THE VIDEO TELECONFERENCE: THE STATE OF THE ART

by

John Blair Marder, B.A., M.A.

A DISSERTATION

IN

EDUCATION

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Approved

December, 1985

9r>l

14o • 1^-^ l^P* ^ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Michael Mezack III,

chairman, for his expert guidance and help in all matters

concerning this dissertation; to Dr. Clyde Kelsey for

support and instruction; to Dr. Alexis Tan for his kind,

caring attitude and experienced direction with statistical

matters; to Dr. E. Dale Cluff for help with the

corrections that separate excellence from mediocrity; to

Dr. Joe Cornett for helping me develop a philosophy of

education and appreciation of statistical thinking; and to

Dr. Dennis Harp for his insight and knowledge in

telecommunications as well as our conversations and

friendship. I honestly don't know how anyone could have

had a better committee or a better chairman.

I also want to thank Dr. Billy I. Ross, chairman of

mass communications, for his encouragement to complete the

doctorate. Thanks also go to Dr. Hower Hsia, Institute

for Mass Communications Research, and to Dr. Clive

Kinghorn, for help with the questionnaire mailing. A warm

thanks is extended to my mother for her support that made

all of this possible. And thanks go to my daughter,

Dawna, for all the understanding she .has given while I

worked on the doctorate. This dissertation is dedicated

to the memory of my father who died while I worked on the

Master's degree.

ii

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES xv

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Video Teleconferencing: An Evolving

Definition 3

Video Teleconferencing: A Working Definition 9

Definition of Terms 10

Video Teleconferencing In Higher Education

and Business 15

Scope and Rationale of the Problem 20

Purpose of the Study 22

Definition of the Problem and Significance of

the Study 24

Research Problem and Questions 27

Procedures 28

Limitations of the Study 29

II. LITERATURE REVIEW 31

The Evolution of the Video Teleconference 31

The Communications Satellite 32

The Passive Satellite 33

The Active Satellite 35

The Active, Direct Broadcast Distribution

Satellite 36

Telstar 37

The Relay Satellites 38 111

Major Legislation Developed for Communication Satellites 39

The Communications Satellite and

Education 41

The Concept of Distance Learning 46

The PBS Adult Learning Service 53 Narrowcasting and the National Narrowcast

Service (NNS) 54 Eastern New Mexico University and the

Talk-Back Television Communication System 55

Televised Instruction and the Coordina-ting Board of the Texas College and University System 57

The Association for Graduate Education and Research in North Texas (TAGER) 57

Continuing Education and the Video Teleconference Potential 59

Educational Video Teleconferencing

Emerges 62

The Video Teleconference in Business 65

Biznet 65

IBM 6 6

Business Research Findings: The Intra-

Company System 66 Business and Educational Video

Teleconferences Merge 68

Research Findings 71

The Korzenny.and Bauer Study 77 The Rushton Study: Teleconferencing Versus

Conventional Delivery of Instruction 80

The Skinner Study: Distributed Computer Control for a Multinode Video Teleconferencing System 82

IV

Findings of the Bretz Study 84

Findings of the Rice Study 87

Findings of the Krueger Study 9 2

The Redd Study 93

Sandra O'Connell and the lABC Study 94

Understanding the Video Teleconference "System" 9 9

Developing a Philosophy of Video Teleconferencing Consistent with the Rapidly Changing Technology 101

The Alternative Solution: An Examination of Two Video Teleconference Educational Networks 111

British Columbia's Knowledge Network 111

The Indiana Higher Education

Telecommunications System (IHETS) 115

Conclusions and Implications 117

III. METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND FINDINGS 121

Design and Methodology of the Study 121

Findings from the University/College

Administrator Questionnaire 125

Geographical Regional Organization 125

Organization of the University/College Administrator Questionnaire 126

Responses to Demographic Statements on the University/College Administrator Questionnaire 129

Responses to Yes/No Statements on the University/College Administrator Questionnaire 133

Agreement/Disagreement Responses to Attitude Statements on the Univer-sity/College Administrator Questionnaire 135

V

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by All Administrator Responses 138

Geographical Distribution of Organizations 138

Findings from the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 147

Organization of the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 147

Responses to Demographic Statements on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 148

Responses to Agreement/Disagreement Attitude Statements on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 160

Responses to Yes/No, True/False State-ments on The Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 165

Responses to Degree of Importance Statements On the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire 167

Responses to Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences with Various Subjects as Listed on the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire 180

Responses to Variables Necessary for a Successful and Advantageous Video Teleconference 185

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Demographic Responses 191

r

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization Institution by Agree-ment/Disagreement Attitude Responses 195

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by Yes/No, True/False Responses 200

VI

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Degree of Importance Variables for a Success-ful Video Teleconference 203

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences on Various Subjects 214

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution by the Variables Necessary for a Successful Video Teleconference 219

Video Teleconferences Best Used with Groups of More Than 25 Compared with Degree of Importance and Subject Success 222

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 227

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Yes/No, True/False) 230

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 232

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Subject Success) 235

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Demographics) 239

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Success/Length) 239

V l l

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Demographics) 239

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 242

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Yes/No) 245

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 247

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Subject Success) 251

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved with Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Success/Length) 254

Discussion 254

IV. SUMMATION, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

Summation of the Literature Review 256

Understanding the Results of the Two Surveys 263

Empirical Evidence: The Research Questions

Answered 266

What Is Scientific Truth?: An Overview 266

Demographics of the Respondents 266 Do Successes and Failures Relate to How One Uses Or Formats Video Telecon-ferencing? 268

Vlll

Do Some Topics Work Well with Video Teleconferencing While Others Do Not? 269

What Should be the "Mix" of Personal and Electronic Contact? 270

Does the Type of Educational Institution Or Business Relate to Successful Video Teleconferencing? 272

What is the Importance of the Size of the Video Teleconference; the Diversity of Subject Matter; and the Previous Experience of Persons Involved with Video Teleconferencing? 274

Size of the Video Teleconference 274

Diversity of Subject Matter 276

Previous Experience 277

A Perspective In Understanding the Survey Results 278

Additional Developments, Research and

Predictions About the Future 283

Final Conclusions 286

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 290

APPENDICES 3 07

A. User Questionnaire (Questionnaire One) And Cover Letters 308

B. Administrator Questionnaire (Questionnaire

Two) and Cover Letter 321

C. Open-Ended Comments from the User Questionnaire 325

D. Open-Ended Comments from the Administrator Questionnaire 342

IX

LIST OF TABLES

1. Summary of lABC Study Areas for Appropriate/in-appropriate Video Teleconferencing 97

2. Summary of lABC Study Evaluation of Format Changes 98

3. Regional Distribution of Video Teleconference

Administrators 127

4. Regional Distribution of Population Sample 128

5. Demographics of Administrators/Colleges/Uni-versities 130

6. Yes/No Responses By Administrators on Video Teleconferencing 134

7. Agreement/Disagreement Responses By Admini-strators On Video Teleconferencing 136

8. Type of Organization/Institution and Demogra-phics of Administrators/Colleges/Universities 139

9. Type of Organization/Institution and Yes/No Responses By Administrators on Video Tele-conferencing 141

10. Type of Organization/Institution and Demo-graphics of Administrators/Colleges/Uni-versities 143

11. Regional Distribution of Video Teleconference

Users 146

12. Demographics of Video Teleconference Users 149

13. Agreement/Disagreement Responses By Users of Video Teleconferencing 161

14. Yes/No and True/False Responses By Video Teleconference Users 166

15. Perceptions of Degree of Importance for Successful Video Teleconferencing 169

16. Subject Success With Video Teleconferencing 181

17. Success and Advantages/Disadvantages By Users of Video Teleconferencing 186

18. Type of Organization/Institution and Demo-graphics of Video Teleconference Users 192

19. Type of Organization/lnstitution and User Agree/Disagree Responses 196

20. Type of Organization/Institution with Yes/No and True/False Responses 201

21. Type of Organization/lnstitution and Percep-tions of Degree of Importance for Successful Video Teleconferencing 204

22. Type of Organization/Institution and Perceptions of Subject Success with Video Teleconferencing 215

23. Type of Organization/Institution and Success and Advantages/Disadvantages By Users of Video Teleconferencing 220

24. Video Teleconferences Best Used with Groups of More Than 25 and Degree of Importance 223

25. Video Teleconferences Best Used with Groups of More Than 25 and Degree of Subject Success 224

26. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 228

27. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Yes/No) 231

28. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 233

29. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Degrees of Subject Success 236

30. Number of Video Teleconference Participants with Predicted Variables (Demographics) 240

31. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Demographics) 241

XI

32. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree) 243

33. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Yes/No) 246

34. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance) 248

35. Amount of Time Involved with Video Tele-conferencing and Predicted Variables (Subject Success) 252

Xll

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

We are too prone to make technological instruments the scapegoats for the sins of those who wield them. The products of modern science are not in themselves good or bad; it is the way they are used that determines their value.

David Sarnoff accepting honorary Notre Dame degree. (McLuhan 1972, p. 104)

That [Sarnoff's above statement] is the voice of the current somnambulism. Suppose we were to say, "Apple pie is in itself neither good nor bad; it is the way it is used that determines its value." Or, "The smallpox virus is in itself neither good nor bad; it is the way it is used that determines its value." Again, "Firearms are in themselves neither good nor bad; it is the way they are used that determines their value." That is, if the slugs reach the right people, firearms are good. If the TV tube fires the right ammunition at the right people, it is good. I am not being perverse. There is simply nothing in the Sarnoff statement that will bear scrutiny, for it ignores the nature of the medium of any and all media, in the true Narcissus style of one hypnotized by the amputa-tion and extension of his own being in a new technical form. Sarnoff went on to explain his attitude to the technology of print, saying that it was true that print caused much trash to circulate, but it had also disseminated the Bible and the thoughts of seers and philoso-phers. It has never occurred to Sarnoff that any technology could do anything but add itself on to what we already are.

Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan, 197 2, p. 104)

In 1948 George Orwell wrote about a time when "Big

Brother" watched all through television monitors and

"home" video teleconferencing. The government controlled

thought through the language called "Newspeak." Behavior

could be dictated by linguistic techniques advanced

through telecommunications. "Doublethink" values

permeated the society and allowed anyone to hold two

identical but contradictory points of view as authors

describing philosophical positions have indicated (Ozman &

Craver, 1981) . War became peace; love became hate.

The year depicted was 1984; the vision was futuristic

horror.

Today, the modern, satellite oriented video

teleconference has replaced some long distance travel and

reportedly aided in a faster, less expensive means of

communication (Bennison, 1984). To understand video

teleconferencing is to understand a medium that is more

than the sum of its parts, just as television is more than

radio plus pictures. The "first law" of mass commun-

ications is that every major technological change in the

means of communication produces profound changes in the

way people live, spend time and money, and relate to

each other through social, economic and political insti-

tutions (Mendelsohn & Crespi, 1972). Who can deny that

tremendous technological advances have been made during

the last decade with home computers, word processing

units, interactive video, laser medicine and space travel

(Paulsen, 1982)? Although the technology of Orwell's 1984

is a present-day reality, the society Orwell discussed has

not happened; at least, not yet.

In the book, Megatrends (Naisbitt, 1982), the author

reports that the last twenty years has been the age of

microelectronics. The source of power in the society of

today and in the future, Naisbitt asserts, rests with the

ability to gather information quickly, using the new

technology that continues to change. Naisbitt dismisses

the video teleconference as so rational it will never

succeed. Thus, he writes it is another trend that will

not happen. In the book, The Second Self: Computers and

the Human Spirit (Turkle, 1984) the author argues that

working with computers stimulates discussion along philo-

sophical and sociological lines that can provoke new

questions and definitions about what is human. Some have

suggested that the human mind is akin to an emotional

machine. Video teleconferencing, as a medium, involves

the human element transmitted through electronic machines.

Video Teleconferencing: An Evolving Definition

Video teleconferencing has been defined in various

ways. Randall Glen Bretz, University of Nebraska, defines

teleconferencing in his dissertation, Satellite

Teleconferencinq in Continuing Education, as the process

of joining two or more people or groups together electron-

ically for information exchange, problem solving, program

planning, or similar activities (Bretz, 1982). The tech-

nical means of teleconferencing in general can range from

telephone lines to satellite television (Al Bond, 1984).

Pinches (1976) defines teleconferencing as a

conference call telephone network expanded above the two

locations that a conference call normally provides.

Braby, Henry, Parrish and Swope (1975) defined a

teleconferencing system as a telecommunication system that

allows audio and visual two-way communication between two

or more remote locations. In his dissertation, Con-

ferencinq and Teleconferencing in Three Communication

Modes as a Function of the Number of Conferees, Gerald

Peter Krueger (1976), Johns Hopkins University, defines

teleconferencing as the conduct of interactive commun-

ication among two or more physically separated people via

electronic media. Krueger emphasizes that the interactive

nature of communications among teleconference conferees

distinguishes teleconferencing from such one-way, or

non-interactive, forms of communication (most radio and

television broadcasts, for example).

Part of the problem in defining video telecon-

ferencing is to understand what the medium involves.

Video teleconferencing is not limited to the telephone

medium (Cortes-Vergara, 1983), and a variety of electronic

devices allow groups of physically separated users to

communicate via television, audio, and sometimes

teletypewriter and telautograph (handwriting) linkages

(Lu, 1984). Computer-assisted teleconferencing systems

have provided geographically dispersed groups with

immediate printed records of messages to be retrieved ^n

masse or selectively by date, sender, or topic (Block,

1984) .

Video teleconferencing "productions" can be complex

and involve pre-produced tape inserts, electronic graph-

ics, digital video effects, still stores and much live

broadcasting (Al Bond, 1982). For example, Carl Sagan,

Cornell University, used slides with scientific calcu-

lations in a video teleconference discussing the atmos-

pheric and climatic consequences of nuclear war with the

Russians (Sagan, 1983). Although the moderator of the

program, Thomas F. Malone, Butler University, said that

participants of the video teleconference had agreed not to

use the forum for political purposes or to debate govern-

ment policy, the ability of the medium to allow open

discussion on the possible destruction of all of mankind,

well illustrates the potential to understand problem areas

through video teleconferencing. The Soviet and American

scientists involved in the video teleconference (hosted in

Washington, D.C. and Moscow) well represented higher

education in the United States and the Soviet Union, thus

illustrating how highér education can be involved in such

video teleconferences. In addition to Dr. Malone and Dr.

Sagan, video teleconference participants included Dr. Paul

R. Ehrlich, Stanford University; Academician Yevgeniy

Velikhov, vice president U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences; Dr.

Yuri Izrael, chairman U.S.S.R. Committee for Hydro-

Meteorology and Environmental Control; R. Sagdeev,

director, Institute for Cosmic Research, U.S.S.R. Academy

of Sciences; and Georgiy K. Skryabin, academician, main

scientific secretary, U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences (Sagan,

1983). The video teleconference found U.S. and Soviet

scientists in basic agreement about the consequences of

"nuclear winter." One could argue that the opportunity of

Soviets and Americans to interact with one another via the

video teleconference medium and satellite technology can

aid in understanding and help prevent a nuclear war

(Conquest, 1985) .

One might define video teleconferencing in terms of

risk, benefits and the amount of money spent (Nanberg,

1984). Budgets for large-scale video teleconferences in

the private sector can cost between $50,000 and $300,000

(Pensinger, 1982), although costs continue to drop. The

cost to purchase a satellite receiver dish for video

conferences decreased from $65,000 in 1975 to $10,000 in

1980 (Gould & Singletary, 1983). By 1984 the cost had

dropped to somewhere between $3,000 and $5,000 with an

hour of satellite transponder time declining dramatically

to about $300 to $400 (Kullen, 1984). Corporations have

lowered costs by sharing facilities ("Shared Telecom

Services," 1983). Given budget cuts and zero growth

levels in higher education in the 1980s, the need exists

for low cost facilities.

A researcher might define video teleconferencing in

terms of the goal sought ("University Sets Pace," 1983).

For example, in 1984 the University of Illinois (eighth in

the U.S. in full-time enrollment among all universities

and third among the Big Ten; Illinois has led all American

universities in the number of doctoral degrees conferred)

continued a $100 million fund-raising effort that began in

1979. The University of Illinois hired the Washington,

D.C., firm of Wetacom, experienced in the video telecon-

ferencing medium (Yore, 1984). The final fund-raising

stage was made through satellite video teleconferencing

and reached 4,000 key alumni in 19 cities which

represented 70 percent of the living alumni population.

The video teleconference was hosted by University of

8

Illinois graduates John Chancellor (NBC) and retired

chairman of General Motors, Thomas A. Murphy. Live video

and audio broadcasts happened in Los Angeles,

Philadelphia, New York City, Chicago and Urbana, Illinois,

with live audio from 14 other cities. With the goal of a

permanent network nationwide of supporters, assignment

"packages" were discussed with alumni from the sites

interacting with such questions as, "How does one pop the

question? How do you ask for a gift?" (Delavan, 1984,

p.2) .

Kullen (1984) writes that a non-profit agency that

chooses to video teleconference will want to consider the

following questions:

(1) How will the video teleconference contribute to achieving stated organization objectives?

(2) How often will video teleconferences be used?

(3) Will the communicators always be at the same limited number of sites, or will they be spread across a large geographical area?

(4) How important is timeliness in reaching the sites?

(5) In what instances might a less expensive technology such as a simple telephone call or an electronic mail computer network be more appropriate? (p. 160)

The video teleconference definition might include the

"tools" of the teleconferencing facility such as a

conference room with associated video and audio

electronics; a number of television cameras (color or

black and white), video monitors, microphones and speakers

to provide basic inputs and outputs to the conference net-

work; auxiliary graphics devices (Elton & Boomstein, 1983)

such as overhead projectors and/or slide projectors

(possibly multi media equipment); interconnections to word

processing/computer systems; and video recording/playback

facilities. Further, in order to simulate a natural

face-to-face meeting among speakers, one form of dynamic

video source switching is needed (Skinner, 1982) .

Video Teleconferencing: A Working Definition

In order to narrow the subject of teleconferencing

for dissertation purposes, video teleconferencing will be

the primary focus of discussion, although other types of

teleconferencing must be mentioned to understand the

unique relationship of video teleconferencing with other

types of communication. Thus, as defined for this

dissertation, video teleconferencing is simply a means of

permitting groups and individuals in disparate locations

to conduct meetings together and hear and see each other

through various options that can include the use of

microprocessor technology and satellite and cable hook-ups

including fibre optic and laser technology (Mascioni,

1982). Further, this definition does not preclude the

integration of video teleconferencing with other types of

related technology, including the use of home or business

10

computers (Caramanico, 1984). This definition does,

however, mean that sight and voice must be present to have

video teleconferencing.

Definition of Terms

A discussion of the technical terms used in this

dissertation will appear as introduced in the text.

