W2, Comstar D3, and
Satcom F2 (Vizard, 1985).
Telecommunications: Any transmission,
emission, or reception of signs, signals,
writings, images, and sounds or intelligence of
any nature by wire, radio optical, or other
electromagnetic system (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).
14
Teleconferencing: A form of interactive
electronic communication whereby two or more
users can communicate to each other through one
or any combination of devices that include the
telephone, telegraph, computer, TV, radio,
electronic handwriting, optical and other elec-
tronic/electromagnetic methods (R. Rice, 1982).
Telecourse or Teleclass: Usually defined as
a television correspondence course for credit or
non-credit. Such courses usually depend heavily
upon a text and study guide with the primary
function of television used to motivate
students. If electronic interaction between
instructor and student happens, such telecourse
involves teleconferencing (Gruebel, 1982).
Uplinks and Downlinks: The origination site
is referred to as the "uplink" which transmits
the signal to a communications satellite. The
signal is then beamed back to earth where any
number of downlink sites may pick up the signal
with receiving dishes. Today, portable dishes
can be used to turn virtually any facility into
a downlink site. A two-way audio/video hook-up
can be arranged in which everyone can
communicate "face-to-face" ("Conferencing by
15
Satellite," 1982) .
Video Teleconference: A video telecon-
ference originates from some type of television
broadcast studio and is a means of permitting
groups and individuals in disparate locations to
conduct meetings together and hear and see each
other through various options that can include
the use of microprocessor technology and
satellite and cable hook-ups including fibre
optic and laser technology (Mascioni, 1982).
Voice Quality Phone Links: A method of
providing interactive video teleconferencing
whereby a less expensive telephone medium is
used to allow participants to talk with one
another. Thus, video and audio are handled
through different links (R. Rice, 1982).
Video Teleconferencing In Higher Education and Business
Considerable attention has been given in this
dissertation to how video teleconferencing has been used
within higher education and the business world. Video
teleconferences have been marketed for the business world
while, at the same time, broadcast from a university
campus (often through university offices of continuing
education). This "marriage" of business and higher
16
education video teleconferencing has called for expertise
in planning and production not required in other areas on
a university campus (W. Miller, 1984).
Such a marriage must have the premise that the cliche
of "finding truth wherever one can find truth" is
essential to build upon an understanding of the video
teleconference medium. Thus, while scientific journals
have been cited throughout this dissertation, publications
that might not, under different circumstances, be
acceptable in scientific writing were used when other
sources did not exist.
In his dissertation, Human Communication Networking
in a Teleconferencinq Environment, Ronald Eugene Rice,
Stanford University, concludes that the next breakthrough
in teleconferencing will mix technologies and approaches.
Data processing, telecommunications, human communication
and information retrieval will al1 be important to
understand, he says. Rice cites Sweden as one country
where the telecommunications ministry is experimenting
with comprehensive interconnection of teletypes, telephone
exchanges, computers and the like. Hence, the decision to
telecommunicate may well have, as a goal, a proper commûn-
ications diet that mixes media usage for given organi-
zational, task and individual contexts (R. Rice, 1982).
Video teleconferencing in the business sector has
17
involved major corporations using video teleconferencing
for meetings and day-to-day problem solving (A. Bond,
1983). Corporations such as IBM, Johnson and Johnson,
Pfizer, Hewlett-Packard, J. C. Penny, Ford, TRW, Aetna,
Hughes Aircraft ("Hughes System," 1982), Exxon, Fairchild
(Benham & Fischer, 1983), Sears Roebuck ("Allstate in
Good," 1983; Dana, 1982) Liberty Mutual Insurance, Sperry-
Univac, Chrysler ("Chrysler Does It," 1983), and others
have used and continue to use video teleconferencing
("User Demand Spurring," 1983; "Videoconferencing Edges,"
1983). Organizations teleconferencing include the
American Bar Association, AFL-CIO, the Republican National
Committee and others. Companies such as Atlantic
Richfield and Aetna have established "in-house" video
teleconference rooms. Even the airline and pilots'
association negotiated via video teleconferencing (Ikert,
1982). Experts have claimed that an electronic revolution
has taken place (Maddox, 1981) . Differences with business
and university video teleconferencing appear to be
audience size and the "in-house" nature of such telecon-
ferences.
The history of one insurance company, Aetna Life &
Casualty, for example, typifies several. Five years after
Aetna Life & Casualty participated in a National
Aeronautics and Space Administration experiment involving
18
space-age business communications, the insurance company
initiated an interstate newtork of video meeting rooms to
link its headquarters by television and voice to other
offices. Between March 1981 (the date the rooms went
"on-line") and January 1983 more than 5,000 meetings,
involving 30,000 people (or an average of 6 persons per
conference), were held by video teleconference. Aetna
estimated the cost savings to be in the range of $500,000
in what would otherwise have been lost travel time
("Video: Telemeetings," 1983).
Video teleconferencing logistics have been said to be
"basically and deceivingly simple," with transmitting
equipment at the point of origination and receiving
equipment at each participation point with access to a TV
satellite transponder and voice-quality phone links for
two-way talk among all locations (Ruark, 1981). One
Japanese account executive for J. Walter Thompson
Advertising, Shimao Ishihara, said that small group video
teleconferences were important in advertising to quickly
show a client an ad regardless of how far the client was
from a branch office (Shimao Ishihara, personal
communication, April 8, 1984). In the dissertation,
Distributed Computer Control for a Multinode Video
Teleconferencing System, Thomas Paul Skinner (1982),
Boston University, writes that full motion video is an
19
alternative to the face-to-face meeting. Thus, with the
number of communications satellites increasing
dramatically, the purchase of a leased video channel to
anywhere in the world is now economically acceptable to
many larger companies.
Some have gone so far as to suggest that electronic
communication of the present and future may one day
replace paper mail and most other means of moving people
and information. It is estimated that by 1985 the
transmission services revenue alone for video
teleconferencing will exceed $100 million with the average
video teleconferencing room having equipment exceeding
$200,000. If one multiplies that amount by the number of
firms and institutions of higher education engaged in
video teleconferencing, the dollar figure is staggering,
running into the hundreds of millions (Ikert, 1981) .
In a way similar to that expressed by Lorne A.
Parker, director, and Christine H. Olgren, associate
director of the Center for Interactive Programs,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, this dissertation takes
the view that one can learn much about video
teleconferencing through an examination of groups who have
used the medium regardless of purpose. Parker writes,
"Progress in teleconferencing is based, in large part, on
accumulated experience. By sharing information, we all
20
gain a better understanding of the factors involved in
applications, technologies and markets" (Parker & Olgren,
1984, p. i) .
Modern video teleconferencing may still be said to be
in its infancy (Gudgel & Sheekey, 1984), much the way
radio was in the early 1900s. Marder (1977), for example,
found that many persons thought the great value of early
radio to be two-way communication with radio telephone
booths set up for persons to address others over the air
waves. Thus, the value of this dissertation for educators
and anyone involved with video teleconferencing lies in
the exploratory examination of the medium, wherever one
finds it used.
Scope and Rationale of the Problem
The ability to communicate through time, over time
and over distances evolved from early man through
non-speech signs and sounds, smoke signals and cave
drawings. Eventually, communication took the form of
handwriting and printing. Libraries evolved because of
the need to extend memory for others to learn (Sagan,
1980). The telegraph, telephone, radio, television,
computer and satellite dramatically boosted man's
abilities to quickly communicate and share thinking
despite vast distances. Early forms of conferencing might
21
have involved telegraph operators "discussing" news events
via a copper wire or American Indians signaling with smoke
among neighboring tribes. Modern systems have enabled man
to interact with his fellow man no matter how great the
distance—from the Earth to the Moon and from the Moon to
Earth. The term "telecommunications" evolved as a label
for an entire industry that can link individual to
individual through electrical and electronic devices.
Today, advances in technology have led to "wild
utopias" about the relationship telecommunications has in
the workplace. Rice writes:
Much of our society's activity is concerned with creating, processing, diffusing and utilizing information. The amount of information being handled, and the range of new communication technologies being developed, are staggering. These new styles of communicating and processing information are changing the social fabric relationships—personal, institutional, legal, economic and cultural--and may be rewoven in ways dram;atically different, and even unpredictable, from those of previous generations. There are already strong voices taking positions about the effects of these new forms of communication. Wild utopias where no one has to travel to work (and work's drudgery has been removed) are pitted against nightmares of corporate-controlled electronic surveillance, wholesale extermination of privacy, and information overload. (R. Rice, 1982, p. 36)
In the 1980s, one of the newest forms of interactive
electronic communication is video teleconferencing using
the communications satellite. Some report that the world
22
has gone electronic and "eye-ball-to-eye-ball" and
"press-of-the-flesh interpersonal contacts" may no longer
be an imperative part of productive information exchanges
(Mikesell, 1983). One may call video teleconferencing a
new medium or a new collection of media, each with its own
conventions, grammar and associated skills. Hamilton
discusses McLuhan's Gutenberg Galaxy and writes that
technology has the power to stop awareness when first
introduced (Hamilton, 1984).
Purpose of Study
Despite all of the technological advances and money
being spent, research to define and understand the medium
has been limited. How others have used video
teleconferencing to achieve sought-after objectives has
not been known as a composite view. Some, perhaps, may
have thoughts similar to Thomas Edison who, in 1913, spoke
about the new invention of the motion picture:
Books will soon become obsolete in the schools. Scholars will soon be taught through the eye. It is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture. Our school will be completely changed in 10 years. (Sanders, 1982, p. 18)
One can make strong arguments that some in higher
education have not been concerned about what video
teleconference producers have learned in the private
23
sector; or, the opposite, that persons in the private
sector have not shared experiences with persons in higher
education who are involved in the video teleconference
medium. Dimensions of "what to do" and "what not to do"
(as well as "what can be done") remain largely unknown
because of the new and evolving nature of the medium
(Hough, 1982) . Reports of excellent experiences with the
medium have been mixed with disaster stories of low
attendance for larger, university-type video teleconfer-
ences and high cost. The commonalities and differences as
a result of experience with video teleconferencing are not
known on a composite or national basis and no study has
sought such overall information. As an example of video
teleconferencing problems in the private sector, Robert
Keiper, telecommunications consultant of the San Diego
based Robert Keiper Associates, writes about the varied
results users have had using the new medium:
To conduct a staff meeting 'electronically' is not particularly intimidating, and if that was the limit of what videoconferencing could deliver, it would not bring about a great cultural upheaval. But these systems can be used for more sensitive purposes than staff meetings, and are already proving themselves to be much more versatile than were anticipated to be. S'ales meetings, contract negotiations, employment interviews and client programs are all being done successfully by video-conference. These are the types of meetings that can have a significant effect on a manager's career, and to conduct them in this totally new way is a major cultural change for those who use them.
24
The people using these systems are among the few who have successfully made the cultural adjustment to this new medium, and they are profiting from that adjustment. Users are reporting that videoconferencing increases their communication and their personal effectiveness and can actually deliver better quality decisions than the same meetings conducted face-to-face.
On the other hand, there are a number of companies where videoconferencing has failed completely—where expensive systems sit idle day after day. There are other companies where only a few managers have learned what the systems can do, and they are the only ones who use it. Then, there are a few companies where videoconferencing has come to be recognized as a standard management tool and where the videoconferencing facilities are often 'booked' for weeks in advance. (Keiper, 1983, p. 91)
Thus, the purpose of this study is to:
(1) determine the "state of the art" as has
been experienced by samples of persons in the
United States who have produced or been involved
with video teleconferences
(2) suggest ways to improve video
teleconferencing based upon the data and the
reported experiences of others
(3) measure attitudes of university
administrators toward university oriented video
teleconferencing
Definition of the Problem and Significance of the Study
The problem is that no study exists today that has
25
attempted to scientifically collect data based on
experiences with all users of the video teleconference
medium in the United States. Parker and Olgren (1984) of
the University of Wisconsin's Center for Interactive
Programs write:
Teleconferencing, like many young industries, is long on speculation but short on hard data when it comes to market trends. Assessments tend to rely on general impressions or the case experience of only a few individuals or companies. Not only does a lack of research data make it difficult to determine the market's current status, but it hampers accurate projections about future developments that could have an important effect on strategic planning. (p.l45)
Articles written about'the "best" methods of video
teleconferencing have relied on the experiences of a
single individual or single video teleconference. No
émpirical basis exists to support or deny such methods on
a national basis. For example, do persons involved in
video teleconferencing believe the video teleconference
will continue to be a common event in education and
business in the future? This is not to say, however, that
no attempts have been made to gather data.
One survey of business executives found that the rate
of acceptance of video teleconferencing was noticeably
higher for video teleconference participants who
previously had face-to-face contact with the participants.
26
Such findings suggest that face-to-face contact
establishes a rapport that expedites and carries over into
subsequent electronic contact (Mascioni, 1982).
Do some topics work well with video teleconferencing
while others do not? What should be the "mix" with
personal contact and electronic contact? And what should
be the most effective electronic mix of audio to video?
Again, data does not exist that suggests answers to such
questions.
In his dissertation, Satellite Teleconferencing in
Continuinq Education, Randall Glen Bretz (1982) writes:
Most satellite teleconferences make use of a basic presentation format placing the content expert(s) at many locations but linked together by satellite connection, and allowing the remote participants to ask questions and make comments by return audio connection, usually telephone. The creative faculty talent and program planning talent which exists on university campuses has largely been untapped. (p.5)
Thus, what is the role of the university and its
faculty? And what does hard data suggest is the best
format of "most" video teleconferences? Will the new
technology become part of the social pattern of society,
as did radio (Marder, 1977) and televison? Can Orwell's
1984 be correct in predicting some of the negative effects
associated with advanced technology? Although any study
cannot provide "final" answers to the problem, the study
27
is significant in providing data on a nationwide basis
about video teleconferencing.
Research Problem and Questions
The limited findings of other studies about video
teleconferencing suggest the following unknown factors
about the video teleconference in 1985:
(1) rapidly changing technology has
prevented any consistent format definition of a
video teleconference
(2) what variables within a video
teleconference might aid in effective
information dissemination and whether such
variables depend upon subject matter
(3) what preparation (if any) can be done
to aid a participatory audience to gain
understanding of the subject
The research questions addressed in this study are
(1) Do successes and failures relate to how
one uses or formats video teleconferencing?
(2) Do some topics work well with video
teleconferencing while others do not?
(3) What should be the "mix" of personal
and electronic contact?
(4) Does the type of educational
28
institution or busihess relate to successful
video teleconferencing?
(5) What is the importance of the size of
the video teleconference; the diversity of
subject matter; and the previous experience of
persons involved with video teleconferencing?
Answers to the research questions from the
questionnaire data will provide a significant
understanding of "the state of the art" of video
teleconferencing and will suggest ways to improve video
teleconferencing. Thus, the research data should provide
a basis to explore answers to problems of the video
teleconference medium.
Procedures
Two questionnaires, mailed to selected groups
involved in video teleconferencing in the United States,
were based on the assumption that anyone involved in video
teleconferencing in higher education or business will have
gained information about video teleconferencing.
Questionnaire One (eight pages; see Appendix A) measured
responses and variance among persons involved with video
teleconferencing. Questionnaire Two (two pages; see
Appendix B) was sent to persons who control budgets for
video teleconferences, i.e., university presidents and
29
administrators. Through correlational analysis of
variance of non-parametric data and through information on
formatting and video teleconference content, a view of the
video teleconference has emerged that has not been "seen"
before.
Limitations of the Study
The national study examined groups involved with
video teleconferencing and gave considerable information
about video teleconferencing's "state of the art," as
reported by individuals who use the medium. While the
groups or persons sent questionnaires probably did not
include every organization that has engaged in video
teleconferencing, all organizations known to have video
teleconferenced (except vendors as previously mentioned)
with a listing in the Corporation for Public Broadcasting
Directory (1984-1985), the University of Wisconsin's
Teleconferencinq Directory (1985) and/or the private
mailing list of the National University Teleconference
Network, were sent questionnaires. Thus, the question-
naire mailing represented the entire universe of known
organizations who have video teleconferenced. Of course,
as in any mail survey instrument, the data can only
represent persons who responded to the questionnaires.
However, such data from persons involved nationwide in
30
first-hand experiences with video teleconferencing
provides insight about the accomplishments, successes and
failures of the medium and its use. But, by definition,
such data is not "absolute" fact.
As audience opinion on a national level was not
measured, it is possible that persons who have video
teleconferenced could hold incorrect assumptions about why
they have had successes or failures with the medium.
Thus, both surveys are measurements of perception by
persons close to the video teleconference medium. For
example, the question, "How Important Is the Following For
a Successful Video Teleconference?" intentionally did not
define importance and left the word to be defined by the
respondent. What is "important" is not whether a certain
variable can be scientifically measured for importance but
whether the perception of the respondent agrees that such
a variable is important.
Through the new data, the personal comments of the
respondents and reports made by other writings, one can
only have a much better "idea" of the medium and the
experience of others.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Evolution of the Video Teleconference
The video teleconference evolved because of man's
increasing need to communicate in faster, more efficient
ways consistent with a changing society. One can make
strong arguments that all media contribute, in one way or
another, to learning and that the video teleconference is
but one more device to aid in (or become the message as
McLuhan suggests), the concept of "distance learning." Of
course, distance learning has been more commonly
associated with independent study by correspondence.
The Carnegie Council has projected that enrollment
will not reach levels of the 60s and 70s until the end of
the century (Three Thousand Futures, 1981) . Policies of
retrenchment and increasing costs have led administrators
and faculty to wonder how universities and colleges can
continue a high standard of service. Some institutions
have sought new clientele while maintaining traditional
services to the on-campus student. To further complicate
the climate of higher education in the 80s, business and
industry have sought additional education through
non-credit, work-related courses. A wide variety of
continuing education programs have illustrated the
31
32
increasing demand for higher education to meet adult
needs. But, as demand in certain areas of continuing
education have increased, funds have not.
Some have said that electronic interaction can never
duplicate "face-to-face" interaction in learning because
all learning must involve human dimensions. Despite the
criticism, a number of programs--degree and non-degree—
have taken place that put heavy emphasis on distance
learning (Hansell, Green, & Erbring, 1982). With some
higher education budgets at 0 or below growth levels, the
new media is no longer being looked upon as a "frill," but
as a necessity or a new "way of life."
Before distance learning through video telecon-
ferencing can be understood with all its strengths and
weaknesses, a perspective or understanding of the video
teleconference evolution must take place. This chapter
begins with an overview of the changing technology that
has allowed the video teleconference to evolve.
The Communications Satellite
A satellite may be defined as a man-made object or
vehicle intended to orbit the earth, the moon, or another
celestial body and usually instrumented for the transmis-
sion of space data (Martin, 1978). The term telecommun-
ications is defined as any transmission, emission, or re-
ception of signs, signals, writings, images, and sounds or
33
intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical, or
other electromagnetic systems. Thus, a communications
satellite is a satellite intentionally used to relay
telecommunication information (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).
As early as 1945, Arthur C. Clarke discussed
transoceanic communication satellite service, satellites
in stationary orbits, manned space stations, solar powered
satellite transmission equipment, and atomic powered
rockets (Pritchard, 1968). In 1962 transoceanic and
transcontinental television satellite service became a
reality with Telstar linking the US and Europe (Brewer,
19.69) . Shortly after, television pictures and sound of
the Eighteenth Olympiad were delivered to the US directly
from Tokyo. Telstar was preceded by several communi-
cations satellites including Score, Courier and Echo
followed by Relay, Syncom and others (Martin, 1978).
The Passive Satellite
The earliest type of communications satellite was
called the "passive" satellite, designed to transmit a
signal from one point on earth to another via a reflection
from the satellite. Early passive satellites (such as
Echo) used large balloon type structures to reflect
signals. Another type of passive satellite—the "West
Ford"—involved, what experts have termed, the most
unusual satellites ever put into orbit.
34
In 1958 Harold F. Meyer and Walter E. Morrow, Jr.
(cited in Feldman & Kelly, 1970) , in a summer session
sponsored by the US Army Signal Corps, conceived of using
a belt of simple, tuned wires as reflectors of radio
waves. Fears were expressed by optical and radio astro-
nomers that such a belt around the entire earth would
result in harmful interference. As a precaution, the West
Ford dipoles were launched into an orbit displaced by the
sun's radiation pressure so that the dipoles would be
returned to the earth's atmosphere within a reasonable
period of time. On May 9, 1963, a dipole or filament
dispenser was launched into orbit and by the end of June
1963 the Earth's first dipole belt had closed on itself
forming a complete ring around the earth. Thus, trillions o
of tiny conductive filaments (4.8 x 10 , 3/4 of an inch
long and .0007 inches in diameter packed parallel to each
other in 18 cylinders) were dispersed uniformly in a belt
around the earth. The payload package spun at eight
revolutions per second with varying velocities needed to
place each needle in a slightly different earth orbit.
The system malfunctioned and the cylinders were
delayed by a fifth of an orbit. The sun's ray caused
clusters of dipoles to come off together and the result
was that far fewer dipoles were launched than needed. The
ring did exist, however, for three weeks and worked in
35
ways similar to what had been projected (Feldman & Kelly,
1970) .
Thus, for a brief time there was no need to point
antennas at a moving satellite, but rather, to aim at the
earth's new ring. Although video teleconferencing was not
tried, one advantage with such a system (assuming one
could bounce video signals) would be the continuous
reflection of signals without the need of a satellite as
long as the belt could be "seen." Because of criticism
and the development of "active" type satellites, no
passive satellite system exists today.
The Active Satellite
The second type of communications satellite, termed
the "active" type satellite, received a signal transmitted
from one point on earth and re-transmitted back to earth.
On December 18, 1958, the first active communications
satellite, Score, transmitted for the first time a human
voice from a satellite (President Eisenhower's Christmas
message). Score, was termed an active "store and forward"
type satellite, as a high enough orbit was not possible at
the time. Thus, Score had to store messages in the
satellite for later broadcast over an appropriate ground
receiving station (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).
Today, store and forward satellites do not exist as
high orbit can be achieved for a stationary orbit (the
36
satellite travels at the rotation speed of the earth). It
is, perhaps, ironic that in 1945 radio engineer and
science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke suggested the use
of satellites spaced equally around the equator as
extraterrestrial relays. Clarke pointed out that at
22,000 miles a satellite takes 24 hours to complete an
orbit and turns at the same rate as the surface of the
earth (Pritchard, 1968) .
The Active, Direct Broadcast Distribution Satellite
Today, through electronic amplification, active
"direct broadcast" satellites broadcast a powerful signal
within the satellite (Fraser, 1983). Sometimes called
microwave towers in the sky, communications satellites can
be "seen" by two or any number of ground stations
thousands of miles apart. Prior to communication
satellites, the method commonly used to link broadcast
stations by land were microwave tower repeater stations
that had to be built every 10, 20, or 30 miles (depending
upon land elevation and other factors) at great building
and maintenance cost (Martin, 1978).
In 1968 Wilbur Schramm wrote that direct broadcast or
distribution satellites (DBDS) would one day be able to
broadcast directly to home receivers that would eventually
cost as little as $50 more than the usual home reception
devices for television (Schramm, 1968). DBDS satellites
37
make possible satellite teleconferences. As of 1982,
eighteen DBDS serve the North American continent and are
used for a variety of purposes from data transmission of
programming to programming of Public Broadcasting Stations
and the distribution of specially designed programming for
cable TV subscribers (Bretz, 1982) .
Two factors that primarily govern the communications
capacity of active satellites are the effective transmit-
ting power of the satellite and the sensitivity of the
ground station. Early active satellites had to have
extremely large satellite dishes (Jaffe, 1966) to receive
and amplify signals while more recent direct broadcast
satellites have signals strong enough to be received at
home with a small dish and receiver.
Telstar
Although earlier communication satellites existed
(such as Courier), Telstar is considered by most to have
begun the era of satellite communication. On July 10,
1962, Telstar I was launched and live television pictures
originating in the United States were received in France.
Built by the Bell Telephone Laboratories of AT & T in
1960, Telstar was the first space effort financed by
private enterprise. Telstar I weighed 175.4 pounds at
launch and was a communications transponder (receiver and
transmitter). The satellite carried a sophisticated
38
command and control system and a telemetry system capable
of measuring and transmitting to the ground the conditions
of all elements of the spacecraft as wel1 as radiation
particle monitoring equipment. Launched one day after the
US high altitude nuclear explosion of July 9, 1962, severe
radiation exposure damaged transistors in the command
system and on November 24, 1962, it failed to respond. It
was again activated and operated until February 21, 1963,
when trouble appeared which was never corrected (Feldman &
Kelly, 1970) .
The Relay Satellites
Relay I had similar objectives to Telstar and was
launched on December 13, 1962. Scientists originally
planned to silence Relay I by means of a built-in one year
timer to terminate all transmission by means of a chemical
device designed to break a circuit. The device failed to
work and Relay I continued to operate through 1966. Relay
I carried such things as:
(1) Live transmission to Europe of the
unveiling of the Mona Lisa at the National
Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
(2) Transmission of the funeral of Pope
John and the coronation of Pope Paul.
(3) Overseas transmission of President
Johnson's first address to Congress.
39
(4) First trans-Pacific television
transmission from the United States to Japan.
(5) Transmission of encephalograms (brain
waves) from England to the United States for a
surgeons' diagnosis with results interpreted and
transmitted back (Martin, 1978).
Major Legislation Developed for Communication Satellites
Satellite technology brought the need for major
legislation and international agreements related to
communication satellites developed. On July 29, 1958,
President Eisenhower signed the bill creating a civilian
federal agency, The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). Thus, NASA had the responsibility
for control of aeronautical and space activities sponsored
by the United States. The United States Defense
Department remained in charge of space activities and was
primarily associated with the development of weapons
systems, military operations, and defense. In the
Communications Satellite Act of 1962, Congress placed the
developments of communication satellites (COMSATS) into
private hands. The act declared in part that the United
States should establish a commercial communications
satellite system, as part of an improved global
communications network, to be responsive to public needs
40
and national objectives and contribute to world peace and
understanding (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).
Thus, the Communications Satellite Corporation
(COMSAT) was set up in February 1963 and, shortly after,
an international satellite communications system was
established, called the International Telecommunications
Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT). Negotiations were
carried on with other countries and in 1964 two agreements
under INTELSAT were signed. The first agreement was
termed "Agreement Establishing Interim Arrangements for
Global Commercial Communications Satellite System" and
stated that participation by respective governments was to
be on a govêrnment-to-government basis. Among other
things COMSATS (operating entity for the United States)
owns 55 percent of INTELSAT and is manager of the space or
satellite segment of the overall organization.
The 85 pound Early Bird was COMSAT's first satellite
which carried 240 two-way audio conversations and was put
into operation in June 1965. Faster than expected demand
shifted the development of high-capacity satellites for
increasing international communication. COMSAT proposed a
rate of $6,700 an hour for television use of Early Bird
between the US and Europe (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).
Russian "Lightning"
On April 23, 1965, the Soviet Union launched the
41
first Molniya satellite. Molniya is a Russian word
meaning "lightning." On October 15, 1965, Russia launched
a second Molniya satellite designed in a simultaneous
communications system with several satellites. Like the
Early Bird satellite, it was reported to be used for
telephone and television communications (Feldman & Kelly,
1970). In November 1965 the Soviet Union transmitted a
color television program by satellite to France for the
first time. As early as the 1971-72 edition of Jane's All
The World's Aircraft (cited in Dogan, 1975), an
authoritative international reference work on air and
space developments, it was reported that the Soviet Union
had developed armed spacecraft that could destroy spy
satellites or other craft in outer space.
The Communications Satellite and Education
Several books have been written about satellite
technology. Of course, video teleconferencing from
continent to continent is not possible without the use of
satellites as has been mentioned. Although this
dissertation can only provide a brief view of the changing
satellite technology, it is important to put such a view
into perspective with two-way video teleconferencing.
The first experiment in two-way educational video
teleconferencing by satellite took place between the
42
United States and France on May 31, 1965. A French class
of 30 students in West Bend, Wisconsin, was linked to an
English class at the Lycee Henri IV in Paris. For fifty
minutes, both classes could hear and see each other while
participating in two-way conversation. Thousands of miles
of space and land distance were covered in this electronic
interchange via the Early Bird satellite. The exchange
took place without scripts between the two organizations
responsible for the program. The French officials were
disturbed by the lack of script and said they were anxious
to avoid any risk of indiscretions by irresponsible young
people. The broadcast took place in an atmosphere of good
humor and the press reported that both sides adapted
themselves well to the video teleconference (Feldman &
Kelly, 1970) .
However, the Paris/West Bend video teleconference was
the exception before 1975. In fact, most of the early
visions of using video through satellites involved one-way
television distribution. Telesat Canada provides such an
example.
In 1969 the Canadian Parliament passed legislation to
establish Telesat Canada. The government established
corporation had tririte ownership with one third owned by
the Canadian federal government, one third owned by common
telecommunications carriers and one third owned by the
43
public. Provisions in the act were also made to sell time
to Canadian private television (CTV), educational
television systems, the Canadian Overseas Telecommun-
ications Corporation, computer service companies and cable
television networks. Canadian legislaticn in 1969
established Telesat Canada with objectives including to
narrow differences between Canadians of the northern
frontier with Canadians who live in the cities (Chapman,
1970) .
In 1971 Canada and the United States signed an
agreement in a co-operative effort to launch a commun-
ications satellite. In 1973 and 1974 Anik I, II, and III
were launched and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
(CBC) became the world's first radio and television
network to have domestic distribution by geostationary
satellite. In 1974 live, one-way television was beamed to
the Arctic and it was reported that bartenders in
Whitehorse of the Yukon Territory would watch the bars
empty as people went home to watch television (Carruthers,
1972) .
Soon, however, some Canadians began to question the
benefits of the Canadian satellite program and whether the
system was providing a means to create a dialog of
communication with the North and South of Canada as
intended by the legislation. The evolving satellite
44
technology is important to realize because the Anik
satellites were point to multi-point and not direct
broadcast or distribution satellites (DBDS) as has been
previously mentioned. Thus, although video teleconfer-
encing or two-way video communication was possible in
selected areas, it was not possible without considerable
effort, as all transmissions would have to go through
large, receiving and sending stations. It was argued that
the system would only reach some 55,000 persons of the
estimated 250,000 persons in the Canadian North. One
study, "Will Anik benefit the North?" suggested that
bringing signals to the North did not create the intended
dialog between Canadians in the North and South of Canada
(Carruthers, 1972) . The British Columbia system of
educational video teleconferencing will be discussed later
in this chapter.
The educational aspects of satellite transmission are
staggering when one looks at what has been done thus far
and what is planned for the future (Phillip, 1985).
Correspondence study with television has proved a powerful
and flexible method in Japan and Brazil. Television in
Poland has presented the best vocational teachers widely
to offer classes in public schools where experienced
teachers are not available. Satellite technology has
offered hope of profound social change in underdeveloped
45
countries (Dlugatch, 1970). Consider the following
remarks made in 196 8:
Of the many ills that beset mankind, the most serious results from the grave and increasing contrast in living conditions between the poor nations and the rich, and the bitter-ness it engenders. Advances in technology during the recent decades have worsened rather than alleviated the situation, contrary to our hopes and expectations. There now exists, however, an opportunity to help the less developed nations help themselves merely by allowing them to participate in the commun-ications revolution made possible by satellites. A satellite system for mass education could make a substantial contribution to the enlightenment of the human race. (Rosen, 1968, p.58)
The opportunity for change through the communications
satellite is happening throughout the world (Kenda, 1984).