However, for reference purposes, the following terms and

definitions are used throughout the dissertation:

Active Satellite: A type of communications

satellite designed to transmit electronic

signals from the satellite to earth. Early

active satellites were "store and forward"

(Feldman & Kelly, 1970) as high orbits were not

possible with early satellites (see Direct

Broadcast Distribution Satellite).

Cable Communications Act of 1984: The act

by Congress that made it legal to own a home

satellite reception system (Vizard, 1985).

Communications Satellite: In one sense, all

satellites today are communications satellites

in that data is received by earth stations.

Generally, communications satellites have been

defined as a link to provide telephone,

television and other types of communications for

private or commercial distribution (Feldman &

Kelly, 1970).

11

Direct Broadcast Distribution Satellite

(DBDS): Such satellites, common today, broadcast

a more powerful signal developed within the

satellite (Chiaviello & Macy, 1982) . Today,

most satellite signals are relayed to earth over

the 3.7 to 4.2 GHz (billions of cycles per

second) frequencies, known as the C-band.

Because microwave telephone transmissions on

earth use the same range of frequencies,

broadcast power is limited to 5 to 9 watts. By

the end of the 1980s DBDS satellites will shift

to the Ku band of higher frequencies (11.7 to

12.2 GHz) and will allow much stronger signals

for DBDS satellites that will result in much

smaller dish antennas on earth (Vizard, 1985).

Distance Learning: A method of teaching

that allows student and instructor to be in

different geographical locations. Commonly

associated with independent study by corres-

pondence, distance learning by teleconfer-

ence has recently allowed teacher/student

interaction by computer (Cross, 1983) and, thus,

audio and video teleconferencing.

Full-Motion Video: A video image similar to

normal television (30 frames per second in the

United States) delivery (A. Brown, 1982) .

12

Microwave Tower: A costly method of sending

video and audio signals by line-of-sight from

land tower to tower over large distances. All

early television networking used this method of

transmission delivery (Martin, 1978) .

Narrowcastinq: A low-power, omnidirection-

al, television signal capable of short range

broadcast ("National Narrowcast Service," 1985).

Passive Satellite: Designed to transmit a

signal from one point on earth via a reflection.

Although no longer used today, passive

satellites were either large balloons or a metal

ring around the earth in the "West Ford"

experiment of 1963 (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).

Satellite: A man-made object or vehicle

intended to orbit the earth, moon or other

celestial body which is, today, instrumented for

the transmission of data (Martin, 1978).

Satellite Dish Antenna: Type of antenna

needed to receive signals from a satellite. The

signal collected by the dish is reflected upward

(or outward) toward a feedhorn suspended over

the dish. Connected to the feedhorn is the

low-noise amplifier which boosts the weak

satellite signal (Vizard, 1985).

13

Slow-scan Video: A video image that repre-

sents an amount of time greater that normal U.S.

television (30 frames per second). Thus, one

frame or "picture" may represent several seconds

depending upon the slow-scan time (Southworth,

1982). This method of video delivery has been

used in certain "picture phone" systems and

represents a method of saving money because of

transmission delivery cost (Kelleher, 1983).

Stationary Orbit: A satellite that revolves

at the same speed as the earth rotates. Thus,

from an earth perspective, the satellite does

not move or change distance, as a stationary is

achieved at 22,300 miles above the earth.

Today, 13 of the 18 DBDS satellites that

transmit TV programming across North America are

Satcom Fl, Galaxy Gl, Satcom F3, Comstar D4,

Westar W5, Spacenet Sl, Anik Dl, Westar W4,

Westar W3, Satcom F4, Westar W2, Comstar D3, and

Satcom F2 (Vizard, 1985).

Telecommunications: Any transmission,

emission, or reception of signs, signals,

writings, images, and sounds or intelligence of

any nature by wire, radio optical, or other

electromagnetic system (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).

14

Teleconferencing: A form of interactive

electronic communication whereby two or more

users can communicate to each other through one

or any combination of devices that include the

telephone, telegraph, computer, TV, radio,

electronic handwriting, optical and other elec-

tronic/electromagnetic methods (R. Rice, 1982).

Telecourse or Teleclass: Usually defined as

a television correspondence course for credit or

non-credit. Such courses usually depend heavily

upon a text and study guide with the primary

function of television used to motivate

students. If electronic interaction between

instructor and student happens, such telecourse

involves teleconferencing (Gruebel, 1982).

Uplinks and Downlinks: The origination site

is referred to as the "uplink" which transmits

the signal to a communications satellite. The

signal is then beamed back to earth where any

number of downlink sites may pick up the signal

with receiving dishes. Today, portable dishes

can be used to turn virtually any facility into

a downlink site. A two-way audio/video hook-up

can be arranged in which everyone can

communicate "face-to-face" ("Conferencing by

15

Satellite," 1982) .

Video Teleconference: A video telecon-

ference originates from some type of television

broadcast studio and is a means of permitting

groups and individuals in disparate locations to

conduct meetings together and hear and see each

other through various options that can include

the use of microprocessor technology and

satellite and cable hook-ups including fibre

optic and laser technology (Mascioni, 1982).

Voice Quality Phone Links: A method of

providing interactive video teleconferencing

whereby a less expensive telephone medium is

used to allow participants to talk with one

another. Thus, video and audio are handled

through different links (R. Rice, 1982).

Video Teleconferencing In Higher Education and Business

Considerable attention has been given in this

dissertation to how video teleconferencing has been used

within higher education and the business world. Video

teleconferences have been marketed for the business world

while, at the same time, broadcast from a university

campus (often through university offices of continuing

education). This "marriage" of business and higher

16

education video teleconferencing has called for expertise

in planning and production not required in other areas on

a university campus (W. Miller, 1984).

Such a marriage must have the premise that the cliche

of "finding truth wherever one can find truth" is

essential to build upon an understanding of the video

teleconference medium. Thus, while scientific journals

have been cited throughout this dissertation, publications

that might not, under different circumstances, be

acceptable in scientific writing were used when other

sources did not exist.

In his dissertation, Human Communication Networking

in a Teleconferencinq Environment, Ronald Eugene Rice,

Stanford University, concludes that the next breakthrough

in teleconferencing will mix technologies and approaches.

Data processing, telecommunications, human communication

and information retrieval will al1 be important to

understand, he says. Rice cites Sweden as one country

where the telecommunications ministry is experimenting

with comprehensive interconnection of teletypes, telephone

exchanges, computers and the like. Hence, the decision to

telecommunicate may well have, as a goal, a proper commûn-

ications diet that mixes media usage for given organi-

zational, task and individual contexts (R. Rice, 1982).

Video teleconferencing in the business sector has

17

involved major corporations using video teleconferencing

for meetings and day-to-day problem solving (A. Bond,

1983). Corporations such as IBM, Johnson and Johnson,

Pfizer, Hewlett-Packard, J. C. Penny, Ford, TRW, Aetna,

Hughes Aircraft ("Hughes System," 1982), Exxon, Fairchild

(Benham & Fischer, 1983), Sears Roebuck ("Allstate in

Good," 1983; Dana, 1982) Liberty Mutual Insurance, Sperry-

Univac, Chrysler ("Chrysler Does It," 1983), and others

have used and continue to use video teleconferencing

("User Demand Spurring," 1983; "Videoconferencing Edges,"

1983). Organizations teleconferencing include the

American Bar Association, AFL-CIO, the Republican National

Committee and others. Companies such as Atlantic

Richfield and Aetna have established "in-house" video

teleconference rooms. Even the airline and pilots'

association negotiated via video teleconferencing (Ikert,

1982). Experts have claimed that an electronic revolution

has taken place (Maddox, 1981) . Differences with business

and university video teleconferencing appear to be

audience size and the "in-house" nature of such telecon-

ferences.

The history of one insurance company, Aetna Life &

Casualty, for example, typifies several. Five years after

Aetna Life & Casualty participated in a National

Aeronautics and Space Administration experiment involving

18

space-age business communications, the insurance company

initiated an interstate newtork of video meeting rooms to

link its headquarters by television and voice to other

offices. Between March 1981 (the date the rooms went

"on-line") and January 1983 more than 5,000 meetings,

involving 30,000 people (or an average of 6 persons per

conference), were held by video teleconference. Aetna

estimated the cost savings to be in the range of $500,000

in what would otherwise have been lost travel time

("Video: Telemeetings," 1983).

Video teleconferencing logistics have been said to be

"basically and deceivingly simple," with transmitting

equipment at the point of origination and receiving

equipment at each participation point with access to a TV

satellite transponder and voice-quality phone links for

two-way talk among all locations (Ruark, 1981). One

Japanese account executive for J. Walter Thompson

Advertising, Shimao Ishihara, said that small group video

teleconferences were important in advertising to quickly

show a client an ad regardless of how far the client was

from a branch office (Shimao Ishihara, personal

communication, April 8, 1984). In the dissertation,

Distributed Computer Control for a Multinode Video

Teleconferencing System, Thomas Paul Skinner (1982),

Boston University, writes that full motion video is an

19

alternative to the face-to-face meeting. Thus, with the

number of communications satellites increasing

dramatically, the purchase of a leased video channel to

anywhere in the world is now economically acceptable to

many larger companies.

Some have gone so far as to suggest that electronic

communication of the present and future may one day

replace paper mail and most other means of moving people

and information. It is estimated that by 1985 the

transmission services revenue alone for video

teleconferencing will exceed $100 million with the average

video teleconferencing room having equipment exceeding

$200,000. If one multiplies that amount by the number of

firms and institutions of higher education engaged in

video teleconferencing, the dollar figure is staggering,

running into the hundreds of millions (Ikert, 1981) .

In a way similar to that expressed by Lorne A.

Parker, director, and Christine H. Olgren, associate

director of the Center for Interactive Programs,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, this dissertation takes

the view that one can learn much about video

teleconferencing through an examination of groups who have

used the medium regardless of purpose. Parker writes,

"Progress in teleconferencing is based, in large part, on

accumulated experience. By sharing information, we all

20

gain a better understanding of the factors involved in

applications, technologies and markets" (Parker & Olgren,

1984, p. i) .

Modern video teleconferencing may still be said to be

in its infancy (Gudgel & Sheekey, 1984), much the way

radio was in the early 1900s. Marder (1977), for example,

found that many persons thought the great value of early

radio to be two-way communication with radio telephone

booths set up for persons to address others over the air

waves. Thus, the value of this dissertation for educators

and anyone involved with video teleconferencing lies in

the exploratory examination of the medium, wherever one

finds it used.

Scope and Rationale of the Problem

The ability to communicate through time, over time

and over distances evolved from early man through

non-speech signs and sounds, smoke signals and cave

drawings. Eventually, communication took the form of

handwriting and printing. Libraries evolved because of

the need to extend memory for others to learn (Sagan,

1980). The telegraph, telephone, radio, television,

computer and satellite dramatically boosted man's

abilities to quickly communicate and share thinking

despite vast distances. Early forms of conferencing might

21

have involved telegraph operators "discussing" news events

via a copper wire or American Indians signaling with smoke

among neighboring tribes. Modern systems have enabled man

to interact with his fellow man no matter how great the

distance—from the Earth to the Moon and from the Moon to

Earth. The term "telecommunications" evolved as a label

for an entire industry that can link individual to

individual through electrical and electronic devices.

Today, advances in technology have led to "wild

utopias" about the relationship telecommunications has in

the workplace. Rice writes:

Much of our society's activity is concerned with creating, processing, diffusing and utilizing information. The amount of information being handled, and the range of new communication technologies being developed, are staggering. These new styles of communicating and processing information are changing the social fabric relationships—personal, institutional, legal, economic and cultural--and may be rewoven in ways dram;atically different, and even unpredictable, from those of previous generations. There are already strong voices taking positions about the effects of these new forms of communication. Wild utopias where no one has to travel to work (and work's drudgery has been removed) are pitted against nightmares of corporate-controlled electronic surveillance, wholesale extermination of privacy, and information overload. (R. Rice, 1982, p. 36)

In the 1980s, one of the newest forms of interactive

electronic communication is video teleconferencing using

the communications satellite. Some report that the world

22

has gone electronic and "eye-ball-to-eye-ball" and

"press-of-the-flesh interpersonal contacts" may no longer

be an imperative part of productive information exchanges

(Mikesell, 1983). One may call video teleconferencing a

new medium or a new collection of media, each with its own

conventions, grammar and associated skills. Hamilton

discusses McLuhan's Gutenberg Galaxy and writes that

technology has the power to stop awareness when first

introduced (Hamilton, 1984).

Purpose of Study

Despite all of the technological advances and money

being spent, research to define and understand the medium

has been limited. How others have used video

teleconferencing to achieve sought-after objectives has

not been known as a composite view. Some, perhaps, may

have thoughts similar to Thomas Edison who, in 1913, spoke

about the new invention of the motion picture:

Books will soon become obsolete in the schools. Scholars will soon be taught through the eye. It is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture. Our school will be completely changed in 10 years. (Sanders, 1982, p. 18)

One can make strong arguments that some in higher

education have not been concerned about what video

teleconference producers have learned in the private

23

sector; or, the opposite, that persons in the private

sector have not shared experiences with persons in higher

education who are involved in the video teleconference

medium. Dimensions of "what to do" and "what not to do"

(as well as "what can be done") remain largely unknown

because of the new and evolving nature of the medium

(Hough, 1982) . Reports of excellent experiences with the

medium have been mixed with disaster stories of low

attendance for larger, university-type video teleconfer-

ences and high cost. The commonalities and differences as

a result of experience with video teleconferencing are not

known on a composite or national basis and no study has

sought such overall information. As an example of video

teleconferencing problems in the private sector, Robert

Keiper, telecommunications consultant of the San Diego

based Robert Keiper Associates, writes about the varied

results users have had using the new medium:

To conduct a staff meeting 'electronically' is not particularly intimidating, and if that was the limit of what videoconferencing could deliver, it would not bring about a great cultural upheaval. But these systems can be used for more sensitive purposes than staff meetings, and are already proving themselves to be much more versatile than were anticipated to be. S'ales meetings, contract negotiations, employment interviews and client programs are all being done successfully by video-conference. These are the types of meetings that can have a significant effect on a manager's career, and to conduct them in this totally new way is a major cultural change for those who use them.

24

The people using these systems are among the few who have successfully made the cultural adjustment to this new medium, and they are profiting from that adjustment. Users are reporting that videoconferencing increases their communication and their personal effectiveness and can actually deliver better quality decisions than the same meetings conducted face-to-face.

On the other hand, there are a number of companies where videoconferencing has failed completely—where expensive systems sit idle day after day. There are other companies where only a few managers have learned what the systems can do, and they are the only ones who use it. Then, there are a few companies where videoconferencing has come to be recognized as a standard management tool and where the videoconferencing facilities are often 'booked' for weeks in advance. (Keiper, 1983, p. 91)

Thus, the purpose of this study is to:

(1) determine the "state of the art" as has

been experienced by samples of persons in the

United States who have produced or been involved

with video teleconferences

(2) suggest ways to improve video

teleconferencing based upon the data and the

reported experiences of others

(3) measure attitudes of university

administrators toward university oriented video

teleconferencing

Definition of the Problem and Significance of the Study

The problem is that no study exists today that has

25

attempted to scientifically collect data based on

experiences with all users of the video teleconference

medium in the United States. Parker and Olgren (1984) of

the University of Wisconsin's Center for Interactive

Programs write:

Teleconferencing, like many young industries, is long on speculation but short on hard data when it comes to market trends. Assessments tend to rely on general impressions or the case experience of only a few individuals or companies. Not only does a lack of research data make it difficult to determine the market's current status, but it hampers accurate projections about future developments that could have an important effect on strategic planning. (p.l45)

Articles written about'the "best" methods of video

teleconferencing have relied on the experiences of a

single individual or single video teleconference. No

émpirical basis exists to support or deny such methods on

a national basis. For example, do persons involved in

video teleconferencing believe the video teleconference

will continue to be a common event in education and

business in the future? This is not to say, however, that

no attempts have been made to gather data.

One survey of business executives found that the rate

of acceptance of video teleconferencing was noticeably

higher for video teleconference participants who

previously had face-to-face contact with the participants.

26

Such findings suggest that face-to-face contact

establishes a rapport that expedites and carries over into

subsequent electronic contact (Mascioni, 1982).

Do some topics work well with video teleconferencing

while others do not? What should be the "mix" with

personal contact and electronic contact? And what should

be the most effective electronic mix of audio to video?

Again, data does not exist that suggests answers to such

questions.

In his dissertation, Satellite Teleconferencing in

Continuinq Education, Randall Glen Bretz (1982) writes:

Most satellite teleconferences make use of a basic presentation format placing the content expert(s) at many locations but linked together by satellite connection, and allowing the remote participants to ask questions and make comments by return audio connection, usually telephone. The creative faculty talent and program planning talent which exists on university campuses has largely been untapped. (p.5)

Thus, what is the role of the university and its

faculty? And what does hard data suggest is the best

format of "most" video teleconferences? Will the new

technology become part of the social pattern of society,

as did radio (Marder, 1977) and televison? Can Orwell's

1984 be correct in predicting some of the negative effects

associated with advanced technology? Although any study

cannot provide "final" answers to the problem, the study

27

is significant in providing data on a nationwide basis

about video teleconferencing.

Research Problem and Questions

The limited findings of other studies about video

teleconferencing suggest the following unknown factors

about the video teleconference in 1985:

(1) rapidly changing technology has

prevented any consistent format definition of a

video teleconference

(2) what variables within a video

teleconference might aid in effective

information dissemination and whether such

variables depend upon subject matter

(3) what preparation (if any) can be done

to aid a participatory audience to gain

understanding of the subject

The research questions addressed in this study are

(1) Do successes and failures relate to how

one uses or formats video teleconferencing?

(2) Do some topics work well with video

teleconferencing while others do not?

(3) What should be the "mix" of personal

and electronic contact?

(4) Does the type of educational

28

institution or busihess relate to successful

video teleconferencing?

(5) What is the importance of the size of

the video teleconference; the diversity of

subject matter; and the previous experience of

persons involved with video teleconferencing?

Answers to the research questions from the

questionnaire data will provide a significant

understanding of "the state of the art" of video

teleconferencing and will suggest ways to improve video

teleconferencing. Thus, the research data should provide

a basis to explore answers to problems of the video

teleconference medium.

Procedures

Two questionnaires, mailed to selected groups

involved in video teleconferencing in the United States,

were based on the assumption that anyone involved in video

teleconferencing in higher education or business will have

gained information about video teleconferencing.

Questionnaire One (eight pages; see Appendix A) measured

responses and variance among persons involved with video

teleconferencing. Questionnaire Two (two pages; see

Appendix B) was sent to persons who control budgets for

video teleconferences, i.e., university presidents and

29

administrators. Through correlational analysis of

variance of non-parametric data and through information on

formatting and video teleconference content, a view of the

video teleconference has emerged that has not been "seen"

before.

Limitations of the Study

The national study examined groups involved with

video teleconferencing and gave considerable information

about video teleconferencing's "state of the art," as

reported by individuals who use the medium. While the

groups or persons sent questionnaires probably did not

include every organization that has engaged in video

teleconferencing, all organizations known to have video

teleconferenced (except vendors as previously mentioned)

with a listing in the Corporation for Public Broadcasting

Directory (1984-1985), the University of Wisconsin's

Teleconferencinq Directory (1985) and/or the private

mailing list of the National University Teleconference

Network, were sent questionnaires. Thus, the question-

naire mailing represented the entire universe of known

organizations who have video teleconferenced. Of course,

as in any mail survey instrument, the data can only

represent persons who responded to the questionnaires.

However, such data from persons involved nationwide in

30

first-hand experiences with video teleconferencing

provides insight about the accomplishments, successes and

failures of the medium and its use. But, by definition,

such data is not "absolute" fact.

As audience opinion on a national level was not

measured, it is possible that persons who have video

teleconferenced could hold incorrect assumptions about why

they have had successes or failures with the medium.

Thus, both surveys are measurements of perception by

persons close to the video teleconference medium. For

example, the question, "How Important Is the Following For

a Successful Video Teleconference?" intentionally did not

define importance and left the word to be defined by the

respondent. What is "important" is not whether a certain

variable can be scientifically measured for importance but

whether the perception of the respondent agrees that such

a variable is important.

Through the new data, the personal comments of the

respondents and reports made by other writings, one can

only have a much better "idea" of the medium and the

experience of others.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Evolution of the Video Teleconference

The video teleconference evolved because of man's

increasing need to communicate in faster, more efficient

ways consistent with a changing society. One can make

strong arguments that all media contribute, in one way or

another, to learning and that the video teleconference is

but one more device to aid in (or become the message as

McLuhan suggests), the concept of "distance learning." Of

course, distance learning has been more commonly

associated with independent study by correspondence.

The Carnegie Council has projected that enrollment

will not reach levels of the 60s and 70s until the end of

the century (Three Thousand Futures, 1981) . Policies of

retrenchment and increasing costs have led administrators

and faculty to wonder how universities and colleges can

continue a high standard of service. Some institutions

have sought new clientele while maintaining traditional

services to the on-campus student. To further complicate

the climate of higher education in the 80s, business and

industry have sought additional education through

non-credit, work-related courses. A wide variety of

continuing education programs have illustrated the

31

32

increasing demand for higher education to meet adult

needs. But, as demand in certain areas of continuing

education have increased, funds have not.

Some have said that electronic interaction can never

duplicate "face-to-face" interaction in learning because

all learning must involve human dimensions. Despite the

criticism, a number of programs--degree and non-degree—

have taken place that put heavy emphasis on distance

learning (Hansell, Green, & Erbring, 1982). With some

higher education budgets at 0 or below growth levels, the

new media is no longer being looked upon as a "frill," but

as a necessity or a new "way of life."

Before distance learning through video telecon-

ferencing can be understood with all its strengths and

weaknesses, a perspective or understanding of the video

teleconference evolution must take place. This chapter

begins with an overview of the changing technology that

has allowed the video teleconference to evolve.

The Communications Satellite

A satellite may be defined as a man-made object or

vehicle intended to orbit the earth, the moon, or another

celestial body and usually instrumented for the transmis-

sion of space data (Martin, 1978). The term telecommun-

ications is defined as any transmission, emission, or re-

ception of signs, signals, writings, images, and sounds or

33

intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical, or

other electromagnetic systems. Thus, a communications

satellite is a satellite intentionally used to relay

telecommunication information (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).

As early as 1945, Arthur C. Clarke discussed

transoceanic communication satellite service, satellites

in stationary orbits, manned space stations, solar powered

satellite transmission equipment, and atomic powered

rockets (Pritchard, 1968). In 1962 transoceanic and

transcontinental television satellite service became a

reality with Telstar linking the US and Europe (Brewer,

19.69) . Shortly after, television pictures and sound of

the Eighteenth Olympiad were delivered to the US directly

from Tokyo. Telstar was preceded by several communi-

cations satellites including Score, Courier and Echo

followed by Relay, Syncom and others (Martin, 1978).

The Passive Satellite

The earliest type of communications satellite was

called the "passive" satellite, designed to transmit a

signal from one point on earth to another via a reflection

from the satellite. Early passive satellites (such as

Echo) used large balloon type structures to reflect

signals. Another type of passive satellite—the "West

Ford"—involved, what experts have termed, the most

unusual satellites ever put into orbit.

34

In 1958 Harold F. Meyer and Walter E. Morrow, Jr.

(cited in Feldman & Kelly, 1970) , in a summer session

sponsored by the US Army Signal Corps, conceived of using

a belt of simple, tuned wires as reflectors of radio

waves. Fears were expressed by optical and radio astro-

nomers that such a belt around the entire earth would

result in harmful interference. As a precaution, the West

Ford dipoles were launched into an orbit displaced by the

sun's radiation pressure so that the dipoles would be

returned to the earth's atmosphere within a reasonable

period of time. On May 9, 1963, a dipole or filament

dispenser was launched into orbit and by the end of June

1963 the Earth's first dipole belt had closed on itself

forming a complete ring around the earth. Thus, trillions o

of tiny conductive filaments (4.8 x 10 , 3/4 of an inch

long and .0007 inches in diameter packed parallel to each

other in 18 cylinders) were dispersed uniformly in a belt

around the earth. The payload package spun at eight

revolutions per second with varying velocities needed to

place each needle in a slightly different earth orbit.

The system malfunctioned and the cylinders were

delayed by a fifth of an orbit. The sun's ray caused

clusters of dipoles to come off together and the result

was that far fewer dipoles were launched than needed. The

ring did exist, however, for three weeks and worked in

35

ways similar to what had been projected (Feldman & Kelly,

1970) .

Thus, for a brief time there was no need to point

antennas at a moving satellite, but rather, to aim at the

earth's new ring. Although video teleconferencing was not

tried, one advantage with such a system (assuming one

could bounce video signals) would be the continuous

reflection of signals without the need of a satellite as

long as the belt could be "seen." Because of criticism

and the development of "active" type satellites, no

passive satellite system exists today.

The Active Satellite

The second type of communications satellite, termed

the "active" type satellite, received a signal transmitted

from one point on earth and re-transmitted back to earth.

On December 18, 1958, the first active communications

satellite, Score, transmitted for the first time a human

voice from a satellite (President Eisenhower's Christmas

message). Score, was termed an active "store and forward"

type satellite, as a high enough orbit was not possible at

the time. Thus, Score had to store messages in the

satellite for later broadcast over an appropriate ground

receiving station (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).

Today, store and forward satellites do not exist as

high orbit can be achieved for a stationary orbit (the

36

satellite travels at the rotation speed of the earth). It

is, perhaps, ironic that in 1945 radio engineer and

science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke suggested the use

of satellites spaced equally around the equator as

extraterrestrial relays. Clarke pointed out that at

22,000 miles a satellite takes 24 hours to complete an

orbit and turns at the same rate as the surface of the

earth (Pritchard, 1968) .

The Active, Direct Broadcast Distribution Satellite

Today, through electronic amplification, active

"direct broadcast" satellites broadcast a powerful signal

within the satellite (Fraser, 1983). Sometimes called

microwave towers in the sky, communications satellites can

be "seen" by two or any number of ground stations

thousands of miles apart. Prior to communication

satellites, the method commonly used to link broadcast

stations by land were microwave tower repeater stations

that had to be built every 10, 20, or 30 miles (depending

upon land elevation and other factors) at great building

and maintenance cost (Martin, 1978).

In 1968 Wilbur Schramm wrote that direct broadcast or

distribution satellites (DBDS) would one day be able to

broadcast directly to home receivers that would eventually

cost as little as $50 more than the usual home reception

devices for television (Schramm, 1968). DBDS satellites

37

make possible satellite teleconferences. As of 1982,

eighteen DBDS serve the North American continent and are

used for a variety of purposes from data transmission of

programming to programming of Public Broadcasting Stations

and the distribution of specially designed programming for

cable TV subscribers (Bretz, 1982) .

Two factors that primarily govern the communications

capacity of active satellites are the effective transmit-

ting power of the satellite and the sensitivity of the

ground station. Early active satellites had to have

extremely large satellite dishes (Jaffe, 1966) to receive

and amplify signals while more recent direct broadcast

satellites have signals strong enough to be received at

home with a small dish and receiver.

Telstar

Although earlier communication satellites existed

(such as Courier), Telstar is considered by most to have

begun the era of satellite communication. On July 10,

1962, Telstar I was launched and live television pictures

originating in the United States were received in France.

Built by the Bell Telephone Laboratories of AT & T in

1960, Telstar was the first space effort financed by

private enterprise. Telstar I weighed 175.4 pounds at

launch and was a communications transponder (receiver and

transmitter). The satellite carried a sophisticated

38

command and control system and a telemetry system capable

of measuring and transmitting to the ground the conditions

of all elements of the spacecraft as wel1 as radiation

particle monitoring equipment. Launched one day after the

US high altitude nuclear explosion of July 9, 1962, severe

radiation exposure damaged transistors in the command

system and on November 24, 1962, it failed to respond. It

was again activated and operated until February 21, 1963,

when trouble appeared which was never corrected (Feldman &

Kelly, 1970) .

The Relay Satellites

Relay I had similar objectives to Telstar and was

launched on December 13, 1962. Scientists originally

planned to silence Relay I by means of a built-in one year

timer to terminate all transmission by means of a chemical

device designed to break a circuit. The device failed to

work and Relay I continued to operate through 1966. Relay

I carried such things as:

(1) Live transmission to Europe of the

unveiling of the Mona Lisa at the National

Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

(2) Transmission of the funeral of Pope

John and the coronation of Pope Paul.

(3) Overseas transmission of President

Johnson's first address to Congress.

39

(4) First trans-Pacific television

transmission from the United States to Japan.

(5) Transmission of encephalograms (brain

waves) from England to the United States for a

surgeons' diagnosis with results interpreted and

transmitted back (Martin, 1978).

Major Legislation Developed for Communication Satellites

Satellite technology brought the need for major

legislation and international agreements related to

communication satellites developed. On July 29, 1958,

President Eisenhower signed the bill creating a civilian

federal agency, The National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA). Thus, NASA had the responsibility

for control of aeronautical and space activities sponsored

by the United States. The United States Defense

Department remained in charge of space activities and was

primarily associated with the development of weapons

systems, military operations, and defense. In the

Communications Satellite Act of 1962, Congress placed the

developments of communication satellites (COMSATS) into

private hands. The act declared in part that the United

States should establish a commercial communications

satellite system, as part of an improved global

communications network, to be responsive to public needs

40

and national objectives and contribute to world peace and

understanding (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).

Thus, the Communications Satellite Corporation

(COMSAT) was set up in February 1963 and, shortly after,

an international satellite communications system was

established, called the International Telecommunications

Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT). Negotiations were

carried on with other countries and in 1964 two agreements

under INTELSAT were signed. The first agreement was

termed "Agreement Establishing Interim Arrangements for

Global Commercial Communications Satellite System" and

stated that participation by respective governments was to

be on a govêrnment-to-government basis. Among other

things COMSATS (operating entity for the United States)

owns 55 percent of INTELSAT and is manager of the space or

satellite segment of the overall organization.

The 85 pound Early Bird was COMSAT's first satellite

which carried 240 two-way audio conversations and was put

into operation in June 1965. Faster than expected demand

shifted the development of high-capacity satellites for

increasing international communication. COMSAT proposed a

rate of $6,700 an hour for television use of Early Bird

between the US and Europe (Feldman & Kelly, 1970).

Russian "Lightning"

On April 23, 1965, the Soviet Union launched the

41

first Molniya satellite. Molniya is a Russian word

meaning "lightning." On October 15, 1965, Russia launched

a second Molniya satellite designed in a simultaneous

communications system with several satellites. Like the

Early Bird satellite, it was reported to be used for

telephone and television communications (Feldman & Kelly,

1970). In November 1965 the Soviet Union transmitted a

color television program by satellite to France for the

first time. As early as the 1971-72 edition of Jane's All

The World's Aircraft (cited in Dogan, 1975), an

authoritative international reference work on air and

space developments, it was reported that the Soviet Union

had developed armed spacecraft that could destroy spy

satellites or other craft in outer space.

The Communications Satellite and Education

Several books have been written about satellite

technology. Of course, video teleconferencing from

continent to continent is not possible without the use of

satellites as has been mentioned. Although this

dissertation can only provide a brief view of the changing

satellite technology, it is important to put such a view

into perspective with two-way video teleconferencing.

The first experiment in two-way educational video

teleconferencing by satellite took place between the

42

United States and France on May 31, 1965. A French class

of 30 students in West Bend, Wisconsin, was linked to an

English class at the Lycee Henri IV in Paris. For fifty

minutes, both classes could hear and see each other while

participating in two-way conversation. Thousands of miles

of space and land distance were covered in this electronic

interchange via the Early Bird satellite. The exchange

took place without scripts between the two organizations

responsible for the program. The French officials were

disturbed by the lack of script and said they were anxious

to avoid any risk of indiscretions by irresponsible young

people. The broadcast took place in an atmosphere of good

humor and the press reported that both sides adapted

themselves well to the video teleconference (Feldman &

Kelly, 1970) .

However, the Paris/West Bend video teleconference was

the exception before 1975. In fact, most of the early

visions of using video through satellites involved one-way

television distribution. Telesat Canada provides such an

example.

In 1969 the Canadian Parliament passed legislation to

establish Telesat Canada. The government established

corporation had tririte ownership with one third owned by

the Canadian federal government, one third owned by common

telecommunications carriers and one third owned by the

43

public. Provisions in the act were also made to sell time

to Canadian private television (CTV), educational

television systems, the Canadian Overseas Telecommun-

ications Corporation, computer service companies and cable

television networks. Canadian legislaticn in 1969

established Telesat Canada with objectives including to

narrow differences between Canadians of the northern

frontier with Canadians who live in the cities (Chapman,

1970) .

In 1971 Canada and the United States signed an

agreement in a co-operative effort to launch a commun-

ications satellite. In 1973 and 1974 Anik I, II, and III

were launched and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

(CBC) became the world's first radio and television

network to have domestic distribution by geostationary

satellite. In 1974 live, one-way television was beamed to

the Arctic and it was reported that bartenders in

Whitehorse of the Yukon Territory would watch the bars

empty as people went home to watch television (Carruthers,

1972) .

Soon, however, some Canadians began to question the

benefits of the Canadian satellite program and whether the

system was providing a means to create a dialog of

communication with the North and South of Canada as

intended by the legislation. The evolving satellite

44

technology is important to realize because the Anik

satellites were point to multi-point and not direct

broadcast or distribution satellites (DBDS) as has been

previously mentioned. Thus, although video teleconfer-

encing or two-way video communication was possible in

selected areas, it was not possible without considerable

effort, as all transmissions would have to go through

large, receiving and sending stations. It was argued that

the system would only reach some 55,000 persons of the

estimated 250,000 persons in the Canadian North. One

study, "Will Anik benefit the North?" suggested that

bringing signals to the North did not create the intended

dialog between Canadians in the North and South of Canada

(Carruthers, 1972) . The British Columbia system of

educational video teleconferencing will be discussed later

in this chapter.

The educational aspects of satellite transmission are

staggering when one looks at what has been done thus far

and what is planned for the future (Phillip, 1985).

Correspondence study with television has proved a powerful

and flexible method in Japan and Brazil. Television in

Poland has presented the best vocational teachers widely

to offer classes in public schools where experienced

teachers are not available. Satellite technology has

offered hope of profound social change in underdeveloped

45

countries (Dlugatch, 1970). Consider the following

remarks made in 196 8:

Of the many ills that beset mankind, the most serious results from the grave and increasing contrast in living conditions between the poor nations and the rich, and the bitter-ness it engenders. Advances in technology during the recent decades have worsened rather than alleviated the situation, contrary to our hopes and expectations. There now exists, however, an opportunity to help the less developed nations help themselves merely by allowing them to participate in the commun-ications revolution made possible by satellites. A satellite system for mass education could make a substantial contribution to the enlightenment of the human race. (Rosen, 1968, p.58)

The opportunity for change through the communications

satellite is happening throughout the world (Kenda, 1984).

In India, the first direct broadcast satellite was

launched in 1975 to reach all of India's 568,000 villages.

Instructional objectives include using television to

contribute to family planning, improve agricultural

practices, and contribute to national integration ("First

Satellite Built," 1975). Brazil has instituted a

satellite planning program to implement a Brazillian

educational satellite system. Brazil is a country with

40% of the population classified as illiterate. The

Brazillian program includes large scale use of media

including a combination of satellite and ground radio and

television transmission (Morgan & Margolin, 1970).

46

In Turkey, 55% of the population is illiterate with

the average per capita national income about $337 per

year. Family planning, modern agricultural methods, and a

general need to improve rural life are serious national

problems. Television and the communications satellite

have offered hope in a country where many teachers are

inadequately trained (Dogan, 1975). In the United States,

corporations use satellite technology and concepts of

distance learning to train employees (H. Rice, 1983) .

The Concept of Distance Learning

Research on distance learning has rarely focused on

the student or human element within the new technology.

The college buying a pre-packaged telecourse has little

information as to how interaction can occur between

instructor and student given the course nature and what is

usually known about students who take the course. In

1975, for example, Gooler and Sell (cited in Wiesner,

1983) found the electronic part of telecourses to be rated

lower in importance than the text and study guide

developed by the University of Mid-America students. In

1978, Purdie and Mittelsted (cited in Wiesner, 1983) found

that telecourses had a positive impact on the enrollments

of equivalent on-campus courses. In a 1972 report by

Kitzes and Knox (cited in Wiesner, 1983), Dr. Perry of the

Open University said that five percent of course content

47

is conveyed through television and that the primary

function of television is to motivate students rather than

convey information. Thus, almost all of the course

content is delivered via printed material. At the same

time, many American telecourse producers do not design

telecourses with such motivation in mind (Wiesner, 1983) .