In India, the first direct broadcast satellite was
launched in 1975 to reach all of India's 568,000 villages.
Instructional objectives include using television to
contribute to family planning, improve agricultural
practices, and contribute to national integration ("First
Satellite Built," 1975). Brazil has instituted a
satellite planning program to implement a Brazillian
educational satellite system. Brazil is a country with
40% of the population classified as illiterate. The
Brazillian program includes large scale use of media
including a combination of satellite and ground radio and
television transmission (Morgan & Margolin, 1970).
46
In Turkey, 55% of the population is illiterate with
the average per capita national income about $337 per
year. Family planning, modern agricultural methods, and a
general need to improve rural life are serious national
problems. Television and the communications satellite
have offered hope in a country where many teachers are
inadequately trained (Dogan, 1975). In the United States,
corporations use satellite technology and concepts of
distance learning to train employees (H. Rice, 1983) .
The Concept of Distance Learning
Research on distance learning has rarely focused on
the student or human element within the new technology.
The college buying a pre-packaged telecourse has little
information as to how interaction can occur between
instructor and student given the course nature and what is
usually known about students who take the course. In
1975, for example, Gooler and Sell (cited in Wiesner,
1983) found the electronic part of telecourses to be rated
lower in importance than the text and study guide
developed by the University of Mid-America students. In
1978, Purdie and Mittelsted (cited in Wiesner, 1983) found
that telecourses had a positive impact on the enrollments
of equivalent on-campus courses. In a 1972 report by
Kitzes and Knox (cited in Wiesner, 1983), Dr. Perry of the
Open University said that five percent of course content
47
is conveyed through television and that the primary
function of television is to motivate students rather than
convey information. Thus, almost all of the course
content is delivered via printed material. At the same
time, many American telecourse producers do not design
telecourses with such motivation in mind (Wiesner, 1983) .
Individuals who must or prefer to learn at a distance
include:
(1) persons caring for young children
(2) persons who have employment obligations
(3) persons with physical handicaps
(4) persons who live in geographically
isolated areas that prevent regular classroom
attendance
(5) persons with previous unsuccessful
experiences in classroom settings (Feasley,
1983)
Faculty members are commonly called mentors or tutors
because they direct students to learning materials and
personnel and provide emotional support and evaluate
students' progress. Trends in distance education include:
(1) an increasing tendency for the same
institution to use multiple media to meet needs
of diverse students
48
(2) a decreasing reliance on broadcast
media in favor of recorded materials
(3) a grêater reliance on less expensive,
less complex media
(4) a wider assortment of options from
which to choose including broadcast television
and radio, limited circuit television and radio,
audio and videocassettes, videotex, computers,
correspondence, videodiscs and telephones
(Feasley, 1983)
As distance learning expands, the need for
nontraditional recruitment, admissions, registration and
counseling increases. A major study of nine diverse,
autonomous distance universities concluded that such
institutions:
(1) are more advantageous to students'
external needs
(2) exhibit more efficient administration
for the number of enrollments generally
needed—9,000 to 22,000 a year (Rumble & Keegan,
1982, p. 245)
In 1977 Clay Kistler examined the potential for cable
television in higher education. He writes:
49
The cable administrator, like the administrator in higher education, must keep his eyes on the horizon where the economic factors and technological advances gather and shift like clouds. (Kistler, 1977, p. 3)
The principle advantage of cable television rests in
its method of program delivery by a single wire or cable
with maximum preservation of the open spectrum. Thus,
large numbers of individual program signals can be
transmitted on the same cable with complete separation of
individual program signals at the user end. Optical fiber
cable are fiber glass cables that can transmit laser
signals down extremely fine glass "hairs." In theory the
optical fiber can carry one billion times as much
information as a telephone cable (O'Keefe & Cerny, 1983).
The Japanese have marketed optical fibers that transmit
more than one billion bits of information per second.
Hence, cable systems of the future could carry several
thousand television programs to the home (Martin, 1978).
Kistler outlines several steps in creating an
effective telecourse. In reviewing the proposal,
university administrators must consider areas of policy,
accreditation, governmental guidelines, budget, and the
university's master plan for the future. When telecourses
are offered, a need for individual supervision still
50
exists and regular assignments and some method to ask
questions must be established. Some colleges require
credit students to attend regular on-campus sessions. The
Chicago Junior College is one such institution.
The Chicago Junior College offers telecourses for
academic credit and has introduced three features in
addition to the televised instruction:
(1) The section teacher is responsible for
personal supervision, the marking of papers, and
answering individual questions.
(2) The student manual that summarizes the
lesson, gives follow-up assignments and suggests
further reading.
(3) The regular submission of written
reports by the student to the college (Cassier,
1962) .
The administrator might well examine the "Chinese
Television University," the largest in the world by
student population. Open in 1979, the mission of Chinese
Television University is to promote modernization and to
deal with the limited number of places available in
conventional institutions. The Chinese journal, People's
Education, reported that in the first year of operation
more than 600,000 people were taking correspondence
51
courses offered through 29 participating colleges
throughout China. More than 410,000 registered students
had passed entrance exams in 1979 (McCormick, 1980).
Full time distance learning students studied an
average of three courses and mostly came from worker type
homes. About 3 0 percent of the total enrollment were
drawn from middle school teachers with the rest being
clerks, civil servants, and primary school teachers. The
president and vice president of the university are
responsible to the Minister of Education and the Central
Broadcasting Bureau. The five major sections under the
president and vice president are Teaching Administration,
Media, TV Programme Production, General Administration,
and Student Administration.
The main study material, like other instructional
television programs, is print. Students spend four hours
per week watching television programs and eight hours
doing homework from textbooks, exercises and supplementary
material. Of course, satellite technology makes distance
learning throughout China possible (McCormick, 1980).
Distance education requires new strategies and
thoughts. For example, some have asked, "What happens to
equity in education when some students pay for home access
to instruction delivered through microcomputer, videodisc,
or cable television while others cannot afford such
52
advantages?" What can happen with human interaction if
machines replace people without compensatory shifts in the
remaining human teaching? Will affective skills learned
through modeling others' behavior be lost? Many questions
remain unanswered (Feasley, 1983).
Questions that remain unanswered include such
questions as:
(1) What is the proper role of two-way
communications given the subject matter and
needs and characteristics of learners and the
availability of institutional resources?
(2) What are the strengths and shortcomings
of mail, telephone and interpersonal contacts?
(3) How do students and instructors differ
in perspective on distance learning? (Wiesner,
1983)
In the US in the early 1950s, teachers feared that
telecourses could replace them in the classroom. In 1952
a report issued by the Educational Television Program
Institute addressed itself to this problem:
Television is not and is never going to be an educational panacea . . . It is not going to replace the teacher . . . Nothing can take the place of face-to-face contact between the teacher and pupil, of the interplay of personalities of questions and discussion. Educational television is not going to outmode the classroom. . . . (Television in Education,
53
1952, p. 6)
The PBS Adult Learning Service (ALS)
Lawrence Grossman, former PBS president, said during
Mass Communications Week on the Texas Tech University
campus that the overall quality of programming with cable
television had deteriorated rather than improved with more
channels. He added that the national PBS network is
planning "teleclasses" which are expected to involve about
55,000 adult students and be sanctioned by more than 500
universities and colleges. And the "teleclass" is a
reality today in universities and colleges ("Cable No
Hindrance," 1982) .
The PBS Adult Learning Service (ALS) is the first and
largest nationwide effort to provide adult learning and
college credit through television. ALS represents a
partnership with more than 900 colleges and universities
and 281 public television stations. For the 1984-85
academic year, more than 120,000 students paid tuition.
Colleges and universities pay ALS a license fee for the
right to use the ALS course for credit. Since Fall 1981
more than a third of a million students have enrolled in
PBS-distributed television courses. Courses include the
arts and humanities, history and social sciences, science
and health, business and technology, and professional
54
development and teacher education (William H. Phillip,
Jr., associate director of marketing for PBS Adult
Learning Service, personal communication, August 30, 1985;
Phillip, 1985) . i.
Narrowcasting and the National Narrowcast Service (NNS)
Narrowcasting has evolved as a definition of that
area of transmission interest in which only a special part
of the public is served. A form of narrowcasting
specially reserved for educational uses is the
2500-megahertz Instructional Television Fixed Service
(ITFS) now in use in many parts of the country. Although
useful for short-range transmission only, the radiation is
omnidirectional, with one transmission center permitted to
operate on four programming frequencies at the same time.
A dish antenna is required to gather adequate energy from
the transmission to produce a video picture. The ITFS
signal is in the Super High Frequency range of the
spectrum in order to pose little threat to other spectrum
users (A Report to, 1980) .
PBS also plans a form of video teleconferencing with
the National Narrowcast Service (NNS), funded by the
Annenberg/CPB Project, to begin in February 1986.
Initially, NNS will begin programming in 20 cities with a
55
25 hour schedule of programs per week. Live, interactive
seminars in law, accounting, medicine and banking will be
included. NNS will focus on the working adult with
courses on business related topics at the undergraduate
and graduate level (National Narrowcast Service, 1985).
Eastern New Mexico University and the Talk-back Television Communication System
In 1977 Eastern New Mexico University submitted a
proposal to the Board of Educational Finance to establish
a "talk-back television communication system" between the
Portales campus and the branch campuses at Roswell and
Clovis. The system started between the Portales and
Roswell campuses with the fall semester 197 8 on an
experimental basis for a three-year period.
Instructional television between Portales and Roswell
began with the offering of five classes. To date, the
results of the program have been encouraging and Eastern
New Mexico University (ENMU) has requested continuing
funding of the Roswell/Portales system and the development
of a Portales/Clovis system. Because of the pending new
physical facility for the Clovis campus, the ITFS has not
been completed.
During the two year period (1978-79 and 1979-80
academic years), 37 courses had been offered to 303
56
graduate and undergraduate students resulting in the
production of 883 credit hours. The report to the Board
of Educational Finance said:
It is clear from the table that significant numbers of students are being served through the ITFS programming system and, it is our belief, that the program is viable and should be continued between Roswell and Portales even though the credit hour production is not yet as high as anticipated. Moreover, it is our feeling that upper division and graduate course offerings at the Clovis campus and perhaps even in the Hobbs/Lovington area would greatly improve the educational delivery system, in the Eastern part of the state. (A Report to, 1980, p. 1)
The first two years of the ITFS experiment showed
ITFS to be an effective means of delivery of educational
services as measured by student satisfaction. It was
found that a careful "need based" strategy should be
developed rather than simply offering a "smorgasbord" of
courses based largely upon intuition.
Conclusions regarding the efficacy of the ITFS
program were also based upon results of survey evaluations
taken during the first two years of *the program. The
survey taken during the first year revealed numerous
problems in terms of communications and methodology. The
survey taken during the second year showed considerable
improvement (A Report to, 1980).
57
Televised Instruction and the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and University System
In a March 11, 1985, memorandum from Kenneth Ashworth
of the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and
University System, guidelines adopted January 1985 were
released that require public institutions in Texas to
obtain Coordinating Board approval for televised
instruction. The regulations were designed to encourage
the development of television for educational purposes
while keeping the same quality as regular on-campus
resident credit instruction. Televised instruction was
defined as any form of instruction that uses live and/or
pre-produced television programs as a primary mode for
delivery to a student not within the physical presence of
the instructor (Coordinating Board Memorandum, 1985).
The Association for Graduate Education and Research In North Texas (TAGER)
The Association for Graduate Education and Research
in North Texas (TAGER) has pushed for such a plan as
adopted by the Coordinating Board. The Dallas area of
Texas has two important examples of successful application
of available technology to surmount local problems in
educational access. The combined work of the Dallas
County Community College District and the Tarrant County
Junior College District has led to the implementation of
58
several complete college credit telecourses. Delivery
modes have included open and closed circuit television on
and off campus with a regional consortium and an
international distribution. Telecourses include carefully
written study guides to accompany required textbooks with
on-campus orientation and testing sessions.
The TAGER television network began in 1967 in
response to the interests of business and industry in the
Dallas/Ft. Worth area. In 1980 the Association for Higher
Education of North Texas (AHE) was incorporated and had 17
institutions with the TAGER television network one of the
services offered by the association (Arnell, 1984).
The TAGER operation centers on a live, on-camera
instructor at almost all times. The TAGER technical
system consists of a major signal switching center at the
TAGER headquarters on the edge of The University of Texas
at Dallas campus. The network joins 10 college and
university campuses, 14 private industrial receiving
sites, the Regional Instructional Television Consortium of
12 independent school districts and administrative centers
and private schools and the several hospital members of
the Dallas Area Hospital Television System.
Courses carried over the network can be received only
by other TAGER institutions or by the specially equipped
receiving classrooms scattered throughout business,
59
industry and neighborhood schools in the Dallas-Fort Worth
Metroplex. Students are provided talkback telephones
which enable them to ask questions or discuss a lecture
point with the professor and the discussion is heard
throughout the network wherever other students in that
course may be located.
Enrollment in courses delivered by the TAGER network
will reach 2200 this year with about 90% of all
programming carried live. Complete master's degree
programs through TAGER are available in electrical
engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering,
computer science, operations research, engineering
management and applied mathematics (Arnell, 1984).
Continuinq Education and the Video Teleconference Potential
The beginnings of satellite teleconferencing in
continuing education began in the middle and late 1970s
when NASA put into orbit in 1974 the high powered DBDS
Applied Technology Satellite (ATS-6), used for a number of
educational teleconferences. ATS-6 was capable of
broadcasting to low cost receivers (Bretz, 1982).
The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) connects more
than 160 stations throughout the country and has opened
the door for teleconferencing via satellite. The Public
Service Satellite Consortium (PSSC) created a National
60
Satellite Network to implement video teleconferences using
existing satellite transmission and reception sites
throughout the country. PSSC has been in the process of
establishing a Campus Conference Network to tie together
institutions of higher education in large cities around
the country. The National University Teleconference
Network (NUTN) has brought together some 100 institutions
across the country to share educational video telecon-
ferencing. In contrast, the private business, Holiday
Inn, Inc., has spent more than $10 million to implement
HI-NET, a wholly owned subsidiary charged with equipping
motels throughout the country with satellite reception
equipment to facilitate meetings and other activities
(including in-room movies) via satellite (Bretz, 1982).
Today, the NASA space shuttle has made it possible to
place larger and more powerful satellites into orbit as
well as remove and service existing satellites (Bates,
1984). Technology is rapidly changing, expanding the
capabilities of satellites to carry more television
signals, provide more powerful signals, and have longer
lives in space. Higher powered satellites make possible
smaller transmit and receive antennas (Frost, 1984).
In the 1970S engineers for the Public Broadcasting
System developed a satellite distribution system to
connect the nearly 150 public television stations across
61
the country. In its 1976 application to the Federal
Communication Commission, PBS indicated that significant
savings would result through satellite interconnection to
member stations (Bretz, 1982) .
In 197 8 the Nebraska ETV Network was among .the first
to construct satellite origination and reception
facilities to receive and transmit programming on the
satellite interconnect system. By March 1979 the
PBS satellite network connected some 150 public broadcast
stations throughout the country. Although video satellite
teleconferences were not among the early purposes for the
PBS system, the interconnect system provided a video
teleconference link with nearly every state and most major
cities (Bretz, 1982). Satellite connection of cable TV
happened in the middle 70s and eventually led to many
cable program services now available via satellite. Such
services range from Home Box Office (HBO) which began
satellite use in 1975 and similar "movie" channels to the
"super stations" which transmit programming to satellites
for cable distribution. The 24 hour news channel, known
as Cable News Network (CNN), and assorted other services
are now transmitted to cable systems via satellite. This
could be important to video teleconferencing given the
fact that some cable programming services, including
62
HBO, do not make use of satellite transponders on a
24-hour a day basis. Thus, it is possible to use such
time for teleconference program distribution. The
additional satellite time made possible the establishment
of HI-NET, the Holiday Inn satellite network developed in
1980. Thus, satellite receive antennas at Holiday Inns
constructed nation-wide involve regional meetings and
conferences via satellite as part of Holiday Inn's service
(Bretz, 1982) .
Educational Video Teleconferencinq Emerges
In 1973 a series of in-service audio teleconference
seminars for teachers was conducted by the University of
Alaska and the National Education Association. Teachers
in 17 villages participated in seminars that included
faculty and consultants with the NEA in Washington. Most
participants in the study said the seminars contributed to
positive changes, although they would have liked to "see"
the audio teleconference presenters (Bretz, 1982). One
year later (1974) the ATS-6 satellite provided for one and
two-way video and audio transmission.
The Appalachian Regional Commission operated the
"Appalachian Project" in 1974 which provided continuing
education for teachers in remote parts of the Appalachian
region of the US. In July 1974 two graduate-level courses
for teachers in several states in the region were offered.
63
By 1975 the Appalachian Education Satellite Project
(AESP), now using ATS-6 with video and audio, had
teleconferenced four graduate courses to nearly 1200
educators. Bretz describes the conclusions of the project
in the following way:
(1) It is technically feasible using satellite delivery and inexpensive ground reception equipment to provide graduate education courses to students scattered over large geographical areas.
(2) Site representatives who are non-content experts can administer these courses, when provided with sufficient instruction and easy access to the Resource Coordinating Center by way of two-way radio.
(3) The course participants preferred the learning activities in the satellite-delivered courses to on-campus graduate education courses with which they were familiar.
(4) Participants in the courses typically gained in knowledge of the course content and are now applying what they learned in their classrooms.
(5) The cost for development and delivery of programs like those produced during the initial 27 months of the AESP is competitive with the cost of offering similar courses on a university campus. (Bretz, 1982, pp. 17, 18)
In 1976 the Communication Technology Satellite (CTS)
was launched for educational programming. The satellite
was jointly planned, developed and used by the United
States and Canada to test technological developments and
programs designed to examine the feasibility, desirability
and cost effectiveness of satellite communication ("A
Summary of," 1981). Bretz (1982) cites the project's
64
conclusions and recommendations from the summary of the
CTS Project as follows:
(1) Satellite technology is highly reliable and is capable of providing high quality audio and video for:
a. face-to-face interaction b. graphic presentations and
discussions c. demonstrations of techniques d. didactic lectures
(2) Satellite communications provide opportunities for resource sharing between institutions.
(3) Satellite communications enable many students and professionals to interact with leading researchers and clinicians.
(4) Satellite-mediated instruction is as effective for learning as other modes, including in-person instruction.
(5) Two-way video is not needed for most didactic lectures. The extent of learning is not significantly different for two-way audio-video than for one-way audio-video and return audio. One-way video with two-way audio provides a satisfactory level of interaction.
(6) Commercial television production standards (sophisticated equipment and a large professional support staff) are not needed for effective teleconferences or teaching programs.
(7) Satellite video communications can be used effectively by teleconference and teaching participants with little specialized training.
(8) Commercial satellite-mediated video teaching and teleconference costs become very reasonable when distributed over large numbers of users, but the opportunity for interaction with presenters is inversely related to the number of participants. (pp. 19, 20)
The first major educational audio teleconferencing
system was developed in Wisconsin by the University of
Wisconsin in 1965 (Parker, 1984) and has evolved into a
sophisticated system with a wide variety of programming.
65
The Indiana Higher Education Telecommunication System,
established in 1967, has connected campuses of higher
education in major cities of Indiana.
One major report for the Corporation for Public
Broadcasting suggested that satellite video telecon-
ferences would be valuable communication links for 4,000
to 8,000 national organizations. The report listed nearly
50 teleconferences that took place in 1979 and early 1980
using the satellite interconnect system of PBS (Robertson,
1980). The report recommended that the visual capability
be better utilized with well-produced, fast-paced events,
ample discussion time, rehearsals and related print
materials.
The Video Teleconference In Business
Biznet
Biznet is the United States Chamber of Commerce's
full-service business television network which operates on
a closed circuit satellite system to provide business
oriented programming to targeted audiences. Companies use
a toll-free telephone number to interact with studio
guests who are leaders from government, business and the
media. Biznet also offers prepackaged programs on a
variety of business-related topics such as international
trade, U.S. Steel, equal opportunity and the like.
Workshops offer executive training ("Satellite
66
Teleconferencing Success," 1985).
IBM
IBM, using a compressed digital video network,
broadcasts training courses from three major IBM studios
to 11 receiving sites in the United States. Sixty
instructors teach IBM courses that range from programming
languages to systems management and hardware-related
subjects. IBM calls its network the Interactive Satellite
Education Network. The network includes a student
response unit with voice-activated microphone, a panel for
multiple choice questions, and provisions for instructor
feedback ("Satellite Teleconferencing Success," 1985).
Business Research Findings: The Intra-company System
In 1982 a report by users of intra-company systems by
Kathleen Hansell, David Green and Lutz Erbring (cited in
Bretz, 1982) made the following findings about video
teleconferencing in business:
(1) Three-fourths of respondents reported an increase in personal productivity as a result of videoconferencing.
(2) Half noted increased meeting effective-ness .
(3) Half of the respondents reported that the time required to make decisions had decreased. One-third reported an increase in the quality of decisions.
(4) Three-fourths reported a decrease in travel expense. An equal number noted less time away from their offices.
(5) The amount of communication among various parts of the organization was reported by half the respondents to have increased.
67
(6) User satisfaction was high with ninety percent of the users "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with their overall use of videoteleconferencing. (p. 24)
One unpublished research project sponsored by the
Annenberg School of Communications in 1982 by Dutton, Fulk
and Steinfield (cited in Bretz, 1982) found video
teleconferencing to be an important integrating mechanism,
as more representatives of a company were brought into a
meeting. Thus, a greater acceptance of decisions occurred
because of increased involvement. The study found that
video teleconferencing could satisfy a number of company
needs including negotiation, planning, decision making,
instructing, delegating and resolving disagreements.
Richard Harkness and Peter Burke found, in an
in-depth study of the communication needs of four large
corporations, that 26 percent of meetings would not be
eligible for video teleconferencing, 64 percent could use
still image projection and transmission systems such as
facsimile or slow-scan television, and that only 10
percent of the meetings would need full motion video. The
study asked what types of display would be used in all
meetings via video teleconferencing and found the
following percentages:
(1) Typed sheets 60%
68
(2
(3
(4
(5
(6
(7
(8
(9
Viewgraphs 58%
Blackboard 28
Sketches 26
Flip charts 24
Computer reports 17
Photos and slides
Reports and books
Engineering drawings
15%
14%
9%
(Harkness, 1982)
Business and Educational Video Teleconferences Merge
In 1978 the Public Service Satellite Consortium
(PSSC) released a report on the "Shared Use of the Public
Television Satellite System." The report suggested that
" . . . non-broadcast shared use of the public satellite
system can extend and improve distribution of services
. . . through the delivery of continuing professional
education and delivery of mediated courses of study"
(Bretz, 1982, pp. 26, 27).
In 1980 Quentin Gessner, Dean of the Division of
Continuing Studies at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln,
proposed a satellite teleconference system for higher
education (cited in Bretz, 1982). In 1982 an in-depth
proposal was submitted to the Kellogg Foundation and
called for " . . . conducting a project to identify.
develop and improve effective planning and design
69
processes involved in conducting satellite teleconferences
for educational purposes . . . " (p. 27). The proposal
stated:
Satellite teleconferencing is rapidly gaining acceptance as a form of information dissemination and education. . . . Many of the current practices in satellite teleconferencing are of questionable value, particularly in view of the significant advances which have occurred in the science of adult learning and in the techniques of systems design. (p. 28)
The goals of the Kellogg project were:
(1) to identify and delineate the planning and technical processes involved in using satellite teleconferencing technology for educational purposes.
(2) to design and test different applications of satellite teleconferencing to maximize learning outcomes and to explore various specific ways to enhance those outcomes during and after the teleconference event.
(3) to develop a cost effective satellite continuing education system for conducting teleconferences on a national scale.
(4) to disseminate widely the results of the project (p. 28)
In February 1982 the Public Service Satellite
Consortium suggested a "Campus Conference Network," to
connect campuses in the top 50 markets via satellite.
The network development was approved by .the PSSC board
in May 1982 ("PSSC Coordinates," 1983). But, in a con-
versation of September 17, 1985, with Karen Hutcheson,
70
member service coordinator, Public Service Satellite
Consortium, changes have meant that the PSSC is no longer
in the business of ad hoc networking. One reason given by
Hutcheson was "not enough business." However, the
organization still serves as a consultant for video
teleconferences. Ms. Hutcheson said, "With video
teleconferences, we have gone from a service organization
to an information organization." In correspondence of
September 19, 1985, Ms. Hutcheson writes:
PSSC is an international telecommunications consortium with member organizations in the fields of health and medicine, public broad-casting, libraries, state telecommunications agencies and religious communications. PSSC's purpose is to encourage and facilitate appro-priate and timely applications of satellite and other telecommunications technologies for public service.
We are no longer in the business of ad hoc networking, but we do help organizations plan video teleconferences, conduct needs assess-ments, technical planning, market research and feasibility studies.
We do provide audioconferencing bridge services and Scan-Net, a slowscan television teleconferencing network, and operate (TES), our Transportable Earth Station, which facilitates satellite transmission from virtually any location. (personal communication, September 19, 1985)
Also in 1982, representatives of 48 colleges and
universities with membership in the National University
Continuing Education Association (NUCEA) discussed the
establishment of a university operated teleconferencing
71
system. The result was the establishment of a proposal
development committee that proposed and created in June
1982 the National University Teleconferencing Network
(NUTN). NUTN had, as its basis of support, commitment by
more than 50 institutions of higher education to produce
four or five national continuing education teleconferences
during a six to eight month period beginning July 1982 and
continuing throughout 1982 (Bretz, 1982).
Research Findings
Tremendous technological advances have been made
during the last decade with devices of communication (Hon,
1983). Powerful home computers/word processing units and
interactive video teleconferencing have allowed employees
and management to share new ideas in the workplace
(Kwiatek, 1982-1983). Even "electronic universities"
(sometimes for the elderly and disadvantaged) have added
new dimensions to mass communications and to theories of
learning (Chin, 1984) . The theoretical significance of
the new technology has far reaching implications for
researchers. Rice writes:
Newness, of course, is in the eye of the cohort. At this time, we might consider "new media" to include personal computers, videotext and teletext, interactive cable, videodiscs, electronic mail and computer conferencing, communication satellites, office information systems, and the like. But when television was first publicly demonstrated in England in 1927, or the first time radio was commercially
72
broadcast . . . these were new communication technologies. (R. Rice, 1984, p. 16)
Authors of scientific literature have predicted that
enormous and beneficial changes will be brought about by
the new communication technologies. In 1982 Masuda (cited
in Fredin, 1983), for example, forsees fundamental change
in the structure of societies as persons from computer-
linked electronic communities interact with different
technology systems to expand a type of productivity that
is information related. Another researcher found that the
lack of immediate, specific need by the public as a whole
has slowed acceptance with videotext in Japan and Europe
(Fredin, 1983). Fredin reports that sophisticated systems
of today are more difficult to understand, require more
study, involve more individuals and are less likely to
succeed.
Ronald Rice (1984) writes that research is never an
isolated or purely "scientific" event. Thus, research
happens within the context of prior and emerging research,
theories and methodologies, and objects of analysis and
paradigms. Teleconferencing (audio), which has existed
for more than 50 years, was heralded in the 1930s as a
cost-beneficial way to conduct business across geo-
graphically dispersed locations. Despite the optimism of
a 1984 Wall Street Journal report that 84 percent of the
73
Fortune 500 companies plan teleconference installations in
the near future (Shaffer, 1984), Parker (1984) estimates
that less than 1 percent of all organizations in the
private business sector use teleconferencing on a regular
basis. Of course, the obvious question is, "Why?"
Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) answer this question
by suggesting three "arenas" of answers:
(1) teleconferencinq is not a single
innovation: The four modes (computer, audio,
audiographic and video) have a "bewildering
array" of possible configurations. After the
decision of whether or not to teleconference has
been made, an organization must then determine
which mode as well as various configurations
that involve utility, accessibility, conven-
ience, ease of learning and ease of use. Video
teleconferencing is the most expensive and
least-utilized teleconferencing mode.
(2) orqanizational teleconferencing
requires organizational adoption and indivi-
dual/qroup acceptance: Teleconferencing systems
require organizational decisions, commitments
and action. Groups and individuals must be
willing to meet and work via the new media.
74
(3) teleconferencing is just one of several
communication options: Teleconferencing must fit
the established organizational and work context
yet yield observable advantages over the
accepted and habitual communication alternatives
(Ruchinskas & Svenning, 1984).
Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) describe two basic
versions of video teleconferencing:
(1) point-multipoint video conferencing;
Essentially a closed circuit television
broadcast that allows an originating site to
send a video and audio signal to any number of
remote locations, which, in turn, have the
ability to feedback in audio only. Advantages
include reaching wide audience, cost efficient,
and keeping top officials in view. Constraints
include production time, extensive plan-
ning/preparation with best use for formal
presentations.
(2) fully interactive two-way video that
allows participants in two locations to see and
hear one another: Such video teleconferences
facilitate "relatively" small group communica-
tion. Such advantages are most 1ike
75
face-to-face and are flexible and glamorous.
Constraints include point-to-point, long lead
time, limited availability and may require
"selling" to realize benefits (Ruchinskas &
Svenning, 1984) .
Ruchinskas and Svenning describe two basic formats
for fully interactive two-way video:
(1) continuous presence: provides a view of
all participants in the conference room
(2) voice-switched: focuses primarily on
the person speaking (Ruchinskas & Svenning,
1984)
Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) cite evaluation
research with Atlantic Richfield and Bell Labs that
potential users prefer the continuous presence option as
users say they miss important visual cues from other
meeting participants when the camera focuses only on the
person speaking. Thus, continuous presence is more like a
regular meeting with participants in view at all times.
Ruchinskas and Svenning found, through regression
analysis,' that specific job types of video teleconference
users could be used to predict the amount of video
teleconferencing use. For example, usage for employee
relations personnel was predicted by teleconferencing's
76
perceived utility, ease of use, sensitivity to detail and
by a desire for more contact with people in other
locations and the degree their jobs involved cross-loca-
tional work contacts. For engineering personnel, the
predictors included the current number of trips and phone
calls, the amount of dissatisfaction with travel, and the
perceived open organizational communication norms combined
with perceptions of teleconferencing's utility and cost.
In 1976 Porter and Roberts (cited in Ruchinskas &
Svenning, 1984) found organizational status to be the most
important individual determinant of communication
behavior. Dutton, Fulk, and Steinfield (cited in Bretz,
1982) found video teleconferencing use to be related to
hierarchical level, with a disproportionate number of
users to be upper-level managers. Conrath, Elton and
Lucas (1978) found that hierarchical level was positively
related to telephone use while in 1972 Westrum (cited in
Bretz, 1982) found hierarchical level to be positively and
strongly associated with the amount of business travel.
Tyler (cited in Fredin, 1983) reports that particular
types of systems tend to be suited to a limited range of
functions. Listing teleconferencing as an example, he
reported that teleconferencing seemed suited for informa-
tion seeking, policy decision making, and problem solving,
but not for negotiation, disciplinary interviews or the
77
presentation of a report.
Evidence suggests that links between interactive
systems and interpersonal communication are extensive and
complex. In 1976 Williams and Chapanis (cited in Fredin,
1983) indicate that the single most important communica-
tion mode is the voice channel. The study used audio
simulation (subjects were unaware talk was on tape) while
the visual portion (slides or microscope fields) was shown
to students. Interaction between students at one end of
the line and instructors at the other provided oppor-
tunities to question the instructor. The study did not
provide for interaction among students. Fredin suggests
that the degree of individualization available on a
communication system will be a useful perspective in
analyzing interpersonal communication and the use of new
systems. And when one considers that the essential ingre-
dient in decision making is information, the importance of
understanding the new technology is awesome (Borko, 1967).
The Korzenny and Bauer Study
A significant study of organizational tele-
conferencing was done by Felipe Korzenny and Connie Bauer
(1981) at Michigan State University. The researchers
tested the theory of propinquity, defined as the
psychological distance between communicators or the degree
of perceived closeness of another person or group of
78
people. With teleconferencing, propinquity is the
perceived closeness in terms of psychological presence and
participation potential. Bandwidth was defined as the
information transmission capacity of the available sensory
channels (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and
olfactory) for verbal and nonverbal communication.
Thus, face-to-face conferences have all five channels
available for communication and were defined as having a
wide bandwidth whereas video teleconferencing had only two
channels (visual and auditory) and were defined as having
a medium bandwidth. Audio teleconferences had only one
channel available and was defined as having a narrow
bandwidth.
The complexity of information was defined as the
perceived degree of discrepant factors in the initial
message. The number of discrepant factors was intended to
arouse different amounts of dissonance. Thus, messages
low in complexity would produce no dissonance in
teleconference participants while a highly complex message
would produce a large amount of dissonance. It was
theorized that the more similar the message factors, the
greater the difficulty in making a decision regarding a
problem. Thus, greater amounts of dissonance would
indicate the more the message was expected to be perceived
as high in complexity of information.
79
The experiment had three business conference
situations (face-to-face, video, and audio only) with two
different levels of information complexity in a problem
solving task with high and low complexity degrees of
information. In 1978 Korzenny (cited in Korzenny &
Bauer, 1981) suggested that increased bandwidth would
increase psychological propinquity and, hence, have a
greater amount of communication satisfaction. Contrary to
theory and the researchers' expectations, the bandwidth of
the communication channel, the complexity of the
information, the levels of communication rules, and the
skills of the conference participants did not have an
impact on psychological propinquity. Thus, the
researchers could not determine a proper model of
electronic propinquity.
Korzenny and Bauer report that the most interesting
result of the study had to do with feedback in predicting
psychological propinquity and communication satisfaction.
The authors write, "The importance of feedback is
highlighted when one considers that to carry on any type
of comprehensible discussion with another person, feedback
is necessary to synchronize and coordinate the
communicative interaction" (Korzenny & Bauer, 1981, p.
493) .
Eric Fredin, Indiana University, found that two-way
80
cable television systems (systems that allowed feedback)
produced a significant wider diversity of ideas. One-way
systems that did not allow a viewer to ask questions or
receive feedback from the system, failed to produce vary-
ing solutions to problems (Fredin, 1983). Lazarsfeld and
Stanton (cited in Marder, 1977) found, for example, the
tremendous influence radio had on learning current events
when combined with the feedback of classroom instruction.
Feedback has been an important ingredient for radio
talk shows which allowed audience participation via the
telephone. Without the ability to call-in questions and
add comments and information to such programming, it is
doubtful that such programs would attract large audiences
(Marder, 1977). Today, some television talk shows (such
as Donahue) have depended upon audience and telephone
caller feedback as part of a routine talk show format.
Again, what are the learning implications for
students who lose face-to-face contact with instructors
and other students? What will mass communications
theorists discover about the lack of human contact? Will
computer or teleconference courses take away students from
the more traditional approach?
The Rushton Study: Teleconferencing Versus Conventional Delivery of Instruction
At Florida State University in 1980 Albert Frank
81
Rushton sought to determine whether a remote delivery
methodology could provide instruction in certain medical
laboratory analysis skills. The study concerned
continuing education for practicing professionals in
medicine through audio and slide (could be compared to
slow-scan video) video teleconferencing. The chief
advantage with such a system would involve the reduction
of time and funds associated with conventional in-
struction. His hypothesis was that remotely located
subjects would perform at a level equal to or higher than
conventionally trained counterparts.
The study was designed as a Workshop in Recognition
and Quantitation of Tubercle Bacilli in a level one
laboratory. The remote delivery (teleconferencing) was
compared with conventional instruction administered to
medical technicians in Georgia, Florida, Illinois and
lowa. In the experimental methodology, subjects were
remotely located from instructors. In the conventional
instruction, subjects were co-located with instructors.
The study used audio simulation (subjects were unaware
talk was on tape) while the visual portion (slides or
microscope fields) was shown to students. Interaction
between students at one end of the line and instructors at
the other provided opportunities to question the
instructor. The study did not provide for interaction
82
between students.
A Chi-square sample test was applied to data that
included terminal learning objective tests scored on a
pass-fail basis. Values of computed scores showed no
statistically significant difference. Thus, the
conclusion reached was that no measurable difference
existed between scores of subjects receiving instruction
through teleconferencing and those to whom conventional
instruction was administered. Cost factors and limited
availability of qualified faculty suggested increased use
of teleconferencing for instruction in skills similar to
those employed in the study.
Rushton concluded that, under conditions of cost and
limited qualified faculty, the increased use of
teleconferencing for instruction of skills (similar to
those employed in study) would be beneficial. Rushton,
however, says that since five subjects who failed to pass
were in experimental treatment groups, the possibility
exists that "the use of larger samples would have shown
the experimental treatment of teleconferencing as less
effective than conventional instruction" (Rushton, 1981,
p. 87) .
The Skinner Study: Distributed Computer Control for A Multinode Video Teleconferencinq System
Skinner (1982) presents a technical method of
83
distributed computer control for a "multinode video
teleconferencing system." Skinner's "distributed
computing model" has a central control node and an
arbitrary number of conference nodes each connected to the
central node by a full duplex communications link. An
event driven message passing mechanism is utilized for
inter-process communications. The system includes
automatic and manual camera switching at the conference
nodes. The central node provides global prioritized video
switching as well as dynamic conference scheduling.
Skinner's video teleconferencing system is based upon
the premise that the successful conduct of business
requires interaction between two or more individuals.
Skinner writes that when business between two individuals
involves a picture, document, or diagram to each other,
the telephone impedes the conduct of business. For
Skinner, problem areas that arise in establishing a video
teleconferencing system include:
(1) The system must be designed so that the
technology is as unobtrusive as possible and
that the participants have the feeling that they
are all face-to-face.
(2) The technical problems of a conference
between two locations are much more
straightforward than a conference between three
84
or more locations. A large facility under
control of a single organization may include 20
to 30 nodes in the teleconferencing network.
Thus, at any one time it is possible for many
simultaneous but independent conferences to be
taking place. A coordination and scheduling
problem may, therefore, exist. Skinner proposes
that a distributed system of computers be used
to control the teleconferencing network with one
computer at each conference node and a central
computer. Thus, all node to node communications
are via the central computer (Skinner, 1982).
Skinner (1982) writes that life size images can be
obtained by large screen projection systems with multiple
cameras used to give closeups of each participant.
Findinqs of the Bretz Study
In 1981 Randall Glen Bretz undertook a doctoral study
designed to project the future of satellite telecon-
ferencing in continuing education. With changes in
numbers of traditional college age students, he
hypothesized that institutions of higher education can
react to such changes by sharing resources with other
institutions through satellite teleconferencing.
Bretz's study, Satellite Teleconferencing in
85
Continuinq Education (1982), used the Delphi technique to
project the future of satellite teleconferencing. A panel
of 28 persons generated statements during the first round
of the study and rated such statements during subsequent
rounds. The time line established for the statement
rating was 1981-1982.
Results of the study suggest that satellite
teleconferencing in continuing education can be expected
to involve a mixture of media under the coordination of
one person at each participating institution. Through the
dissemination of educational materials to more remote
regions of the country, policies were needed to govern
technical and administrative issues.
Bretz defined teleconferencing as the process of
joining two or more people or groups together
electronically for information exchange, problem solving,
program planning, or similar activities. Under Bretz's
definition, the technical means can range from telephone
lines to satellite television.
Bretz's study focused on the following questions
related to technology, utilization, policies and
procedures:
(1) Technology: What technology is needed
to do satellite teleconferencing and related
activities? Included are up and down-links,
86
audio teleconferencing devices, viewing
monitors, television production facilities, and
computer conferencing equipment.
(2) Utilization: How will various types of
equipment be used for conferences and workshops
and what are the formats such conferences might
have? What role will faculty have to plan and
implement video teleconferences?
(3) Policies and Procedures: What policies
and procedures are needed to govern and guide
the operation of teleconferences? What are
participants rights? What about protection from
unauthorized viewers? Scheduling? Registra-
tion? The budget process? (Bretz, 1982)
Using the Delphi technique, Bretz reported the
following results that were "not the final answer":
(1) A mixture of technologies will be used
in teleconferencing (video disc, satellites,
computer, teletext).
(2) University policy should place
responsibility for satellite teleconferencing
with continuing education.
(3) Video teleconferencing will not fit
into traditional academic molds.
87
(4) Educational techniques can be
integrated with technology to provide the best
educational product.
(5) No agreement exists on the role of
faculty or staff members in satellite tele-
conferencing.
(6) Competition from the business community
for teleconferencing sites will keep costs
sufficiently high.
(7) Fear of technology will greatly inhibit
use. Satellite teleconferences tend to be
oriented more to the technology involved than to
learning objectives.
(8) Satellite teleconferences in continuing
education can be expected to involve a mixture
of media under the coordination of one person at
each participating institution. Thus, the
technology and educational methodologies will
probably receive attention as the state of the
art of delivering continuing education type
teleconferences is developed (Bretz, 1982).
Findings of the Rice Study
Ronald Eugene Rice in his 1982 dissertation at
Stanford University researched social issues and impacts
88
of telecommunications ("research topic A") and
communication networks ("research topic B"). His
dissertation focused on how (1) communication networks of
groups operate in a computer conferencing environment, (2)
these patterns change over time, (3) the nature of group
and system level are structured, and (4) what implications
these changes have for telecommunications design and
policy.
Overall, Rice found that system stability depended
upon reciprocal information exchanges. The system
structure changed over time as groups occupied different
roles based on the flows of information within the system.
Initial usage levels were not found to be good indicators
of eventual usage levels. Computer data offered
advantages and insights unavailable from traditional data
methods. He writes:
The effects of the kinds of computer mediated communication systems . . . indicate that an understanding of the technology, its functions, and the way people live in organizations must be (and can be) incorporated into management decisions and planning to produce desirable results. (R. Rice 1982, p. 6)
Rice cites that the first computer conferencing
system may have been contemplated during the Berlin crisis
when the State Department unsuccessfully attempted to join
teletypes on a central line. By 1979 more than 17 major
89
computer-mediated teleconferencing systems were in use, up
from seven in 197 5. By 1980 the number of computer based
teleconferencing systems had risen to 50. Rice estimated
that in the mid 80s more than two-thirds of the Fortune
500 corporations will have implemented electronic
messaging systems.
Computer based video teleconfcrencing systems have
had a history of difficult terminal access; unreliable
telephone lines; professional activities with higher
priority; poor system reliability; decreased emphasis on
problem solving; slow, unresponsive systems; 50 percent
higher-than-normal maintenance on terminals used to access
such systems; and objection to the necessity of typing
skills. Rice described the stages in acquiring computer
teleconferencing skills as being:
(1) culture shock, learning commands, loss
of interpersonal cues
(2) the ability to use basic commands
(3) push toward sociability with the
introduction of new cues and group norms
(4) serious use with possible addiction
Rice described the skill of learning computer
teleconferencing as one of imitation with beginning
entries generally longer and in the form of private
90
messages. Rice found that users' attitudes about computer
teleconferencing changed with use. Hence, as satisfaction
increases, the sense of tediousness decreases as does the
impersonality of the work environment. Further, users
needed a "real" task to motivate use and favorable
perception. He found word exchange to be about twice the
level of face-to-face interaction.
Rice states that written material such as teletype
can be more effective for the communication of factual
information than face-to-face "perhaps because of its
precision and the greater comprehension gained from
rereading text without pressure to overcome response
latency" (p. 31). Of course, much depends upon the
purpose of the information, the perception of those who
use the medium and how goals can be met. Rice writes:
Of course, most people in organizations tend to prefer face-to-face interactions to interactions over telephone or written channels, yet Dewhirst (1971) suggested that perceived information-sharing norms were intervening factors. Perceptions of fellow-workers as sharers of information associated highly with preferences for the face-to-face channel (and the opposite relation for written). Perhaps to make up for missing interpersonal interaction, those who preferred written channels inside the organization tended to prefer face-to-face channels outside. International contexts for teleconferencing lead to a market preference for hardcopy—because text is much easier to translate than is voice. (p. 32)
91
One could argue that what people prefer cannot be
achieved through video teleconferencing. Rice suggested
that for embarrassing or conflictful interactions,
computer conferencing may be the medium of choice because
it minimizes the interpersonal dimension. He writes that
computer conferencing is not nearly as satisfactory as
face-to-face or video for:
(1) bargaining
(2) resolving disagreements
(3) getting to know someone on a personal
basis
(4) tasks requiring constant focused
discussion (R. Rice, 1982)
The 1978 Dormois study (cited in R. Rice, 1982)
concluded that only seven percent of meetings and 14
percent of telephone uses could be transferred to any type
of teleconferencing. Dormois's study involved 2000
respondents and 33,000 inter-organizational communications
in 60 organizations in France. Rice writes that "the
exhaustiveness and sophistication of this study lend
considerable credibility to the author's conclusions" (p.
38). Factors Dormois included are the nature"of the group
task, the need for a leader, the sense of group task and
cohesion, the importance of getting to know other members.
92
and the cost.
Rice concludes that the next breakthrough in
teleconferencing is a "collision, convergence or wedding
(perhaps shotgun) of technologies and approaches for data
processing, telecommunications, human communication and
information retrieval" (p. 41).
The Krueqer Study
In 197 6 at Johns Hopkins University, Gerald Krueger
wrote about three communication modes used in
teleconferencing. His dissertation, Conferencing and
Teleconferencinq in Three Communication Modes as a
Function of the Number of Conferees, used 9 groups of 2,
3, and 4 students each with 27 groups in all. Modes used
for teleconferencing included teletype and televoice.
The problems encouraged opinionated discussion and
required the group to arrive at a consensus about how
fellow students felt regarding: (1) the priority of
national issues, (2) university budgetary considerations
that affect the students' academic needs, and (3)
priorities for financial support to student activities on
campus. Performance was assessed on dependent measures
that included (1) time to solution, (2) the number of
messages exchanged by the group, (3) the total number of
words used by the group, (4) the message length, (5) the
number of words communicated by the average member, (6)
93
the relative disparities among numbers of messages and
words used by subjects within groups, and (7) the amount
of agreement between the consensus arrived at by the group
and the results of a pool of the conferees' opinions on
each discussion topic.
Communication rates were higher in the two conference
modes that had voice, face-to-face and televoice channels,
than in the teletype mode. Increases in group size
resulted in increases in every group measure of commun-
ication. Thus, larger groups used more messages, more
words, communicated faster, and exhibited greater relative
variability among the numbers of messages generated than
did the smaller groups. The only exception to this
generalization was that two person groups generated
slightly longer messages than did the larger groups
(Krueger, 1976).
The Redd Study
In 197 6, Lawrence Newton Redd described video
teleconferencing in racially imbalanced schools. His
dissertation, A Descriptive Study of the Use of
Teleconferencing via Two-Way Cable Television in Racially
Imbalanced Schools, discussed a process of organizing
educators, pupils and parents into an instructional system
that uses two-way cable television as the prime commun-
ication channel. Although data concerning achievement of
94
the system's goals and objectives were not quantitatively
evaluated, conclusions were drawn from the observation
methodology employed in the study.
One conclusion was that two-way cable television was
an electronic communication channel possible to achieve
science education experience. Students and adults used
two-way cable television to share results found in a
science education experiment. Redd mentions that the
video teleconferencing plan for the Rockford Public
Schools in Illinois was not a legal substitute for racial
desegregation (Redd, 1976).
Sandra O'Connell and the lABC Study
In 1982 the International Association of Business
Communicators (lABC) undertook the task of sponsoring a
survey designed to determine whether video telecon-
ferencing was as effective as face-to-face meetings in
disseminating information. Sandra O'Connell, president of
Minker-O'Connell Associates, developed a survey instrument
to measure whether teleconferencing was an effective
communications medium. The survey attempted to measure
several things including effective teleconferencing
program format.
The four-hour video teleconference used in the study
involved a total audience of 1200 organizational communi-
cators, half of whom were later sent questionnaires
95
to measure reactions and feelings about teleconferencing
in general. Originating from Dallas and transmitted via
Westar to 22 US and Canadian cities, the tel'econf erence' s
objective involved educating conferees in the latest high
technology and media techniques. Major topics covered
included word processing, computer graphic and design
technology, video tape, video disc, interactive video,
electronic mail, teletext and interactive cable, infor-
mation exchange via satellite, direct satellite broadcasts
and other similar subjects.
The one-way video, two-way audio presentation offered
an overview of new technologies split into two, two-hour
transmission sessions with a two-hour lunch break in
between. During the break, local high-tech specialists at
each of the 22 sites answered questions from the studio
audience.
A 67-item questionnaire was sent to a random sample
of approximately 600 of the teleconference attendees
shortly after the meeting. Of the 67 percent who
responded to the survey, 78 percent represented profit-
seeking organizations, 69 percent were in managerial
positions and 80 percent had never before attended a
teleconference. Most who responded said a goal in
attending the lABC meeting had been to get information and
increase productivity as a result of the presentation.
96
Table 1 summarizes the findings for appropriate/in-
appropriate video teleconferencing. Participants were
also asked to evaluate the importance of suggested format
changes. The results are found in Table 2.
The findings suggested several guidelines to help
communication planners who are considering the use of
teleconferencing. These include:
(1) Determine whether one-way or two-way
transmission is best by knowing the degree
of interaction you require.
(1) Keep transmission time under two hours.
(2) Punctuate the presentation with
discussion and questions at each viewing
location.
(3) Choose speakers who are comfortable
with and skilled at TV presentations.
(4) Focus speaker time on just a few topics;
favor intensity over diversity.
(5) Provide supporting printed materials.
(6) Design a format that encourages
interaction: for example, limit the number
of sites: provide a local resource-discussion
leader; encourage discussion among presenters.
97
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF lABC STUDY
AREAS FOR APPROPRIATE/INAPPROPRIATE VIDEO TELECONFERENCING
Teleconferencing is appropriate for:
Training and professional development . . 90%
Information sharing 89%
Status reporting 83%
Teleconferencing is inappropriate for:
Negotiating 64%
Solving conflicts 63%
Teleconferencing may be appropriate for:
Convincing (Yes) 32%
Convincing (No) 47%
NOTE: 600 of 1200 video teleconference participants were sent questionnaires with 67% responding. Type of percentages unknown. SOURCE: International Association of Business Communicators Survey Teleconferencing, 1982.
98
TABLE 2
SUMMARY OF lABC STUDY
EVALUATION OF FORMAT CHANGES
Participants were asked to evaluate the importance of suggested format changes. The results are as follows:
Imp No Opinion Unimpor
more local discussion time 79' 14% 7%
local resource expert 86% 9% 5%
more graphics 48% 34% 18%
more printed information 79% 13% 8%
NOTE: Code: Imp=Important; Unimpor=Unimportant. 600 of 1200 video teleconference participants were sent questionnaires with 67% responding. Type of percentages unknown. SOURCE: International Association of Business Communicators Survey Teleconferencing, 1982.
99
O'Connell concluded that teleconferencing was as
effective for studio audiences at remote locations as it
was for live participants. This finding was surprising
for O'Connell, as it had been hypothesized that partici-
pants at the broadcast site, who were watching the
presenters live, would react more positively and show
higher satisfaction levels than those watching TV screens
at remote sites ("International Association," 1982).
Understanding the Video Teleconference "System"
A main problem of teleconferencing is simply the
limit to the amount of internal activity which can be
handled. Electrical engineers say that the maximally
efficient or appropriate network structure is a function
of network size, link constraints and resources. Thus, as
a group becomes too large, the group becomes too loosely
coupled and experiences differ with perceptions and
motives (Aldrich, 1979) .
Lasswell (1948) attempted to model the communication
process as "Who says What in Which Channel to Whom with
What Effect?" Blumler and Katz (1974) take the view that
the audience is assumed to be active using the media in
goal-directed ways. Thus, communication through the mass
media has satisfied some needs although the media is not
primary and few direct effects exist.
100
Separate audiences, groups, orientations and needs
affect the communication process. The growing evidence
for specific stages and conditions of the communication
process has questioned how limited affects did occur and
for which audience member under what condition. Rice says
that, for example, public communication campaigns achieve
desired effects only with considerable planning, research,
tailored content and interpersonal support. Thus,
mainstream communication theory has moved from causal
effects on an audience to the notion of audience involve-
ment based upon relationships between components of the
communication process and other participants.
Systems theory describe how systems have levels of
structure that cause a process or behavior greater than,
or different from, the sum of the behavior. Modern
communication theory assumes a systems approach which
considers mutual dependency among parts of a system—how
the environment and the system interact, the emergence of
different levels of analysis and changes over time (R.
Rice, 1982) . Blau (1977) and Homans (1961) argue that
information in a bureaucracy is a resource exchanged for
services and other goods including status. Status is
defined as when a person seeks information from a more
experienced (higher-status) person and has little of value
to bargain with.
101
Thus, a system may be defined to include
informational inputs and constraints, technological
impacts and interactive effects (R. Rice, 1982).
Developinq a Philosophy of Video Teleconferencing Consistent with the Rapidly Chanqing Technology
The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has
predicted that by the year 2000 more than 80 percent of
off-campus instruction and 10 to 20 percent of on-campus
instruction will use some type of information technology
(Wiesner, 1983). Such changes will have far-reaching
effects on students, faculty, administrators and may
challenge the very essence of learning.
Some have said that the video teleconference, as a
tool of learning, might include the use of microcomputers
to aid in audience interaction if audience members had
computer access. As has been noted, Skinner's disser-
tation dealt entirely with computer control for a video
teleconferencing system (Skinner, 1982). One California
based company, Widcom, Inc., has developed technology to
turn home and business computer terminals into video
teleconferencing networks. Thus, every modified computer
can, at a low or reasonable cost, be used to video
teleconference.
On the PBS program, "The Nightly Business Report,"
New York reporter Neil Cavuto explained that new methods
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of computer coding can now compress some 150 0 bandwidths
into a single telephone line to allow clear video of maps,
drawings and persons. Using a single line reduces
transmission charges to $2,000 or $3,000 per month (or $40
per hour) compared with previous costs of about $50,000.
The company's goal is to have a 30% market with Fortune
500 companies within one year (Cavuto, 1985).
The emphasis on the microcomputer technology has
changed the information gathering process and computers
are pouring onto campuses across the US in rapidly
increasing numbers. The new computers are being used to
network students with information services and perform a
wide range of functions (Ploch, 1984) .
Margie Ploch, high technology author, includes
teleconferencing when she writes the following about the
challenge:
Many educators see great potential in networking micros as well as in using them to enhance learning. If used well, they believe micros can change the way students learn; they can show how complex processes work, allow new kinds of lectures and interactive discussions, greatly improve writing skills, and encourage creativity. (p. 47)
MIT and Brown University, for example, are spending
more than $70 million each on micro computer systems.
But, like video teleconferencing, the problems are many.
As techniques for teaching with micros need considerable
103
development, each school experimenting with the system
takes a different route, concentrating on different parts
of its curriculum. The new technology is creating a type
of revolution within higher education and industry. And
while degrees earned at home have existed for many years,
the idea and practice of interacting (via video and audio
teleconference) with professors, fellow students and
information services is relatively new. One university
"system" used in conjunction with more than 200 colleges
and universities is endorsed by Dr. Donald Senese, U.S.
Assistant Secretary of Education. The study-at-home
"electronic university" allows students to earn college
credit and a degree at a home computer terminal. The
electronic university connects the personal computer of
any student anywhere with a qualified instructor, thus
allowing computer teleconferencing.
The system was developed by a company called "Tele
Learning Systems." One student, Bobby Cugini, a double
amputee, reports on the method:
I hold a 9 to 5 job at night and if I had to go to college physically, I just would not be able to handle it. To have the computer at my house and to be able to go at my own pace, and take whatever courses I like, is just great. ("Newscast for Independent," 1984)
Students pay $90 for the basic package that hooks
students to a college or university. Then, they pay the
104
respective college for each course and send homework via
computer to be graded by the professor. Sometimes, the
student and professor sit down at the terminal to talk or
téleconference with each other.
"Student contact with teachers will be enhanced,"
said Dr. Donald Senese ("Newscast for Independent," 1984),
"thousands of miles away and, yet, still be in direct
contact." Colleges and universities are developing
courses to be part of the "Electronic Television Network,"
said Donna Hanover, reporter for Independent Network News
("Newscast for Independent," 1984).
Contemporary distance learning includes interactive
media such as telephones and computers that permit learner
communication. In 1979 Munshi (cited in Wiesner, 1983)
found that more than 600 colleges and universities offered
telecourses for credit. Patrick R. Penland, professor of
communications at the University of Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, writes about the revolution in technology
and what such changes mean for society:
Since midcentury there has been an exponential increase in the volume of recorded knowledge and a revolution in the control and transfer of information by means of electronic technology. . . .
The new social bases of message design and usage have meant a revolution in the distribution of information and in popular culture. Information has become a social resource to be exploited for the betterment of
105
all men. . . . Any change in the process of information
stimuli and in the negotiation of mutual intentions alters both the individual personality and the nature of human society. Society is today in the midst of revolutionary transformations. Communications science consequently has had to encounter major change both in technology and in the societal enterprise based on symbol production and use. New media alter form, content, and context. New modes of communication change ways of selecting, composing, and sharing messages and perspectives. The message and the medium tend to become reciprocal as McLuhan has dramatized so remarkably. (Penland, 1974, pp. iii, 1)
It has been said that scholars of earlier years were
competent in many fields. Daniel Coit Gilman, William
Rainey Harper, David Starr Jordan and others mastered
science, philosophy, literature as well as modern and
classical languages. The sheer mass of knowledge and the
extent of its application today makes such impossible.
Indeed, the only common learning experience shared by all
students in a university may be the commencement address
(Brown & Thornton, 1963).
Developing a philosophy of curriculum with high
technology has not been easy. Brown and Thornton (1963)
write:
Perhaps the most significant lack in the efforts to use new media, as it is also in the entire education enterprise, is the lack of an overarching philosophy or theory to accommodate such disparate devices as a computer-organized classroom, a one-man study used for television projection, and a language laboratory. . . . It
106
is possible that until some new philosophy emerges--and there are signs of its coming—the experimentation with machines to facilitate independent study, with electronic devices for storage and retrieval and the use of information and with electronic impulse to convey sound or color in education, will remain sporadic and episodic rather than as complementary attributes of a consistent educational effort. At the present, perhaps, the only theorizing detectable is a wishful thinking that faculty time can be saved and that greater numbers of students can be accommodated in a possibly somewhat enlarged educational effort. (Brown & Thornton, 1963, p. 174)
Researchers have found "overwhelming evidence" that
people learn from viewing motion pictures. Some studies
show that films also promote conceptual learning. As
early as 1929, Knowlton and Tilton (cited in Brown &
Thornton, 1963) found that films increased classroom
participation and voluntary related reading.
The bulk of research indicates that students at all
age levels can be taught, in part, by television.
Numerous studies have suggested that where television
taught students have been compared with those instructed
by "conventional" methods, no significant differences
emerge. Closed-circuit television used for instruction
has prompted many questions about the value of television
in the classroom. Questions include:
(1) Can closed-circuit television enable
students on different campuses to share
107
instruction from professors?
(2) How does learning by television compare
with face-to-face instruction?
(3) Can television make possible more
efficient use of personnel by allowing
professors to reach larger numbers of students
than would be feasible on a single campus?
(4) Can interinstitutional television
assist a state or region in presenting the
highest quality of instruction to all of its
students? (Brown & Thornton, 1963)
Although much has happened since the late 5 0s, one
two year study (1958-1960) of an interinstitutional
television teaching program by the Oregon State System of
Higher Education found several principle findings that may
continue in 1985. Four universities in Oregon cooperated
in the study. The findings included:
(1) interinstitutional television is
administratively feasible but has many problems
of coordination and communication which cause
considerable difficulty in implementation
(2) problems relating to selection of
courses and instructors were the most serious
obstacles to smooth functioning of the program
108
(3) results from instructor-prepared tests
showed no significant difference in learning
between television and nontelevision groups
(4) student attitudes toward the experiences
of televised instruction ranged from strong
approval to strong opposition or disapproval
(5) some televised courses were preferred to
conventionally taught courses although some
expressed concern over loss of personal inter-
action with the professor and the inability to
ask questions in class
(6) the pattern of attitudes toward
televised teaching coincided closely with those
for regular classroom instruction, even in
circumstances involving professors from other
campuses
(7) faculty attitudes toward televised
instruction ranged from highly approving to
strongly disapproving with more faculty members
opposed to televised instruction
(8) professors involved in television
teaching were more favorable than nonparticipants
(9) faculty members indicated considerably
more willingness to have a televised course
originate from their own institutions than to
109
have students receive courses taught by
professors of other institutions.
(10) a majority of faculty said they
believed the method to be more nearly suited to
extension, lower division, and large
multiple-section introductory courses than to
upper division or graduate instruction (Brown &
Thornton, 1963) .
In the 1960s, increasing numbers and the changing
character of college students prompted a need to
reconsider ways of teaching. At the same time, teaching
techniques were scorned by some college professors on the
premise that if the student is unable to learn by himself,
he was unsuited for college study (Brown & Thornton,
1963) .
Media in education have followed different lines of
thought. Some literary and academic critics say they
believe that the media in education may abort the
development of reading skills and lead to a dilution of
subject matter, thus, weakening the learning experience.
Another group fears technology because of its strength to
alter the conditions of human life and growth. Such
technological power may be used for evil purposes, they
would argue (Brown & Thornton, 1963).
110
The college professor may not approve of the new
media including video teleconferencing for a variety of
reasons such as a personal loss of classroom power. Edgar
Dale (cited in Brown & Thornton, 1963) probes the feeling
of the college professor who rejects new media as a threat
to academic privacy and autonomy. Dale writes:
Now come the new media which will impose an external discipline. When the machine says "start", the professor starts and he stops when it says so. Further, the presentation may be better than he can do.
If he is making the presentation for a large group he must plan his lectures with others, follow what group consensus dictates. The applause, if any, is no longer individual. It is dispersed, nebulous. And when he must expose his teaching to the view of others, he may feel that he is not quite up to it. The professor's classroom is no longer his castle.
Further, where do planning and systematizing end? What will prevent his being engulfed in an enforced cooperation, a kind of intellectual collectivism? (p. 14)
One of the most difficult educational tasks for the
modern individual is the gradual development of an ability
to take over the management of his own intellectual
growth. A maturing student must have time to work by
himself under careful yet diminishing guidance. It can be
argued that an individual student following prearranged
and highly structured lines of work may or may not be
moving in the direction of autonomy. Brown and Thornton
write that imaginative design of classroom facilities with
111
new technology can "free higher education from many of the
rigid conceptions that set unnecessary limits to the
possible solutions of new problems" (p. 18). Through
video teleconferencing, an instructor may "set-up" a
meeting with an expert on a discussed classroom topic.