Individuals who must or prefer to learn at a distance

include:

(1) persons caring for young children

(2) persons who have employment obligations

(3) persons with physical handicaps

(4) persons who live in geographically

isolated areas that prevent regular classroom

attendance

(5) persons with previous unsuccessful

experiences in classroom settings (Feasley,

1983)

Faculty members are commonly called mentors or tutors

because they direct students to learning materials and

personnel and provide emotional support and evaluate

students' progress. Trends in distance education include:

(1) an increasing tendency for the same

institution to use multiple media to meet needs

of diverse students

48

(2) a decreasing reliance on broadcast

media in favor of recorded materials

(3) a grêater reliance on less expensive,

less complex media

(4) a wider assortment of options from

which to choose including broadcast television

and radio, limited circuit television and radio,

audio and videocassettes, videotex, computers,

correspondence, videodiscs and telephones

(Feasley, 1983)

As distance learning expands, the need for

nontraditional recruitment, admissions, registration and

counseling increases. A major study of nine diverse,

autonomous distance universities concluded that such

institutions:

(1) are more advantageous to students'

external needs

(2) exhibit more efficient administration

for the number of enrollments generally

needed—9,000 to 22,000 a year (Rumble & Keegan,

1982, p. 245)

In 1977 Clay Kistler examined the potential for cable

television in higher education. He writes:

49

The cable administrator, like the administrator in higher education, must keep his eyes on the horizon where the economic factors and technological advances gather and shift like clouds. (Kistler, 1977, p. 3)

The principle advantage of cable television rests in

its method of program delivery by a single wire or cable

with maximum preservation of the open spectrum. Thus,

large numbers of individual program signals can be

transmitted on the same cable with complete separation of

individual program signals at the user end. Optical fiber

cable are fiber glass cables that can transmit laser

signals down extremely fine glass "hairs." In theory the

optical fiber can carry one billion times as much

information as a telephone cable (O'Keefe & Cerny, 1983).

The Japanese have marketed optical fibers that transmit

more than one billion bits of information per second.

Hence, cable systems of the future could carry several

thousand television programs to the home (Martin, 1978).

Kistler outlines several steps in creating an

effective telecourse. In reviewing the proposal,

university administrators must consider areas of policy,

accreditation, governmental guidelines, budget, and the

university's master plan for the future. When telecourses

are offered, a need for individual supervision still

50

exists and regular assignments and some method to ask

questions must be established. Some colleges require

credit students to attend regular on-campus sessions. The

Chicago Junior College is one such institution.

The Chicago Junior College offers telecourses for

academic credit and has introduced three features in

addition to the televised instruction:

(1) The section teacher is responsible for

personal supervision, the marking of papers, and

answering individual questions.

(2) The student manual that summarizes the

lesson, gives follow-up assignments and suggests

further reading.

(3) The regular submission of written

reports by the student to the college (Cassier,

1962) .

The administrator might well examine the "Chinese

Television University," the largest in the world by

student population. Open in 1979, the mission of Chinese

Television University is to promote modernization and to

deal with the limited number of places available in

conventional institutions. The Chinese journal, People's

Education, reported that in the first year of operation

more than 600,000 people were taking correspondence

51

courses offered through 29 participating colleges

throughout China. More than 410,000 registered students

had passed entrance exams in 1979 (McCormick, 1980).

Full time distance learning students studied an

average of three courses and mostly came from worker type

homes. About 3 0 percent of the total enrollment were

drawn from middle school teachers with the rest being

clerks, civil servants, and primary school teachers. The

president and vice president of the university are

responsible to the Minister of Education and the Central

Broadcasting Bureau. The five major sections under the

president and vice president are Teaching Administration,

Media, TV Programme Production, General Administration,

and Student Administration.

The main study material, like other instructional

television programs, is print. Students spend four hours

per week watching television programs and eight hours

doing homework from textbooks, exercises and supplementary

material. Of course, satellite technology makes distance

learning throughout China possible (McCormick, 1980).

Distance education requires new strategies and

thoughts. For example, some have asked, "What happens to

equity in education when some students pay for home access

to instruction delivered through microcomputer, videodisc,

or cable television while others cannot afford such

52

advantages?" What can happen with human interaction if

machines replace people without compensatory shifts in the

remaining human teaching? Will affective skills learned

through modeling others' behavior be lost? Many questions

remain unanswered (Feasley, 1983).

Questions that remain unanswered include such

questions as:

(1) What is the proper role of two-way

communications given the subject matter and

needs and characteristics of learners and the

availability of institutional resources?

(2) What are the strengths and shortcomings

of mail, telephone and interpersonal contacts?

(3) How do students and instructors differ

in perspective on distance learning? (Wiesner,

1983)

In the US in the early 1950s, teachers feared that

telecourses could replace them in the classroom. In 1952

a report issued by the Educational Television Program

Institute addressed itself to this problem:

Television is not and is never going to be an educational panacea . . . It is not going to replace the teacher . . . Nothing can take the place of face-to-face contact between the teacher and pupil, of the interplay of personalities of questions and discussion. Educational television is not going to outmode the classroom. . . . (Television in Education,

53

1952, p. 6)

The PBS Adult Learning Service (ALS)

Lawrence Grossman, former PBS president, said during

Mass Communications Week on the Texas Tech University

campus that the overall quality of programming with cable

television had deteriorated rather than improved with more

channels. He added that the national PBS network is

planning "teleclasses" which are expected to involve about

55,000 adult students and be sanctioned by more than 500

universities and colleges. And the "teleclass" is a

reality today in universities and colleges ("Cable No

Hindrance," 1982) .

The PBS Adult Learning Service (ALS) is the first and

largest nationwide effort to provide adult learning and

college credit through television. ALS represents a

partnership with more than 900 colleges and universities

and 281 public television stations. For the 1984-85

academic year, more than 120,000 students paid tuition.

Colleges and universities pay ALS a license fee for the

right to use the ALS course for credit. Since Fall 1981

more than a third of a million students have enrolled in

PBS-distributed television courses. Courses include the

arts and humanities, history and social sciences, science

and health, business and technology, and professional

54

development and teacher education (William H. Phillip,

Jr., associate director of marketing for PBS Adult

Learning Service, personal communication, August 30, 1985;

Phillip, 1985) . i.

Narrowcasting and the National Narrowcast Service (NNS)

Narrowcasting has evolved as a definition of that

area of transmission interest in which only a special part

of the public is served. A form of narrowcasting

specially reserved for educational uses is the

2500-megahertz Instructional Television Fixed Service

(ITFS) now in use in many parts of the country. Although

useful for short-range transmission only, the radiation is

omnidirectional, with one transmission center permitted to

operate on four programming frequencies at the same time.

A dish antenna is required to gather adequate energy from

the transmission to produce a video picture. The ITFS

signal is in the Super High Frequency range of the

spectrum in order to pose little threat to other spectrum

users (A Report to, 1980) .

PBS also plans a form of video teleconferencing with

the National Narrowcast Service (NNS), funded by the

Annenberg/CPB Project, to begin in February 1986.

Initially, NNS will begin programming in 20 cities with a

55

25 hour schedule of programs per week. Live, interactive

seminars in law, accounting, medicine and banking will be

included. NNS will focus on the working adult with

courses on business related topics at the undergraduate

and graduate level (National Narrowcast Service, 1985).

Eastern New Mexico University and the Talk-back Television Communication System

In 1977 Eastern New Mexico University submitted a

proposal to the Board of Educational Finance to establish

a "talk-back television communication system" between the

Portales campus and the branch campuses at Roswell and

Clovis. The system started between the Portales and

Roswell campuses with the fall semester 197 8 on an

experimental basis for a three-year period.

Instructional television between Portales and Roswell

began with the offering of five classes. To date, the

results of the program have been encouraging and Eastern

New Mexico University (ENMU) has requested continuing

funding of the Roswell/Portales system and the development

of a Portales/Clovis system. Because of the pending new

physical facility for the Clovis campus, the ITFS has not

been completed.

During the two year period (1978-79 and 1979-80

academic years), 37 courses had been offered to 303

56

graduate and undergraduate students resulting in the

production of 883 credit hours. The report to the Board

of Educational Finance said:

It is clear from the table that significant numbers of students are being served through the ITFS programming system and, it is our belief, that the program is viable and should be continued between Roswell and Portales even though the credit hour production is not yet as high as anticipated. Moreover, it is our feeling that upper division and graduate course offerings at the Clovis campus and perhaps even in the Hobbs/Lovington area would greatly improve the educational delivery system, in the Eastern part of the state. (A Report to, 1980, p. 1)

The first two years of the ITFS experiment showed

ITFS to be an effective means of delivery of educational

services as measured by student satisfaction. It was

found that a careful "need based" strategy should be

developed rather than simply offering a "smorgasbord" of

courses based largely upon intuition.

Conclusions regarding the efficacy of the ITFS

program were also based upon results of survey evaluations

taken during the first two years of *the program. The

survey taken during the first year revealed numerous

problems in terms of communications and methodology. The

survey taken during the second year showed considerable

improvement (A Report to, 1980).

57

Televised Instruction and the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and University System

In a March 11, 1985, memorandum from Kenneth Ashworth

of the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and

University System, guidelines adopted January 1985 were

released that require public institutions in Texas to

obtain Coordinating Board approval for televised

instruction. The regulations were designed to encourage

the development of television for educational purposes

while keeping the same quality as regular on-campus

resident credit instruction. Televised instruction was

defined as any form of instruction that uses live and/or

pre-produced television programs as a primary mode for

delivery to a student not within the physical presence of

the instructor (Coordinating Board Memorandum, 1985).

The Association for Graduate Education and Research In North Texas (TAGER)

The Association for Graduate Education and Research

in North Texas (TAGER) has pushed for such a plan as

adopted by the Coordinating Board. The Dallas area of

Texas has two important examples of successful application

of available technology to surmount local problems in

educational access. The combined work of the Dallas

County Community College District and the Tarrant County

Junior College District has led to the implementation of

58

several complete college credit telecourses. Delivery

modes have included open and closed circuit television on

and off campus with a regional consortium and an

international distribution. Telecourses include carefully

written study guides to accompany required textbooks with

on-campus orientation and testing sessions.

The TAGER television network began in 1967 in

response to the interests of business and industry in the

Dallas/Ft. Worth area. In 1980 the Association for Higher

Education of North Texas (AHE) was incorporated and had 17

institutions with the TAGER television network one of the

services offered by the association (Arnell, 1984).

The TAGER operation centers on a live, on-camera

instructor at almost all times. The TAGER technical

system consists of a major signal switching center at the

TAGER headquarters on the edge of The University of Texas

at Dallas campus. The network joins 10 college and

university campuses, 14 private industrial receiving

sites, the Regional Instructional Television Consortium of

12 independent school districts and administrative centers

and private schools and the several hospital members of

the Dallas Area Hospital Television System.

Courses carried over the network can be received only

by other TAGER institutions or by the specially equipped

receiving classrooms scattered throughout business,

59

industry and neighborhood schools in the Dallas-Fort Worth

Metroplex. Students are provided talkback telephones

which enable them to ask questions or discuss a lecture

point with the professor and the discussion is heard

throughout the network wherever other students in that

course may be located.

Enrollment in courses delivered by the TAGER network

will reach 2200 this year with about 90% of all

programming carried live. Complete master's degree

programs through TAGER are available in electrical

engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering,

computer science, operations research, engineering

management and applied mathematics (Arnell, 1984).

Continuinq Education and the Video Teleconference Potential

The beginnings of satellite teleconferencing in

continuing education began in the middle and late 1970s

when NASA put into orbit in 1974 the high powered DBDS

Applied Technology Satellite (ATS-6), used for a number of

educational teleconferences. ATS-6 was capable of

broadcasting to low cost receivers (Bretz, 1982).

The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) connects more

than 160 stations throughout the country and has opened

the door for teleconferencing via satellite. The Public

Service Satellite Consortium (PSSC) created a National

60

Satellite Network to implement video teleconferences using

existing satellite transmission and reception sites

throughout the country. PSSC has been in the process of

establishing a Campus Conference Network to tie together

institutions of higher education in large cities around

the country. The National University Teleconference

Network (NUTN) has brought together some 100 institutions

across the country to share educational video telecon-

ferencing. In contrast, the private business, Holiday

Inn, Inc., has spent more than $10 million to implement

HI-NET, a wholly owned subsidiary charged with equipping

motels throughout the country with satellite reception

equipment to facilitate meetings and other activities

(including in-room movies) via satellite (Bretz, 1982).

Today, the NASA space shuttle has made it possible to

place larger and more powerful satellites into orbit as

well as remove and service existing satellites (Bates,

1984). Technology is rapidly changing, expanding the

capabilities of satellites to carry more television

signals, provide more powerful signals, and have longer

lives in space. Higher powered satellites make possible

smaller transmit and receive antennas (Frost, 1984).

In the 1970S engineers for the Public Broadcasting

System developed a satellite distribution system to

connect the nearly 150 public television stations across

61

the country. In its 1976 application to the Federal

Communication Commission, PBS indicated that significant

savings would result through satellite interconnection to

member stations (Bretz, 1982) .

In 197 8 the Nebraska ETV Network was among .the first

to construct satellite origination and reception

facilities to receive and transmit programming on the

satellite interconnect system. By March 1979 the

PBS satellite network connected some 150 public broadcast

stations throughout the country. Although video satellite

teleconferences were not among the early purposes for the

PBS system, the interconnect system provided a video

teleconference link with nearly every state and most major

cities (Bretz, 1982). Satellite connection of cable TV

happened in the middle 70s and eventually led to many

cable program services now available via satellite. Such

services range from Home Box Office (HBO) which began

satellite use in 1975 and similar "movie" channels to the

"super stations" which transmit programming to satellites

for cable distribution. The 24 hour news channel, known

as Cable News Network (CNN), and assorted other services

are now transmitted to cable systems via satellite. This

could be important to video teleconferencing given the

fact that some cable programming services, including

62

HBO, do not make use of satellite transponders on a

24-hour a day basis. Thus, it is possible to use such

time for teleconference program distribution. The

additional satellite time made possible the establishment

of HI-NET, the Holiday Inn satellite network developed in

1980. Thus, satellite receive antennas at Holiday Inns

constructed nation-wide involve regional meetings and

conferences via satellite as part of Holiday Inn's service

(Bretz, 1982) .

Educational Video Teleconferencinq Emerges

In 1973 a series of in-service audio teleconference

seminars for teachers was conducted by the University of

Alaska and the National Education Association. Teachers

in 17 villages participated in seminars that included

faculty and consultants with the NEA in Washington. Most

participants in the study said the seminars contributed to

positive changes, although they would have liked to "see"

the audio teleconference presenters (Bretz, 1982). One

year later (1974) the ATS-6 satellite provided for one and

two-way video and audio transmission.

The Appalachian Regional Commission operated the

"Appalachian Project" in 1974 which provided continuing

education for teachers in remote parts of the Appalachian

region of the US. In July 1974 two graduate-level courses

for teachers in several states in the region were offered.

63

By 1975 the Appalachian Education Satellite Project

(AESP), now using ATS-6 with video and audio, had

teleconferenced four graduate courses to nearly 1200

educators. Bretz describes the conclusions of the project

in the following way:

(1) It is technically feasible using satellite delivery and inexpensive ground reception equipment to provide graduate education courses to students scattered over large geographical areas.

(2) Site representatives who are non-content experts can administer these courses, when provided with sufficient instruction and easy access to the Resource Coordinating Center by way of two-way radio.

(3) The course participants preferred the learning activities in the satellite-delivered courses to on-campus graduate education courses with which they were familiar.

(4) Participants in the courses typically gained in knowledge of the course content and are now applying what they learned in their classrooms.

(5) The cost for development and delivery of programs like those produced during the initial 27 months of the AESP is competitive with the cost of offering similar courses on a university campus. (Bretz, 1982, pp. 17, 18)

In 1976 the Communication Technology Satellite (CTS)

was launched for educational programming. The satellite

was jointly planned, developed and used by the United

States and Canada to test technological developments and

programs designed to examine the feasibility, desirability

and cost effectiveness of satellite communication ("A

Summary of," 1981). Bretz (1982) cites the project's

64

conclusions and recommendations from the summary of the

CTS Project as follows:

(1) Satellite technology is highly reliable and is capable of providing high quality audio and video for:

a. face-to-face interaction b. graphic presentations and

discussions c. demonstrations of techniques d. didactic lectures

(2) Satellite communications provide opportunities for resource sharing between institutions.

(3) Satellite communications enable many students and professionals to interact with leading researchers and clinicians.

(4) Satellite-mediated instruction is as effective for learning as other modes, including in-person instruction.

(5) Two-way video is not needed for most didactic lectures. The extent of learning is not significantly different for two-way audio-video than for one-way audio-video and return audio. One-way video with two-way audio provides a satisfactory level of interaction.

(6) Commercial television production standards (sophisticated equipment and a large professional support staff) are not needed for effective teleconferences or teaching programs.

(7) Satellite video communications can be used effectively by teleconference and teaching participants with little specialized training.

(8) Commercial satellite-mediated video teaching and teleconference costs become very reasonable when distributed over large numbers of users, but the opportunity for interaction with presenters is inversely related to the number of participants. (pp. 19, 20)

The first major educational audio teleconferencing

system was developed in Wisconsin by the University of

Wisconsin in 1965 (Parker, 1984) and has evolved into a

sophisticated system with a wide variety of programming.

65

The Indiana Higher Education Telecommunication System,

established in 1967, has connected campuses of higher

education in major cities of Indiana.

One major report for the Corporation for Public

Broadcasting suggested that satellite video telecon-

ferences would be valuable communication links for 4,000

to 8,000 national organizations. The report listed nearly

50 teleconferences that took place in 1979 and early 1980

using the satellite interconnect system of PBS (Robertson,

1980). The report recommended that the visual capability

be better utilized with well-produced, fast-paced events,

ample discussion time, rehearsals and related print

materials.

The Video Teleconference In Business

Biznet

Biznet is the United States Chamber of Commerce's

full-service business television network which operates on

a closed circuit satellite system to provide business

oriented programming to targeted audiences. Companies use

a toll-free telephone number to interact with studio

guests who are leaders from government, business and the

media. Biznet also offers prepackaged programs on a

variety of business-related topics such as international

trade, U.S. Steel, equal opportunity and the like.

Workshops offer executive training ("Satellite

66

Teleconferencing Success," 1985).

IBM

IBM, using a compressed digital video network,

broadcasts training courses from three major IBM studios

to 11 receiving sites in the United States. Sixty

instructors teach IBM courses that range from programming

languages to systems management and hardware-related

subjects. IBM calls its network the Interactive Satellite

Education Network. The network includes a student

response unit with voice-activated microphone, a panel for

multiple choice questions, and provisions for instructor

feedback ("Satellite Teleconferencing Success," 1985).

Business Research Findings: The Intra-company System

In 1982 a report by users of intra-company systems by

Kathleen Hansell, David Green and Lutz Erbring (cited in

Bretz, 1982) made the following findings about video

teleconferencing in business:

(1) Three-fourths of respondents reported an increase in personal productivity as a result of videoconferencing.

(2) Half noted increased meeting effective-ness .

(3) Half of the respondents reported that the time required to make decisions had decreased. One-third reported an increase in the quality of decisions.

(4) Three-fourths reported a decrease in travel expense. An equal number noted less time away from their offices.

(5) The amount of communication among various parts of the organization was reported by half the respondents to have increased.

67

(6) User satisfaction was high with ninety percent of the users "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with their overall use of videoteleconferencing. (p. 24)

One unpublished research project sponsored by the

Annenberg School of Communications in 1982 by Dutton, Fulk

and Steinfield (cited in Bretz, 1982) found video

teleconferencing to be an important integrating mechanism,

as more representatives of a company were brought into a

meeting. Thus, a greater acceptance of decisions occurred

because of increased involvement. The study found that

video teleconferencing could satisfy a number of company

needs including negotiation, planning, decision making,

instructing, delegating and resolving disagreements.