Assuming access to the technology, an instructor might,
for example, teleconference the author of the class text.
It may turn out that one of the most significant
potentials in programmed instruction will be to provide a
convenient research vehicle for exploring in depth certain
kinds of learning and curriculum development problems
(Pease & Threlkeld, 1984). This is not meant to imply
that the best instructional solutions will necessarily be
found within the framework of programming, but only that
the step-by-step, detailed analysis of expository
development with some kinds of teaching tasks can be
researched in terms of alternative solutions.
The Alternative Solution; An Examination of Two Video Telecon-ference Educational Networks
British Columbia's Knowledge Network
The Knowledge Network of the West Communications
Authority is a non-profit society established by the
Province of British Columbia that began telecasting in
January 1981. In 1984, 190 communities representing 88%
112
of the provincial population can receive the Knowledge
Network signal delivered through the Anik C-3 satellite.
The Knowledge Network's mandate is:
To assist and collaborate with the universities, colleges, provincial institutes, school districts, ministries and agencies of the province in the development and delivery of educational programs and materials and to establish and maintain and operate a telecommunications network. (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984, p. 110)
Network programming falls into two general
categories: telecourses and teleseries. Telecourses,
defined as specially designed learning opportunities that
combine television programs and various materials, may be
credit or non-credit and tutorial support is often
available. A teleseries is a series of related programs
on a particular topic or theme and is always non-credit
and may or may not have support materials. About ten
percent of all Knowledge Network programs are telecast
live to allow for interaction between viewers and
presenters. Viewers phone from their homes or from
"Learning Centers" throughout the province and tele-
conference comments, questions or concerns directly to an
instructor or guests in a studio. The average
live-interactive program contains about ten to fifteen
minutes of interactive time per hour. Nearly all live
interactive programs contain pre-produced segments as part
113
of the program format.
Live-interactive television has, for example, enabled
the University of Victoria to direct instruction to more
than 850 nurses scattered throughout British Columbia in a
credit program toward a bachelor's degree. Other examples
of live-interactive television have included:
(1) the Ministry of Forests to train more
than 1,300 fire fighters in a 1982 "Fire
Suppression" series
(2) a foster parents training program about
"Children and Sexuality"
(3) 3000 registrants in February 1983 in 50
provincial locations throughout British Columbia
to obtain training in Cardio Pulmonary Resusci-
tation sponsored by the Justice Institute of
British Columbia
(4) 15,000 viewers in a training program
for door-to-door volunteers of the Canadian
Cancer Society (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984)
Credit courses transfer to the three provincial
universities and generally follow the following pattern:
(1) Students may pre-register by phoning
the instructor/course tutor. Most, however,
sign up after watching the first program which
114
summarizes course content, transfer credit, cost
and the like. Since the first program in a
series is live-interactive, viewers may phone in
on-air with specific course content or regis-
tration concerns. The first registration
program is previously announced via letters and
posters sent to regional college counselors and
by pre-taped promotional spots.
(2) Credit students must provide the name
and address of a local college or public school
employee willing to supervise closed book
examinations. Exams are sent to this individual
and the instructor phones results to the
student. Students are encouraged to call the
instructor collect at his office any time
assistance is needed.
(3) The course consists of a series of
fifteen 90 minute weekly broadcasts. The
instructor-produced 90 minute programs alternate
between pre-recorded interviews and live-inter-
active programs. The first forty-two minutes
are presentation by the instructor after which
is a two minute visual break with music and
fifteen minutes of phone-in discussion at a sofa
set followed by a five minute "off the topic"
115
video-break with a final twenty-five minute
presentation (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984).
Catchpole and MacGregor conclude by emphasizing the
uniqueness of the systems approach and participation by
all. The concept of "co-operative individuality" stresses
the needs and circumstances of the learner as an
individual (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984, p. 118).
The Indiana Higher Education Tele-communications System (IHETS)
In 1984, 45 college and universities within Indiana
were linked through the Indiana Higher Education Tele-
communications Sys.tem (IHETS) and the related Cooperative
Extension subsystem (Extension Service), under the
sponsorship of Purdue University. Five institutions are
able to input programing directly into the system. Team
taught credit and non-credit course reach students via the
network. A talk-back facility, called "tele-response,"
enables students at distant locations to question the
instructor during a program. In addition to the 45
colleges and universities in the network, receive-only
sites include:
(1) 53 hospitals and clinics
(2) 23 industries
(3) 17 Indiana Cooperative Extension
Service sites
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(4) the Indianapolis Public School
(5) 4 radio and television stations (Davis
& Branson, 1984)
The Extension Service identified three major
educational thrusts to fulfill its mission of education
via television:
(1) graduate-level courses in agriculture
(2) in-service training in speciality areas
for the field extension staff
(3) speciality training for general
clientele in the "mission areas" (Davis &
Branson, 1984)
Research in 1983 indicated that the typical audiences
for television courses are generally well-educated,
successful people serious about seeking more information.
Typically, 50 to 65 percent are college graduates or
persons who have attended college who tend to be younger
with 50 to 60 percent in the 31-34 age bracket. The
audiences tend to be very critical of what they see.
Davis and Branson write:
It still seems, however, that the successful TV presenters are the ones who have a good professional reputation, have pleasing personalities, have a reasonably good appearance, have effective teaching styles, and are willing to learn to adapt classroom style to TV presentation. Furthermore, the successful
117
ones do in-depth content preparation targeted to specific client needs. Presenters who are poorly accepted in person come over twice as bad on television; specialists who tend to be cold and lofty and who talk down to the clients, may "get by" in person, but they are unacceptable on TV. And appearance does count. Once a specialist for a home economics show was introducing the panelist next on the program. The panelist was a rather plain-looking woman with thick glasses and a sour expression on her face. When the camera turned to her, the audience at a remote site groaned audibly. It is at times like this that the distance between the group of "students" and the instructor becomes an unbreakable barrier. (p. 108)
Conclusions and Implications
This chapter has focused on the evolution of the
video teleconference medium and the scientific research
with video teleconferencing. Obviously, every event or
experimentation with the video teleconference has not been
mentioned. However, the vast differences in purpose of
the television medium--from business executives to the
illiterate of India or Turkey—shows that technological
change has allowed great flexibility with people using
video teleconferencing for many reasons. Few persons
would argue that the dimensions of video teleconferencing
are more productive in learning situations were it
possible to conduct face-to-face meetings with experts.
One could argue that the entire purpose of video
teleconferencing tries to substitute that which is known
to be better--face-to-face interaction on a one-to-one
118
basis.
Given the "fact-of-life" that everyone does not live
in the same place; that countries in the "third world"
will probably not have a surplus of excellent teachers for
years to come; and that people need to interact--such
electronic meetings become reasonable substitutes (Inglis,
1983). Thus, assuming the need to teleconference, the
general questions ask, "What dimensions change with the
video teleconference medium?"; "Why do some fail while
others succeed?" Obviously, failures have taken place
with the medium not being a solution to all problems.
It is difficult to imagine a subject other than
teleconferencing that has had as many dimensions and
definitions associated with a rapidly changing technology.
Research has shown that the four modes (computer, audio,
audiographic and video) of teleconferencing have had a
"bewildering array" of configurations and purposes. For
some, video teleconferencing means the telecourse
(Weingand, 1984) while, to others, video teleconferencing
is a quick way to contact two or three persons who must be
involved in a corporate business decision (Kay, 1983).
Video teleconferencing may be point to multipoint or
involve fully interactive two-way video by live or
"slow-scan" (a single video frame every few seconds)
video. Video teleconferencing may involve a network of
119
sites with carefully prepared programming or may be a
means whereby two individuals talk and see each other in a
conversation. Video teleconferencing may involve
contacting an instructor via telephone or by computer
after a video presentation. Researchers such as Tyler
(cited in Fredin, 1983) have reported that teleconfer-
encing is suited for information seeking, policy decision
making and problem solving, but not for negotiation,
disciplinary interviews or the presentation of a report.
Yet, negotiations have been video teleconferenced and
reports have been presented by business organizations via
video teleconference (Miura, Stevenson, & Linker, 1982).
One might assume that greater communication
satisfaction would happen with video teleconferencing when
compared, for example, with audio teleconferencing. Yet,
the "increased bandwidth" of video teleconferencing was
found by Korzenny and Bauer (1981) to have no impact on
psychological propinquity. Feedback or interaction,
however, was found to be highly important and is probably
the key reason, for example, why radio talk formats (audio
teleconferencing) have been commercially successful in
metropolitan areas (Marder, 1977).
The revolution in communications technology, as the
Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has predicted,
will continue to have far-reaching effects (Christopher,
120
1982) . In higher education, video teleconferencing is not
a "cure-all" for poor management or a way to instantly
gain funding and students. However, one can make strong
arguments that the medium, when used for specific
objectives (such as fund-raising for the University of
Illinois), can be successful in combination with print,
face-to-face contact and other methods of delivery. The
experience with the medium by individuals and groups who
have video teleconferenced by one definition or another,
remains sketchy, at best. The next chapter will present
the data and findings of the video teleconference
experience by individuals at PBS stations, colleges,
universities, businesses and others.
CHAPTER III
METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND FINDINGS
Design and Methodology of the Study
Given the complexity and evolving nature of the video
teleconference, the primary task explored problems and
techniques associated with the video teleconference and
provided an historical and present-day perspective on the
"state of the art." Using primary and secondary sources
from people involved in video teleconferencing, two
questionnaires were designed and sent in March 1985 to
selected groups involved in video teleconferencing in the
United States, Canada and selected countries. In May 1985
a second mailing reached primarily smaller PBS stations
the Corporation for Public Broadcasting Directory
(1984-1985) did not list by mailing address. The mailing
address for the smaller stations was obtained by listing
the main zip code for the city/town involved. The
questionnaire was pre-tested with administrators and
persons familiar with video teleconferencing at Texas Tech
University and institutions with membership in the
National University Teleconferencing Network. Several
revisions of the questionnaire were made at suggestions of
committee members and others.
Groups actively involved in video teleconferencing
today and to whom Questionnaire One (User Questionnaire)
121
122
was sent include:
(1) Public Broadcasting Stations (all
stations surveyed including American Samoa,
Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands)—292
stations
(2) related organizations/agencies as
listed in the Corporation for Public
Broadcastinq Directory (1984-1985)—110
organizations/agencies
(3) business video teleconference users
known to be involved in video teleconferencing
as listed in the Teleconferencing Directory of
the Center for Interactive Programs (Parker &
Olgren, 1985), University pf Wisconsin Extension
(58, United States; 11, Canada; 1, Australia; 1,
Japan; 1, Sweden; 2, England)
(4) universities known to be involved with
teleconferencing and members of the National
University Teleconferencing Network—98
colleges/universities from private mailing list
Questionnaire Two was sent to one group of
respondents known to be heavily involved in video
teleconferencing with institutions within higher
education: college/university presidents and/or
123
administrators of the member colleges/universities of the
National University Teleconferencing Network (98
colleges/universities).
It was decided not to send questionnaires to
teleconferencing vendors who provide equipment, facilities
and services for teleconferencing. The nature of such
firms engaged in profit making activities could put a
certain bias in the study as such firms would likely have
only a positive view of video teleconferencing. Further,
in January 1984 the University of Wisconsin surveyed
vendors and found that nearly three-fourths of vendors
reported sales increases in 1983 with 85% projecting
further growth in 1984. Another indication of the
evolving video teleconference is that 60% of the firms say
they introduced new products or services in 1983. The
Wisconsin survey also found that the teleconferencing
industry is young with half of the companies entering the
market after 1980. The Center for Interactive Programs
estimates the total 1983 teleconferencing market to be
about $482 million (Parker & Olgren, 1984).
The questionnaires measured what experts report they
have experienced with the video teleconference medium.
Questionnaire One (see Appendix A for complete 8 page, 108
item questionnaire) sought responses from persons actively
involved in the video teleconference and included
124
variables such as:
(1) amount of time involved by the
respondent with video teleconferences
(2) type of business: firm/privately owned
corporation or independent small business
(3) type of educational institution as
defined by the Carnegie Council
(4) whether or not a broadcast television
station
(5) type of subject matter of the video
teleconference
(6) the number of participants involved in
the video teleconference
(7) variables relating to the format,
presentation and length of the video
teleconference
(8) advantages and disadvantages of the
video teleconference
(9) other variables
Questionnaire Two or the University/College
Administrator Questionnaire (see Appendix B; two pages, 15
items) sought responses from college and university
presidents and vice presidents who oversee funding for
video teleconferencing. Questionnaire Two was sent to
125
member colleges/universities of the National University
Teleconferencing Network, as that organization represents
all or most universities and colleges engaged in video
teleconferencing in the United States. Questionnaire Two
included variables such as:
(1) type of educational institution as
defined by the Carnegie Council
(2) the degree the administrator is willing
to commit funds to video teleconferencing
(3) positive or negative perceptions of
video teleconferencing
(4) the number of years and the number of
video teleconferences conducted by the
college/university
Findings from the University/College Administrator Questionnaire
Geoqraphical Regional Organization
Regional distribution of video teleconference
administrator respondents at the college and university
level of the National University Teleconferencing Network
represents all but the New England states, Alaska and
Hawaii. The mailing list of the National University
Teleconferencing Network lists two memberships in the New
England region--Connecticut (the University of
Connecticut) and Massachusetts (the University of
126
Massachusetts). No institutions were listed in Alaska or
Hawaii. As questionnaires generally do not ask
respondents to identify themselves or their institution,
the method used to determine the state of origin involved
identifying the postmark location of the returned
questionnaire envelope. This was acceptable with all but
five postage paid envelopes (see the "other" category of
Table 3) that were returned through the United States
postal service without cancellation marks. Thus, New
England may or may not be represented in the 5 envelopes
that were not postmarked.
The geographical regional organization followed
division by Sales & Marketing Management magazine (Kern,
1985). Population (in thousands) may be found in Table 4.
Although the teleconference sample is different than the
population of each region, the survey distribution is not
"overpowered" by any one region (see Table 3).
Orqanization of the University/ Colleqe Administrator Questionnaire
The University/College Administrator Question-
naire was designed with three parts: demographics,
agreement/disagreement attitude responses, and yes/no
responses. Demographic responses included questions 1, 13
and 14. The agreement/disagreement attitude scale was
127
TABLE 3
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE
ADMINISTRATORS
Location respondent mailed questionnaire:
Southwest (SW) [West South Central] 24.5% (13)
Pacific (PAC) 6.9% (16)
Mountain (MT) 0.0% (0)
West North Central (WNC) 5.6% (13)
East North Central (ENC) 5.6% (13)
East South Central (ESC) 0.9% (2)
South Atlantic (SA) 29.9% (69)
Middle Atlantic (MA) 19.5% (45)
New England (NE) 0 0
Other (OT) [Relative Frequency] 8.6% (5)
NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies (unless otherwise noted) with n=58 respondents. Numbers within () are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. States included in each region are: SW=Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana; PAC=Washington, Oregon, California; MT=Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada; WNC=North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, lowa, Missouri; ENC=Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio; ESC=Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama; SA=West Virginia, Maryland, Washington D.C., Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; MA=New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey; NE=Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island; OT=Other (areas without postmark on postage paid envelope). No returned questionnaire had NE postmark or Hawaii or Alaska.
128
TABLE 4
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION SAMPLE
1983 population (in thousands) of location respondent mailed questionnaire:
Southwest (SW) [West South Central] 26,064.2
Pacific (PAC) 33,887.7
Mountain (MT) 12,511.3
West North Central (WNC) 17,519.1
East North Central (ENC) 41,700.3
East South Central (ESC) 15,068.5
South Atlantic (SA) 39,131.4
Middle Atlantic (MA) 37,141.9
New England (NE) 12,499.9
SOURCE: Sales & Marketing Management: 1985 Survey of Buying Power, p. A-19.
NOTE: States included in each region are: SW=Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana; PAC=Washington, Oregon, California; MT=Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada; WNC=North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, lowa, Missouri; ENC=Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio; ESC=Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama; SA=West Virginiá, Maryland, Washington D.C., Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; MA=New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey; NE=Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island.
129
asked in questions 3-7. Yes/no responses were asked in
statements 8-12. Thus, the questionnaire instrument
sought factual information as well as a measurement of
attitudes about video teleconferencing. In some cases,
percentages may not total 100% because of rounding.
Responses to Demographic State-ments on the University/College Administrator Questionnaire
Institutional division for question one generally
followed the 1970 Carnegie Commission on higher education
typology (Levine, 1981) . However, because the mailing
list did not give representative samples of Type I and II
doctorate granting universities or comprehensive
universities and colleges I and II, such categories were
combined. As Table 5 shows, research or doctorate
granting university numbered 33 or 57.9% of the
respondents while the second highest category was in the
"other" classification at 19.3% or 11 institutions. The
reason for the high "other" classification has to do with
the NUTN mailing list including vocational/technical
schools (such as the 11 found in Oklahoma, the home state
of the NUTN executive director, J. 0. Grantham).
The title of respondents who answered Questionnaire
Two shows considerable diversity. The largest number of
respondents (15) were vice presidents at 25.9%. Whether
the respondent is the chairman of a mass communications
130
TABLE 5
DEMOGRAPHICS OF ADMINISTRATORS/COLLEGES/UNIVERSITIES
Type of Institution:
research or doctorate granting university 57.9% (33)
comprehensive university or 4 year college that offers liberal arts program and at least
two professional courses of study 15.8% (9)
liberal arts college 0.0% (0)
2 year community or junior college 7.0% (4)
other 19.3% (11)
n=
Title of respondent:
President
Vice President
Provost
Dean
Chairperson of Department of Communications
Director, Television Services
Assistant Director Adult Extension Director
Other
57
n=
5.2%
25.9%
5.2%
12.1%
1.7%
8.6%
8.6%
17.2%
13.8%
(3)
(15)
(3)
(7)
(1)
(5)
(5)
(10)
(8)
57
131
TABLE 5—Continued
My college/university has been involved in video teleconferencing:
less than 1 year 3.6% (2)
I to 3 years 51.8% (29)
3 to 6 years 19.6% (11)
6 to 9 years 3.6% (2)
9 to 11 years 7.1% (4)
II to 15 years 3.6% (2)
more than 15 years 8.9% (5)
has never been involved 1.8% (1)
n= 56
From January 1983 to the present my college/university has been involved in:
one video teleconference 5.4% (3)
2 - 4 video teleconferences 16.1% (9)
5 - 8 video teleconferences 33.9% (19)
9-12 video teleconferences 23.2% (13)
more than one video teleconference each month 14.3% (8)
several video teleconferences each month 7.1% (4)
132
TABLE 5—Continued
my college/university has not been involved with any video teleconferences during that time although we have been involved with video teleconferences before 0.0% (0)
n= 56
NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category.
133
department or the adult extension director probably has
much to do with the diverse nature of video
teleconferencing. Even though the questionnaire was
addressed to the president and vice president, such
administrators apparently directed the questionnaire to
someone who knew more about the subject or was willing to
answer the two page questionnaire. Nevertheless, 48.4% of
the respondents were at the Dean's level or above.
A possible bias of the sample may have to do with the
relative short time of 1 to 3 years that more than half of
the respondents, 51.8% or 29, have experienced with video
teleconferencing. However, 8.9% had been involved for
more than 15 years as Table 5 shows. More than half of
the respondents had been involved with 5-12 video
teleconferences (33.9%: 5-8; 23.2%: 9-12). Thus, the
respondents do have much experience with the video
teleconference medium.
Responses to Yes/No Statements on the University College Administrator Questionnaire
The yes/no questions on the University/College
Administrator Questionnaire (see Table 6) sought factual
information as well as judgmental views about video
teleconferencing. More than 93% (54) indicate that their
institution had been a site for a video teleconference
within the past 12 months (questionnaire sent March 1985).
134
TABLE 6
YES/NO RESPONSES
BY ADMINISTRATORS ON VIDEO TELECONFERENCING
YES NO
my college/university has been a site for a video teleconference(s) held within the past 12 months
my college/university has tried to measure the efficiency or effectiveness of video teleconferencing
my perceptions of video tele-conferencing are generally positive
my college/university has credit courses that include some form of video teleconferencing
video teleconferencing is best administered through continuing education/ community service/extension
9 3 . 1 % ( 54 ) 6 . 9 % (4)
6 0 . 0 % ( 33 ) 4 0 . 0 % (22)
9 1 . 2 % (52) 8 .8% (5)
5 0 . 9 % ( 28 ) 4 9 . 1 % (27)
7 2 . 2 % ( 39 ) 2 7 . 8 % ( 15 )
NOTE: All percentages (row) indicate adjusted frequencies with n ranging from 54 to 58. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. 'YES' indicates agreement with the statement; 'NO' indicates disagreement.
135
About the same number, 91.2% (52) report positive
perceptions about video teleconferencing with 72.2% (39)
reporting that video teleconferencing is best administered
through continuing education/community service/extension.
The largest "no" classification is that 49.1% (27) of the
respondents reported that their college/university did not
have credit courses that include some form of video
teleconferencing. The second largest "no" category finds
that 40% (22) of the respondents had not tried to measure
the efficiency or effectiveness of video teleconferencing.
Aqreement/Disaqreement Responses to Attitude Statements On The University/College Administrator Questionnaire
Table 7 shows Agreement/Disagreement Responses to
Attitude Statements on the University/College
Administrator Questionnaire. The strongest disagreement
found in Table 7 is with the high percentages found in the
4 (25.5% or 14) and 5 (30.9% or 17) categories with the
statement that video teleconferencing was an "appropriate
instructional delivery system for any subject matter."
Only 5.5% (3) are in the strongly agree category. The
strongest agreement area is found with the statement, "The
future of video teleconferencing is very promising."
Here, 37.9% (22) of the respondents are in the strongly
agree category and 36.2% (21) responded in the number 2
point on the 5 point scale. Only 1 respondent (1.7%)
136
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137
strongly disagrees with the statement.
When 1 and 2 are combined on the 5 point attitude
scale with the statement, "A college/university should
install permanent facilities for video teleconferencing as
the medium is so important that it can be used effectively
on a regular basis," more than half of the respondents
fall in the strongly agree/agree categories (1: 32.8%; 2:
34.5%). However, the strongly agree percentage drops
about 10% when the a<iministrators were asked to
agree/disagree with the questionnaire statement, "I am or
would be willing to commit funds to video teleconferencing
because of its potential for increasing credit or non
credit enrollments and, therefore, student interest in my
college/university."
The highest neutral (3 on the scale) is found with
the statement, "Video teleconferences are best handled
through a university/college with teleconference
facilities." Thus, 29.3% (17) could not strongly agree or
disagree with whether universities and colleges were the
"best" type of organization to handle video tele-
conferences. As a whole, Table 7 shows that, as far as
administrators of member institutions of NUTN are
concerned, the outlook attitude is more positive than
negative toward the medium of video teleconferencing.
138
Analysis of Variance: of B^
Orqanization/Insti All Administrator
: The Type -tution Responses
Through analysis of variance, the type of organ-
ization/institution was compared with the demographics
(see Table 8), the yes/no responses (see Table 9), and the
agreement/disagreement (see Table 10) responses made by
the acîministrators who "oversee" video teleconferencing.
The type of organization/institution did not significantly
affect any of the dependent variables. The only variable
approaching significance is at the .098 level and measured
whether respondents thought video teleconferencing is best
handled through a university or college (see Table 10).
Perhaps, the small sample size (about 58 respondents)
prevented any significant findings unlike the larger, user
sample.
Findings from the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire
Geoqraphical Distribution of Organizations
Regional distribution of the video teleconference
user (Questionnaire One) respondents represent all nine
regions and Canada. The geographical regional organi-
zation, similar to the college and university question-
naire mailing, was based on the classification by Sales &
Marketing Management (Kern, 1985). No questionnaire was
answered from outside Canada or the United States. One
Questionnaire sent to England was returned unopened for
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reasons of a change of address. Again, the method used to
identify the location of the respondent was to identify
the postmark location of the returned questionnaire
envelope. The high 22.5% of returned envelopes without
readable (or any) postmarks (see the "other" category of
Table 11) indicates a problem in using this method of
identification. Apparently, postage paid envelopes, as
with metered and bulk mail, are sometimes not cancelled in
the same way as with ordinary mail. In any event, the
coding of envelopes that could be identified still
presents evidence that the United States distribution of
the respondents is nationwide with every area represented
(see Table 11).
As with the college and university questionnaire, the
South Atlantic region with 19.6% (35) of respondents is
the region with the greatest number of returns except
those in the "other" category. When one compares Table 11
with the population figures in Table 4, the South Atlantic
region has the second highest population. It is
interesting to note that the highest region in population
size, East North Central (see Table 4), was listed second
with 15.1% (27) of respondents (see Table 11). Other
population similarities do exist with New England being
the smallest population size in Table 4 and the smallest
U.S. size in Table 11. Pacific is fourth in population in
146
TABLE 11
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE USERS
Location respondent mailed questionnaire:
Southwest (SW) [West South Central] 8.4% (15)
Pacific (PAC) 10.6% (19)
Mountain (MT) 8.9% (16)
West North Central (WNC) 14.0% (25)
East North Central (ENC) 15.1% (27)
East South Central (ESC) 8.9% (16)
South Atlantic (SA) 19.6% (35)
Middle Atlantic (MA) 8.9% (16)
New England (NE) 2.8% (5)
Other (OT) [Relative Frequency] 22.5% (52)
Canadian (CAN) l-^^ (4)
NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies (unless otherwise noted) with n=231 respondents. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. States included in each region are: SW=Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana; PAC=Washington, Oregon, California, Alaska, Hawaii; MT=Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada; WNC=North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, lowa, Missouri; ENC=Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio; ESC=Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama; SA-West Virginia, Maryland, Washington D.C., ^elaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; MA=New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey; NE=Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island; OT=Other (areas without postmark on postage paid envelope); CAN=Canadian.
147
Table 4 and also fourth (not counting "other") in Table 11
with 10.6% or 19 respondents. Thus, strong similarities
exist with the known population of the regions and the
percentage of responses with the User Questionnaire. The
Canadian sample is small with 1.7% or 4 respondents. It
appears that the survey respondents were not
over-represented by any one region.
Orqanization of the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire
The Video Teleconference User Questionnaire was
designed with six parts: demographics, agreement/dis-
agreement attitude responses, yes/no; true/false
responses, degree of importance of variables for a
successful video teleconference, degree of success with
video teleconferences on various subjects, and variables
necessary for a successful video teleconference. Demo-
graphic responses include user questionnaire numbers
(pages and question numbers are User Questionnaire items)
2-5, page 1; 1, page 6; and 2, 3, 4, page 7. Agree-
ment/disagreement attitude responses include numbers 6-15,
page 2. Yes/no; true/false responses include
questionnaire numbers 1, page 1; 16, 17, page 2; 18, page
3; and 11, page 8.
Degree of importance of variables for a successful
video teleconference include numbers 19-33, page 3; 34-50,
148
page 4; and 51-53, page 5. Degree of success with video
teleconferences on various subjects include numbers 1-16,
page 5; and 17-37, page 6. Variables necessary for a
successful video teleconference include numbers 5-8, page
7; and 9, 10, and optional open-ended question, page 8.
Responses to Demographic State-ments on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire
Table 12 shows descriptive demographic data for the
User Questionnaire. Institutional division for question
two generally follows the 1970 Carnegie Commission on
higher education typology (Levine, 1981) with some
categories combined as with the College and University
Administrator Questionnaire. The greatest percentage of
respondents, 30.7% (71) were found in the research or
doctorate granting university. The second highest
percentage of respondents with 29.9% (69) were broadcast
television stations. Both percentages reflect the mailing
lists with the large number of PBS stations sent
questionnaires and the number of major universities that
teleconference in one way or another. The 19.5% (45) in
the "other" category reflects the diverse nature of the
video teleconference medium. Organizations listed in the
other category include non-profit agencies, area vo-tech
centers, post secondary vocational technical institutes
and one high energy physics research center. At this
149
TABLE 12
DEMOGRAPHICS OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE USERS
My organization/institution is best described as:
research or doctorate granting university 30.7% (71)
comprehensive university or
college that offers a liberal arts program 6.9% (16)
liberal arts college (I or II) 0.0% (0)
2 year community or junior college; and at
least two professional courses of study 5.6% (13)
a firm or privately owned corporation 5.6% (13)
independent small business 0.9% (2)
broadcast television station 29.9% (69) other 19.5% (45)
n 229
Title of respondent:
President 2.2% (5) Vice President or Vice or Associate Dean 6.1% (14)
Provost O-O^ ÍO)
Dean 0-4% (1)
Chairperson of Department of Communications 4.3% (10)
Director, Television Services; Program Director; Production Manager 3 2.0% (7 4)
150
TABLE 12—Continued
Assistant Director 3.0% (7)
Adult Extension Director 14.7% (34)
Assistant Extension Director 4.8% (11)
Other 32.5% (75)
n 231
1 have been involved with video teleconferencing:
less than 1 year 4.8% (9) 1 to 2 years 21.5% (40)
2 to 3 years 33.9% (63) 4 to 5 years 22.6% (42)
5 to 7 years 7.0% (13) 7 to 9 years 4.3% (8)
about 10 years 3.8% (7) 11 to 15 years 1.6% (3)
15 to 20 years 0.5% (1) more than 20 years 0.0% (0)
n 186
From January 1983 to the present I have been involved with:
one video teleconference 2.7% (5)
2 - 4 video teleconferences 13.4% (25)
5 - 8 video teleconferences 27.4% (51)
9 - 1 2 video teleconferences 26.3% (49)
more than one video teleconference each month 14.5% (27)
several video teleconferences each month 14.5% (27)
I have not been involved with any video teleconferences during that time although I have been involved with video teleconferences before 0.5% (1)
n 184
151
TABLE 12—Continued
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants: (consider all participants at all sites)
2-5 persons 0.5% (1) 51-100 persons 7.0% (13)
6-25 persons 34.8% (65) 101-250 persons 2.7% (5)
26-50 persons 24.1% (45) 251 or more 11.2% (21)
amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists 19.8% (37)
n 187
As part of my job, I am involved with video teleconferencing approximately:
under 10 percent of the time 5 2.4% (100)
10-25 percent of the time 27.7% (53)
26-50 percent of the time 8.4% (16)
51-75 percent of the time 3.7% (7)
76-95 percent of the time 1-6% (3)
all or nearly all of the time 6.3% (12)
n 191
The average number of earth station sites for a video teleconference(s) I have conducted or been a part of is:
Two: 15.7% (26) Three: 3.6% (6) Four: 0.0% (0) Five: 1.8% (3) Six: 1.2% (2) Seven: 0.6% (1) Eight: 1.2% (2) Nme: 0.0% (0) Ten+ 32.5% (54)
impossible to say as the number of sites per teleconference varies considerably 4z.o^ W-L;
165 n
152
TABLE 12—Continued
My experience with video teleconferencing is one that is involved with (select only one):
producing or organizing profit tele-conferences for others 18.3% (33)
teleconferences that are held in conjunction with other offices or divisions of my
company 26.1% (47)
non-profit teleconferences for others 28.3% (51)
technical matters only 5.6% (10) other 21.7% (39)
n 180
I help to (select all that apply):
write 11-8% (2)
produce 2 8.3% (53)
coordinate different locations 58.3% (109)
supervise 59.4% (111)
technically operate 27.3% (51)
promote 55.6% (104)
other 26.7% (50)
n 480
NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted •frequencies with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category.