Richard Harkness and Peter Burke found, in an

in-depth study of the communication needs of four large

corporations, that 26 percent of meetings would not be

eligible for video teleconferencing, 64 percent could use

still image projection and transmission systems such as

facsimile or slow-scan television, and that only 10

percent of the meetings would need full motion video. The

study asked what types of display would be used in all

meetings via video teleconferencing and found the

following percentages:

(1) Typed sheets 60%

68

(2

(3

(4

(5

(6

(7

(8

(9

Viewgraphs 58%

Blackboard 28

Sketches 26

Flip charts 24

Computer reports 17

Photos and slides

Reports and books

Engineering drawings

15%

14%

9%

(Harkness, 1982)

Business and Educational Video Teleconferences Merge

In 1978 the Public Service Satellite Consortium

(PSSC) released a report on the "Shared Use of the Public

Television Satellite System." The report suggested that

" . . . non-broadcast shared use of the public satellite

system can extend and improve distribution of services

. . . through the delivery of continuing professional

education and delivery of mediated courses of study"

(Bretz, 1982, pp. 26, 27).

In 1980 Quentin Gessner, Dean of the Division of

Continuing Studies at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln,

proposed a satellite teleconference system for higher

education (cited in Bretz, 1982). In 1982 an in-depth

proposal was submitted to the Kellogg Foundation and

called for " . . . conducting a project to identify.

develop and improve effective planning and design

69

processes involved in conducting satellite teleconferences

for educational purposes . . . " (p. 27). The proposal

stated:

Satellite teleconferencing is rapidly gaining acceptance as a form of information dissemination and education. . . . Many of the current practices in satellite teleconferencing are of questionable value, particularly in view of the significant advances which have occurred in the science of adult learning and in the techniques of systems design. (p. 28)

The goals of the Kellogg project were:

(1) to identify and delineate the planning and technical processes involved in using satellite teleconferencing technology for educational purposes.

(2) to design and test different applications of satellite teleconferencing to maximize learning outcomes and to explore various specific ways to enhance those outcomes during and after the teleconference event.

(3) to develop a cost effective satellite continuing education system for conducting teleconferences on a national scale.

(4) to disseminate widely the results of the project (p. 28)

In February 1982 the Public Service Satellite

Consortium suggested a "Campus Conference Network," to

connect campuses in the top 50 markets via satellite.

The network development was approved by .the PSSC board

in May 1982 ("PSSC Coordinates," 1983). But, in a con-

versation of September 17, 1985, with Karen Hutcheson,

70

member service coordinator, Public Service Satellite

Consortium, changes have meant that the PSSC is no longer

in the business of ad hoc networking. One reason given by

Hutcheson was "not enough business." However, the

organization still serves as a consultant for video

teleconferences. Ms. Hutcheson said, "With video

teleconferences, we have gone from a service organization

to an information organization." In correspondence of

September 19, 1985, Ms. Hutcheson writes:

PSSC is an international telecommunications consortium with member organizations in the fields of health and medicine, public broad-casting, libraries, state telecommunications agencies and religious communications. PSSC's purpose is to encourage and facilitate appro-priate and timely applications of satellite and other telecommunications technologies for public service.

We are no longer in the business of ad hoc networking, but we do help organizations plan video teleconferences, conduct needs assess-ments, technical planning, market research and feasibility studies.

We do provide audioconferencing bridge services and Scan-Net, a slowscan television teleconferencing network, and operate (TES), our Transportable Earth Station, which facilitates satellite transmission from virtually any location. (personal communication, September 19, 1985)

Also in 1982, representatives of 48 colleges and

universities with membership in the National University

Continuing Education Association (NUCEA) discussed the

establishment of a university operated teleconferencing

71

system. The result was the establishment of a proposal

development committee that proposed and created in June

1982 the National University Teleconferencing Network

(NUTN). NUTN had, as its basis of support, commitment by

more than 50 institutions of higher education to produce

four or five national continuing education teleconferences

during a six to eight month period beginning July 1982 and

continuing throughout 1982 (Bretz, 1982).

Research Findings

Tremendous technological advances have been made

during the last decade with devices of communication (Hon,

1983). Powerful home computers/word processing units and

interactive video teleconferencing have allowed employees

and management to share new ideas in the workplace

(Kwiatek, 1982-1983). Even "electronic universities"

(sometimes for the elderly and disadvantaged) have added

new dimensions to mass communications and to theories of

learning (Chin, 1984) . The theoretical significance of

the new technology has far reaching implications for

researchers. Rice writes:

Newness, of course, is in the eye of the cohort. At this time, we might consider "new media" to include personal computers, videotext and teletext, interactive cable, videodiscs, electronic mail and computer conferencing, communication satellites, office information systems, and the like. But when television was first publicly demonstrated in England in 1927, or the first time radio was commercially

72

broadcast . . . these were new communication technologies. (R. Rice, 1984, p. 16)

Authors of scientific literature have predicted that

enormous and beneficial changes will be brought about by

the new communication technologies. In 1982 Masuda (cited

in Fredin, 1983), for example, forsees fundamental change

in the structure of societies as persons from computer-

linked electronic communities interact with different

technology systems to expand a type of productivity that

is information related. Another researcher found that the

lack of immediate, specific need by the public as a whole

has slowed acceptance with videotext in Japan and Europe

(Fredin, 1983). Fredin reports that sophisticated systems

of today are more difficult to understand, require more

study, involve more individuals and are less likely to

succeed.

Ronald Rice (1984) writes that research is never an

isolated or purely "scientific" event. Thus, research

happens within the context of prior and emerging research,

theories and methodologies, and objects of analysis and

paradigms. Teleconferencing (audio), which has existed

for more than 50 years, was heralded in the 1930s as a

cost-beneficial way to conduct business across geo-

graphically dispersed locations. Despite the optimism of

a 1984 Wall Street Journal report that 84 percent of the

73

Fortune 500 companies plan teleconference installations in

the near future (Shaffer, 1984), Parker (1984) estimates

that less than 1 percent of all organizations in the

private business sector use teleconferencing on a regular

basis. Of course, the obvious question is, "Why?"

Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) answer this question

by suggesting three "arenas" of answers:

(1) teleconferencinq is not a single

innovation: The four modes (computer, audio,

audiographic and video) have a "bewildering

array" of possible configurations. After the

decision of whether or not to teleconference has

been made, an organization must then determine

which mode as well as various configurations

that involve utility, accessibility, conven-

ience, ease of learning and ease of use. Video

teleconferencing is the most expensive and

least-utilized teleconferencing mode.

(2) orqanizational teleconferencing

requires organizational adoption and indivi-

dual/qroup acceptance: Teleconferencing systems

require organizational decisions, commitments

and action. Groups and individuals must be

willing to meet and work via the new media.

74

(3) teleconferencing is just one of several

communication options: Teleconferencing must fit

the established organizational and work context

yet yield observable advantages over the

accepted and habitual communication alternatives

(Ruchinskas & Svenning, 1984).

Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) describe two basic

versions of video teleconferencing:

(1) point-multipoint video conferencing;

Essentially a closed circuit television

broadcast that allows an originating site to

send a video and audio signal to any number of

remote locations, which, in turn, have the

ability to feedback in audio only. Advantages

include reaching wide audience, cost efficient,

and keeping top officials in view. Constraints

include production time, extensive plan-

ning/preparation with best use for formal

presentations.

(2) fully interactive two-way video that

allows participants in two locations to see and

hear one another: Such video teleconferences

facilitate "relatively" small group communica-

tion. Such advantages are most 1ike

75

face-to-face and are flexible and glamorous.

Constraints include point-to-point, long lead

time, limited availability and may require

"selling" to realize benefits (Ruchinskas &

Svenning, 1984) .

Ruchinskas and Svenning describe two basic formats

for fully interactive two-way video:

(1) continuous presence: provides a view of

all participants in the conference room

(2) voice-switched: focuses primarily on

the person speaking (Ruchinskas & Svenning,

1984)

Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) cite evaluation

research with Atlantic Richfield and Bell Labs that

potential users prefer the continuous presence option as

users say they miss important visual cues from other

meeting participants when the camera focuses only on the

person speaking. Thus, continuous presence is more like a

regular meeting with participants in view at all times.

Ruchinskas and Svenning found, through regression

analysis,' that specific job types of video teleconference

users could be used to predict the amount of video

teleconferencing use. For example, usage for employee

relations personnel was predicted by teleconferencing's

76

perceived utility, ease of use, sensitivity to detail and

by a desire for more contact with people in other

locations and the degree their jobs involved cross-loca-

tional work contacts. For engineering personnel, the

predictors included the current number of trips and phone

calls, the amount of dissatisfaction with travel, and the

perceived open organizational communication norms combined

with perceptions of teleconferencing's utility and cost.

In 1976 Porter and Roberts (cited in Ruchinskas &

Svenning, 1984) found organizational status to be the most

important individual determinant of communication

behavior. Dutton, Fulk, and Steinfield (cited in Bretz,

1982) found video teleconferencing use to be related to

hierarchical level, with a disproportionate number of

users to be upper-level managers. Conrath, Elton and

Lucas (1978) found that hierarchical level was positively

related to telephone use while in 1972 Westrum (cited in

Bretz, 1982) found hierarchical level to be positively and

strongly associated with the amount of business travel.

Tyler (cited in Fredin, 1983) reports that particular

types of systems tend to be suited to a limited range of

functions. Listing teleconferencing as an example, he

reported that teleconferencing seemed suited for informa-

tion seeking, policy decision making, and problem solving,

but not for negotiation, disciplinary interviews or the

77

presentation of a report.

Evidence suggests that links between interactive

systems and interpersonal communication are extensive and

complex. In 1976 Williams and Chapanis (cited in Fredin,

1983) indicate that the single most important communica-

tion mode is the voice channel. The study used audio

simulation (subjects were unaware talk was on tape) while

the visual portion (slides or microscope fields) was shown

to students. Interaction between students at one end of

the line and instructors at the other provided oppor-

tunities to question the instructor. The study did not

provide for interaction among students. Fredin suggests

that the degree of individualization available on a

communication system will be a useful perspective in

analyzing interpersonal communication and the use of new

systems. And when one considers that the essential ingre-

dient in decision making is information, the importance of

understanding the new technology is awesome (Borko, 1967).

The Korzenny and Bauer Study

A significant study of organizational tele-

conferencing was done by Felipe Korzenny and Connie Bauer

(1981) at Michigan State University. The researchers

tested the theory of propinquity, defined as the

psychological distance between communicators or the degree

of perceived closeness of another person or group of

78

people. With teleconferencing, propinquity is the

perceived closeness in terms of psychological presence and

participation potential. Bandwidth was defined as the

information transmission capacity of the available sensory

channels (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and

olfactory) for verbal and nonverbal communication.

Thus, face-to-face conferences have all five channels

available for communication and were defined as having a

wide bandwidth whereas video teleconferencing had only two

channels (visual and auditory) and were defined as having

a medium bandwidth. Audio teleconferences had only one

channel available and was defined as having a narrow

bandwidth.

The complexity of information was defined as the

perceived degree of discrepant factors in the initial

message. The number of discrepant factors was intended to

arouse different amounts of dissonance. Thus, messages

low in complexity would produce no dissonance in

teleconference participants while a highly complex message

would produce a large amount of dissonance. It was

theorized that the more similar the message factors, the

greater the difficulty in making a decision regarding a

problem. Thus, greater amounts of dissonance would

indicate the more the message was expected to be perceived

as high in complexity of information.

79

The experiment had three business conference

situations (face-to-face, video, and audio only) with two

different levels of information complexity in a problem

solving task with high and low complexity degrees of

information. In 1978 Korzenny (cited in Korzenny &

Bauer, 1981) suggested that increased bandwidth would

increase psychological propinquity and, hence, have a

greater amount of communication satisfaction. Contrary to

theory and the researchers' expectations, the bandwidth of

the communication channel, the complexity of the

information, the levels of communication rules, and the

skills of the conference participants did not have an

impact on psychological propinquity. Thus, the

researchers could not determine a proper model of

electronic propinquity.

Korzenny and Bauer report that the most interesting

result of the study had to do with feedback in predicting

psychological propinquity and communication satisfaction.

The authors write, "The importance of feedback is

highlighted when one considers that to carry on any type

of comprehensible discussion with another person, feedback

is necessary to synchronize and coordinate the

communicative interaction" (Korzenny & Bauer, 1981, p.

493) .

Eric Fredin, Indiana University, found that two-way

80

cable television systems (systems that allowed feedback)

produced a significant wider diversity of ideas. One-way

systems that did not allow a viewer to ask questions or

receive feedback from the system, failed to produce vary-

ing solutions to problems (Fredin, 1983). Lazarsfeld and

Stanton (cited in Marder, 1977) found, for example, the

tremendous influence radio had on learning current events

when combined with the feedback of classroom instruction.

Feedback has been an important ingredient for radio

talk shows which allowed audience participation via the

telephone. Without the ability to call-in questions and

add comments and information to such programming, it is

doubtful that such programs would attract large audiences

(Marder, 1977). Today, some television talk shows (such

as Donahue) have depended upon audience and telephone

caller feedback as part of a routine talk show format.

Again, what are the learning implications for

students who lose face-to-face contact with instructors

and other students? What will mass communications

theorists discover about the lack of human contact? Will

computer or teleconference courses take away students from

the more traditional approach?

The Rushton Study: Teleconferencing Versus Conventional Delivery of Instruction

At Florida State University in 1980 Albert Frank

81

Rushton sought to determine whether a remote delivery

methodology could provide instruction in certain medical

laboratory analysis skills. The study concerned

continuing education for practicing professionals in

medicine through audio and slide (could be compared to

slow-scan video) video teleconferencing. The chief

advantage with such a system would involve the reduction

of time and funds associated with conventional in-

struction. His hypothesis was that remotely located

subjects would perform at a level equal to or higher than

conventionally trained counterparts.

The study was designed as a Workshop in Recognition

and Quantitation of Tubercle Bacilli in a level one

laboratory. The remote delivery (teleconferencing) was

compared with conventional instruction administered to

medical technicians in Georgia, Florida, Illinois and

lowa. In the experimental methodology, subjects were

remotely located from instructors. In the conventional

instruction, subjects were co-located with instructors.

The study used audio simulation (subjects were unaware

talk was on tape) while the visual portion (slides or

microscope fields) was shown to students. Interaction

between students at one end of the line and instructors at

the other provided opportunities to question the

instructor. The study did not provide for interaction

82

between students.

A Chi-square sample test was applied to data that

included terminal learning objective tests scored on a

pass-fail basis. Values of computed scores showed no

statistically significant difference. Thus, the

conclusion reached was that no measurable difference

existed between scores of subjects receiving instruction

through teleconferencing and those to whom conventional

instruction was administered. Cost factors and limited

availability of qualified faculty suggested increased use

of teleconferencing for instruction in skills similar to

those employed in the study.

Rushton concluded that, under conditions of cost and

limited qualified faculty, the increased use of

teleconferencing for instruction of skills (similar to

those employed in study) would be beneficial. Rushton,

however, says that since five subjects who failed to pass

were in experimental treatment groups, the possibility

exists that "the use of larger samples would have shown

the experimental treatment of teleconferencing as less

effective than conventional instruction" (Rushton, 1981,

p. 87) .

The Skinner Study: Distributed Computer Control for A Multinode Video Teleconferencinq System

Skinner (1982) presents a technical method of

83

distributed computer control for a "multinode video

teleconferencing system." Skinner's "distributed

computing model" has a central control node and an

arbitrary number of conference nodes each connected to the

central node by a full duplex communications link. An

event driven message passing mechanism is utilized for

inter-process communications. The system includes

automatic and manual camera switching at the conference

nodes. The central node provides global prioritized video

switching as well as dynamic conference scheduling.

Skinner's video teleconferencing system is based upon

the premise that the successful conduct of business

requires interaction between two or more individuals.

Skinner writes that when business between two individuals

involves a picture, document, or diagram to each other,

the telephone impedes the conduct of business. For

Skinner, problem areas that arise in establishing a video

teleconferencing system include:

(1) The system must be designed so that the

technology is as unobtrusive as possible and

that the participants have the feeling that they

are all face-to-face.

(2) The technical problems of a conference

between two locations are much more

straightforward than a conference between three

84

or more locations. A large facility under

control of a single organization may include 20

to 30 nodes in the teleconferencing network.

Thus, at any one time it is possible for many

simultaneous but independent conferences to be

taking place. A coordination and scheduling

problem may, therefore, exist. Skinner proposes

that a distributed system of computers be used

to control the teleconferencing network with one

computer at each conference node and a central

computer. Thus, all node to node communications

are via the central computer (Skinner, 1982).

Skinner (1982) writes that life size images can be

obtained by large screen projection systems with multiple

cameras used to give closeups of each participant.

Findinqs of the Bretz Study

In 1981 Randall Glen Bretz undertook a doctoral study

designed to project the future of satellite telecon-

ferencing in continuing education. With changes in

numbers of traditional college age students, he

hypothesized that institutions of higher education can

react to such changes by sharing resources with other

institutions through satellite teleconferencing.

Bretz's study, Satellite Teleconferencing in

85

Continuinq Education (1982), used the Delphi technique to

project the future of satellite teleconferencing. A panel

of 28 persons generated statements during the first round

of the study and rated such statements during subsequent

rounds. The time line established for the statement

rating was 1981-1982.

Results of the study suggest that satellite

teleconferencing in continuing education can be expected

to involve a mixture of media under the coordination of

one person at each participating institution. Through the

dissemination of educational materials to more remote

regions of the country, policies were needed to govern

technical and administrative issues.

Bretz defined teleconferencing as the process of

joining two or more people or groups together

electronically for information exchange, problem solving,

program planning, or similar activities. Under Bretz's

definition, the technical means can range from telephone

lines to satellite television.

Bretz's study focused on the following questions

related to technology, utilization, policies and

procedures:

(1) Technology: What technology is needed

to do satellite teleconferencing and related

activities? Included are up and down-links,

86

audio teleconferencing devices, viewing

monitors, television production facilities, and

computer conferencing equipment.

(2) Utilization: How will various types of

equipment be used for conferences and workshops

and what are the formats such conferences might

have? What role will faculty have to plan and

implement video teleconferences?

(3) Policies and Procedures: What policies

and procedures are needed to govern and guide

the operation of teleconferences? What are

participants rights? What about protection from

unauthorized viewers? Scheduling? Registra-

tion? The budget process? (Bretz, 1982)

Using the Delphi technique, Bretz reported the

following results that were "not the final answer":

(1) A mixture of technologies will be used

in teleconferencing (video disc, satellites,

computer, teletext).

(2) University policy should place

responsibility for satellite teleconferencing

with continuing education.

(3) Video teleconferencing will not fit

into traditional academic molds.

87

(4) Educational techniques can be

integrated with technology to provide the best

educational product.

(5) No agreement exists on the role of

faculty or staff members in satellite tele-

conferencing.

(6) Competition from the business community

for teleconferencing sites will keep costs

sufficiently high.

(7) Fear of technology will greatly inhibit

use. Satellite teleconferences tend to be

oriented more to the technology involved than to

learning objectives.

(8) Satellite teleconferences in continuing

education can be expected to involve a mixture

of media under the coordination of one person at

each participating institution. Thus, the

technology and educational methodologies will

probably receive attention as the state of the

art of delivering continuing education type

teleconferences is developed (Bretz, 1982).

Findings of the Rice Study

Ronald Eugene Rice in his 1982 dissertation at

Stanford University researched social issues and impacts

88

of telecommunications ("research topic A") and

communication networks ("research topic B"). His

dissertation focused on how (1) communication networks of

groups operate in a computer conferencing environment, (2)

these patterns change over time, (3) the nature of group

and system level are structured, and (4) what implications

these changes have for telecommunications design and

policy.

Overall, Rice found that system stability depended

upon reciprocal information exchanges. The system

structure changed over time as groups occupied different

roles based on the flows of information within the system.

Initial usage levels were not found to be good indicators

of eventual usage levels. Computer data offered

advantages and insights unavailable from traditional data

methods. He writes:

The effects of the kinds of computer mediated communication systems . . . indicate that an understanding of the technology, its functions, and the way people live in organizations must be (and can be) incorporated into management decisions and planning to produce desirable results. (R. Rice 1982, p. 6)

Rice cites that the first computer conferencing

system may have been contemplated during the Berlin crisis

when the State Department unsuccessfully attempted to join

teletypes on a central line. By 1979 more than 17 major

89

computer-mediated teleconferencing systems were in use, up

from seven in 197 5. By 1980 the number of computer based

teleconferencing systems had risen to 50. Rice estimated

that in the mid 80s more than two-thirds of the Fortune

500 corporations will have implemented electronic

messaging systems.

Computer based video teleconfcrencing systems have

had a history of difficult terminal access; unreliable

telephone lines; professional activities with higher

priority; poor system reliability; decreased emphasis on

problem solving; slow, unresponsive systems; 50 percent

higher-than-normal maintenance on terminals used to access

such systems; and objection to the necessity of typing

skills. Rice described the stages in acquiring computer

teleconferencing skills as being:

(1) culture shock, learning commands, loss

of interpersonal cues

(2) the ability to use basic commands

(3) push toward sociability with the

introduction of new cues and group norms

(4) serious use with possible addiction

Rice described the skill of learning computer

teleconferencing as one of imitation with beginning

entries generally longer and in the form of private

90

messages. Rice found that users' attitudes about computer

teleconferencing changed with use. Hence, as satisfaction

increases, the sense of tediousness decreases as does the

impersonality of the work environment. Further, users

needed a "real" task to motivate use and favorable

perception. He found word exchange to be about twice the

level of face-to-face interaction.

Rice states that written material such as teletype

can be more effective for the communication of factual

information than face-to-face "perhaps because of its

precision and the greater comprehension gained from

rereading text without pressure to overcome response

latency" (p. 31). Of course, much depends upon the

purpose of the information, the perception of those who

use the medium and how goals can be met. Rice writes:

Of course, most people in organizations tend to prefer face-to-face interactions to interactions over telephone or written channels, yet Dewhirst (1971) suggested that perceived information-sharing norms were intervening factors. Perceptions of fellow-workers as sharers of information associated highly with preferences for the face-to-face channel (and the opposite relation for written). Perhaps to make up for missing interpersonal interaction, those who preferred written channels inside the organization tended to prefer face-to-face channels outside. International contexts for teleconferencing lead to a market preference for hardcopy—because text is much easier to translate than is voice. (p. 32)

91

One could argue that what people prefer cannot be

achieved through video teleconferencing. Rice suggested

that for embarrassing or conflictful interactions,

computer conferencing may be the medium of choice because

it minimizes the interpersonal dimension. He writes that

computer conferencing is not nearly as satisfactory as

face-to-face or video for:

(1) bargaining

(2) resolving disagreements

(3) getting to know someone on a personal

basis

(4) tasks requiring constant focused

discussion (R. Rice, 1982)

The 1978 Dormois study (cited in R. Rice, 1982)

concluded that only seven percent of meetings and 14

percent of telephone uses could be transferred to any type

of teleconferencing. Dormois's study involved 2000

respondents and 33,000 inter-organizational communications

in 60 organizations in France. Rice writes that "the

exhaustiveness and sophistication of this study lend

considerable credibility to the author's conclusions" (p.

38). Factors Dormois included are the nature"of the group

task, the need for a leader, the sense of group task and

cohesion, the importance of getting to know other members.

92

and the cost.

Rice concludes that the next breakthrough in

teleconferencing is a "collision, convergence or wedding

(perhaps shotgun) of technologies and approaches for data

processing, telecommunications, human communication and

information retrieval" (p. 41).

The Krueqer Study

In 197 6 at Johns Hopkins University, Gerald Krueger

wrote about three communication modes used in

teleconferencing. His dissertation, Conferencing and

Teleconferencinq in Three Communication Modes as a

Function of the Number of Conferees, used 9 groups of 2,

3, and 4 students each with 27 groups in all. Modes used

for teleconferencing included teletype and televoice.

The problems encouraged opinionated discussion and

required the group to arrive at a consensus about how

fellow students felt regarding: (1) the priority of

national issues, (2) university budgetary considerations

that affect the students' academic needs, and (3)

priorities for financial support to student activities on

campus. Performance was assessed on dependent measures

that included (1) time to solution, (2) the number of

messages exchanged by the group, (3) the total number of

words used by the group, (4) the message length, (5) the

number of words communicated by the average member, (6)

93

the relative disparities among numbers of messages and

words used by subjects within groups, and (7) the amount

of agreement between the consensus arrived at by the group

and the results of a pool of the conferees' opinions on

each discussion topic.

Communication rates were higher in the two conference

modes that had voice, face-to-face and televoice channels,

than in the teletype mode. Increases in group size

resulted in increases in every group measure of commun-

ication. Thus, larger groups used more messages, more

words, communicated faster, and exhibited greater relative

variability among the numbers of messages generated than

did the smaller groups. The only exception to this

generalization was that two person groups generated

slightly longer messages than did the larger groups

(Krueger, 1976).

The Redd Study

In 197 6, Lawrence Newton Redd described video

teleconferencing in racially imbalanced schools. His

dissertation, A Descriptive Study of the Use of

Teleconferencing via Two-Way Cable Television in Racially

Imbalanced Schools, discussed a process of organizing

educators, pupils and parents into an instructional system

that uses two-way cable television as the prime commun-

ication channel. Although data concerning achievement of

94

the system's goals and objectives were not quantitatively

evaluated, conclusions were drawn from the observation

methodology employed in the study.

One conclusion was that two-way cable television was

an electronic communication channel possible to achieve

science education experience. Students and adults used

two-way cable television to share results found in a

science education experiment. Redd mentions that the

video teleconferencing plan for the Rockford Public

Schools in Illinois was not a legal substitute for racial

desegregation (Redd, 1976).

Sandra O'Connell and the lABC Study

In 1982 the International Association of Business

Communicators (lABC) undertook the task of sponsoring a

survey designed to determine whether video telecon-

ferencing was as effective as face-to-face meetings in

disseminating information. Sandra O'Connell, president of

Minker-O'Connell Associates, developed a survey instrument

to measure whether teleconferencing was an effective

communications medium. The survey attempted to measure

several things including effective teleconferencing

program format.

The four-hour video teleconference used in the study

involved a total audience of 1200 organizational communi-

cators, half of whom were later sent questionnaires

95

to measure reactions and feelings about teleconferencing

in general. Originating from Dallas and transmitted via

Westar to 22 US and Canadian cities, the tel'econf erence' s

objective involved educating conferees in the latest high

technology and media techniques. Major topics covered

included word processing, computer graphic and design

technology, video tape, video disc, interactive video,

electronic mail, teletext and interactive cable, infor-

mation exchange via satellite, direct satellite broadcasts

and other similar subjects.

The one-way video, two-way audio presentation offered

an overview of new technologies split into two, two-hour

transmission sessions with a two-hour lunch break in

between. During the break, local high-tech specialists at

each of the 22 sites answered questions from the studio

audience.

A 67-item questionnaire was sent to a random sample

of approximately 600 of the teleconference attendees

shortly after the meeting. Of the 67 percent who

responded to the survey, 78 percent represented profit-

seeking organizations, 69 percent were in managerial

positions and 80 percent had never before attended a

teleconference. Most who responded said a goal in

attending the lABC meeting had been to get information and

increase productivity as a result of the presentation.

96

Table 1 summarizes the findings for appropriate/in-

appropriate video teleconferencing. Participants were

also asked to evaluate the importance of suggested format

changes. The results are found in Table 2.

The findings suggested several guidelines to help

communication planners who are considering the use of

teleconferencing. These include:

(1) Determine whether one-way or two-way

transmission is best by knowing the degree

of interaction you require.

(1) Keep transmission time under two hours.

(2) Punctuate the presentation with

discussion and questions at each viewing

location.

(3) Choose speakers who are comfortable

with and skilled at TV presentations.

(4) Focus speaker time on just a few topics;

favor intensity over diversity.

(5) Provide supporting printed materials.

(6) Design a format that encourages

interaction: for example, limit the number

of sites: provide a local resource-discussion

leader; encourage discussion among presenters.

97

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF lABC STUDY

AREAS FOR APPROPRIATE/INAPPROPRIATE VIDEO TELECONFERENCING

Teleconferencing is appropriate for:

Training and professional development . . 90%

Information sharing 89%

Status reporting 83%

Teleconferencing is inappropriate for:

Negotiating 64%

Solving conflicts 63%

Teleconferencing may be appropriate for:

Convincing (Yes) 32%

Convincing (No) 47%

NOTE: 600 of 1200 video teleconference participants were sent questionnaires with 67% responding. Type of percentages unknown. SOURCE: International Association of Business Communicators Survey Teleconferencing, 1982.

98

TABLE 2

SUMMARY OF lABC STUDY

EVALUATION OF FORMAT CHANGES

Participants were asked to evaluate the importance of suggested format changes. The results are as follows:

Imp No Opinion Unimpor

more local discussion time 79' 14% 7%

local resource expert 86% 9% 5%

more graphics 48% 34% 18%

more printed information 79% 13% 8%

NOTE: Code: Imp=Important; Unimpor=Unimportant. 600 of 1200 video teleconference participants were sent questionnaires with 67% responding. Type of percentages unknown. SOURCE: International Association of Business Communicators Survey Teleconferencing, 1982.

99

O'Connell concluded that teleconferencing was as

effective for studio audiences at remote locations as it

was for live participants. This finding was surprising

for O'Connell, as it had been hypothesized that partici-

pants at the broadcast site, who were watching the

presenters live, would react more positively and show

higher satisfaction levels than those watching TV screens

at remote sites ("International Association," 1982).

Understanding the Video Teleconference "System"

A main problem of teleconferencing is simply the

limit to the amount of internal activity which can be

handled. Electrical engineers say that the maximally

efficient or appropriate network structure is a function

of network size, link constraints and resources. Thus, as

a group becomes too large, the group becomes too loosely

coupled and experiences differ with perceptions and

motives (Aldrich, 1979) .

Lasswell (1948) attempted to model the communication

process as "Who says What in Which Channel to Whom with

What Effect?" Blumler and Katz (1974) take the view that

the audience is assumed to be active using the media in

goal-directed ways. Thus, communication through the mass

media has satisfied some needs although the media is not

primary and few direct effects exist.

100

Separate audiences, groups, orientations and needs

affect the communication process. The growing evidence

for specific stages and conditions of the communication

process has questioned how limited affects did occur and

for which audience member under what condition. Rice says

that, for example, public communication campaigns achieve

desired effects only with considerable planning, research,

tailored content and interpersonal support. Thus,

mainstream communication theory has moved from causal

effects on an audience to the notion of audience involve-

ment based upon relationships between components of the

communication process and other participants.

Systems theory describe how systems have levels of

structure that cause a process or behavior greater than,

or different from, the sum of the behavior. Modern

communication theory assumes a systems approach which

considers mutual dependency among parts of a system—how

the environment and the system interact, the emergence of

different levels of analysis and changes over time (R.

Rice, 1982) . Blau (1977) and Homans (1961) argue that

information in a bureaucracy is a resource exchanged for

services and other goods including status. Status is

defined as when a person seeks information from a more

experienced (higher-status) person and has little of value

to bargain with.

101

Thus, a system may be defined to include

informational inputs and constraints, technological

impacts and interactive effects (R. Rice, 1982).

Developinq a Philosophy of Video Teleconferencing Consistent with the Rapidly Chanqing Technology

The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has

predicted that by the year 2000 more than 80 percent of

off-campus instruction and 10 to 20 percent of on-campus

instruction will use some type of information technology

(Wiesner, 1983). Such changes will have far-reaching

effects on students, faculty, administrators and may

challenge the very essence of learning.

Some have said that the video teleconference, as a

tool of learning, might include the use of microcomputers

to aid in audience interaction if audience members had

computer access. As has been noted, Skinner's disser-

tation dealt entirely with computer control for a video

teleconferencing system (Skinner, 1982). One California

based company, Widcom, Inc., has developed technology to

turn home and business computer terminals into video

teleconferencing networks. Thus, every modified computer

can, at a low or reasonable cost, be used to video

teleconference.

On the PBS program, "The Nightly Business Report,"

New York reporter Neil Cavuto explained that new methods

102

of computer coding can now compress some 150 0 bandwidths

into a single telephone line to allow clear video of maps,

drawings and persons. Using a single line reduces

transmission charges to $2,000 or $3,000 per month (or $40

per hour) compared with previous costs of about $50,000.

The company's goal is to have a 30% market with Fortune

500 companies within one year (Cavuto, 1985).

The emphasis on the microcomputer technology has

changed the information gathering process and computers

are pouring onto campuses across the US in rapidly

increasing numbers. The new computers are being used to

network students with information services and perform a

wide range of functions (Ploch, 1984) .

Margie Ploch, high technology author, includes

teleconferencing when she writes the following about the

challenge:

Many educators see great potential in networking micros as well as in using them to enhance learning. If used well, they believe micros can change the way students learn; they can show how complex processes work, allow new kinds of lectures and interactive discussions, greatly improve writing skills, and encourage creativity. (p. 47)

MIT and Brown University, for example, are spending

more than $70 million each on micro computer systems.

But, like video teleconferencing, the problems are many.

As techniques for teaching with micros need considerable

103

development, each school experimenting with the system

takes a different route, concentrating on different parts

of its curriculum. The new technology is creating a type

of revolution within higher education and industry. And

while degrees earned at home have existed for many years,

the idea and practice of interacting (via video and audio

teleconference) with professors, fellow students and

information services is relatively new. One university

"system" used in conjunction with more than 200 colleges

and universities is endorsed by Dr. Donald Senese, U.S.

Assistant Secretary of Education. The study-at-home

"electronic university" allows students to earn college

credit and a degree at a home computer terminal. The

electronic university connects the personal computer of

any student anywhere with a qualified instructor, thus

allowing computer teleconferencing.

The system was developed by a company called "Tele

Learning Systems." One student, Bobby Cugini, a double

amputee, reports on the method:

I hold a 9 to 5 job at night and if I had to go to college physically, I just would not be able to handle it. To have the computer at my house and to be able to go at my own pace, and take whatever courses I like, is just great. ("Newscast for Independent," 1984)

Students pay $90 for the basic package that hooks

students to a college or university. Then, they pay the

104

respective college for each course and send homework via

computer to be graded by the professor. Sometimes, the

student and professor sit down at the terminal to talk or

téleconference with each other.

"Student contact with teachers will be enhanced,"

said Dr. Donald Senese ("Newscast for Independent," 1984),

"thousands of miles away and, yet, still be in direct

contact." Colleges and universities are developing

courses to be part of the "Electronic Television Network,"

said Donna Hanover, reporter for Independent Network News

("Newscast for Independent," 1984).

Contemporary distance learning includes interactive

media such as telephones and computers that permit learner

communication. In 1979 Munshi (cited in Wiesner, 1983)

found that more than 600 colleges and universities offered

telecourses for credit. Patrick R. Penland, professor of

communications at the University of Pittsburg,

Pennsylvania, writes about the revolution in technology

and what such changes mean for society:

Since midcentury there has been an exponential increase in the volume of recorded knowledge and a revolution in the control and transfer of information by means of electronic technology. . . .

The new social bases of message design and usage have meant a revolution in the distribution of information and in popular culture. Information has become a social resource to be exploited for the betterment of

105

all men. . . . Any change in the process of information

stimuli and in the negotiation of mutual intentions alters both the individual personality and the nature of human society. Society is today in the midst of revolutionary transformations. Communications science consequently has had to encounter major change both in technology and in the societal enterprise based on symbol production and use. New media alter form, content, and context. New modes of communication change ways of selecting, composing, and sharing messages and perspectives. The message and the medium tend to become reciprocal as McLuhan has dramatized so remarkably. (Penland, 1974, pp. iii, 1)

It has been said that scholars of earlier years were

competent in many fields. Daniel Coit Gilman, William

Rainey Harper, David Starr Jordan and others mastered

science, philosophy, literature as well as modern and

classical languages. The sheer mass of knowledge and the

extent of its application today makes such impossible.

Indeed, the only common learning experience shared by all

students in a university may be the commencement address

(Brown & Thornton, 1963).

Developing a philosophy of curriculum with high

technology has not been easy. Brown and Thornton (1963)

write:

Perhaps the most significant lack in the efforts to use new media, as it is also in the entire education enterprise, is the lack of an overarching philosophy or theory to accommodate such disparate devices as a computer-organized classroom, a one-man study used for television projection, and a language laboratory. . . . It

106

is possible that until some new philosophy emerges--and there are signs of its coming—the experimentation with machines to facilitate independent study, with electronic devices for storage and retrieval and the use of information and with electronic impulse to convey sound or color in education, will remain sporadic and episodic rather than as complementary attributes of a consistent educational effort. At the present, perhaps, the only theorizing detectable is a wishful thinking that faculty time can be saved and that greater numbers of students can be accommodated in a possibly somewhat enlarged educational effort. (Brown & Thornton, 1963, p. 174)

Researchers have found "overwhelming evidence" that

people learn from viewing motion pictures. Some studies

show that films also promote conceptual learning. As

early as 1929, Knowlton and Tilton (cited in Brown &

Thornton, 1963) found that films increased classroom

participation and voluntary related reading.

The bulk of research indicates that students at all

age levels can be taught, in part, by television.

Numerous studies have suggested that where television

taught students have been compared with those instructed

by "conventional" methods, no significant differences

emerge. Closed-circuit television used for instruction

has prompted many questions about the value of television

in the classroom. Questions include:

(1) Can closed-circuit television enable

students on different campuses to share

107

instruction from professors?