153
time, one would not expect an independent small business
to do much video teleconferencing and, thus, the 0.9% (2)
in this category seems reasonable.
The titles of the respondents also indicate extreme
diversity in the respondents. The highest percentage of
respondents are found in the "other" category with 3 2.5%
(75). Such a high percentage indicates the "newness" of
the video teleconference medium. While other titles could
have been used on the User Questionnaire, the selection of
additional titles would have been impossible given the
diversity. Apparently, some institutions or organizations
are still experimenting with who should organize video
teleconferences. Respondent titles written on the
questionnaire and coded in the "other" category include
(duplicate titles not given):
electronic engineer
teleconferencing coordinator
coordinator of instructional programs
telecommunications coordinator
director of teleconference activities
director of teleconferencing
network coordinator
program manager of conferences
director of engineering
director of development and marketing
154
director of university conferences
director of program development
director, learning resources
department head of distance learning
executive director
chairman, interactive telehealth network
assistant professor and conference
coordinator
director of academic telecommunications
supervisor of alternative learning systems
lifelong education specialist
special assistant to the director of
telecommunications division
executive secretary
director, division of independent study
faculty coordinator for satellite
facilities
director of business and professional
continuing education
director of communication services
consortium of colleges and universities
statewide
production projects director
medical school program coordinator
director of special projects
155
director of marketing
communications management specialist of the
teaching medical center
assistant director of educational design
and development
director of the center for professional
development
assistant director of telecommunications
based instruction
supervisor of publicly held corporation
production contracts administrator
director of TAGER services
director of media development
senior director of operations
associate director of the Teleconference
Design Group (state-owned educational television
network)
communication engineer for the police
department
supervisor of systems development for the
provincial government of Ontario, Canada
senior administrator of corporate
communications
coordinator of client services
director of business and industry
156
statewide director of university
instructional telecommunication services
business promotions specialist and
videoconference producer
instructional technology coordinator
director of business and industrial
training services
dean of distance education and
teleconferencing
director of public information
assistant superintendent of vo-tech school
coordinator of electronic services
teleconferencing services manager
telecommunications resource controller
director of telecommunications planning
librarian of community college
television traffic supervisor and
teleconference coordinator
Although the questionnaire was not directed toward
administrators, nothing prevented an administrator from
filling out the form. Thus, the small percentages of
responses from president, 2.2% (5), vice president or
vice/associate dean 6.1%, or dean may indicate their
involvement with video teleconferencing. As one might
157
expect with the mailing to all PBS stations, television
station titles of director, television services; program
director; and production manager include 32% (74) and was
the second highest category in Table 12. Also well
represented were adult extension directors, 14.7% (34),
and assistant extension directors, 4.8% (11).
As Table 12 shows, most respondents had 1 to 5 years
of video teleconferencing experience with the highest
percentage 33.9% (63), 2 to 3 years. 22.6% (42) had 4 to
5 years of experience. Several percentages had
considerable video teleconferencing experience: 5 to 7
years, 7.0% (13); 7 to 9 years, 4.3% (8); about 10 years,
3.8% (7); and 11 to 15 years, 1.6% (3). One respondent
had 15 to 20 years of experience, 0.5% (1). No respondent
had more than 20 years of experience.
For the period of January 1983 to the time the
respondent mailed the questionnaire (March 1985; about 26
months), the largest percentage of respondents had
conducted 5-8 video teleconferences, 27.4% (51), and about
the same number, 26.3% (49), had conducted 9-12 video
teleconferences. When the last two categories are
combined (more than one video teleconference each month,
14.5% [27], and several video teleconferences each month,
14.5% [27]), 29% of the respondents could be said to be
involved with video teleconferencing on a monthly basis.
158
Only one respondent, 0.5%, had not been involved with
video teleconferencing during the 26 month time period.
The greatest percentage of respondents, 34.8% (65),
reported being involved with video teleconferences of 6-25
persons. The second highest percentage, 24.1% (45) falls
in the 26-50 person category. But the diversity of the
video teleconference medium is shown with 19.8% (37) of
the respondents finding that no typical enrollment exists
for video teleconferencing. Further, 11.2% (21) of the
respondents reported total audience participants to have
sizes of 251 or more persons. Thus, 2-5 persons can be
involved with a video teleconference as can 251 or more
persons.
Few respondents, 6.3% (12), can be considered to be
involved with video teleconferencing on an all or nearly
all of the time basis, as Table 12 shows. Despite the
high numbers of video teleconferences conducted as
previously mentioned, 52.4% (100) of the respondents were
involved with video teleconferencing under 10% of the time
and 27.7% (53) were involved 10-25% of the time. Thus,
more than 75% of the respondents (52.4% + 27.7%) spent 25%-
or less of work time with video teleconferences as Table
12 shows.
The average number of earth station sites for video
teleconferences conducted by respondents falls into two
159
extremes [two sites, 15.7% (26); and ten or more, 32.5%
(54)] or is impossible to say as the number of sites per
video teleconference varies considerably with 42.8% (71)
of respondents reporting that the number of sites is
impossible to say as the number varies considerably.
Thus, one could say that the number of video
teleconference sites are diverse in nature with most of
the number of sites being three or less or 10 or more.
The respondents experience with video
teleconferencing is also diverse in nature with most
respondents, 28.3% (51), being involved with non-profit
teleconferences for others; 26.1% (47) involved with video
teleconferences held in conjunction with other offices or
divisions of the respondent's company; 21.7% (39) being in
the "other" category; and 18.3% (33) producing or
organizing profit teleconferences for others. Thus, Table
12 shows a wide range of purposes the respondents have had
to be involved with video teleconferencing. Only 5.6%
(10) of the respondents were involved with technical
matters only.
The last statement in Table 12 shows that the
respondents have more than one function (respondent was
not limited to any number of items) for involvement with
video teleconferencing. More than half of the respondents
supervised, 59.4% (111); coordinated different locations.
160
58.3% (109); or helped to promote video. teleconferences.
More than 25% of the respondents produced, 28.3% (53);
technically operated, 27.3% (51); or performed "other"
functions, 26.7% (50). The smallest percentage, 11.8%
(2), wrote for video teleconferences. Probably, the
"live" nature of the medium calls for impromptu remarks
around areas for discussion without carefully rehearsed
scripts.
Responses to Agreement/Disagreement Attitude Statements On The Video Teleconference User Questionnaire
Table 13 shows response percentages to agree-
ment/disagreement attitude statements on the Video
Teleconference User Questionnaire. The highest negative
or "strongly disagree" (5 on the scale) statements are
found in the questionnaire statements, "Video telecon-
ferences are appropriate for any subject matter," 30.1%
(56) ; and "Video teleconferences are best handled through
a university with teleconference facilities," 27.1% (51).
The highest positive or "strongly agree" statements are
found with the questionnaire statements, "The future of
video teleconferencing is promising," 43.6% (82); "Larger,
university-type video teleconferences designed for groups
of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very
different from smaller, business type video tele-
conferences that are designed for 'in-house' use,"
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164
38.7% (72); "I have found that as someone becomes familiar
with teleconferencing, acceptance of the medium improves,"
38.6% (73); and "Some video teleconferences are best held
in a 'series' type format on the same or similar subject
weeks or months apart, as it is possible to try to do 'too
much' in one video teleconference," 34.6% (65). The
statement, "Some video teleconferences are best held in a
'series' type format on the same or similar subject weeks
or months apart, as it is possible to try to do 'too much'
in one video teleconference," has the highest agreement
with scale rating 2 of the 5 point scale with 46.3% (87).
A close "second" is the statement, "I have found that as
someone becomes familiar with teleconferencing, acceptance
of the medium improves," with 46% (87) with a 2 rating.
The questionnaire statement, "The sense of identity
common in higher education and business ('my company/
university is the best') weakens video teleconferences as,
'Why should I admit the other guy has something better?',"
brought a diverse response with most of the respondents,
32.2% (59), in the neutral or 3 scale rating. Also high
in the neutral rating was whether the respondents thought
that video teleconferencing was best used with small
(under 25) groups, 37.4% (70), or was best used with
groups of more than 25, 43.3% (81).
165
Responses to Yes/No; True/False Statements on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire
The first statement on the User Questionnaire sought
a yes or no response: "I am involved with video
teleconferencing in my work situation." Although every
organization or person was listed by the mailing list
sources as being involved with video teleconferencing,
15.3% (3 5) of the respondents responded "No" to the
question as shown in Table 14. Thus, 3 5 respondents did
not complete the questionnaire. This has, however, little
or no effect on the percentages shown in the tables as the
relative frequency has not been used except in rare
instances when noted (such as in the open ended question
in Table 17) as adjusted frequencies do not include
omitted questions from any respondent. Thus, most of the
questions have a possible n of 194 respondents who were
involved with video teleconferencing in their work
situation.
A slight majority of 54.2% (103) of respondents were
involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video
teleconferences on a subject area designed for the same
(or mostly same) audience. Thus, 54.2% of respondents had
experience in dealing with video teleconferences on a
particular subject or subject matter. The majority of
subjects, 66.1% (125) did not have audio teleconferencing
166
TABLE 14
YES/NO AND TRUE/FALSE RESPONSES
BY VIDEO TELECONFERENCE USERS
YES NO n
I am involved with video teleconferencing in my work situation 84.7% (194) 15.3% (35) 229
I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconfer-ences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience.
Prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing
For some of the video teleconferences I've been involved in, there has been an attempt to measure how successful they were
54.2% (103) 45.8% (87) 190
33.9% (64) 66.1% (125) 189
90.6% (164) 8.8% (16) 180
TRUE FALSE
This questionnaire asked important questions about video teleconferencing 92.2% (153) 7.8% (13) 166
NOTE: All percentages (row) indicate adjusted frequencies with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies^or the number of respondents within each category. 'YES indicates agreement with the statement; 'NO' mdicates disagreement.
167
experience. A strong majority of respondents had sought
feedback from participants in one way or another with
90.6% indicating that they had attempted to measure how
successful the video teleconferences they had conducted
had been.
A strong majority of respondents, 92.2% (153), also
indicated that the questionnaire had asked important
questions about video teleconferencing although 7.8% (13)
respondents did not agree, as Table 14 shows. The diverse
nature of video teleconferencing and the diverse nature of
the respondents—from technician to university president
and the various titles of respondents—prevented any
questionnaire being "perfect" in the types of questions
asked. Some engaged in video teleconferencing within
higher education may have wished for more attention to be
given to course type video teleconferencing while
individuals within the business sector may have wished to
see more attention devoted to business and profit oriented
video teleconferencing. A technician may have wished to
see more technical type questions and so forth. The User
Questionnaire was designed to cover basic areas of video
teleconferencing and present data to benefit all groups.
Responses Statements
to D on
Teleconference
eqree of Importance the Video User Questionnaire
The respondents' perceptions of the degree of
168
importance of certain variables needed for successful
video teleconferencing (4=very important; 3=somewhat
important; 2=rarely important; l=not important) are shown
in Table 15. Variables considered to be very important by
more than 50 percent of the respondents include pace and
timing of material presented, 85.0% (159); technical
quality of the presentation, 84.4% (157); technical
expertise, 77.2% (142); ability to adapt curriculum or
subject matter to a technical medium, 67.9% (127);
adhering to a strict schedule, 66.8% (125); persons to
travel less than 150 miles to attend a video
teleconference, 64.3% (119); sending literature to persons
prior to attending, 58.6% (109); to have a recognized
expert discuss each topic, 51.4% (94); and live or
"normal" television instead of slow-scan TV, 50.9% (87).
Variables considered to be very important by more
than 35% but less than 50% of the respondents include
local group discussion at each site, 48.9% (91); two-way
voice communication among key individuals at all sites,
47.3% (89); a local question and answer session among
individuals at a location immediately after a
presentation, 45.9% (85); a moderator with "show business"
or communication skills at the key location who can
provide enthusiasm, coordination and motivation, 45.1%
(83); workbook materials to supplement the video
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174
teleconference, 39.8% (74); interaction among participants
(audience) at all sites, 38.2% (71); and low cost to
participants, 36.8% (68).
The two variables that had the lowest percentages in
the very important classification are computer
interaction, 0.6% (1), and slow-scan television instead of
"live" television, 0.6% (1). Variables with percentages
between 1 and 10% in the very important classification
include video teleconference sites to be at a college or
university, 4.3% (8); sponsorship by a major university,
5.6% (10); live questions from audience participants at a
remote site should be written and panelists asked such
questions by a moderator (hence, no direct talk-back by
person who asked the question) 6.5% (12); and sponsorship
by a large corporation or organization, 6.7% (12). While
slow-scan television has had some appeal with one person
to one person "individual" video teleconferences, the
technology for group presentations has made such "single
frame" video teleconferences obsolete. Thus, one would
expect such low percentages in that category. The low
percentages in the very important category that say, in
effect, live questions should come directly from audience
participants and not through a moderator reflect belief in
the Donahue type format that allows direct feedback from
audience members.
175
Perhaps, the most surprising negative response to a
variable with little "very important" support is how
important it is for video teleconference sites to be at a
college or university. A low, 4.3% (8), of the
respondents thought this to be "very important," although
3 5.3% (65) thought the variable to be "somewhat
important." Correspondingly, the highest "not important"
percentages were found with the variables, slow-scan
television instead of "live" television, 54.1% (93); and
whether video teleconference sites should be at a college
or university, 41.8% (77). However, the percentages do
change with the variable that asked how important it was
for sponsorship by a major university, with 49.7% (88)
responding in the somewhat important category although the
rarely important, 23.2% (41), and 21.5% (38) in the not
important category are relatively high percentages. One
should also note the low very important response, 6.7%
(12), with sponsorship by large corporations or
organization.
One can only speculate at the reasons for the
negative college/university response. It may be that the
lack of adequate funding by colleges and universities
limits advances in video teleconferencing. It could also
be that the respondents are saying that, in general,
sponsorship is not important regardless of whether such is
176
from a corporation or university. The perception by some
who consider university professors to live within "ivory
towers" may also be reflected in such percentages just as
is the perception that all corporations want is money.
The lack of familiarity with the medium by educators and
administrators may be another reason for the low
university response. In an age where electric typewriters
are obsolete for most purposes (even many forms today can
best be typed on advanced word processing/printing systems
through hand controlled movable friction printing
systems), the perception of someone in a college or
university still using manual or electric typewriters may
be transferred to the high technology medium of video
teleconferencing ('lf they still use manual typewriters,
how could they handle lasers and fiber optic
technology?').
For example, in editing and advising the Mass
Communicator of Texas Tech University, the author was told
by a technician in trying to service or replace a disk
drive, that the only place to replace such was through the
Smithsonian Institute, as that organization had been given
similar obsolete equipment (the typesetting computer
originally cost more than $90,000). Even universities
with multi million dollar budgets sometimes have a
difficult time replacing an $85,000 video camera or the
177
expensive equipment needed in video telecommunications.
However, as pointed out in the literature review of this
dissertation, universities and colleges constantly try to
update equipment.
In coding questionnaires, the author also remembers
one remark written by a junior college instructor who did
not like a questionnaire statement (item 46, page 4:
sponsorship by a major university) because it did not
include smaller colleges. His written response was, "Oh,
no—not another university snob." The questionnaire
statement or a different item might have included smaller
colleges within the statement although Table 12 shows that
only 5.6% (13) of respondents were video teleconferencing
at two-year community or junior colleges. An additional
reason for the high negative response may also be the
competition or feeling of independence within institutions
of higher education. At Texas Tech University, persons
associated with the University Daily (the student
newspaper) have told the author how important independence
is from the Department of Mass Communications or from
administrators at Texas Tech. In a similar way, persons
at the Texas Tech Press have stressed independence from
the university during tours of students in mass
communication classes taught by the author. One suspects
that some "feelings of independence" by PBS broadcast
178
stations associated with colleges and universities may
have contributed to some negative responses, (the
respondent thinking might go: my station is not really a
part of the university; thus, the station should sponsor
the video teleconference, not the university) although no
question was asked to support or deny such a conclusion.
Variables with more than 50% of responses in the
"somewhat important" category include low cost to
participants, 57.3% (106); for participants to meet new
people with similar interests during a video
teleconference, 57.1% (105); a large screen for viewing,
54.0% (101); video teleconferences to produce measurable
changes in behavior (to cause someone to do something as a
result of attending the video teleconference), 51.7% (91);
sponsorship by a large corporation or organization, 50.8%
(91); and workbook materials to supplement the video
teleconference, 50.5% (94).
Variables with more than 40% but less than 50% of
responses in the "somewhat important" category include
sponsorship by a major university, 49.7% (88); limiting
the number of questions asked from each site, 49.5% (90);
microphones placed in key parts of an auditorium for
questions from participants, 48.9% (89); a profit to be
made from the video teleconference, 48.9% (88); a question
and answer session among individuals at al1 or several
179
locations immediately after a presentation, 48.4% (88);
live questions from audience participants at a remote
site(s) must be screened in advance to stick to topic
being discussed, 46.2% (86); a professional educator to
design a video teleconference, 43.7% (80); to have local
"in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in
addition to the video teleconference presentation, 43.5%
(81); a moderator with "show business" or communication
skills at the key location who can provide enthusiasm,
coordination and motivation, 43.5% (80); interaction among
participants (audience) at all sites, 43.0% (80); two-way
voice communication among key individuals at all sites,
41.0% (77); and local group discussion at each site, 40.3%
(75) . The large number of variables (29) in Table 15 that
have percentages of more than 50% when the very important
and somewhat important categories are combined (compared
to the total of 35 variables in Table 15) attests to the
validity of the questionnaire and the attitude information
sought. Further, such variables present strong evidence
on what variables should be included within a video
teleconference. The results also indicate that computer
interaction is not necessary for video teleconferencing.
180
Responses to Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences and Various Subjects as Listed on the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire
Using the National Center for Higher Education
Management Systems' subject list from its publication,
Adult Learning Activities (1978), 37 subjects were listed
on the User Questionnaire to determine the degree of
success respondents have had or thought they would have
from video teleconferencing related to such subjects (see
Table 16). Since the literature review had found atti-
tudes that certain subjects were more appropriate to the
medium than others (see Table 13), it was hypothesized
that the respondents' views about video teleconferencing
in specific subject areas might show important differ-
ences. The respondents had the option of determining the
degree of success (4=very successful; 3=somewhat success-
ful; 2=rarely successful; l=never successful) with each
subject from responding to the question, "How successful
do you believe video teleconferences are in dealing with
the following subjects?" Several items are worthy of
mention with the analysis of such data.
Several respondents apparently thought that video
teleconferencing could be successfully done no matter what
the subject content. Thus, unlike other questionnaire
responses, several respondents circled large "blocks" of
very or somewhat successful codes (VS or SS). Others did
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184
not and marked each item separately. Still others put
question marks on some variables, such as "visual/per-
forming arts" and "speech debate," apparently questioning
the subject content of such items. Still others noted
that they had had no familiarity with such subject and
left several or many items blank. One respondent wrote on
the questionnaire that any subject could be video
teleconferenced if properly handled. Despite the
differences in subject perception by the respondents,
subject differences do emerge.
Table 16 shows the subject with the highest very
successful response to be health science, 63.6% (105),
followed by health and para medical services with 60.2%
(80) . The subject with the third highest very successful
response was also in a health related area—nursing—with
59.9% (85). Another health related area, allied health,
also had a high percentage at 56.3% (85). In addition to
the health areas mentioned, subjects with more than 50% of
respondents choosing the very successful category included
business management, 58.3% (95); engineering technology,
56.1% (87); news events, 54.2% (84); business/commerce,
53.3% (72); communications, 51.0% (76).
All but one of the subjects received less than 10% in
the never successful category. Foreign languages had
12.2% (17) in the never successful category and also had
185
the lowest very successful percentage with 18.7% (26). It
is interesting to note that no subject received a combined
percentage greater than 50% when the rarely successful and
never successful categories are combined. Thus, the
greater percentages are consistently found in the very and
somewhat successful categories.
Res for Adv
ponses to Variables a Successful and antaqeous Video Tel(
Necessary
econference
Table 17 shows that more than half of the
respondents, 53.8% (99), selected attendance and
acceptance of persons attending to be the most important
iteiT for a successful video teleconference. Acceptance of
persons attending, 30.4% (50) was also considered to be
necessary for a successful video teleconference. Only
3.3% (6) of respondents indicated "can't say."
The highest percentage of respondents, 42.5% (79), in
the category, "I believe the one most important element
for a successful teleconference is," selected the
variable, "subject matter that is appropriate for the
medium of teleconferencing." In other words, video
teleconferencing is not equally applicable to all subjects
or topics and, therefore, one must carefully select. The
variable, "there is no one important element," also had a
high percentage of respondents with 39.2% (73). Only 5.9%
(11) respondents thought a variable "other" than what was
186
TABLE 17
SUCCESS AND ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES
BY USERS OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCING
To me, a successful video teleconference is one that (select only 1):
*1 is measured by attendance 3.8% (7)
*2 is measured by acceptance of persons
attending 30.4% (56)
*3 cannot be immediately measured 8.7% (16)
*4 measured by *1 and *2 53.8% (99)
*5 can't say 3.3% (6)
n 184
I believe the one most important element for a successful teleconference is:
good equipment and signal 6.5% (12)
dynamic leaders at individual sites 5.9% (11)
subject matter that is appropriate for the medium of teleconferencing 42.5% (79)
other 5.9% (11)
there is no one important element 3 9.2% (73)
n 186
187
TABLE 17—Continued
A successful video teleconference should have a length of: 2 or 3 days 0.5% (1)
no more than two days 0.5% (1)
no more than one day 10.3% (19)
only part of a day 14.7% (27)
actual video time of no more than 3 hours 14.7% (27)
will vary because of content and goals sought 57.6% (106)
Other 1.6% (3)
n 184
I believe the chief advantage for a video teleconference is (select only one):
*1 cost 3.7% (7)
*2 bringing people together who otherwise could not attend for reasons including distance 13.4% (25)
*3 the bringing together of personalities (sometimes experts in the subject area) who, otherwise, would be unable to meet at a single location 23.0% (43)
*4 other ^-^^ ^ ^
*5 it is impossible to give a single advantage as *1, *2, and *3 are all important a d v a n W ; 58.3% (109)
187
188
TABLE 17—Continued
I believe the chief disadvantage for a video teleconference is (select only one):
cost 20.8% (35)
the lack of human communication possible through video screens and not having face-to-face communication 24.4% (41)
the poor quality of equipment usually available for such endeavors 2.4% (4)
the inability of persons sponsoring video teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional techniques that utilize the video teleconference technology 47.6% (80)
video teleconferences have so many disadvantages that it is hard to pick one 4.8% (8)
n 168
I believe video teleconferencing will (See Appendix C for complete responses):
Positive Responses 56.5% (74)
Neutral Responses 37.4% (49)
Negative Responses 6.1% (8)
131
Missing Responses (% in Relative Frequency) 43.3% (100)
NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies unless labeled relative frequency with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. Numbers with * indicate questionnaire response numbers that indicate a combination of possible answers.
189
mentioned was the one most important element.
As Table 17 shows, the majority of respondents who
indicated a time frame for a successful video
teleconference selected a time of one day or less with
10.3% (19) selecting no more than one day, 14.7% (27)
selecting only part of a day, and 14.7% (27) reporting
that the time will vary because of content and goals
sought. However, the highest percentage, 57.6% (106),
indicated that the time will vary because of content and
goals sought.
More than half of the respondents, 58.3% (109),
indicated that cost; bringing people together who
otherwise could not attend for reasons including distance;
and the bringing together of personalities (sometimes
experts in the subject area) who, otherwise, would be
unable to meet at a single location; were important
advantages and that it was impossible to give any one
single advantage. The second highest percentage of
possible responses was found with the variable—the
bringing together of personalities (sometimes experts in
the subject area) who, otherwise, would be unable to meet
at a single location--and brought 23% (43) of the
respondents to agree. Also showing a percentage of more
than 10% was the variable—bringing people together who
otherwise could not attend for reasons including
190
distance—with 13.4% (25). As with the length of the
video teleconference statement, only 1.6% (3) indicated a
chief advantage other than what was given (see Table 17).
Perhaps, the most interesting percentage to educators
who wish to utilize video teleconferencing is found with
the statement, "I believe the chief disadvantage for a
video teleconference is (select only one)." Nearly half
or 47.6% (80) of the respondents selected the completion
statement as, "the inability of persons sponsoring video
teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional
techniques that utilize the video teleconference
technology." Thus, as far as the respondents are
concerned, persons sponsoring video teleconferences have
not used the medium in a proper way. The next highest
percentage, 24.4% (41), also involves a human dimension:
the lack of human communication possible through video
screens and not having face-to-face communication. Cost,
20.8% (35), was a close third as a chief disadvantage.
Only 4.8% (8) selected the response, video teleconferences
have so many disadvantages that it is hard to pick one.
Appendix C lists complete responses for the open
ended question. Deciding which response was positive,
neutral, or negative was not easy, as someone could be
positive in one sense and negative in another sense within
the same response. Anyone who did not report anything
191
neutral or negative and, in general, thought video
teleconferencing could be beneficial, was judged to be
positive in response. Anyone who did not say anything
positive or negative was judged to be neutral. Anyone who
suggested failure within the medium was judged to be
negative. Again, the complete listing of positive,
neutral, and negative responses may be found in Appendix
C.
100 respondents or 4 3.3% did not respond to the open
ended question. Of the respondents who did, 56.5% (74)
gave positive responses; 37.4% (49) gave neutral respon-
ses; and 6.1% (8) have negative responses. The high
percentage of neutral responses indicates that video
teleconferencing probably does not have a "blind trust"
type of support. In any event, the views of the
respondents are listed verbatim in Appendix C.
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution By the Demographic Responses
Table 18 compares responses by the type of organi-
zation/institution on items relating to experience and job
description. Thus, the type of organization/institution
was considered to be important when compared with the
statements, "I have been involved with video tele-
conferencing (number of years involved with video
teleconferencing)," <.049; "From January 1983 to the
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present I have been involved with (number of video
teleconferences on 7 pt. scale)," <.007; "coordinate
different locations," <.030; "technically operate," <.016;
and "promote," <.000.
As Table 18 shows, the longest involvement with video
teleconferencing is found in the "other" category at a
mean score of 4.24. The lowest amount of time involved
with video teleconferencing is found in the small business
category, at 2.00. Also with a low mean score are
community or junior colleges at 2.36. Thus, for persons
with the most long term experience with video
teleconferencing, one would not want to contact most small
businesses or junior colleges with organizations outside
of higher education having the most experience.
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greatest number of video teleconferences (from January
1983 to the present I have been involved with [number of
video teleconferences]) as the mean score of 5.40 shows.
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video teleconferences, as the mean scoré of 2.00 shows.
Privately owned corporations are the organizations
most likely to coordinate different locations (mean score,
1.80) while small businesses were the least likely at
1.00. Small businesses were the most likely to select
"technically operate" at 2.00 while research universities
195
were the least likely at 1.16.
Privately owned corporations were also the most
likely institutions/organizations to select the variable,
"promote," as the mean score of 1.90 in Table 18 shows.
Small businesses were the least likely to select promote
(1.00), followed by the PBS broadcast television stations
at 1.30.
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution By Agree-ment/Disaqreement Attitude Responses
Table 19 shows the dependent variables, "future of
video teleconferencing is promising," <0.023; "video
teleconferences are best handled through a university with
teleconference facilities," <0.000; and "larger,
university-type video teleconferences are very different
from smaller, business type video teleconferences designed
for 'in-house' use," 0.000, to be significant at the .05
level. The reader should remember that, unlike other
tables in the questionnaire, the coding used on the 5
point scale is reversed with l=strongly agree and
5=strongly disagree. With the future of video
teleconferencing is promising variable, the PBS broadcast
television stations have the lowest number of positive
responses as the mean score of 2.18 shows. Institutions
with the greatest number of positive responses were the
comprehensive colleges and universities at 1.21.
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As one might expect, research universities had the
strongest agreement, 2.66, with the variable whether video
teleconferences are best handled through a university with
teleconference facilities. Privately owned corporations
strongly disagreed and had a mean score of 4.70, the
highest score of any in Table 19. Small businesses had
the second highest disagreement score at 4.00. Thus, one
can say that businesses and universities do not agree
about who should handle video teleconferences.
Junior or community colleges had the strongest
disagreement, 4.00, with the statement that larger,
university type video teleconferences are very different
from smaller, business type video teleconferences designed
for in-house use. Research universities had the strongest
agreement score, 1.98, closely followed by small
businesses at 2.00. This finding is not as unusual as it
may seem at first glance. As the author has taught at two
junior or community colleges for five years, he knows from
first-hand experience the negative feelings held by
community college aciministrators and instructors toward
universities as a whole. Probably, the attitude that
"we're just as important as the big guys" by individuals
at the community college level had much to do with the
responses to this dependent variable. In recent years,
junior colleges even resented the name "junior" because
200
some said that the word was subservient to a larger
college or university. On the other hand, small business
managers see strengths in being small and, whether a video
teleconference is large or small, does not have the
perception of being inferior; hence, smal1 business
managers to not take offense to being small since such
difference does not mean inferiority. Research
universities, familiar with the small video teleconfer-
encing of the private business sector, probably, have some
experience with both types of teleconferences and have no
"inferiority feelings" about size. While this is
conjecture by the author, it would be an interesting
variable to further research.
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Orqanization/Institution By Yes/No; True/False Responses
Table 20 shows the two dependent variables to have
significance at the .05 level to be, "I have been involved
with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video
teleconferences on a subject area designed for the same
(or mostly same) audience," <0.031; and "Prior to my
involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been
involved with audio teleconferencing," <0.000.
Table 20 shows that the organization most likely to
say "yes" to the statement, I have been involved with a
weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconferences
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on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same)
audience, is a firm or privately owned corporation, with a
mean score of 1.78. The institution least likely to say
"yes" to the statement is the research university, with a
mean score of 1.38. Small businesses had no responses in
this category.
The organization most likely to say "yes" to the
statement, "Prior to my involvement with video
teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio
teleconferencing," is comprehensive universities with a
mean score of 1.54. Junior colleges were second with a
mean score of 1.50. Again, small businesses had no
responses in this category. Of interest, is the group
least likely to say "yes"—the PBS stations with a mean
score of 1.06. Thus, the PBS television stations have
little experience with audio teleconferencing.
Analysis of Variance: : The Type of Organization/Institution By the Deqree of Importance Variables for a Successful Video Teleconference
Table 21 shows 11 dependent variables to be
significant at the .05 level or beyond. The variables
are: technical expertise, <0.002; ability to adapt
curriculum or subject matter to a technical medium,
<0.000; two-way video and voice communication among all
sites, <0,020; a local question and answer session among
individuals at a location immediately after a
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presentation, <0.002; local group discussion at each site,
<0.001; to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or
group discussion(s) in addition to the video
teleconference presentation, <0.000; video teleconference
sites to be at a college or university, <0.000;
microphones placed in key parts of an auditorium for
questions from participants, <0.011; sponsorship by a
major university, <0.005; a profit to be made from the
video teleconference, <0.001; and, limiting the number of
people at each site to less than 50, <0.023.
The mean score of 4.00 with the variable, technical
expertise, shows junior or community colleges to be the
most likely to consider the variable important with the
PBS television stations in a close second at 3.88. Small
businesses did not have a score and the organizations
least likely to consider technical expertise important are
firms or privately owned corporations.
The variable, ability to adapt curriculum or subject
matter to a technical medium, shows close high mean scores
with junior or community colleges, 3.80, and research
universities, 3.77. There were no responses to this
variable with small businesses. The lowest mean score is
for firms or privately owned businesses at 2.78.
The variable, two-way video and voice communication
among all sites, shows firms or privately owned
211
corporations to tie with small businesses for the highest
mean score, 3.00. The lowest score, 2.00, was found with
research universities. Thus, the research universities
consider two-way video and voice communication among all
sites to be relatively unimportant while small businesses
and privately owned corporations think the variable to be
important. Probably, universities are thinking in terms
of a larger audience than are small businesses and
privately owned corporations.
The variable, a local question and answer session
among individuals at a location immediately after a
presentation, had the highest mean score at 3.58 with
junior or community colleges and, thus, was considered
important in contrast to the lowest score, small
businesses, at 2.00. Research universities had the second
highest score, 3.49, and comprehensive universities the
third highest, 3.40. Research universities had the
highest mean score, 3.60, with the variable, local group
discussion at each site. Small businesses had the lowest
mean score, 2.00. Comprehensive universities and junior
colleges tied for the second highest mean score, 3.50.
Thus, research universities consider group discussion at
each site to be important while small businesses surveyed
do not.
The variable, to have a local "in-person"
212
presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the
video teleconference presentation, found the greatest
consideration for importance to be with comprehensive
colleges and universities, with a mean score of 3.50 while
the research university mean score was 3.49. The lowest
mean score was found with small businesses at 2.00. Thus,
comprehensive colleges and universities consider such
local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s)
to be important while small businesses do not.
The variable, video teleconference sites to be at a
college or university, found the greatest number of
respondents in the important categories to be junior
colleges with a mean score of 2.83. The PBS broadcast
television stations had the lowest mean score at 1.49. It
should be pointed out that the phrasing of the
questionnaire variable, "college or university," did not
show a difference between colleges or universities. No
doubt the mean scores would have been different if just
the word "university" had been used. Again, one might
expect the junior college mean score to be the highest
given the recruitment emphasis such smaller colleges have
and the integration of college and community.
The variable, microphones placed in key parts of an
auditorium for questions from participants, has the
highest mean score, 4.00, with small businesses. The
213
second highest mean score, 3.63, is with firms or
privately owned corporations and the lowest mean score,
2.47, is in the "other" category. One would expect small
businesses and privately owned corporations to be in
agreement with the variable that would make two-way video
and voice communication among all sites possible.
The junior college mean score, 2.30, drops in
relationship with the variable, sponsorship by a major
university. The highest important rating is with the mean
score for research universities at 2.67, followed by the
other category, 2.53; and the comprehensive universities
at 2.42. The lowest mean score is with privately owned
corporations at 1.71. Small businesses have a 0 mean
score. Thus, such figures may show the competition for
video teleconferences with universities and corporations
or the "different worlds" of the corporation, the research
university, and the junior college. The PBS stations have
the second lowest important score, 2.11.
Comprehensive universities rate, "a profit to be made
from the video teleconference," as important with the
highest mean score, 3.42. The mean score of 3.30 for
junior colleges is second in importance. The "other"
category, with the lowest mean score of 2.16, ranked
profit to be least important. Small businesses did not
respond to this variable.
214
Limiting the number of people at each site to less
than 50, is most important for privately owned
corporations and has the highest mean score of 3.00.
Research universities have the lowest score of 2.11 and
small businesses did not respond to this variable. Such
mean scores are what one would expect with universities
apparently wanting to hold larger video teleconferences
while businesses do not.
Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution By the Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences On Various Subjects
Table 22 shows two subjects, mass communications and
mathematics, to differ with organization/institution
types. Mass communications is considered to have the
highest subject success with small businesses and has the
highest mean score of 4.00. Privately owned firms and
corporations ranked mass communications next with the
second highest mean score of 3.83. Mass communications is
considered to be least successful with junior or community
colleges and had the lowest mean score of 2.38. The low
junior college score probably indicates some of the
problems junior colleges have had to try to develop
programs in mass communications. Are the junior college
respondents reporting that mass communications would have
the lowest subject success with video teleconferencing?
Or, are the junior college respondents really reporting
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219
a perception of failure with internal programs of mass
communications? The dependent variable of mass
communications probably says much about favorable views
with business and mass communications and unfavorable
views or perceptions persons in junior colleges have
toward mass communications as a discipline. Of course,
this is conjecture and more research would be needed to
conclude such.
The dependent variable, mathematics with the highest
mean score, 3.27, and, therefore, the highest perception
of subject success in the "other" category followed
closely, at 3.17, with a group that one might predict
would have such a favorable perception of mathematics
(given the billions of dollars spent on computers and
mathematical spread sheets and the attention in the
private sector to profit and loss statements): privately
owned corporations. The group with the least favorable
perception of mathematics is the comprehensive college or
university, at 2.38.
Ana of the
lysis of Variance: The Type Orqanization/Institution Variables Necessary for
By a
Successful Video Teleconference
Table 23 shows one variable significant at the .05
level or beyond and is the statement, "I believe the chief
disadvantage for a video teleconference is," at a mean
score of <0.006. However, the numbers have no meaning
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222
because of the 5 pt. scale of answers that include:
l=cost; 2=the lack of human communication possible through
video screens and not having face-to-face communication;
3=the poor quality of equipment usually available for such
endeavors; 4=the inability of persons sponsoring video
teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional
techniques that utilize the video teleconference
technology; 5=video teleconferences have so many
disadvantages that it is hard to pick one. Table 23 is
presented for comparison purposes only as clear
interpretation is not possible.
Video Teleconferences Best Used With Groups of More Than 25 Compared With Degree of mportance and Subject Success
When the independent variable, video teleconferences
are best used with groups of more than 25, is compared
with variables in all User Questionnaire categories
(demographics, agree/disagree, yes/no; true/false, degree
of importance, degree of subject success, and elements for
a successful video teleconference) two areas—importance
and subject success—have significant variables at the
0.05 level or beyond. Table 24 shows the comparison with
the degree of importance and Table 25 shows the comparison
with the degree of subject success. Only the significant
variables are shown in Table 24 and Table 25.
With Table 24, the reader should remember that 1 is
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225
the highest agreement category (2, agree; 3, neutral; 4,
disagree; and 5, strongly disagree) with the independent
variable while 4 is the highest degree of importance (4
very important; 3 somewhat important; 2, rarely important,
1 not important) with the dependent variable. Thus, with
the dependent variable, a profit to be made from the
teleconference, the agree or 2 category has the highest
mean score at 3.26 and the strongly disagree or 5 category
has the lowest mean score at 2.57. One would expect
persons who believe video teleconferences are best used
with groups of more than 25 to also have a higher rate of
wanting to show some profit, although, as one can see from
the scale, the scores are not exact with 2.69 being in the
strongly agree category. Probably, the nature of the
non-profit public institution plays a part in the
analysis. Thus, even though a university would probably
like to show "black ink" rather than "red" or a deficit,
profit is not tremendously important.
The dependent variable, adhering to a strict
schedule, has the highest mean or degree of importance
score in the neutral category with respondents who report
that video teleconferences are best used with groups of
more than 25. Such a rating probably reflects the unknown
with the respondents' views although the agree column is
also high at 3.71. Thus, some attention has been paid to
226
adhering to a strict schedule by respondents who believe
video teleconferences are best used with groups of more
than 25.
The dependent variable, live questions from audience
participants at a remote site must be screened in advance
to stick to the topic being discussed, shows disagreement
and diversity among respondents who believe video
teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25.
The highest mean score, 3.24 in the agree or 2 category,
and the 3.00 in the strongly disagree category show the
diverse views. The respondents may not know that the talk
show hosts who conducted successful or high rated talk
shows thought this variable to be extremely important
(Marder, 1977) .
Table 25 shows 4 subjects to have significant ratings
of success with persons who report that video
teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25.
Architecture, at 3.45, has the highest mean score in the
agree category; engineering technology, at 3.73, has the
highest mean score in strongly agree category; psychology,
at 3.60, has the highest mean score in strongly agree
category; and library/archival sciences technologies, at
3.33, has the highest mean score in the neutral category.
The library/archival sciences technologies neutral score
probably reflects the "I don't know" views of the
227
respondents. Further research is needed before one could
speculate or conclude from the significant subjects.
Pearson cient: ] ference Variabli
"r" Correlation Number of Video Participants Wi
Coeffi-Telecon-th Predic
es (Agree/Disagree) :ted
The correlation coefficient r;, introduced by Karl
Pearson, is a measure of linear relationship with a range
from -1 to +1. When r is squared, it indicates the
percent of variance in Y explained by X. Thus, the 2
greater the coefficient r or r , the stronger the
relationship is between the variables (Blalock, 1972).
Further, the coefficient can be plus or minus, indicating
a direct or inverse relationship, respectively.
Table 26 shows correlations between the number of
video teleconference participants with the predicted
variables. Of the significant correlations marked with
"*", no r coefficient shows a plus or minus significance
greater than 0.1976, the r for the dependent variable,
"video teleconferences are best used with small (under 25)
groups." Thus, about 4% (.0390) of responses to this item
are explained by the number of video teleconference
participants.
Conversely, the variable, "video teleconferences are
best used with groups of more than 25," has a negative r
of -0.1400 with P<0.029. Thus, respondents who are
involved with video teleconferences with high numbers of
228
TABLE 26
NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS WITH
PREDICTED VARIABLES (AGREE/DISAGREE)
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n
video teleconferences are appropriate for any subject matter -0.1023 0.085 182
video teleconferences are best used with small (under 25) groups
video teleconferences best used with groups more than 2 5
a r e of
0 . 1 9 7 6
- 0 . 1 4 0 0
0 . 0 0 4 *
0 . 0 2 9 *
183
183
larger, university-type video teleconferences designed for groups of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very different from smaller, business type video teleconferences that are designed for "in-house" use 0.1186 0.055* 182
Some video teleconferences are best held in a "series type format on the same or similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possible to try to do "too much" in one video tele-conference -0.1288 0.041* 184
229
TABLE 26—Continued
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n
I have found that as some-one becomes familiar with teleconferencing, accept-ance of the medium improves -0.1189 0.054* 185
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 5 pt. scale (l=Strongly Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree). P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.
230
persons are more likely to agree that video teleconfer-
ences are best handled with groups of more than 25. The
lowest negative correlation, "Some video teleconferences
are best held in a 'series' type format on the same or
similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possible
to try to do 'too much' in one video teleconference,"
shows a significant positive correlation with the number
of video teleconference participants as shown in Table 26.
A similar relationship is found with the variable, "I have
found that as someone becomes familiar with teleconfer-
encing, acceptance of the medium improves," with an r of
-0.1189 and P<0.054. Thus, with larger video telecon-
ferences, respondents have found that familiarity with
2 teleconferencing improves, although the correlation has r
at 0.014%.
Pearson cient: ference Variabl
"r" Correl Number of V
ation Coeffi-ideo Telecon-
Participants With Predic es (Yes/No; True/False)
ted
Table 27 shows only one yes/no variable, "I have been
involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video
teleconferences on a subject area designed for the same
(or mostly same) audience," with r at 0.1638 and P<0.013.
Thus, as the number of participants of video telecon-
ferencing increases, a r or .026% correlation shows that
there is a greater chance that the respondents have been
involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series
231
TABLE 2 7
NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS
WITH PREDICTED VARIABLES (YES/NO)
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n
I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconfer-ences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience
prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing
0.1638 0.013* 186
0.1086 0.071 185
for some of the video teleconferences I've been involved in, there has been some attempt to measure how successful they were 0.0828 0.137 177
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 2 pt. yes (2) / no (1) scale. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.
232
of video teleconferences. No other yes/no or true/false
variables are significant on the User Questionnaire.
Pearson II i i
cient: Numbe ference Part
Correlation r of Video icipants Wi
Coeffi-Telecon-th Pre-
dicted Variables (Degrees of Importance)
Table 28 shows the dependent variables technical
expertise (r=0.1211); a local question and answer session
among individuals at a location immediately after a
presentation (r=-0.1877); local group discussion at each
site (r=-0.1294); to have a local "in-person"
presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the
video teleconference presentation (r=-0.1247); persons to
travel less than 150 miles to attend a video
teleconference (r=-0.1479); limiting the number of people
at each site to less than 50 (r=-0.1734); and limiting the
number of questions asked from each site (r=-0.1429), to
have significant correlations with the number of video
teleconference participants. All the significant
correlations (*) except technical expertise, indicate that
respondents who are involved with teleconferences with
lower numbers of persons, are less likely to consider the
variables to be important. Technical expertise is the
exception, which is considered to be more important by
persons who are involved with teleconferences that have
fewer individuals. No other variables for the degrees of
A—^^*..,^^^ ^ +. „ ^f 4-he User Questionnaire are
233
TABLE 2 8
NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS WITH
PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEGREES OF IMPORTANCE)
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n
technical expertise 0.1211 0.053* 180
sending literature to persons prior to attending a teleconference 0.1121 0.066 182
a local question and answer session among individuals at a location immediately after a presentation -0.1877 0.006* 181
local group discussion at each site -0.1294 0.041* 182
to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the video teleconference presentation -0.1247 0.047* 182
sponsorship by a major university
persons to travel less than 150 miles to attend a video teleconference
-0.1164
-0.1479
0.064
0.023*
173
181
limiting the number of people at each site to less than 50 -0.1734 0.010* 179
234
TABLE 28--Continued
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n
limiting the number of questions asked from each site -0.1429 0.029* 178
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. importance rating scale of the listed questionnaire item: (4) Very Important; (3) Somewhat Important; (2) Rarely Important; (1) Not Important. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.
235
at the significant .05 level.
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Parti-cipants With Predicted Variables (Degrees of Subject Success)
Table 29 shows 23 significant (*) correlations
between the number of video teleconference participants
and the degrees of subject success. The following
correlations are for the 23 predicted variables: health
science (r=0.1245; P<0.058); agriculture (r=0.1688;
P<0.023) area of ethnic studies (r=0.3347; P<0.000);
business management (r=0.1278; P<0.054); education
(r=0.1926; P<0.007); news events (r=0.2518; P<0.001);
foreign languages (r=0.2087; P<0.008; electronics (0.1538;
P<0.029); life sciences (r=0.1698; P<0.023);
visual/performing arts (r=0.1878; P<0.014); speech debate
(r=0.1873; P<0.015); mathematics (r=0.1973; P<0.010); home
economics (r=0.1487; P<0.045); psychology (r=0.2265;
P<0.004); letters (r=0.1700; P<0.029); library/archival
sciences technologies (r=0.2248; P<0.006); law (r=0.3225;
P<0.000); public affairs and services (r=0.2918; P<0.000);
theology (r=0.2447; P<0.004); multi/interdisciplinary
studies (r=0.2454; P<0.003); subjects sponsored by
continuing education (r=0.1374; P<0.056); labor-management
issues (r=0.2176; P<0.005); and public service and related
technologies (r=0.2348; P<0.003).
The three suhiects with the highest r's are area of
236
TABLE 2 9
NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS WITH
PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEGREES OF SUBJECT SUCCESS)
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n
health science
agriculture
area of ethnic studies
business management
education
news events
foreign languages
mass communications
electronics
architecture
life sciences
communications
computer/information sciences
visual/performing arts
engineering technology
speech debate
0.1245
0.1688
0.3347
0.1278
0.1926
0.2518
0.2087
0.1289
0.1538
0.0079
0.1698
0.1013
0.1199
0.1878
0.0147
0.1873
0.058*
0.023*
0.000*
0.054*
0.007*
0.001*
0.008*
0.063
0.029*
0.186
0.023*
0.112
0.067
0.014*
0.429
0.015*
161
139
132
160
160
152
135
143
153
133
138
146
157
137
152
134
237
TABLE 29—Continued
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n
fine arts 0.1103 0.105 131
mathematics 0.1973 0.010* 137
home economics 0.1487 0.045* 131
psychology 0.2265 0.004* 133
social sciences 0.1344 0.061 133
letters 0.1700 0.029* 126
allied health 0.0857 0.149 149
library/archival sciences technologies 0.2248 0.006* 127
nursmg
law
0.0204 0.406 139
0.3225 0.000* 134
physical sciences 0.1402 0.061 123
science technology 0.0392 0.334 123
public affairs and services 0.2918 0.000* 131
theology
multi/interdisciplinary studies
subjects sponsored by continuing education
business/commerce
0.2447 0.004* 118
0.2454 0.003* 121
0.1374 0.056* 135
0.1291 0.070 132
238
TABLE 29--Continued
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n
health and para medical
services 0.0851 0.168 130
data processing/related areas 0.1252 0.076 133
labor-management issues 0.2176 0.005* 138
public service and related technologies 0.2348 0.003* 135
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. success rating scale of the listed questionnaire item (subject): (4) Very Successful; (3) Somewhat Successful; (2) Rarely Successful; (1) Never Successful). P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.
239
ethnic studies (r=0.3347; r =11%), law (r=0.3225; r^=10%),
and public affairs and services (r=0.2918; r^=8.5%).
Thus, persons involved with more persons in video
teleconferences are more likely to have a perception of
video teleconference subject success with teleconferences
that involve ethnic studies, law and public affairs and 2
services to the r or r noted (see Table 29).
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants With Predicted Variables (Demographics)
Table 30 shows two significant variables, produce
(r=.1745; P<.009) and "other" (r=.037; P<.037) to have r's
that show respondents involved with higher numbers of
participants are more likely to produce and do something
not shown with the variable "other."
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants With Predicted Variables (Success/Length)
No variable has significance with the Pearson r with
the User Questionnaire in the success/length category as
some questions were not in true scale form and cannot be
completed using this statistical method.
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencinq and Predicted Variables (Demographics)
Table 31 shows the 5 variables to have significant
240
TABLE 3 0
NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS
WITH PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEMOGRAPHICS)
I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n
I help to (select all that apply) [respondent had 2 pt. scale: checked or not checked]:
write 0.0104 0.444 183
produce 0.1745 0.009* 183
coordinate different locations 0.0706 0.171 183
supervise 0.0506 0.248 183
technically operate 0.0090 0.452 183
promote 0.0947 0.101 183
other 0.1323 0.037* 183
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on the scale noted. P=significance with * indicating significance < to the .05 level or beyond with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1 2-5 persons; 2 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.
241
TABLE 31
AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND
PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEMOGRAPHICS)
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
I help to (select all that apply) [respondent had 2 pt. scale: checked or not checked]:
write -0.0047
produce 0.1932
coordinate different locations 0.2719
supervise
technically operate
promote
other
0.1285
0.1600
0.2099
-0.0052
0.475
0.004*
0.000*
0.040*
0.014*
0.002*
0.472
187
187
187
187
187
187
187
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on the scale noted. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencing includes: (1) under 10% of the time; (2) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) (4) 51-75 percent of the time; time; (6) all or nearly all of
26-50 percent of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the the time.
242
correlations with the amount of time involved with video
teleconferencing to be: produce (r=0.1932; P<0.004);
coordinate different locations (r=0.2719; P<0.000);
supervise (r=0.1285; P<0.040); technically operate
(r=0.1600; P<0.014); andpromote (r=0.2099; P<0.002).
Thus, as the amount of time with video teleconferencing
increases, so does the correlation or likelihood that such
respondents would be involved with the significant
responsibilities as listed. It is interesting to note
that the highest r coefficient occurs with "coordinate 2
different locations" with an r =7%. While the
relationship with the number of video teleconferences and
the coordination of different locations does not indicate
"startling" or unexpected data, such coefficients give
credibility to the overall data.
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree)
Table 3 2 shows that the highest r is found with the
variable, "I have found that as someone becomes familiar
with teleconferencing, acceptance of the medium improves,"
with an "r" of -0.2916 at the significance level of 0.000.
The negative numbers result from the positive end of
strongly agree being 1 rather than 5. This is an
interesting and significant finding that indicates that as
the respondents spend more time and become more familiar
243
TABLE 3 2
AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND
PREDICTED VARIABLES (AGREE/DISAGREE)
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
video teleconferences are appropriate for any subject matter -0.1480 0.022* 186
the future of video tele-conferencing is promising -0.1792 0.007* 188
video teleconferences are best used with small (under 25) groups -0.0207 0.389 187
video teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25 -0.1067 0.073 187
larger, university-type video teleconferences designed for groups of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very different from smaller, business type video teleconferences that are designed for "in-house" use -0.0061 0.467 186
244
TABLE 3 2—Continued
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
Some video teleconferences are best held in a "series type format on the same or similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possible to try to do "too much" in one video tele-conference -0.1381 0.029* 188
I have found that as some-one becomes familiar with teleconferencing, accept-ance of the medium improves -0.2916 0.000* 189
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 5 pt. scale (l=Strongly Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree). P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencing includes: (1) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) (4) 51-7 5 percent of the time; time; (6) all or nearly all of
under 10% of the time; (2) 26-50 percent of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the the time.
245
with the video teleconference medium, the greater the
likelihood that acceptance of the medium improves. The
significant variables in Table 32 indicate that as the
amount of time spent with video teleconferences increases,
so does the appropriateness for any subject matter, the
future and the variables listed in Table 32. Of interest
is that the closest variable to 0 is "larger,
university-type video teleconferences designed for groups
of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very
different from smaller, business type video
teleconferences that are designed for 'in-house' use" at
-0.0061 which indicates almost no difference with the
amount of time spent on video teleconferences. Probably,
this is yet stronger evidence of acceptance of the two
different types of video teleconferences as, with this
variable, a high correlation coefficient would indicate
"differences accepting differences."
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount Of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencinq And Predicted Variables (Yes/No)
Table 33 shows one significant correlation with the
variable, "I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or
annual series of video teleconferences on a subject area
designed for the same (or mostly same) audience" to have
an "r" coefficient of 0.2337 with <P of 0.001. Thus, with
2 ^^^ ^'^ th' dst. r.c.wns that as the amount of time with
246
TABLE 3 3
AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND
PREDICTED VARIABLES (YES/NO)
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconfer-ences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience
prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing
for some of the video teleconferences I've been involved in, there has been some attempt to measure how successful they were
0.2337 0.001* 190
-0.0462 0.264 189
0.0685 0.180 181
(2)
the
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 2 pt. YES / NO (1) scale. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for amount of time involved with video teleconferencmg includes: (1) under 10% of the time; (2) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) 26-50 percent of the time; (4) 51-75 percent of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the time; (6) all or nearly all of the time.
247
video teleconferencing increases, the greater the
likelihood of being involved with a weekly, monthly or
annual series.
Pearson "r" Correlation Amount of Time Involved
Coefficient: With Video
Teleconferencing And Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance)
Table 34 shows significant correlations with the
variables technical expertise (r=-0.2361; P<0.001);
sending literature to persons prior to attending a
teleconference (r=-0.1371; P<0.031); a local question and
answer session among individuals at a location immediately
after a presentation (r=-0.1877; P<0.006); two-way voice
communication among key individuals at all sites
(r=0.1586; P<0.015); live questions from audience
participants at a remote site(s) must be screened in
advance to stick to the topic being discussed (r=-0.1197;
P<0.052); and live questions from audience participants at
a remote site should be written and panelists asked such
questions by a moderator (r=-0.1544; P<0.018).
The correlation with the variable, technical
expertise (r=-0.2361; P<0.001), is at the highest r level.
Thus, as importance concerning technical expertise
increases, the amount of time involved with video
teleconferencing increases. The variable, a local
question and answer session among individuals at a
location immediately after a presentation, (r=-0.1877;
248
TABLE 3 4
AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND
PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEGREES OF IMPORTANCE)
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
technical expertise -0.2361 0.001* 184
sending literature to persons prior to attending a teleconference -0.1371 0.031* 186
a local question and answer session among individuals at a location immediately after a presentation
two-way voice communication among key individuals at all sites
-0.1877
0.1586
0.006*
0.015*
181
188
local group discussion at each site
to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the video teleconference presentation
sponsorship by a major university
persons to travel less than 150 miles to attend a video teleconference
-0.0634
-0.0844
-0.0669
-0.0530
0.195
0.126
0.188
0.237
186
186
177
185
249
TABLE 34--Continued
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
limiting the number of people at each site to less than 50 0.0075 0.460 183
limiting the number of questions asked from each site -0.0928 0.106 182
live questions from aud-ience participants at a remote site(s) must be screened in advance to stick to the topic being discussed
live questions from aud-ience participants at a remote site should be written and panelists asked such questions by a moderator (hence, no direct talk-back by person who asked the question)
-0.1197 0.052* 186
-0.1544 0.018* 184
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. scale: (4) Very Important; (3) Somewhat Important; (2) Rarely Important; (1) Not Important. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencmg
,,v -1 _ irto ^£ *.v.r^ ••-•iTTio* í9) in-25 Derc includes: the time;
(1) under 10% of the time; (2) (3) 26-50 percent of the time;
10-25 percent of (4) 51-75 percent
250
TABLE 3 4—Continued
of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the time; (6) all or nearly all of the time.
251
P<0.006) is also in the same direction which means that
such sessions would be more likely to happen with greater
amounts of time involved.
Only one positive correlation exists that is
significant. The variable, two-way voice communication
among key individuals at all sites (r=0.1586; P<0.015),
has a greater correlation or likelihood to be considered
important by persons who spend less time with video
teleconferencing.
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencing And Predicted Variables (Subject Success)
Table 3 5 shows significant correlations between the
amount of time involved with video teleconferencing and
the subject success variables: business management
(r=0.1482; P<0.029); life sciences (r=0.1864; P<0.013);
letters (r=0.2009; P<0.012); public affairs and services
(r=0.1546; P<0.038); and subjects sponsored by continuing
education (r=0.2947; P<0.000). Thevariable, subjects
sponsored by continuing education, has the highest r
coefficient at 0.2947 or r^=8.7% with P<0.000. Thus, the
respondents who spend more time with video
teleconferencing are more likely to have success with the
significant subjects. This is yet more evidence that two
distinct types of video teleconferences exist.
252
TABLE 3 5
AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING
AND PREDICTED VARIABLES (SUBJECT SUCCESS)
As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n
agriculture
area of ethnic studies
business management
life sciences
psychology
letters
public affairs and services
theology
subjects sponsored by continuing education
data processing/related areas
^ices
i areas
0.1130
0.1304
0.1482
0.1864
0.1309
0.2009
0.1546
0.1345
0.2947
0.1176
0.089
0.066
0.029*
0.013*
0.065
0.012*
0.038*
0.071
0.000*
0.087
143
135
163
141
135
128
133
120
138
135
NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. scale: (4) Very Successful; (3) Somewhat Successful; (2) Rarely Successful; (1) Never Successful. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencing includes: (1) under 10% of the time; (2) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) 26-50 percent of the time; (4) 51-75 percent
253
TABLE 3 5—Continued
of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the time; (6) all or nearly all of the time.
254
Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount Of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencing And Predicted Variables (Success/Length)
No variable correlations exist between the amount of
time involved with video teleconferencing and the
success/length variables. Because of the nature of the
information sought, some questions were not in true scale
form and cannot be completed using this statistical
method.
Discussion
One of the major problems with any mail survey is the
potential lack of response by those being surveyed. It
should be stressed that this study comprises a mailing to
the entire universe of persons involved in the sponsorship
or production of video teleconferences in the United
States and Canada. Of course, not everyone responded to
the questionnaire and the mailing lists probably did not
include all organizations who have been involved with
video teleconferencing. But, for the first time, through
the statistics shown in this chapter, one can define video
teleconferencing on a national basis with statistical
evidence to include the unique characteristics of the
medium.
This video teleconferencing "definition" changes
dimensions with the type of institution or organization,
perceptions of how video teleconferencing can be used with
different numbers of participants, and the amount of time
255
spent by individuals who are involved with video
teleconferencing. Further, characteristics of two types
of video teleconferencing emerge from the data; each type
has similarities and differences.
The larger type video teleconference (termed LVT for
purposes of discussion) has been shown to have differences
with the smaller type video teleconference (termed SVT for
purposes of discussion). Thus, what may work with one
type of video teleconference may not work with another
type. Further, the job skills necessary to be successful
with LVT's may be different from success with SVT's.
One must be careful to realize that experience with video
teleconferencing does not necessarily mean success. The
data presented in this chapter without interpretation or
understanding the context is useless. The final chapter
summarizes, explains and interprets the numbers within the
"whole" of the video teleconference medium.
CHAPTER IV
SUMMATION, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
Summation of the Literature Review
The communications satellite has allowed video
teleconferencing meetings of individuals from virtually
anywhere on planet Earth. This "revolution" in com-
munications gradually provided the means for visual and
audio information to be sent in different forms and to
different interactive audiences, although, like audio
teleconferencing or talk radio (Marder, 1977), most early
programming involved one-way television distribution.
Sometimes, the electronic meetings involved methods for
formal educational delivery while, on other occasions, the
meetings were for purposes of business.
The first experiment in two-way educational video
teleconferencing by satellite took place between the
United States and France on May 31, 1965, when a French
class of 30 students in West Bend, Wisconsin, was linked
to an English class at the Lycee Henri IV in Paris.
Several thousand miles of space and land distance were
covered in the electronic interchange between a Fre.nch
class in Wisconsin and an English class in Paris (Feldman
& Kelly, 1970) .
Today, through sophisticated, direct broadcast
satellites, satellite teleconferences are possible with
256
257
relatively inexpensive equipment. Less developed nations
such as India, Brazil and Turkey have used satellites to
deliver correspondence study and a wide range of tele-
courses not before possible. Some have argued that, in
the United States, only a small percent of course content
can be conveyed through television with the primary
function of television being to motivate students rather
than convey information (Wiesner, 1983).
In 1979 the Chinese Television University enrolled
more than 600,000 persons through 29 participating
colleges throughout China. Full time distance learning
students studied an average of three courses and mainly
came from worker type homes (McCormick, 1980). In the
United States, the PBS Adult Learning Service has provided
the first and largest nationwide effort to provide adult
learning and college credit through television with more
than a third of a million students enrolled since 1981.
Through narrowcasting, PBS plans a form of video telecon-
ferencing and in February 1986 will begin programming in
20 cities with live, interactive seminars in law,
accounting, medicine and banking (Phillip, 1985). In
Texas, a Coordinating Board Memorandum (1985) has
established guidelines to have telecourses maintain the
same quality as resident credit instruction.
In business, the United States Chamber of Commerce
operates a full-service business television network via a
258
closed-circuit satellite system to provide business-
oriented programming and teleconferencing to targeted
audiences. IBM's Interactive Satellite Education Network
has video teleconference courses that range from
programming languages to systems management ("Satelite
Teleconferencing Success," 1985). One study by Dutton,
Fulk and Steinfield (cited in Bretz, 1982) reported that
video teleconferencing could satisfy a number of company
needs including negotiation, planning, decision making,
instructing, delegating and resolving disagreements. Yet,
despite a 1984 Wall Street Journal article (Shaffer, 1984)
that reports 84 percent of the Fortune 500 companies plan
video teleconference installations in the near future,
scientists have estimated that less than 1 percent of all
organizations in the private business sector use video
teleconferencing on a regular basis (Parker, 1984).
Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) suggested three arenas
of answers that concluded that (1) teleconferencing was
not a single innovation; (2) organizational teleconfer-
encing required organizational adoption and individual/
group acceptance; and (3) teleconferencing was just one of
several communication options. They also described two
basic versions of video teleconferencing that included (1)
point-multipoint and (2) fully interactive two-way video
that allows participants in two locations to see and hear
one another.