(2) How does learning by television compare

with face-to-face instruction?

(3) Can television make possible more

efficient use of personnel by allowing

professors to reach larger numbers of students

than would be feasible on a single campus?

(4) Can interinstitutional television

assist a state or region in presenting the

highest quality of instruction to all of its

students? (Brown & Thornton, 1963)

Although much has happened since the late 5 0s, one

two year study (1958-1960) of an interinstitutional

television teaching program by the Oregon State System of

Higher Education found several principle findings that may

continue in 1985. Four universities in Oregon cooperated

in the study. The findings included:

(1) interinstitutional television is

administratively feasible but has many problems

of coordination and communication which cause

considerable difficulty in implementation

(2) problems relating to selection of

courses and instructors were the most serious

obstacles to smooth functioning of the program

108

(3) results from instructor-prepared tests

showed no significant difference in learning

between television and nontelevision groups

(4) student attitudes toward the experiences

of televised instruction ranged from strong

approval to strong opposition or disapproval

(5) some televised courses were preferred to

conventionally taught courses although some

expressed concern over loss of personal inter-

action with the professor and the inability to

ask questions in class

(6) the pattern of attitudes toward

televised teaching coincided closely with those

for regular classroom instruction, even in

circumstances involving professors from other

campuses

(7) faculty attitudes toward televised

instruction ranged from highly approving to

strongly disapproving with more faculty members

opposed to televised instruction

(8) professors involved in television

teaching were more favorable than nonparticipants

(9) faculty members indicated considerably

more willingness to have a televised course

originate from their own institutions than to

109

have students receive courses taught by

professors of other institutions.

(10) a majority of faculty said they

believed the method to be more nearly suited to

extension, lower division, and large

multiple-section introductory courses than to

upper division or graduate instruction (Brown &

Thornton, 1963) .

In the 1960s, increasing numbers and the changing

character of college students prompted a need to

reconsider ways of teaching. At the same time, teaching

techniques were scorned by some college professors on the

premise that if the student is unable to learn by himself,

he was unsuited for college study (Brown & Thornton,

1963) .

Media in education have followed different lines of

thought. Some literary and academic critics say they

believe that the media in education may abort the

development of reading skills and lead to a dilution of

subject matter, thus, weakening the learning experience.

Another group fears technology because of its strength to

alter the conditions of human life and growth. Such

technological power may be used for evil purposes, they

would argue (Brown & Thornton, 1963).

110

The college professor may not approve of the new

media including video teleconferencing for a variety of

reasons such as a personal loss of classroom power. Edgar

Dale (cited in Brown & Thornton, 1963) probes the feeling

of the college professor who rejects new media as a threat

to academic privacy and autonomy. Dale writes:

Now come the new media which will impose an external discipline. When the machine says "start", the professor starts and he stops when it says so. Further, the presentation may be better than he can do.

If he is making the presentation for a large group he must plan his lectures with others, follow what group consensus dictates. The applause, if any, is no longer individual. It is dispersed, nebulous. And when he must expose his teaching to the view of others, he may feel that he is not quite up to it. The professor's classroom is no longer his castle.

Further, where do planning and systematizing end? What will prevent his being engulfed in an enforced cooperation, a kind of intellectual collectivism? (p. 14)

One of the most difficult educational tasks for the

modern individual is the gradual development of an ability

to take over the management of his own intellectual

growth. A maturing student must have time to work by

himself under careful yet diminishing guidance. It can be

argued that an individual student following prearranged

and highly structured lines of work may or may not be

moving in the direction of autonomy. Brown and Thornton

write that imaginative design of classroom facilities with

111

new technology can "free higher education from many of the

rigid conceptions that set unnecessary limits to the

possible solutions of new problems" (p. 18). Through

video teleconferencing, an instructor may "set-up" a

meeting with an expert on a discussed classroom topic.

Assuming access to the technology, an instructor might,

for example, teleconference the author of the class text.

It may turn out that one of the most significant

potentials in programmed instruction will be to provide a

convenient research vehicle for exploring in depth certain

kinds of learning and curriculum development problems

(Pease & Threlkeld, 1984). This is not meant to imply

that the best instructional solutions will necessarily be

found within the framework of programming, but only that

the step-by-step, detailed analysis of expository

development with some kinds of teaching tasks can be

researched in terms of alternative solutions.

The Alternative Solution; An Examination of Two Video Telecon-ference Educational Networks

British Columbia's Knowledge Network

The Knowledge Network of the West Communications

Authority is a non-profit society established by the

Province of British Columbia that began telecasting in

January 1981. In 1984, 190 communities representing 88%

112

of the provincial population can receive the Knowledge

Network signal delivered through the Anik C-3 satellite.

The Knowledge Network's mandate is:

To assist and collaborate with the universities, colleges, provincial institutes, school districts, ministries and agencies of the province in the development and delivery of educational programs and materials and to establish and maintain and operate a telecommunications network. (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984, p. 110)

Network programming falls into two general

categories: telecourses and teleseries. Telecourses,

defined as specially designed learning opportunities that

combine television programs and various materials, may be

credit or non-credit and tutorial support is often

available. A teleseries is a series of related programs

on a particular topic or theme and is always non-credit

and may or may not have support materials. About ten

percent of all Knowledge Network programs are telecast

live to allow for interaction between viewers and

presenters. Viewers phone from their homes or from

"Learning Centers" throughout the province and tele-

conference comments, questions or concerns directly to an

instructor or guests in a studio. The average

live-interactive program contains about ten to fifteen

minutes of interactive time per hour. Nearly all live

interactive programs contain pre-produced segments as part

113

of the program format.

Live-interactive television has, for example, enabled

the University of Victoria to direct instruction to more

than 850 nurses scattered throughout British Columbia in a

credit program toward a bachelor's degree. Other examples

of live-interactive television have included:

(1) the Ministry of Forests to train more

than 1,300 fire fighters in a 1982 "Fire

Suppression" series

(2) a foster parents training program about

"Children and Sexuality"

(3) 3000 registrants in February 1983 in 50

provincial locations throughout British Columbia

to obtain training in Cardio Pulmonary Resusci-

tation sponsored by the Justice Institute of

British Columbia

(4) 15,000 viewers in a training program

for door-to-door volunteers of the Canadian

Cancer Society (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984)

Credit courses transfer to the three provincial

universities and generally follow the following pattern:

(1) Students may pre-register by phoning

the instructor/course tutor. Most, however,

sign up after watching the first program which

114

summarizes course content, transfer credit, cost

and the like. Since the first program in a

series is live-interactive, viewers may phone in

on-air with specific course content or regis-

tration concerns. The first registration

program is previously announced via letters and

posters sent to regional college counselors and

by pre-taped promotional spots.

(2) Credit students must provide the name

and address of a local college or public school

employee willing to supervise closed book

examinations. Exams are sent to this individual

and the instructor phones results to the

student. Students are encouraged to call the

instructor collect at his office any time

assistance is needed.

(3) The course consists of a series of

fifteen 90 minute weekly broadcasts. The

instructor-produced 90 minute programs alternate

between pre-recorded interviews and live-inter-

active programs. The first forty-two minutes

are presentation by the instructor after which

is a two minute visual break with music and

fifteen minutes of phone-in discussion at a sofa

set followed by a five minute "off the topic"

115

video-break with a final twenty-five minute

presentation (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984).

Catchpole and MacGregor conclude by emphasizing the

uniqueness of the systems approach and participation by

all. The concept of "co-operative individuality" stresses

the needs and circumstances of the learner as an

individual (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984, p. 118).

The Indiana Higher Education Tele-communications System (IHETS)

In 1984, 45 college and universities within Indiana

were linked through the Indiana Higher Education Tele-

communications Sys.tem (IHETS) and the related Cooperative

Extension subsystem (Extension Service), under the

sponsorship of Purdue University. Five institutions are

able to input programing directly into the system. Team

taught credit and non-credit course reach students via the

network. A talk-back facility, called "tele-response,"

enables students at distant locations to question the

instructor during a program. In addition to the 45

colleges and universities in the network, receive-only

sites include:

(1) 53 hospitals and clinics

(2) 23 industries

(3) 17 Indiana Cooperative Extension

Service sites

116

(4) the Indianapolis Public School

(5) 4 radio and television stations (Davis

& Branson, 1984)

The Extension Service identified three major

educational thrusts to fulfill its mission of education

via television:

(1) graduate-level courses in agriculture

(2) in-service training in speciality areas

for the field extension staff

(3) speciality training for general

clientele in the "mission areas" (Davis &

Branson, 1984)

Research in 1983 indicated that the typical audiences

for television courses are generally well-educated,

successful people serious about seeking more information.

Typically, 50 to 65 percent are college graduates or

persons who have attended college who tend to be younger

with 50 to 60 percent in the 31-34 age bracket. The

audiences tend to be very critical of what they see.

Davis and Branson write:

It still seems, however, that the successful TV presenters are the ones who have a good professional reputation, have pleasing personalities, have a reasonably good appearance, have effective teaching styles, and are willing to learn to adapt classroom style to TV presentation. Furthermore, the successful

117

ones do in-depth content preparation targeted to specific client needs. Presenters who are poorly accepted in person come over twice as bad on television; specialists who tend to be cold and lofty and who talk down to the clients, may "get by" in person, but they are unacceptable on TV. And appearance does count. Once a specialist for a home economics show was introducing the panelist next on the program. The panelist was a rather plain-looking woman with thick glasses and a sour expression on her face. When the camera turned to her, the audience at a remote site groaned audibly. It is at times like this that the distance between the group of "students" and the instructor becomes an unbreakable barrier. (p. 108)

Conclusions and Implications

This chapter has focused on the evolution of the

video teleconference medium and the scientific research

with video teleconferencing. Obviously, every event or

experimentation with the video teleconference has not been

mentioned. However, the vast differences in purpose of

the television medium--from business executives to the

illiterate of India or Turkey—shows that technological

change has allowed great flexibility with people using

video teleconferencing for many reasons. Few persons

would argue that the dimensions of video teleconferencing

are more productive in learning situations were it

possible to conduct face-to-face meetings with experts.

One could argue that the entire purpose of video

teleconferencing tries to substitute that which is known

to be better--face-to-face interaction on a one-to-one

118

basis.

Given the "fact-of-life" that everyone does not live

in the same place; that countries in the "third world"

will probably not have a surplus of excellent teachers for

years to come; and that people need to interact--such

electronic meetings become reasonable substitutes (Inglis,

1983). Thus, assuming the need to teleconference, the

general questions ask, "What dimensions change with the

video teleconference medium?"; "Why do some fail while

others succeed?" Obviously, failures have taken place

with the medium not being a solution to all problems.

It is difficult to imagine a subject other than

teleconferencing that has had as many dimensions and

definitions associated with a rapidly changing technology.

Research has shown that the four modes (computer, audio,

audiographic and video) of teleconferencing have had a

"bewildering array" of configurations and purposes. For

some, video teleconferencing means the telecourse

(Weingand, 1984) while, to others, video teleconferencing

is a quick way to contact two or three persons who must be

involved in a corporate business decision (Kay, 1983).

Video teleconferencing may be point to multipoint or

involve fully interactive two-way video by live or

"slow-scan" (a single video frame every few seconds)

video. Video teleconferencing may involve a network of

119

sites with carefully prepared programming or may be a

means whereby two individuals talk and see each other in a

conversation. Video teleconferencing may involve

contacting an instructor via telephone or by computer

after a video presentation. Researchers such as Tyler

(cited in Fredin, 1983) have reported that teleconfer-

encing is suited for information seeking, policy decision

making and problem solving, but not for negotiation,

disciplinary interviews or the presentation of a report.

Yet, negotiations have been video teleconferenced and

reports have been presented by business organizations via

video teleconference (Miura, Stevenson, & Linker, 1982).

One might assume that greater communication

satisfaction would happen with video teleconferencing when

compared, for example, with audio teleconferencing. Yet,

the "increased bandwidth" of video teleconferencing was

found by Korzenny and Bauer (1981) to have no impact on

psychological propinquity. Feedback or interaction,

however, was found to be highly important and is probably

the key reason, for example, why radio talk formats (audio

teleconferencing) have been commercially successful in

metropolitan areas (Marder, 1977).

The revolution in communications technology, as the

Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has predicted,

will continue to have far-reaching effects (Christopher,

120

1982) . In higher education, video teleconferencing is not

a "cure-all" for poor management or a way to instantly

gain funding and students. However, one can make strong

arguments that the medium, when used for specific

objectives (such as fund-raising for the University of

Illinois), can be successful in combination with print,

face-to-face contact and other methods of delivery. The

experience with the medium by individuals and groups who

have video teleconferenced by one definition or another,

remains sketchy, at best. The next chapter will present

the data and findings of the video teleconference

experience by individuals at PBS stations, colleges,

universities, businesses and others.

CHAPTER III

METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND FINDINGS

Design and Methodology of the Study

Given the complexity and evolving nature of the video

teleconference, the primary task explored problems and

techniques associated with the video teleconference and

provided an historical and present-day perspective on the

"state of the art." Using primary and secondary sources

from people involved in video teleconferencing, two

questionnaires were designed and sent in March 1985 to

selected groups involved in video teleconferencing in the

United States, Canada and selected countries. In May 1985

a second mailing reached primarily smaller PBS stations

the Corporation for Public Broadcasting Directory

(1984-1985) did not list by mailing address. The mailing

address for the smaller stations was obtained by listing

the main zip code for the city/town involved. The

questionnaire was pre-tested with administrators and

persons familiar with video teleconferencing at Texas Tech

University and institutions with membership in the

National University Teleconferencing Network. Several

revisions of the questionnaire were made at suggestions of

committee members and others.

Groups actively involved in video teleconferencing

today and to whom Questionnaire One (User Questionnaire)

121

122

was sent include:

(1) Public Broadcasting Stations (all

stations surveyed including American Samoa,

Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands)—292

stations

(2) related organizations/agencies as

listed in the Corporation for Public

Broadcastinq Directory (1984-1985)—110

organizations/agencies

(3) business video teleconference users

known to be involved in video teleconferencing

as listed in the Teleconferencing Directory of

the Center for Interactive Programs (Parker &

Olgren, 1985), University pf Wisconsin Extension

(58, United States; 11, Canada; 1, Australia; 1,

Japan; 1, Sweden; 2, England)

(4) universities known to be involved with

teleconferencing and members of the National

University Teleconferencing Network—98

colleges/universities from private mailing list

Questionnaire Two was sent to one group of

respondents known to be heavily involved in video

teleconferencing with institutions within higher

education: college/university presidents and/or

123

administrators of the member colleges/universities of the

National University Teleconferencing Network (98

colleges/universities).

It was decided not to send questionnaires to

teleconferencing vendors who provide equipment, facilities

and services for teleconferencing. The nature of such

firms engaged in profit making activities could put a

certain bias in the study as such firms would likely have

only a positive view of video teleconferencing. Further,

in January 1984 the University of Wisconsin surveyed

vendors and found that nearly three-fourths of vendors

reported sales increases in 1983 with 85% projecting

further growth in 1984. Another indication of the

evolving video teleconference is that 60% of the firms say

they introduced new products or services in 1983. The

Wisconsin survey also found that the teleconferencing

industry is young with half of the companies entering the

market after 1980. The Center for Interactive Programs

estimates the total 1983 teleconferencing market to be

about $482 million (Parker & Olgren, 1984).

The questionnaires measured what experts report they

have experienced with the video teleconference medium.

Questionnaire One (see Appendix A for complete 8 page, 108

item questionnaire) sought responses from persons actively

involved in the video teleconference and included

124

variables such as:

(1) amount of time involved by the

respondent with video teleconferences

(2) type of business: firm/privately owned

corporation or independent small business

(3) type of educational institution as

defined by the Carnegie Council

(4) whether or not a broadcast television

station

(5) type of subject matter of the video

teleconference

(6) the number of participants involved in

the video teleconference

(7) variables relating to the format,

presentation and length of the video

teleconference

(8) advantages and disadvantages of the

video teleconference

(9) other variables

Questionnaire Two or the University/College

Administrator Questionnaire (see Appendix B; two pages, 15

items) sought responses from college and university

presidents and vice presidents who oversee funding for

video teleconferencing. Questionnaire Two was sent to

125

member colleges/universities of the National University

Teleconferencing Network, as that organization represents

all or most universities and colleges engaged in video

teleconferencing in the United States. Questionnaire Two

included variables such as:

(1) type of educational institution as

defined by the Carnegie Council

(2) the degree the administrator is willing

to commit funds to video teleconferencing

(3) positive or negative perceptions of

video teleconferencing

(4) the number of years and the number of

video teleconferences conducted by the

college/university

Findings from the University/College Administrator Questionnaire

Geoqraphical Regional Organization

Regional distribution of video teleconference

administrator respondents at the college and university

level of the National University Teleconferencing Network

represents all but the New England states, Alaska and

Hawaii. The mailing list of the National University

Teleconferencing Network lists two memberships in the New

England region--Connecticut (the University of

Connecticut) and Massachusetts (the University of

126

Massachusetts). No institutions were listed in Alaska or

Hawaii. As questionnaires generally do not ask

respondents to identify themselves or their institution,

the method used to determine the state of origin involved

identifying the postmark location of the returned

questionnaire envelope. This was acceptable with all but

five postage paid envelopes (see the "other" category of

Table 3) that were returned through the United States

postal service without cancellation marks. Thus, New

England may or may not be represented in the 5 envelopes

that were not postmarked.

The geographical regional organization followed

division by Sales & Marketing Management magazine (Kern,

1985). Population (in thousands) may be found in Table 4.

Although the teleconference sample is different than the

population of each region, the survey distribution is not

"overpowered" by any one region (see Table 3).

Orqanization of the University/ Colleqe Administrator Questionnaire

The University/College Administrator Question-

naire was designed with three parts: demographics,

agreement/disagreement attitude responses, and yes/no

responses. Demographic responses included questions 1, 13

and 14. The agreement/disagreement attitude scale was

127

TABLE 3

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE

ADMINISTRATORS

Location respondent mailed questionnaire:

Southwest (SW) [West South Central] 24.5% (13)

Pacific (PAC) 6.9% (16)

Mountain (MT) 0.0% (0)

West North Central (WNC) 5.6% (13)

East North Central (ENC) 5.6% (13)

East South Central (ESC) 0.9% (2)

South Atlantic (SA) 29.9% (69)

Middle Atlantic (MA) 19.5% (45)

New England (NE) 0 0

Other (OT) [Relative Frequency] 8.6% (5)

NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies (unless otherwise noted) with n=58 respondents. Numbers within () are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. States included in each region are: SW=Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana; PAC=Washington, Oregon, California; MT=Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada; WNC=North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, lowa, Missouri; ENC=Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio; ESC=Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama; SA=West Virginia, Maryland, Washington D.C., Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; MA=New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey; NE=Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island; OT=Other (areas without postmark on postage paid envelope). No returned questionnaire had NE postmark or Hawaii or Alaska.