259
Korzenny and Bauer (1981) tested the theory of
propinquity, defined as the psychological distance between
communicators or the degree of perceived closeness of
another person or group of people. In teleconferencing,
propinquity was defined as the information transmission
capacity of the available sensory channels (visual,
auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory) for verbal
and nonverbal communication. Thus, face-to-face
conferences have all five channels available for
communication (a wide bandwidth) while video teleconfer-
encing had only two channels (visual and auditory) or a
medium bandwidth. Audio teleconferences had only one
channel available and was defined as having a narrow
bandwidth. The researchers did not find that increased
bandwidth increased psychological propinquity and,
therefore, could not determine a proper model of
electronic propinquity. The most interesting result of
the study had to do with feedback in predicting
psychological propinquity and communication satisfaction.
Rushton (1981) found no measurable difference existed
between scores of subjects receiving instruction through
teleconferencing and those to whom conventional
instruction was administered. Skinner (1982) concluded
that a teleconferencing system should be as unobtrusive as
possible with all participants having the feeling of being
260
face-to-face. Skinner also concluded that it was possible
for many simultaneous but independent conferences to take
place. Bretz (1982) used the Delphi technique to project
the future of satellite teleconferencing. Bretz focused
on technology, utilization, policies and procedures but,
because of the Delphi nature of the study, used subjective
data to support conclusions.
Ronald Rice (1982) suggested that for embarrassing or
conflictful interactions, computer conferencing "may be"
the medium of choice because it minimizes the inter-
personal dimension. Rice concluded that the next break-
through in teleconferencing would be to combine technol-
ogies and approaches for data processing, telecommunica-
tions, human communication and information retrieval.
Krueger (1976) used various sized groups of persons within
teletype and televoice modes to assess performance or
consensus about various issues. Krueger found communica-
tion rates to be higher in the two conference modes that
had voice, face-to-face and televoice channels than in the
teletype mode. Increases in group size resulted in
increases in every group measure of communication. Larger
groups used more messages, more words that had voice,
face-to-face and televoice channels than in the teletype
mode. In 197 6, Lawrence Newton Redd described video
teleconferencing in racially imbalanced schools.
261
Conclusions were drawn from observation methodology and
were not quantitatively evaluated. One conclusion was
that video teleconferencing via cable television could
achieve science education experience.
In 1982 the International Association of Business
Communicators (lABC) surveyed 1200 organizational
communicators after a single, four hour video teleconfer-
ence. Profit-seeking organizations included 78% of the
survey group. More than half or 64% of the teleconference
participants said teleconferencing was inappropriate for
negotiating while 90% said teleconferencing was appro-
priate for training and professional development. It was
concluded that teleconferencing was as effective for
studio audiences at remote locations as it was for live
participants.
Some have argued that developing a philosophy
consistent with the new technology of video telecon-
ferencing is important to understand and use telecon-
ferencing to its full advantage (however, before this
study, no scientific survey of video teleconferencing had
determined on any representative sample basis that the
medium had problems with curriculum). Two video
teleconference educational networks, British Columbia's
Knowledge Network and the Indiana Higher Education
Telecommunications System, have struggled with the
262
problems and have designed educational networks to cope
with the perceived problems.
Delivered through the Anik C-3 satellite, the
Knowledge Network's mandate is to assist higher education
and agencies of the government to establish and maintain
and operate a telecommunications network. The Knowledge
Network defines telecourses as learning opportunities that
combine television programs for credit or non-credit
combined with various materials while a teleseries
contains related topics which is always non-credit and may
or may not have support materials. About 10 percent of
all Knowledge Network programs are telecast live (video
teleconferencing) to allow for interaction between viewers
and presenters with the average live-interactive program
containing about ten to fifteen minutes of interactive
time per hour. Further, nearly all live interactive
programs contain pre-produced segments as part of the
program format (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984).
The Indiana Higher Education Telecommunications
System features team taught credit and non-credit courses
with interaction to enable students at distant locations
to question the instructor during a program. Typical
audiences for television courses are generally well
educated, successful people serious about seeking
more information. From the experiences of individuals
involved in the telecourse teleconferencing, successful
263
television presenters were said to have good professional
reputations, have pleasing personalitiés, have reasonably
good appearance, have effective teaching styles and were
willing to learn to adapt classroom style to the
television presentation (Davis & Branson, 1984) .
Understanding the Results of the Two Surveys
Through the literature review of this study, video
teleconferencing has emerged as a multifarious medium
thought to have certain commonalities and differences.
The purpose of this study was to determine the state of
the art of video teleconferencing by surveying samples of
persons who have produced or been involved with video
teleconferencing. Video teleconferencing is defined as a
means of permitting groups and individuals in disparate
locations to conduct meetings together and hear and see
each other through various options that can include the
use of microprocessor technology, satellite and cable
hook-ups. While individual experiences not statistically
combined with similar experiences from others can give
insight and information, such items alone do not provide
perspective of the "whole" of video teleconferencing as a
basis to draw conclusions.
For example, one or two video teleconference
"producers" might perceive that a recognized expert is
264
not necessary or that the subject "health science" is the
only successful subject for video teleconferencing
(Colbert, 1984; Hect, 1985; Munsey, 1982). But when
representative samples of persons involved in work
situations represent the whole of video teleconferencing
and indicate that only certain subjects, for example, work
with the video teleconference medium while others do not—
such information is vital in understanding the state of
the art. Before this study, little, if any, data existed
to support or deny conclusions about the experiences and
perceptions of the state of the art by individuals who use
the medium in the United States and Canada.
But how could one or two questionnaire instruments be
designed to survey answers from all groups involved in
video teleconferencing? One could theorize that educators
or persons who design the curriculum of video telecon-
ferences might find interest in certain questions and
non-relevancy with others (Baird & Monson, 1982). An
engineer, for example, might well see the value with
certain questions of video teleconference techniques
while, perhaps, not understanding or appreciating problems
an educator might face with curriculum (Cordes & Boysen,
1984) . On the other hand, an educator might not
understand or appreciate such variables as pace or timing
or technical expertise. Would business executives respond
265
to questions about teleconferencing for subjects in
continuing education?
A well designed questionnaire should enable one to
learn as much as possible about experiences and
perceptions others have had through first hand experiences
with the medium. The risks with the two questionnaires
developed were considerable. An instrument that omitted
any questions a person experienced in video teleconfer-
encing might wish asked, might be thought to be an
"inferior" questionnaire. At the same time, who would
answer 200 or 300 items that could be asked? Thus, the
two questionnaires had to be designed to reach as many
persons as possible and to gather quality information that
would aid all groups involved in video teleconferencing.
The questionnaire designed for administrators at
colleges and universities was a short, two page
instrument, as many university presidents or vice
presidents would not have the day-to-day working knowledge
of video teleconferencing. Respondents who returned
questionnaires included 58 (56.8%) college/university
administrators. The questionnaire designed for all groups
of individuals who used video teleconferencing was a
lengthy, eight page questionnaire that sought responses on
108 items. The User Questionnaire respondents totaled 231
(41.5%).
266
Empirical Evidence: The Research Questions Answered
What Is Scientific Truth?: An Overview
Science is concerned with the understanding of
natural phenomena. Behavioral science has been
characterized by a strong empirical attitude and approach
toward seeking truth. For the scientist, "empirical"
means guided by evidence obtained in systematic and
controlled scientific research. Kerlinger (1979) writes:
Because a statement is empirical does not necessarily mean that it is true. Since it is based on scientific research and evidence, it is more likely to be true than a statement based wholly on beliefs. Nevertheless, it may still not be true. . . . Still, the probability of a statement based on empirical evidence being true is greater than the probability of a nonempirical statement being true. Carefully obtained empirical evidence . . . is a healthy and necessary corrective of man's beliefs and a salutary means of decreasing ignorance. Nonempirical evidence, on the other hand, can and often does help perpetuate ignorance, as old proverbs do. Empirical evidence, in short, checks our frequently unbridled addiction to making assertions about the world, assertions that may or may not be true. (p. 14)
Thus, the conclusions that follow are based on the
reported experiences of individuals close to the video
teleconference medium who, in some way, produce or oversee
video teleconferences.
Demoqraphics of the Respondents
The administrator respondents included 48.4% at the
Dean's level or above with the largest number of
267
respondents being vice presidents at 25.9%. More than
half (51.8%) of the administrator respondents had been
involved with video teleconferencing a reasonably short
time of 1 to 3 years with 8.9% involved for more than 15
years.
Persons who answered the User Questionnaire include
the greatest percentage of respondents (30.7%) being in
doctorate granting universities with a close second
(29.9%) working in PBS broadcast stations. The "other"
category includes 19.5% while 5.6% represent 2 year
community or junior colleges and 5.6% firms or
corporations. This diversity is further reflected in the
diverse nature of the respondents' titles in the "other"
category that include engineer, faculty coordinator for
satellite facilities, and supervisor of publicly held
corporations (to name a few). Most respondents (28.3%)
are involved with non-profit teleconferences for others
with 26.1% involved with video teleconferences held in
conjunction with other offices or divisions of the
respondent's company. The respondents had more than one
task (several job functions could be indicated) with more
than half supervising (59.4%) and 58.3% coordinating
different locations.
268
Do to
Successes How
Formats One U! Vide(
and Failures ses Or
Relate
D Teleconferencing?
As discussed in the literature review of this
dissertation, video teleconferences have been reported to
be at the two extremes of success and failure. The
questionnaire found the video teleconference format to
have many variables to be important for a successful video
teleconference. Thus, success or failure does relate to
how one uses or formats video teleconferencing.
Pace and timing of the material presented was
reported to be very important by 8 5% of the respondents
while the technical quality of the presentation was very
important by 84.4%. Variables thought to be important by
more than 50% of the user respondents include (see Table
15) low cost to participants, participants to meet new
people with similar interests, a large screen for viewing,
video teleconferences to produce measurable changes in
behavior, sponsorship by a large corporation or
organization, and workbook materials to supplement the
video teleconference. Format variables considered to be
important by more than 40% but under 50% include
sponsorship by a major university, limiting the number of
questions asked from each site, microphones placed in key
parts of an auditorium for questions from participants, a
profit to be made from the video teleconference, a
269
question and answer session among individuals at all or
several locations immediately after a presentation, live
questions from audience participants to be screened in
advance from remote sites, a professional educator to
design a video teleconference, a local in-person
presentation or group discussion in addition to the video
teleconference presentation, a moderator with show
business or communication skills at the key location,
interaction among participants at all sites, two-way voice
communication among key individuals at all sites and local
group discussion at each site. More than half (58.3%) of
the user respondents thought that a variable necessary for
a successful video teleconference included reasonable cost
with 20.8% indicated cost as the chief disadvantage.
It is clear from the data that the respondents agree
that interaction and question and answer sessions as well
as the variables just mentioned are important to include
as part of a video teleconference format. A format that
does not include such variables would not be a successful
format to the respondents of the study.
Do Some Topics Work Well With Video Teleconferencing While Others Do Not?
The users found that some topics work well while
others do not. Topics or subjects appropriate for the
medium of video teleconferencing (see question 6, page 7)
270
are thought to be important by the highest percentage
(42.5%) of respondents. Thus, the respondents are saying
that subject matter must be carefully chosen. Health
science is considered by 63.6% of the respondents to be
"very successful" followed by health and para medical
services with 60.2%; nursing with 59.9%; and allied health
with 56.3%. Additional subjects with more that 50% of the
respondents choosing the very successful category include
business management, 58.3%; engineering technology, 56.1%;
news events, 54.2%; business/commerce, 53.3%; and
communications, 51.0%. Foreign languages had the highest
never successful rating of 12.2%.
Thus, as far as the respondents are concerned, one
would exert caution with the production of a video
teleconference around a foreign language.
What Should be the "Mix" of Personal and Electronic Contact?
The answer to this question begins with comments from
the user respondents who commented on the mix of personal
and electronic contact. Two user respondents write (as
listed in Appendix C):
(1) I think that more creative use of the medium has to be developed through the utilization of clear, colorful graphics, video location footage, information displays via videfont, etc.
(2) Television was going to revolutionize education. It didn't. Video teleconferencing was going to revolutionize education. It won't.
271
The best conferences to date have been those that discussed an issue of national importance by a panel of experts from a central point. The network was then "killed" while local participants discussed the pros and cons of the national presentation. The network was again activated for a question and answer period. Three to seven hours seemed to suffice.
The study found the variable, computer interaction,
to have only one user respondent who thought the variable
was very important (see Table 15). More than half (58.3%)
of the user respondents thought that variables necessary
for a successful video teleconference included bringing
people together who otherwise could not attend for reasons
including distance, and the bringing together of
personalities or experts in the subject area are important
advantages and that it is impossible to give any single
advantage for a video teleconference. An important
finding is that nearly half (47.6%) of the respondents
thought that the inability of persons sponsoring video
teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional
techniques that utilize the video teleconference
technology to be the chief disadvantage for the video
teleconference medium. Nearly a quarter of the
respondents (24.4%) thought that the lack of human
communication possible through video screens without
face-to-face communication is the chief disadvantage.
Thus, a mix of personal and electronic contact that
272
uses a "different set" of instructional techniques must be
developed to utilize the video teleconference medium. It
is the author's opinion that the respondent who wrote
about the weaving process of network to local and local to
network has suggested an "ideal" mix of personal and
electronic contact.
Does the Type of Educational Institution or Business Relate
to Successful Video Teleconferencing?
The study found that the respondents' experience/per-
ception of successful video teleconferencing changes
depending upon the type of institution and business or
organization the respondent is a member of. Therefore,
elements considered to relate to successful video
teleconferencing will change depending upon what group or
organization an individual has gained experience from.
Such data should be important to anyone who plans a video
teleconference because it provides an opportunity to
discover what others—including businesses or institutions
apart from the individual seeking information—have
learned about the medium.
When the type of institution was compared with all
questionnaire variables, important differences emerged.
The longest involvement with video teleconferencing was
found in the "other" category with privately owned
corporations conducting the greatest number of video
273
teleconferences. Organizations most likely to be involved
with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video
teleconferences on a subject designed for a similar
audience are firms or corporations while the institution
least likely to be a part of a series is the research
university. Such data indicate that the research
university has greater differences in video telecon-
ference subject matter than does the private
sector.
The survey found that businesses and universities do
not agree about who should handle video teleconferences.
Universities generally agree that video teleconferences
are best handled through a university with teleconference
facilities while businesses generally disagree.
Persons at junior colleges are the most likely to
consider technical expertise important while firms or
corporations are the least likely to consider technical
expertise important. Junior colleges and universities
agree that the ability to adapt curriculum or subject
matter to a technical medium is important. While firms or
privately owned businesses consider two way video and
voice communication among all sites to be important,
research universities do not (see Table 21).
Comprehensive colleges and universities and research
universities report that local "in-person" presentations
274
or group discussions in addition to the video tele-
conference presentation are very important while small
businesses do not. Limiting the number of people at each
site to less than 50 is most important for privately owned
corporations and least important for research
universities.
Two subjects—mass communications and mathematics
—are at the .05 level when compared with organization/in-
stitution types. Mass communic'ations is considered to
have high subject success with small businesses, firms and
corporations and little success with junior or community
colleges.
Thus, the type of educational institution or business
relates to successful video teleconferencing in ways
suggested by the respondents. What works with a business
does not necessarily work with a university.
What is the Importance of the Size of the Video Teleconference; the Diver-sity of Subject Matter; And The Previous Experience of Persons Involved With Video Teleconferencing?
Size of the Video Teleconference
Video teleconferencing reported to be best used with
groups of more or less than 25 brought different
perceptions with the respondents. Responses are mixed
with whether profit is important for video teleconferences
best used with groups of more than 25. One should
275
remember that many larger video teleconferences are hosted
by universities that, generally, do not have the same
profit motives as corporations. Whether a video
teleconference should adhere to a strict schedule is
questionable with respondents who are a part of large and
small video teleconferences. Whether live questions from
audience participants at a remote site must be screened in
advance to stick to the topic being discussed is not an
agreed to procedure with persons involved with groups of
more than 25.
In addition to the subject areas with the greatest
percentages, persons who are involved with larger video
teleconferences are more likely to agree that
architecture, engineering technology, and psychology are
subject areas of success. Further, a number of variables
(using Pearson "r" correlation) increase in the perception
of success as the number of video teleconference
participants increase (see Table 29).
With format, larger video teleconference groups of
more than 25 consider local question and answer sessions
after a presentation; local group discussion at each site;
a local "in-person" presentation or group discussion; each
site to be limited to less than 50; and limiting the
number of questions asked from each site to be more
important than do video teleconference users of less than
276
25. The same respondents also thought that persons should
travel less than 150 miles. With persons who are part of
smaller, under 25, video teleconferences, technical
expertise is considered to be more important than
respondents who are part of larger video teleconferences.
As the number of persons involved with video
teleconferences increases, so does the likelihood that the
respondents are more likely to produce, coordinate
different locations, supervise and technically operate and
do something in addition (with the "other" category).
Diversity of Subject Matter
A large majority, 91.2%, of administrators report
positive perceptions about video teleconferencing with
72.2% reporting that video teleconferencing is best
administered through continuing education/community
service/extension. About half or 49.1% of the respondents
reported that their college/university did not have credit
courses that included some form of video teleconferencing.
Only 5.5% of the administrator respondents strongly
agreed that video teleconferencing was an appropriate
instructional delivery system for any subject matter.
More than half or 67.3% agreed to some extent that a
college/university should install permanent facilities for
video teleconferencing as the medium is so important that
it can be used effectively on a regular basis. Thus, as a
277
whole, the administrators had more positive than negative
views about video teleconferencing.
Previous Experience
The video teleconference users found the highest
percentage (33.9%) of respondents having 2 to 3 years of
experience with 22.6% having 4 to 5 years of experience.
Thus, given the relative newness of the medium, the
respondents do have experience with developing the state
of the art of video teleconferencing. At the same time,
however, 52.4% of the users were involved with video
teleconferencing under 10% of the the time with 27.7%
involved 10-25% of the time.
In this dissertation, experience relates to the
amount of time one spends with video teleconferencing.
The video teleconference perception changes with the
amount of time spent on video teleconferencing when
compared with the questionnaire variables. As the
respondents spend more time with video teleconferencing,
the greater is the likelihood of acceptance with the
medium. Persons who are involved with larger
teleconferences spend about the same amount of time as
persons involved with smaller teleconferences. Further,
as the amount of time with video teleconferencing
increases, the greater is the likelihood of being involved
with a weekly, monthly or annual series.
278
The respondents who spend less time with video
teleconferencing are more likely to consider two-way voice
communication among key individuals at all sites to be
important than are individuals who spend more time with
video teleconferencing. Respondents who spend more time
with video teleconferencing report greater success with
business management, life sciences, letters, public
affairs and services and subjects sponsored by continuing
education.
A Perspective In Understanding the Survey Results
The data presented in A Descriptive and Investigative
Study of Radio Talk Programming (Marder 1977, p. 88)
suggests that several variables important in audio tele-
conferencing with talk shows are also important in video
teleconferencing. The importance of pace and timing, for
example, was considered to be important by 98.3% of the
talk show hosts surveyed in Canada and the United States.
Having informed callers (86.2%) and listeners (86.2%) was
also thought to be important with the talk show hosts.
Jack Webster (cited in Marder, 1977), the highest paid
Canadian radio (CJOR) talk show host in 1977, made the
following statement in an interview with the author:
Axiom is, garbage [subject matter] out—garbage in. Good stuff out, good stuff in. It's an axiom of the business. We edit incoming calls and we keep them to the topic, too . . . (p. 326)
279
At the time Webster made the statement, CJOR was part
of a radio audio teleconferencing network for commercial
purposes. His audio teleconferencing talk shows have
included many types of guests including the prime minister
of Canada. The person in video teleconferencing might
well apply Webster and other radio/television talk show
hosts' techniques of having a producer talk with callers
before airing a brief, live broadcast with the caller.
For many radio talk shows, callers are carefully screened
with the host being advised beforehand about the
information or views the caller wishes to air. What
appears to be a sequence of callers in the order called is
often a selected caller who has comments or questions
about the topic just discussed on the air (Tramer &
Jeoffres, 1983) . Thus, the lack of experience with caller
interaction by persons involved in video teleconferencing
who take calls from another video teleconference site may
well lead to a negative caller view by persons who are
involved with larger video teleconferences.
Such radio talk shows use "show business" techniques
as such hosts generally admit. Probably, some educators
consider such "show business" techniques to be outside of
the scope of education and not worthy devices of
communication. At the same time, commercial television
280
programming such as the syndicated "Donahue" talk show or
the PBS MacNeil/Lehrer News Hour that regularly use types
of video/audio teleconferencing, have attracted large
audiences. For example, the audio teleconferencing
surveys of talk show radio (Marder, 1977) represented
89,347,000 persons according to the data received on the
station manager or program director questionnaire. Of
course, as has been shown by the data in this
dissertation, video teleconferences can be large (LVT) or
small (SVT). While variables within the video
teleconference change with the size of the video
teleconference, one should not assume one type of video
teleconference to be "better" than another. LVT's serve
particular purposes as do SVT's.
The data and variables discussed provide important
information for understanding the video teleconference
state of the art. One might ask, "Which viewpoint is more
important in understanding the video teleconference?: The
views by respondents who have jobs at various institutions
or organizations? The views by respondents who are
involved with larger video teleconferences? Or the view
of persons who spend more time with video teleconferences?
Do any general principles of video teleconferencing
apply?"
In the last analysis, the data and resource material
281
presented throughout this dissertation must be, of course,
left for the reader to determine importance. The respon-
dents' views are important because they are responses from
persons very close to the video teleconference medium. A
viewpoint close to the purpose of the'intended video
teleconference should be carefully considered. From the
study, several principles of video teleconferencing should
be considered:
(1) It is clear from the respondents' views
that educators cannot take traditional
curriculum principles and apply such to video
teleconferencing. Video teleconferencing is
very different from traditional classroom
teaching and requires planning and delivery akin
to the medium (Haaland & Newby, 1984). Good
video teleconferences match subject matter with
what the medium can and cannot do. Chapter III
of this dissertation provides an overview of
what the medium can and cannot do according to
experts across the United States and Canada.
(2) Rarely have transmission time of more
than half a day. The nature of video
teleconferencing is such that the medium is
"slow" when compared with print or other
instruments of mass communications.
282
(3) Choose presenters who are skilled in
television type presentations that allow
audience interaction (Ershler, 1984).
(4) Consider alternative methods of
delivery. The experts say that video telecon-
ferencing does not work with all subjects and in
all situations (Drasin, 1983).
(5) Provide supporting workbook or print
material before and after the video telecon-
ference.
(6) Interaction is extremely important and
separates video teleconferences from simply
watching a television program. However, inter-
action must be controlled at the local site and
through the network by individuals skilled in
editing unnecessary remarks. Pace and timing
may be lost without skillful weaving of presen-
tation and interaction.
(7) Poor technical quality will ruin a
vidéo teleconference. Nothing could be worse
than having 200 or so people squinting at a 19
inch television screen or failing to hear
comments made because of poor audio.
283
Additional Developments, Research and Predictions About the Future
Today, in December of 1985, news about developments
with the video teleconference technology continue to
present elements that suggest change. For example, a
recent Kellogg grant has enabled the University of
Georgia's Center for Continuing Education to install á new
uplink for video teleconferencing ("Satellite Uplink,"
1985). Georgia plans to develop teleconferences for
"national distribution."
Another technological development that has much to do
with the quality of a large screen for video telecon-
ferences has to do with the lack of a world-wide common
standard for large screen television. None of the three
main television formats provides a television image as
good as the 3 5mm film used in movie theaters. The 525
scanning lines, the standard in the United States, is
inadequate for large screen viewing. Japan has proposed
using 1,125 lines to transmit a movielike, wide-screen
image much closer in quality to film. Problems include
the fact that current television channels cannot transmit
high-definition programs because of insufficient
bandwidth. CBS has proposed using two channels, one
transmitting a 525 line signal; the other a 600 line
signal. Another possibility includes the Multiplexed
284
Analog Components (MAC) system that breaks the television
signal into separate components for image, color and audio
information that results in a noticeable difference in
picture quality. The Private Satellite Network, Inc,
uses such a system for closed broadcasts to private
companies. Before December 1985 Australia's new direct-
broadcast satellite will use the MAC system said to be
"the best TV signal on Earth" (Marcom, 1985).
Advances in the technology could change the results
of the surveys. Researchers interested in the video
teleconference medium might target specific groups (such
as businesses) and seek additional, in-depth information
about how certain organizations have designed video
teleconferences to help in particular problem solving
(Rash, 1984) . Little has been said about European video
teleconferencing, an area worthy of research (Bodie,
1982) .
Probably, many individuals would argue that video
teleconferencing would not be preferred to personal
contact if such contact were possible given the same
considerations of cost, time to meet with all involved,
travel and other considerations. At the same time, anyone
who has experienced fright or terror from watching a movie
has first hand knowledge of the power of the visual and
auditory image. By definition, we on planet Earth live in
285
different locations and have different tasks and responsi-
bilities to perform each day. Face-to-face meetings with
experts and people who must communicate with each other
are not always possible given "real-world" considerations.
Perhaps the most far-reaching consequence of a form
of teleconferencing began in 1959 with Project Ozma,
named, from the series of books by L. Frank Baum (cited in
Sullivan, 1985), for the princess of the imaginary land of
Oz. The first part of teleconferencing to the stars
—listening—was a reality in 1960 when two stars, Tau
Ceti and Epsilon Eridani, were targeted by an 85 foot
dish. In 1985 a study underway by Paul Horowitz of
Harvard (cited in Sullivan, 1985) was capable of scanning
some 128,000 channels in the universe searching for
someone in a distant galaxy to interact or talk with. And
as of the Autumn of 1985, Harvard University's new Mega-
channel Extraterrestrial Assay (META) now has the capacity
to monitor and analyze eight million channels at once.
Questions such as "Who should send the response," and
"What should the response be?" are now seriously being
debated in a similar program sponsored through NASA's SETI
program. By the 1990s NASA will reach yet another stage
of signal analysis with the reading of drifting, pulsed
signals over yet a broader range of frequencies aimed at
the discovery of life among the stars. And still.
286
billions of possible frequencies will exist (Sullivan,
1985) .
Think, for a moment, about the possibility of a video
teleconference "conversation" that would take years or
lifetimes for a single message to be sent and received
with a civilization nothing is known about. Will we, one
day, find the princess and be able to communicate?
Final Conclusions
McLuhan (1972) has suggested that an electronic
medium does more than simply deliver a message; hence,
becoming a part of the message. The data in this
dissertation supports the idea of the whole of video
teleconferencing having unique differences and similar-
ities that exist with certain variables or conditions.
Thus, a face-to-face meeting is not the same as an
electronic meeting. Each can add dimensions or become a
part of a message or communication. The study was
conducted in an honest search for truth with limited
preconceived ideas about the findings. The statistical
representations of experiences by persons active in video
teleconferencing provide an important framework for future
analysis and discovery.
Today, as humankind reaches for the stars, the new
technology will not vanish as long as humanity survives.
As humanity colonizes the moon and walks on the planets in
287
the decades to come, it is difficult to imagine any future
time when video teleconferencing will not continue, in
some form, to be part of electronic communication. Video
teleconferencing makes learning possible anywhere as
someone in the most remote region imaginable can instantly
interact with anyone anywhere at any time on planet Earth.
And, at the same time, this does not mean that video
teleconferencing replaces the more traditional methods of
learning.
Walter Cronkite (cited in Marder, 1977) has used the
analogy that one 30 minute newscast delivers about as much
information as the content of one page of a daily news-
paper. When the author taught television, he would
sometimes ask students, "Which is faster? The electronic
or print medium?" After most of the class would answer
"electronic," assignments would be given to count the news
stories and the amount of time and the number of facts
given by three major networks (PBS did not have a similar
newscast at the time). Someone also counted the stories
and the number of facts within a newspaper. In class
discussion, students were asked to estimate the amount of
time one would have to watch television to learn the same
amount of information. Estimates ranged from watching
television several hours to several days to duplicate the
amount of information. One could argue that, in the sense
288
of learning facts, television is an extremely slow medium.
This conclusion is supported with the emphasis of the
importance of pace and timing as the data indicates in
audio and video teleconferencing. Pace and timing would
be unimportant with a "faster" medium.
At the same time, the visual and quality of
information is very different. One can develop a sense of
"being an eyewitness" that is not possible through print.
The more productive video teleconferences may well use a
combination of media to develop an understanding. Used in
conjunction with a video teleconference, brochures,
pamphlets and books can carry much information while the
video teleconference can increase overall understanding
and aid with motivation. As the respondents indicate,
workbook materials to supplement a video teleconference is
very important. Talk stations such as CJOR in Vancouver
and KABC in Los Angeles have discovered, for example, that
publishing a newspaper adds a certain "depth" to what is
said on the air and increases ratings. It is important to
understand that anyone who holds the view that all
learning should take place through the video teleconfer-
ence medium or, conversely, through fraditional lectures
or the print medium, does not understand how each medium
can be used to full advantage.
This dissertation has not discovered "all there is to
289
know" about the video teleconference medium. At the same
time, much information has been presented. Of course,
someone may have success with something different from the
success reported by the respondents. But knowledge about
the views of others experienced with the video telecon-
ference medium can only help the implementation of a
successful video teleconference.
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APPENDICES
A. USER QUESTIONNAIRE (QUESTIONNAIRE ONE)
AND COVER LETTERS
B. ADMINISTRATOR QUESTIONNAIRE (QUESTIONNAIRE TWO)
AND COVER LETTER
C. OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM THE USER QUESTIONNAIRE
D. OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM THE ADMINISTRATOR
QUESTIONNAIRE
307
309
Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education Office of the Director
Dear NUTN Video Teleconference User/Producer:
WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!
Dr. J. O. Grantham, executive director of the National University Teleconference Network, has approved the survey of member NUTN colleges/universities for my dissertation subject on the video teleconference. I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications).
Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium. A shorter questionnaire has been sent to individuals in your college/university who administratively oversee video teleconferences.
YOU AND YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY ARE IMPORTANT TO US1
Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or school identification should be placed on the questionnaire.
Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.
PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.
Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available at the next NUTN annual meeting.
Sincerely,
John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman
310
Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education Office of the Director
Dear Video Teleconference User/Producer:
WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!
I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications). My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.
Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium.
YOU AND YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY ARE IMPORTANT TO US!
Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or identification should be placed on the questionnaire.
Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.
PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.
Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon completion of the study.
Sincerely,
John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman
311
Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education
Office of the Director
Dear Video Teleconference Organization:
WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!
I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications). My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.
Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium.
YOU AND YOUR BUSINESS/ORGANIZATION ARE IMPORTANT TO US!
Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or identification should be placed on the questionnaire.
Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.
PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.
Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon completion of the study.
Sincerely,
John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman
312
Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education
Office of the Director
Dear PBS Station Manager/Video Teleconference User:
WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!
I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications). My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.
Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium.
YOU AND YOUR PBS STATION ARE IMPORTANT TO US!
Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or identification should be placed on the questionnaire.
Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.
PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.
Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon completion of the study.
Sincerely,
John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman
3 1 3
QUESHONNAIRE ON VIDEO TELECONFERENCING
All questions pertain to video teieconferencing only. Defined, video teleconferencing is a technological means of permitting groups and/or individuals in disparate locations to conduct meetings together. Thus, by means of a video screen and, sometimes, two-way voice, video, and/or computer oriented communication, programs may be presented that aliow groups or individuals hundreds or thousands of miles apart to interact or share information with one another.
Please Cirde Your Response
1. Yes No I am involved with video teieconferencing in my work situation.
Please Clrcie the Number Corresponding to Your Respome
2. My organization/institution is best described as:
1 .... research or doctorate granting university; 2 .... comprehensive university or coliege that offers a liberal arts program 3 .... iiberai arts college (I or II); • .... 2 year community or junior coiiege;
and at ieast two professionai courses of study; 5 .... a firm or privateiy owned corporation; 6 .... independent smaii business; 7 .... broadcast teievision station; S .... other (write in): ( )
3. My job title is (write in): ( )
Note: If you are not invoived in video teleconferencing, this compietes your questionnaire. Piease return questionnaire in the return enveiope provided or maii to: John Marder, PO Box 106, Lubbock, Texas 79*^08. Thanks for your information.
í . I am generally invoived with video teieconferences that have the íoilowing average number of participants: (consider ail participants at aii sites)
1 .... 2-5 persons • .... 51-100 persons 2 .... 6-25 persons 5 .... 101-250 persons 3 .... 26-50 persons 6 .... 251 or more persons
7 .... amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists
5. As part of my job, I am invoived with video teleconferencing approximately:
1 .... under 10 percent of the time; * .... 51 - 75 percent of the time 2 .... 1 0 - 2 5 percent of the time 5 .... 76 - 95 percent of the time 3 .... 26 - 50 percent of the time 6 .... all or nearly ail of the time
-over-
3 1 4
Using the following scale (1 is strongly agree; 5 is strongly disa^ee) please cirde the appropriate nuinber that best represents yoir answer.
Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 * 5
6. 1 2 3 % 5 Video teleconferences are appropriate for any subject matter.
7. 1 2 3 4 3 The future of video teieconferencing is promising.
8. 1 2 3 * 3 Video teieconferences are best used with small (under 25) groups.
9. 1 2 3 * 3 Video teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25.
10. 1 2 3 * 3 Video teleconferences are best handled through a university with teieconference facilities.
11. 1 2 3 * 3 Larger, university-type video teieconferences designed for groups of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very different from smaller, business type video teieconferences that are designed for "in-house" use.
12. 1 2 3 * 3 A company or university shouid instcUl permanent facilities for video teieconferencing as the medium is so important that it can be used effectiveiy on a reguiar basis.
13. 1 2 3 * 3 Some video teleconferences are best held in a "series" type format on the same or similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possibie to try to do "too much" in one video teieconference
1* . 1 2 3 * 3 I have found that as someone becomes famiiiar with teieconferencing, acceptance of the medium improves.
15. 1 2 3 * 3 The sense of identity common in higher education and businesses ("my company/university is the best") weakens video teieconferences as, 'Why shouid I admit the other guy has something better?'
Please Cirde the Following Yes or No
16. Yes No I have been involved with a weekly, monthiy or annuai series of video teieconferences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience.
17. Yes No Prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing.
-see page 3-
3 1 5
18. Yes No For some of the video teieconferences I've been involved in, there has been an attempt to measure how successfui they were.
Code for the FoUowing; VI - Very Important SI - Somewhat Importm RI - Rarely Important NI - Not Important
How Important Is The FoUowing For A Successíul Video Teleconference?
Please Cirde the Correct Response
19. VI S RI NI technical expertise
20. VI SI RI NI ability to adapt curriculum or subject matter to a technical
medium
21. VI SI RI NI a large screen for viewing
22. VI SI RI NI sending literature to persons prior to attending a teleconference
23. VI SI RI NI . two-way voice communication among key individuais at all sites
2*. VI SI RI NI . . . . two-way video and voice communication among ail sites
25. VI 9 RI NI . . . interaction among participants (audience) at all sites
26. VI SI RI NI computer interaction
27. VI SI RI NI . . . a locai question and answer session among individuals at a location immediateiy after a presentation
28. VI a RI NI . . . a question and answer session among individuais at ail or severai locations immediateiy after a presentation
29. VI SI RI NI pace and timing of the material presented
30. VI SI RI NI locai group discussion at each site
31. VI SI RI NI . . . to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the video teieconference presentation
32. VI SI RI NI . . video teieconference sites to be at a college or university
33. VI SI RI NI . . . video teleconferences to produce measurable changes in behavior (to cause someone to do something as a resuit of attending the video teleconference)
-over-
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
2 1 6
4
Code for the FoUowing: VI - Very Important SI - Somewhat Importmt RI - Rarely Important NI - Not Important
9 RI NI . . . workbook materiais to si4>plement the video teleconference
SI RI NI . . . for participants to meet new peopie with similar interests during a video teieconference
SI RI NI technicai quaiity of the presentation
Sl RI NI iow cost to participants
SI RI NI . . . a moderator with "show business" or communication skills at the key location who can provide enthusiasm, coordination and motivation
39. VI Sl RI NI . . . a moderator with "show business" or communication skiils at each site location who Ccui provide enthusiasm, coordination and motivation
SI RI NI a professionai educator to design a video teieconference
SI RI NI . . . to have a recognized expert discuss each topic
SI RI NI siow-scan television instead of "live" television
9 RI NI . . live or "normal" teievision instead of slow-scan television
SI RI NI . . . microphones placed in key parts of an auditorium for questions from participants
SI Ri Ni sponsorship by a large corporation or organization
51 Ri NI ^onsorship by a major university
SI RI NI a profit to be made from the video teleconference
SI RI NI . . . persons to travei less than 150 miles to attend a video teieconference
SI RI NI . limiting the number of people at each site to less than 50
SI RI NI . . . limiting the number of questions asked from each site
-see page 5-
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
VI
317
5
Code for the following: VI - Very Importanc SI - Somewhat Important RI - Rarely Imporcant NI - Noc Imporcanc
51. VI SI RI NI adhering co a scricC schedule
52. VI SI RI NI . . . live quescions from audience parcicipancs aC a remoce sice(s) musc be screened in advance co scick co che copic being discussed
53. VI SI RI NI . . . live quescions from audience parcicipancs aC a remoce sice should be wriCCen and panelisCs asked such quescions by a moderaCor (hence, no direcc Calk-back by person who asked Che quesCion)
Hov Successful Do You Believe Video Teleconferences Âre In Dealing Wich The Following SubjecCs?
Code for Che following:
VS - Very Successful SS - SonewhaC Successful RS - Rarely Successful HS - Never Successful
Please circle Che correcc response - example: VS SS lS NS
1. VS SS RS NS healch science 9. VS SS RS NS . . . eleccronics
2. VS SS RS NS agriculcure 10. VS SS RS NS . . archiceccure
3. VS SS RS NS area of echnic sCudies II. VS SS RS NS . . life sciences
4. VS SS RS NS . . business managemenC 12. VS SS RS NS . . communicacions
5. VS SS RS NS educacion 13. VS SS RS NS compucer/informacion sciences
6. VS SS RS NS news evenCs 14. VS SS RS NS visual/performing arcs
7. VS SS RS NS . . . foreign languages 15. VS SS RS NS engineering technology
8. VS SS RS NS . . mass communicacions 16. VS SS RS NS . . speech debace
313
17. VS SS RS NS fine arts 26. VS SS RS NS law
18. VS SS RS NS nachemacics
19. VS SS RS NS • . . • home economics
20. VS SS RS NS • • • • • • psychology
27• VS SS RS NS . physical sciences
28. VS SS RS NS . science cechnology
29. VS SS RS NS . public affairs and services
21. VS SS RS NS . • . • social sciences 30^ VS SS RS NS . . • . cheology
22^ VS SS RS NS letcers 31^ VS SS RS NS mulci/incer-disciplinary sCudies
23^ VS SS RS NS allied healch 32• VS SS RS NS . subjeccs sponsored by concinuing educacion
ZU, VS SS RS NS library/archival sciences 33^ VS SS RS NS business/commerce Cechnologies
25^ VS SS RS NS nursing 34^ VS SS RS NS healCh and para
medical services
35. VS SS RS NS daca processing/relaCed areas
36. VS SS RS NS labor - managemenc issues
37. VS SS RS NS public service and relaCed cechnologies.
Please Circle Tour Response
I. I have been involved wich video celeconferencing: 1 .• 2 .. 3 .. 4 .. 5 .. 6 .. 7 .. 8 .. 9 .. 10 ..
e Deen ].nvoi.vea wxtn • less chan one year; . 1 co 2 years; . 2 co 3 years; . 4 co 5 years; . 5 Co 7 years; • 7 Co 9 years; • abouC 10 years; • II co 15 years; • 13 Co 20 years; more Chan 20 years^
•see page 7-
319
2. From 3anuary 1983 to the present I have been involved with: 1 ..•• one video teleconference; 2 . . - 2 - ( video teleconíerences; 3 •— 3 - 8 video teleconferences; * •.- 9 - 12 video teieconierences; 5 .... more than one video teleconference each month; 6 . . - several video teieconferences each mcnth; 7 . . - I have not been involved with any video teieconferences during that time
although I have been invoived with video teleconferences before.
3. My experience with video teieconíerencing is one that is involved with (Seiect Only One): 1 . . - producing or organizing profit teieconferences for others; Z •— teieconferences that are heid in conjunction with other offices or divisions of my company; 3 •... non-profit teleconferences for others; • ••.. technicai matters oniy; 5 .— other
4. I heip to (Seiect All That Appiy): 1 . . - write; 2 .... produce;. 3 .... coordinate different locations; 4 . . - supervise; 5 . .- technically operate; 6 . . - promote; 7 . . - other - write in ( ) 5. To me, a successfui video teleconference is one that (Select Only 1): 1 .... is
measured by attendance; 2 . . - is measured by acceptance of persons attendine; 3 .... cannot be immediateiy measured; 4 - . . measured by 1 and 2; 5 .••. can t say.
6. I beiieve the one most important eiement for a successfui teieconference is (Seiect Only One): 1 . . - good equipment and signal; 2 .... dynamic leaders at individual sites; 3 . . - subject matter that is appropriate for the medium of teieconferencing; i^ .... other; 5 .— there is no one important eiement
7. A successful video teieconference shouid have a iength of: 1 .— 2 or 3 days; 2 .••• no more than two days; 3 — no more than 1 day; 4 .... only part of a day; 5 . . - actuai video time of no more than 3 hours; 6 . .- wiil vary because of content and goais sought; 7 .... other.
8. I beiieve the chief advantage for a video teieconference is (Select Only One): 1 . .- cost; 2 - . . bringing peopie together who otherwise couid not attend for reasons including distance; 3 . . - the bringing together of personalities (sometimes, experts in the subject area) who, otherwise, wouid be unabie to meet at a singie iocation; 4 . . - other; 5 .... it is impossibie to give a singie chief advantage as 1, 2, and 3 are ail important advantages.
-over-
3 2 0
8
9. I beiieve the chief disadvantage for a video teleconference is (Seiect Only One): 1 .... cost; 2 .... the iack of human communication possibie through video screens and not having face-to-face communication; 3 .... the poor quality of equipment usuaily available for such endeavors; 4 .... the inability of persons sponsoring video teleconferences to deveiop delivery or instructionai techniques that utilize the video teieconference technoiogy; 5 .... video teieconferences have so many disadvantages that it is hard to pick one.
10. Circle the average number of earth station sites for a video teieconference(s) you have conducted or been a part of: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+ ; or
L... impossible to say as the number of sites per teieconíerence varies considerabiy.
11. This questionnaire asked important questions about video teleconferencing.
True False
(Optional)
Complete the FoUowing Open-Ended Question: I believe video teleconferencing will:
ThaiA You. Please return questionnaire in envelope provided or to: 3ohn Marder, PO Box 106, Lubbodc, Texas 7940S.
Copyright 1985, 3ohn Marder
Any Other Comment:
322
Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education Office of the Director
Dear University/College Administrator:
WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!
I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education. My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.
Ericlosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for university/college administrators. A longer questionnaire has been sent to individuals in your college/university who design/produce video teleconferences.
YOU AND YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY ARE IMPORTANT TO US!
As a university/college administrator who may oversee video teleconferencing, your views on video teleconferencing are especially important. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. We are interested in your response only and no name or school identification should be placed on the questionnaire.
Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.
PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.
Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon request.
Sincerely,
John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman
32;
QUESnONNAIRE ON VIDEO TELECONFERENCING
Aii questions pertain to video teieconferencing oniy. Defined, video teieconferencing is a technoiogicai means of permitting groups and/or individuals in disparate locations to conduct meetings together. Thus, by means of a video screen and, sometimes, two-way voice, video, and/or computer oriented communication, programs may be presented that ailow groups or individuais hundreds or thousands of miies apart to interact or share information with one another.
Please Cirde the Number Corresponding to Your Response
1. My institution is best described as: (Note: categories for coiieges and universities are combined institution types based upon the 1970 Camegie Commission study):
1 .... research or doctorate granting university 2 .... comprehensive university or k year coilege that offers a iiberai arts
program and at least two professionai courses of study 3 .... lii^erai arts coiiege 4 .... 2 year community or junior coiiege 3 .... other
2. My titie is (write in);
Using ttie FoUowii^ Scaie (1 is Strongiy Agree; 3 'is Strongly Oisagree) Please Cirde the Appropriate Number That Best Represents Your Ansi
Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
3. 1 2 3 4 5 Video teieconferencing is an appropriate instructionai deiivery system for any subject matter.
^. 1 2 3 4 5 The future of video teieconferencing is very promising.
5. 1 2 3 4 5 I am or wouid be wiiiing to commit funds to video teieconferencing because of its potentiai for increasing credit or non credit enrollments and, therefore, student interest in my coiiege/university.
6. 1 2 3 4 5 Video teieconferences are best handled through a university/coilege with teieconference faciiities.
7. 1 2 3 4 5 A coiiege/university shouid instaii permanent faciiities for video teieconferencing as the medium is so important that it can be used effectiveiy on a reguiar basis.
324
8.
9.
10.
11.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Please Cirde the FoUowing Yes or No
My coliege/university has been a site for a video teieconference(s) heid within the past 12 months.
My coiiege/university has tried to measure the efficiency or effectiveness of video teleconferencing.
My perceptions of video teieconferencing are generaily positive.
My coilege/university has credit courses that include some form of video teieconferencing.
12. Yes No Video teieconferencing is best administered through the division
of continuing education/community service/extension.
Please Clrde the Number That Best Represents Your Answer
13. My coiiege/university has been invoived in video teieconferencing: 1 .... less than one year; 2 .... 1 to 3 years; 3 .... 3 to 6 years; 4 .... 6 to 9 years; 5 .... 9 to 11 years; 6 .... 11 to 15 years; 7 .... more than 15 years. 8 .... has never been invoived
14. From 3anuary 1983 to the present my coiiege/university has been involved in: 1 .... one video teieconference; 2 .... 2 - 4 video teieconferences; 3 .... 5 - 8 video teieconferences; 4 .... 9 - 12 video teieconferences; 5 .... more than one video teieconference each month; 6 .... severai video teieconferences each month; 7 .... my coilege/university has not been invoived with any video
teieconferences during that time aithough we have been involved with video teieconferences before.
(Optionai)
Compiete the foilowing open-ended question: I beiieve video teieconferencing wiil
become^ :
Thank Youl Please return the questionnaire in the envelope provided or to 3ohn Marder, PO Box 106, Lubbod<, Texas 79408. Any Other Comment: (attach additional sheet if needed)
APPENDIX C: OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM
THE USER QUESTIONNAIRE
Question: I believe video teleconferencing will: ("*" put
at beginning of each response; all names except the
author's have been omitted)
Positive Responses:
*Open up greatly in the next 5 years. This is due to
increasing developments in technology as well as greater
acceptance of the medium.
*Increase in use, will cost less to produce and
receive, will not be so glamorous as it becomes more
accepted as a standard communication tool.
*Improve if we approach the design of the
communication and learning systems involved in a
scientific (rather than artistic or show-biz) manner.
*Become a major vehicle to deliver the latest
techniques and information to selected groups.
*Grow in acceptance and usage.
*Provide institutions with the means to reach new
students in the community and the potential to reach
students well beyond the community.
*Grow in service and be a great educationál tool.
*Be a valuable means of communicating a message to
325
326
geographically scattered individuals or large groups at a
single/multiple site(s). I think that more creative use
of the medium has to be developed through the utilization
of clear, colorful graphics, video location footage,
information displays via videfont, etc.
*Be successful.
*Be as common as the telephone in the not too distant
future. Our video teleconferencing has saved the Police
Department large amounts of money.
*Grow within major corporations and public services
because of the increasing need to free up communication
bottlenecks and to keep large groups up to speed on
current events without sending personnel to central
seminars.
*Be a significant medium of communications in
industry and education by the year 2000.
*Continue to grow because it is cheap, enabling
numerous personnel of a company to get together at one
time without traveling to a a major convention city.
*Improve the over-all communications skills of those
involved, and evolve into an indispensable tool for major
organizations world-wide.
*Grow in the future and hold great promise in the
area of continuing education. *Become a more important teaching medium in the
327
future.
*Grow as lower band width technologies and acceptance
of medium grows.
*Increase in popularity and quality in the future.
*Increase in significance as an educational medium.
*Assist in the exchange of information, ideas, and
skills.
*Continue to grow at corporations, universities,
churches, and motels.
*Become a popular conferencing tool in the future.
*Develop as an important delivery technique when
people realize it is not the answer to all delivery
instructions. Likewise, they must understand that not all
subjects can be effectively handled.
*Increase in use; become more cost effective for
smaller groups with fewer sites.
*Continue to increase as down-link equipment becomes
less expensive and participants become better versed in
the techniques.
*Become more accepted and legitimate in the future.
*Become more accepted and be used by both
undergraduates and graduates as well as non college
sessions.
*Be promising. Costs need to come down and the human
prescription changed.
328
*Continue to grow as a medium for dissemination of
information.
*Grow, become more cost effective and readily
available.
*Eventually be recognized as a very important
communications medium, especially as originating
institutions learn to bring in people who are national
leaders, well-known by the targeted audience.
*Develop and become more important in the next 3-5
years.
*Be successful if those coordinating conferences are
aware of the possibilities.
*Have a futurel
*Continue to grow at a rate that will astound even
the experts. It's potential and variations are limited
only by the mind.
*Continue to improve and be accepted by the
participants as an effective method of communicating
important issues.
*The nature of the service to higher education will
expand. The rest of society is moving rapidly in this
direction. Higher education must follow suit.
*Become an ever increasingly important tool to convey
information of all kinds to many different groups of
people.
329
*Continue to grow as a means of providing continuing
education provided the programs offer materials and
presentors that are most appropriately dealt with or
enhanced by video.
*Grow tremendously in the immediate future!
*Settle into a niche serving business communications
and some educational needs. Growth from here on out will
probably be slow and steady, generally following the trend
of product introductions to the marketplace.
*Become commonplace.
*Continue to improve (format and content) and gain
wider acceptance. It is still in its infancy.
*Continue with a steady growth with organizations and
corporations using their own equipment and networks.
*Bring expensive, expert close-up knowledge to a much
larger group than could afford such education in the past.
*Grow to be an accepted means of business
communications and education.
*Definitely grow.
*Be used more extensively in the 1990s as the cost
and ease of use of equipment makes it as accessible as the
telephone. However, it should not be taken out of context
of all new information technologies. What I needed is a
new paradigm and framework for understanding these
connection making technologies. Your questions do not
330
reflect such a new perspective. Often your questions were
trivial.
*Be an area of growth as people become more familiar
and comfortable with appearing and presenting on a TV
screen. (emphasis on Content communication Thru a
medium.)
*Become very important in the next decade.
*Become a more important means of teaching/learning
as participation becomes more widespread in subject
matter.
*Become the primary means of communications for
widely spread groups and companies.
*Have an impact in extending learning opportunities
(headquarters for the 19 campus CA state university
system).
*Continue to grow.
*Increase in # produced, # of participants as more
businesses, universities, corporations, recognize the
advantages of teleconferences.
*Grow considerably during the next 5 years. Costs
will come down and novel uses will be found for
videoconferencing by business and industry and education.
It will surpass current expectations.
*Not replace face-to-face conferences involving
travel, but will establish a niche as a good means of
331
distributing timely information to widely dispersed
audiences.
*Grow as acceptance increases and the technology
continues to be refined.
*Grow and develop in the coming years.
*Become very important in the next decade for
universities.
*Bring all levels of education to isolated, small
communities in the Alaska Bush.
*Evolve into a very effective delivery system for
professional continuing education.
*Improve and become more universally used.
*Will thrive if properly organized and promoted.
*Expand according to abilities to produce results, by
discipline, to the extent of the capabilities of the
medium and the creativity of those involved.
*Continue to experience a growth pattern and in the
next 5-10 years will be utilized by corporations and
companies and be viewed as an indispensable vehicle for
communication and training close to home.
*Continue to be an important part of post secondary
educational delivery systems.
*Become less expensive in the coming months. Be
better understood in the coming months. Become more
useful.
332
Neutral Responses;
*Succeed, but not in the hands of traditional
continuing education professionals. It requires advocacy
and a commitment to riding out the difficult,
uncomfortable early years.
*Change business practices; enhance life-long
learning opportunities; further the trend towards
education delivered by corporations—not universities.
*Be used successfully by organizations and businesses
who wish to communicate with discreet groups or
individuals on timely issues of immediate and critical
importance. I am not optimistic about its utilization as
a mass medium to general populations until participation
can take place from the home as with "call-in" television
and radio shows.
*Eventually find a niche in communications that will
help to benefit the host organisation with regard to its
image of high tech - high touch.
*Improve and expand as more companies become aware of
it.
*Find a minor but useful niche in the set of
alternative media formats.
*Grow, but not at the fast pace which some people
expected.
*Grow slowly—especially ad hoc.
333
*Gain acceptance very slowly.
*Shape the convention industry.
*Find its appropriate niche in the arsenal of
educational technology.
*Continue to become a part of our lives—used
successfully by some and inappropriately by others—just
as TV, telephones, and computers now are used and misused.
*Evolve to serve a better-defined purpose within the
total range of communication technologies.
*Grow, but not at the terrific rate predicted by
educators 3 years ago.
*Become accepted in academic areas accustomed to
technological change. Agriculture, medicine and
engineering will lead the way. History, foreign language
and literature will lag.
*Continue as one medium of communication in
education, training and business.
*Continue to experiment and adopt to the environment
of each site. This will be a continuous learning process.
It will always have to be flexible in order to respond to
the changing consumer.
*Grow as the need for information grows. It does not
replace in-person meetings—but functions as an additional
way of rapidly disseminating information and/or acquiring
information from large groups of people.
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*Grow in its use in higher education/continuing
education but will not become a major delivery system when
compared to the more traditional delivery system now in
place.
*As a comprehensive high school the
video-conferencing medium is limited for classroom use.
It is however fairly effective for use in Staff
Development and Enrichment type programs. The
participants still have some difficulty with the medium as
there is no "live" speaker before the group. Again, I
feel the video-conference medium is going to improve but
the major hurdle will be getting the participants to
interact by telephone or other methods. Possibly with
time this hurdle will be overcome.
*Have tough competition from hotels who have good
facilities. Go away or die unless producers take care in
the design.
*Be more successful in business and industry than in
universities.
*Hopefully, reach a level of sophistication that will
make it a more effective educational delivery system.
*Be technology led and get away from mass group
presentations and more toward desk top teleconferencing.
*Become the "thing" of the future. They save
everyone time and money—both of which are high priorities
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in today's society.
*Become a "way of life" in the business world and an
"adjunct" to post-secondary education (someday!).
*Improve and develop. Importance will have to be
given to technical quality as participants may forget
technique and professional communicators linking up
debates.
*Be studied to death!
*Grow slowly
*Continue to grow (in terms of numbers and types of
participants) but at a very slow rate. The slow rate will
be due to the absence of [respondent did not complete]
*Experience many changes, both in technology and
usage, during the next decade.
*Grow slowly.
*Remain a modest element in comprehensive continuing
education programs.
*Show slow but persistent growth over a period of the
next 5 years.
*Not measurably impact face-to-face meetings.
*Continue to grow but face difficulties in finances
for the rest of the decade.
Neqative Responses:
*Face some real problems in the future unless people
become more comfortable with the technology and other
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human elements are built into programs. We really have a
hard time drawing a crowd.
*Have a questionable future unless production and
marketing techniques improve.
*Have need of significantly more sophisticated and
compelling programming and more technological
sophistication before it becomes a truly viable medium
attractive to audiences.
*Die at universities unless we can get the costs
down.
*Level out with continued use and will not become the
answer to all communication problems.
*Level off in the future.
*Not be a big winner unless costs drop.
Any Other Comment;
*Video teleconferencing has an odd built-in-paradox.
It is too expensive for many of the small, very
specialized audience it could serve, and, if the subject
matter is really of broad interest, it could get broadcast
time on Public TV or one of the specialized cable
networks. When the audience is too large—the potential
of interactivity is diminished, and the presentation might
as well be on video tape or broadcast.
*Television was going to revolutionize education. It
didn't. Video teleconferencing was going to revolutionize
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education. It won't. The best conferences to date have
been those that discussed an issue of national importance
by a panel of experts from a central point. The network
V7as then "killed" while local participants discussed the
pros and cons of the national presentation. The network
was again activated for a question and answer period.
Three to seven hours seemed to suffice.
*The top administration of our universities and
colleges will come to recognize the importance of being
able to participate in teleconferencing. It is already
beginning. When this happens, the proper support will be
forthcoming (i.e., facilities, equipment and personnel).
Then, on campus instruction will be enriched, research
will be strengthened, cultural and institutional programs
will be expanded. It will come.
*In Indiana we've been doing "land-based" video
teleconferences for about 25 years, and that experience
colors many of my answers. On review, though, my answers
are just as applicable to satellite-delivered
teleconferences, although our experience there is less
extensive.
*Nice job!
*Teleconferencing does not appear to be living up to
all that bally-hoo about its potential.
*ln our case of using video teleconferencing between
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Police Stations and Police Headquarters, a lot of the
questions did not apply. Thus [with regard to whether the
questionnaire asked important questions about video
teleconferencing] I would say false.
*Questionnaire is quite lop-sided. Misses business
applications.
*We only do microwave [video] teleconferencing. I
designed and built our system for one purpose only--we
have only two studios (one at each end). We originally
used it for the design of a new accelerator at Stanford.
It continues to be used mostly by physics experimenters at
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and the Stanford Linear
Accelerator Center.
*Interesting effort, John. Good luck.
*Many questions were structured in such a way as to
provide definitive answers.
*Talking heads should not be the norm in video
teleconferencing any more than it is in well produced
television programs. A certain amount of sophistication
is needed.
*I was site co-coordinator for 2 conferences—both
for the same group--and do not feel qualified to completé
more of this query.
*John: Some of your questions are impossible to
answer. (But I did, anyway). Teleconferencing can work
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for any subject area with various degrees of success. It
depends on the topic and how it's produced. That question
was way too broad to answer. Many other topics in your
questionnaire suffered from the same problem. Thanks for
asking us to respond. If you have any questions, my card
is attached.
*I am very interested in the results of your
research. At the moment we are the only institution in
Canada active in teleconferencing.
*Several questions were ambiguous and difficult to
answer.
*Please send copy of results of study.
*John--Your questionnaire is too long. How will you
deal with all the information gathered in a statistical
manner? Good luck!
*Misses some fundamental, in my opinion, points.
*I would like to receive a copy of your summary and
conclusions.
*I am not sure your questionnaire distinguishes
between organizations and/or the receiving of
teleconferences. We do both. Therefore, sometimes I was
confused as to how I should respond.
*May I have a copy of your results?
*Please send me a copy of your results.
*Note: All General Rules (responses) are true except
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when they are not!
*Good Luck!
*Answer choices sometimes limited (only one)
*The questions on successful videoconferences are too
inclusive. Many responses are guesses, as my experience
in different subjects is more limited than those covered
in your questionnaire.
*Please send results directly to me as I will not be
able to attend NUTN meeting. Thanks.
*Good luck!!
*But [questionnaire] seemed slanted or biased.
*We have reception in 7200 communities in British
Columbia.
*Our involvement with teleconferencing has been to
provide facilities, receivers, etc.—our experiences don't
pertain to most of this.
*Your questionnaire misses an important point: (1) Is
"videoconferencing" the origination of a conference, or
the receiving of a televised show? (2) The more
professional and more complete a presenter is (regarding
their area of expertise), the more "successful" a
teleconference. Teleconferencing is only a re-application
of existing media and technology.
*Questionnaire is too long and unduly detailed!!!
*In addition to high costs, there is a general lack
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of expertise in videoconference program and format
development which must be addressed.
*I think this questionnaire asked a number of "off"
questions and framed responses to a number of additional
questions in a manner which may skew your findings.
*Choices of answers limiting.
*New Technology still scary to many.
*Note: I also responded to your short form
questionnaire.
*Lengthy.
APPENDIX D: OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM
THE ADMINISTRATOR QUESTIONNAIRE
Question: I believe video teleconferencing will become:
("*" put at beginning of each response; all names except
the author's have been omitted)
Positive Responses:
*More and more prevalent and useful.
*An important delivery system for numerous services
to higher education.
*A more accepted method of delivery as participants
become more familiar with the concept. Also, it will
become a more feasible method of delivering didactic,
non-clinical, non-laboratory information for update
training.
*Increasingly important as people become more
familiar with the concept and less awed by not having a
"live" speaker before them. A necessary method, to
minimize travel expense, for staff development seminars.
*The principal means for course enrichment and
keeping courses up-to-date.
*A major method of short term instruction.
*Essential to continuing education in non-credit
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format and to academic departments and continuing
education in credit courses.
*A viable means for delivery of some types of
academic programs.
*An educational and administrative resource at all
major educational institutions.
*A standard instructional tool.
*More effective with better planning and better
quality control.
*More common, more affordable, more acceptable ij we
deal effectively with the need for personal interaction.
*A major educational delivery system—particularly
for seminars and workshops.
*A significant means whereby universities are able to
serve non-traditional clients such as corporations,
agencies, etc.
*A more important delivery system as its costs
decrease.
*Increasingly useful and provide a flexible means of
aiding resources to a university enterprise.
*Is an important medium for continuing education.
*Important to the extension of the University to the
people of the state—student as well as non-student.
*More widely used.
*An increasing component of the education process.
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*An integral part of the educational process.
*A growing instructional delivery system.
*More common and more used.
*Very important delivery system for higher education.
*More highly used in the future by business and
industry.
*More widely used as people discover its usefulness.
Neutral Responses:
*More useful for essential information transfer to
specific target audiences.
*An effective tool for staff development.
*Widely used for meetings but rarely used for
instruction on a regular basis.
*An alternative delivery system for many business,
educational and cultural, entertainment events.
*Important to smaller colleges and voc-tech schools
than major research universities.
*More fully used as faculty acceptance and costs are
effectively developed and managed.
*An occasionally used, peripheral supplement to
main-line educational delivery systems.
*One of many technological enhancements to the
university.
*A method for program delivery for national
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organizations.
*An alternative delivery system, but is not a
cure-all for education and training by itself.
*Another tool for delivering higher education.
*Be used primarily for commercial purposes.
Neqative Responses:
*More viable as it becomes less expensive. Satellite
time and uplink costs make it cheaper to travel!
Any Other Comment:
*We are a receive site only. We have not been an
originating site. No production.
*0K for some educational events. It will not replace
Association Meetings, etc., where networking with other
colleagues is paramount.
*At present I love my audio teleconferencing system
and would not consider upgrading to video for quite a
while.