128

TABLE 4

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION SAMPLE

1983 population (in thousands) of location respondent mailed questionnaire:

Southwest (SW) [West South Central] 26,064.2

Pacific (PAC) 33,887.7

Mountain (MT) 12,511.3

West North Central (WNC) 17,519.1

East North Central (ENC) 41,700.3

East South Central (ESC) 15,068.5

South Atlantic (SA) 39,131.4

Middle Atlantic (MA) 37,141.9

New England (NE) 12,499.9

SOURCE: Sales & Marketing Management: 1985 Survey of Buying Power, p. A-19.

NOTE: States included in each region are: SW=Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana; PAC=Washington, Oregon, California; MT=Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada; WNC=North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, lowa, Missouri; ENC=Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio; ESC=Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama; SA=West Virginiá, Maryland, Washington D.C., Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; MA=New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey; NE=Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island.

129

asked in questions 3-7. Yes/no responses were asked in

statements 8-12. Thus, the questionnaire instrument

sought factual information as well as a measurement of

attitudes about video teleconferencing. In some cases,

percentages may not total 100% because of rounding.

Responses to Demographic State-ments on the University/College Administrator Questionnaire

Institutional division for question one generally

followed the 1970 Carnegie Commission on higher education

typology (Levine, 1981) . However, because the mailing

list did not give representative samples of Type I and II

doctorate granting universities or comprehensive

universities and colleges I and II, such categories were

combined. As Table 5 shows, research or doctorate

granting university numbered 33 or 57.9% of the

respondents while the second highest category was in the

"other" classification at 19.3% or 11 institutions. The

reason for the high "other" classification has to do with

the NUTN mailing list including vocational/technical

schools (such as the 11 found in Oklahoma, the home state

of the NUTN executive director, J. 0. Grantham).

The title of respondents who answered Questionnaire

Two shows considerable diversity. The largest number of

respondents (15) were vice presidents at 25.9%. Whether

the respondent is the chairman of a mass communications

130

TABLE 5

DEMOGRAPHICS OF ADMINISTRATORS/COLLEGES/UNIVERSITIES

Type of Institution:

research or doctorate granting university 57.9% (33)

comprehensive university or 4 year college that offers liberal arts program and at least

two professional courses of study 15.8% (9)

liberal arts college 0.0% (0)

2 year community or junior college 7.0% (4)

other 19.3% (11)

n=

Title of respondent:

President

Vice President

Provost

Dean

Chairperson of Department of Communications

Director, Television Services

Assistant Director Adult Extension Director

Other

57

n=

5.2%

25.9%

5.2%

12.1%

1.7%

8.6%

8.6%

17.2%

13.8%

(3)

(15)

(3)

(7)

(1)

(5)

(5)

(10)

(8)

57

131

TABLE 5—Continued

My college/university has been involved in video teleconferencing:

less than 1 year 3.6% (2)

I to 3 years 51.8% (29)

3 to 6 years 19.6% (11)

6 to 9 years 3.6% (2)

9 to 11 years 7.1% (4)

II to 15 years 3.6% (2)

more than 15 years 8.9% (5)

has never been involved 1.8% (1)

n= 56

From January 1983 to the present my college/university has been involved in:

one video teleconference 5.4% (3)

2 - 4 video teleconferences 16.1% (9)

5 - 8 video teleconferences 33.9% (19)

9-12 video teleconferences 23.2% (13)

more than one video teleconference each month 14.3% (8)

several video teleconferences each month 7.1% (4)

132

TABLE 5—Continued

my college/university has not been involved with any video teleconferences during that time although we have been involved with video teleconferences before 0.0% (0)

n= 56

NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category.

133

department or the adult extension director probably has

much to do with the diverse nature of video

teleconferencing. Even though the questionnaire was

addressed to the president and vice president, such

administrators apparently directed the questionnaire to

someone who knew more about the subject or was willing to

answer the two page questionnaire. Nevertheless, 48.4% of

the respondents were at the Dean's level or above.

A possible bias of the sample may have to do with the

relative short time of 1 to 3 years that more than half of

the respondents, 51.8% or 29, have experienced with video

teleconferencing. However, 8.9% had been involved for

more than 15 years as Table 5 shows. More than half of

the respondents had been involved with 5-12 video

teleconferences (33.9%: 5-8; 23.2%: 9-12). Thus, the

respondents do have much experience with the video

teleconference medium.

Responses to Yes/No Statements on the University College Administrator Questionnaire

The yes/no questions on the University/College

Administrator Questionnaire (see Table 6) sought factual

information as well as judgmental views about video

teleconferencing. More than 93% (54) indicate that their

institution had been a site for a video teleconference

within the past 12 months (questionnaire sent March 1985).

134

TABLE 6

YES/NO RESPONSES

BY ADMINISTRATORS ON VIDEO TELECONFERENCING

YES NO

my college/university has been a site for a video teleconference(s) held within the past 12 months

my college/university has tried to measure the efficiency or effectiveness of video teleconferencing

my perceptions of video tele-conferencing are generally positive

my college/university has credit courses that include some form of video teleconferencing

video teleconferencing is best administered through continuing education/ community service/extension

9 3 . 1 % ( 54 ) 6 . 9 % (4)

6 0 . 0 % ( 33 ) 4 0 . 0 % (22)

9 1 . 2 % (52) 8 .8% (5)

5 0 . 9 % ( 28 ) 4 9 . 1 % (27)

7 2 . 2 % ( 39 ) 2 7 . 8 % ( 15 )

NOTE: All percentages (row) indicate adjusted frequencies with n ranging from 54 to 58. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. 'YES' indicates agreement with the statement; 'NO' indicates disagreement.

135

About the same number, 91.2% (52) report positive

perceptions about video teleconferencing with 72.2% (39)

reporting that video teleconferencing is best administered

through continuing education/community service/extension.

The largest "no" classification is that 49.1% (27) of the

respondents reported that their college/university did not

have credit courses that include some form of video

teleconferencing. The second largest "no" category finds

that 40% (22) of the respondents had not tried to measure

the efficiency or effectiveness of video teleconferencing.

Aqreement/Disaqreement Responses to Attitude Statements On The University/College Administrator Questionnaire

Table 7 shows Agreement/Disagreement Responses to

Attitude Statements on the University/College

Administrator Questionnaire. The strongest disagreement

found in Table 7 is with the high percentages found in the

4 (25.5% or 14) and 5 (30.9% or 17) categories with the

statement that video teleconferencing was an "appropriate

instructional delivery system for any subject matter."

Only 5.5% (3) are in the strongly agree category. The

strongest agreement area is found with the statement, "The

future of video teleconferencing is very promising."

Here, 37.9% (22) of the respondents are in the strongly

agree category and 36.2% (21) responded in the number 2

point on the 5 point scale. Only 1 respondent (1.7%)

136

w CQ

O

M u z w Ccí W

z o u w w E-t

O w Q M >

o C/3

o < EH (/)

M

M

s Q < CQ

C/D W w z o m w 05

EH 2 W S w w oi o <: co

E-t Z W S W w O <

(U (U 5-1 t j i fO

cn -H Q

C

o 5-1 •P æ

(U (U 5>4 cn <

M Cn C O U -P æ

lO

'îî'

m

CN

M

Qi 1—1

Xî fO •H 5-1 fO >

ct-

3 5-1 -P CO c

•H

<U -P fO

•H

tem

Cfl

- ^ r rH

(14)

30.9%

(12)

25.5%

(9)

21.8%

(3)

16.4%

tter

5.5%

fO > i Ê cn

-p > i U 5-1 cu

<u •1—1

> XI •H M (U

5-1 T3 O. 0 5-1

r H

fO Pu C a 0 (0 •H

0 m

> i

c fO

u 0

M-t

le-

(U -p

0 <u

T l •H >

4-4 0

Q) S-i

—. i H

(5)

1.7%

(9)

8.6%

(21)

15.5%

(22)

36.2%

37.9%

CP c

U t - H C

•H U c (U 5-1 (U

0 M- -P í3

i p

C 0 U

cn •H g 0 u CL

> i 5-1 (U >

-P •H g Ê 0 u

0 -p

cr c

•H r-H

r H

•H 15

— V

m ^

(6)

5.2%

(13)

10.3%

(23)

22.4%

(13)

39.7%

22.4%

cn T3 C 13

I H

x: cn 0 0 ^ x: -p

'O (U

r - l

T3 C fO x: -p CO (U

X !

^ ^ m '"**

(5)

5.2%

(17)

8.6%

(18)

29.3%

(15)

31.0%

25.9%

(U cn (U M M 0 u

\ > 1 -p •H cn 5 (U >

•H C 3

> i

-P •H Cfl 5-1 (U > •H C P

\ <u

M i-H

fO +J m c •H

CPTi (U

1—1

M

M d 0

0 x: u Cfl

_ ^ m ^ ^

(5)

5.2%

(11)

8.6%

(20)

19.0%

(19)

34.5%

es

32.8%

•H -P • H

M •H U fO

4-4

-P c (U c fO Ê 5-4 <U a

e w 0 -P S-l c

4-1 (U 73

IT> C

ith n rangin

ber of respo

h with 1

•

requencies w

s or the num

a scale wit

disagreement

e adjusted f

e frequencie

3, 4, 5 are

ting strong

row) indicat

are absolut

umbers 1,

2,

and 5 indica

centages (

within 0

ry.

The n

agreement

^ cn 0 CU 5-1 iTi CTi Û4 (U <U C

X ! -P 0 M g fO 5-1 M :3 u -P < Z cn

x: U Cn

W • fO c EH 00 (U -H O Ln -P 2 C fO

0 •H U -p x : -H

-P T3 Ln -H c Ln 5 -H

137

strongly disagrees with the statement.

When 1 and 2 are combined on the 5 point attitude

scale with the statement, "A college/university should

install permanent facilities for video teleconferencing as

the medium is so important that it can be used effectively

on a regular basis," more than half of the respondents

fall in the strongly agree/agree categories (1: 32.8%; 2:

34.5%). However, the strongly agree percentage drops

about 10% when the a<iministrators were asked to

agree/disagree with the questionnaire statement, "I am or

would be willing to commit funds to video teleconferencing

because of its potential for increasing credit or non

credit enrollments and, therefore, student interest in my

college/university."

The highest neutral (3 on the scale) is found with

the statement, "Video teleconferences are best handled

through a university/college with teleconference

facilities." Thus, 29.3% (17) could not strongly agree or

disagree with whether universities and colleges were the

"best" type of organization to handle video tele-

conferences. As a whole, Table 7 shows that, as far as

administrators of member institutions of NUTN are

concerned, the outlook attitude is more positive than

negative toward the medium of video teleconferencing.

138

Analysis of Variance: of B^

Orqanization/Insti All Administrator

: The Type -tution Responses

Through analysis of variance, the type of organ-

ization/institution was compared with the demographics

(see Table 8), the yes/no responses (see Table 9), and the

agreement/disagreement (see Table 10) responses made by

the acîministrators who "oversee" video teleconferencing.

The type of organization/institution did not significantly

affect any of the dependent variables. The only variable

approaching significance is at the .098 level and measured

whether respondents thought video teleconferencing is best

handled through a university or college (see Table 10).

Perhaps, the small sample size (about 58 respondents)

prevented any significant findings unlike the larger, user

sample.

Findings from the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire

Geoqraphical Distribution of Organizations

Regional distribution of the video teleconference

user (Questionnaire One) respondents represent all nine

regions and Canada. The geographical regional organi-

zation, similar to the college and university question-

naire mailing, was based on the classification by Sales &

Marketing Management (Kern, 1985). No questionnaire was

answered from outside Canada or the United States. One

Questionnaire sent to England was returned unopened for

o

O O m V£>

o CN

w w Ln Ln

Ln

o 00 m

00

W

CQ < : EH

Q

<

o M E-1 ZD E^ M

C/3

z M z o M E-i < tsi

M

<

o Oí

o w o w PLI

>• E

C/3 Oí W > M Z D cn w <:) w

o u æ 05 O EH

< 05

Q < W o w u M ffi < 05 U O s: w Q

EH

O

05

<

D U

D 05

v£)

m

Ln CN

m

cvj

m

VD

m

in CNJ

m

00

m

m m

• m

m

CM

O O

m

in

CN

m vo

CN

<U

>1

cn fO x:

0 4J > i <U Du -P 'O •H -H 00 cn > ^ s-t (U C Di > -r^ C •H -H C TJ u :3 <u c

\ > (U (U M 5-1 Cn 0 <U (U > iw M C C ^ •H 0 0 u U C (U

Q) M >i <u <u 2 rÛ -U

. ^ <u M

fO u co

'O <u <u x: 1 > -P -H M

C 0 -P 0 í3 > Û4 - P \ C 0

<U -H <u r-m ^ 73 00 (U C -H ••» o> ^ (U > cn M M (U <U

0 Æ M-4 U > i U 0 c 5 cn <u fO > , fC 5-1 5^ D Ê £ <U <U C Æ 4-1 fO -P > i g c i-j C -P 3 0

(U •H C U Ê co cn ^ <U 0 <U 5-1 M 5-t 5 (U C <U W Û4 > •H -P

^-^ (U .—1

(0 u 03

Q)

e 0 \ 1 u - <u <u <u c > M Xi 0 -H <U -H -P -P M -p -H

M 03 (/) <U 0 -H <u o > <u :5 3 cu -H 73 tJ' -P •H IT> •• fO > C T3 <U Cr>

•H (U M 0) <U U n3 fO 2 > c c u ^ <U <U <U 03 M

•H 5-1 1 fO M <U C • V <U i+-t <U -P -P Æ C a Û4 D

O 0 <u M O ^ m 2

140

<u cn

<u <u > M M C 5-1

•H f^ (0 fO 0 Ul 0 C Q) C U 0 Ê M <U •H (U

j r 03 03 (U > <U -P 03 5-1 (U 5-1 S-l (U (0 M d i <0 1« 6 0 03 i n 0 M 5-1 (U O U (0 CL^H • II 5-1 5-1 D <U 0 -P <U U J3 15 C Æ

•H -P (U -P • - M

03 Q) U

Q) 0 u u

•H 03 fO c c C fO 0 <u •H g 4J 03 0 <u c 3 cr ^

03 (U D M x :

> i II -P <U 0 i 2 -P -P < 03 M -p •H HJ fO Æ 03 (U fO V 5-1 • - rH E-l <U 6 <U > fO -P U

•H 5 fO • C C CP <U (0 3 0 T5 U U

S-i C C -H CP Qj fO fO M-l C U •H

•H 03 (U -H C

•H 03 •* 03 x : 0 u a> 3

03 fO

03 03 fO fO ^ c

0 ^ •H

4J -P Cnu-i t J i M -p C U Q) -H -r-i fO fO M C 03 5-1 M cr

M 3 -P

U •H t7> M 0 -H CT 0 -P

fO U 03 C <U ^ II -H 4J <U 5-1 04 -P <0 J2 0 fO 5-1 -H •H — U 0 M C <U -H -P 3 3 ^3 U fO -r-i M C 0 <0 •H

'C 03 5 > 5 - 1 0 *

U Q) W 0 »+-i > i II x :

IH 4J W -P x : 0 -H -H u c - 5 5-1 -P 3 5-1 fO fO g <U TS Q) s: B s:: Q) 03 +J O -P -P <U U 0 0

03 M C —' •H

(U Sq cn (u <U Æ M \ M 03 0 •H u s:

03 TD • -P (U > i 5-1 . p ^ fO 03 0

•H cr> M M <U fO -P 5-1 -P fO <u c u

5-1 (U II C Xí (U II i n iH EH

D <U fO O (U Oí M <U M

•H Ts <: M C i J

0 M >( •* fo x : Q-i (u

• • 0 > i u (U U CN 'TÍ 0)

'C II ;3

t j i 03 x : 3 <U -P 0 5-1

0 M 05 ••-' <U £ C u 0 ^o 03 x :

-p • • > i ••' M-l W -P ^ o c EH -H M 0 O 03 M 03

-P 0 -H M C < Ti

- <u <U -P

• 03 03 2 5-1 (U 03 T3 C -H

(U 5-1 03 (U > 0 5-1 ^

•H 3 0 C M 0 u

C 0 M 0 Q4 > i 03 (U Q) Q) U

3 — U 03 XI 5-1 fO

W

< E-t

Q 2 <

2 O M E-t D E-i M EH

2

2 O M E-< <C CSI M 2 < O 05 O

W

o w

E-i

O 2 M U 2 W 05 W W 2 O u w HÍ w EH

o w Q

2 O

æ oí o E-< < 05 E-t

M 2 M

s Q <

03

C/3 W C/3 2 O &4 C/3 W 05

O 2

U) w > t

04

w

E^ O

05 •-3

< ^-:i

D U

D o:

<u > i

EH

o CN i n

m vo m

m o CN

o m cs

o o

• cs

i n

(Ti 00

cs <Ti

o

r-i O vo

1—I

CTi ' ^

vo

o o

CN

O O

CN

O O

• CN

VO i n

o o

CN

CN CM

i n CN

vo Ln

CN <T\

• M

03 03 fo x :

JZ 0 -P <U 'X3 C

> i ' d M 0 -P -H <u g •H > x : 03 CM 5-1 fO — M <U 03 > 5-4 —' -P •H 0 <U 03 C U-l U <0 ;3 C 04

\ <U <U <U -P 5-1 (U t7»^H cu x : 0 03 C4-I -P M C M (0 0 c 0 U •H

u c (u x: <U M -P

> i 0 <U •H

e^ ^ ^

03 (0 1 £ <u

> > i -H -P (U -P •H £ U 03 -P <U 5-1 M-H <U <U M-l > 5-1 <U •H p C 03 5-1 3 fO 0

\ <u

- r Ln

M

Cn C •H

0 u <u c

TJ <U <U 6 >i^H ^ I j i u (U 0 c M -P (U M -H 0 'O u U <U -H

•H m >1 M iw g -P <u

> <U M-H

M-l C 0 0

u 03 <U 03 M <U <U C -P

0

<u 73 •H >

14-4 0

03

c 0 •H -p

M 00

M

0 M <0 <U

> CP-H C -P •H -H U 03 C 0 <U O4 M

O, <U >i <U M-l M

u 5-1 <U

C M 0 fO U S-i

04 <U Q) M C

> i <U <U Ê -P CP

<u 'O

03 ID fO M

x: u c > i - H

-p •H -P 03 fO i-i x :

00 i n

• M

0 <u

(U -P 'U CP > •H 03 C (U 13 03

\ 5-1 <U P U^ 0 <U U M

•H C > •H

U M-l C 0 <U

5-4

e <u 5-1 M-4 0 C

M -P M-4 0 0 •H U ^3

<U > i 5-1

e u

U

<u <u e -• 0 <U 03 -P

142

03 x: •H cn

0 CP 0 C S-i •H s: U -P

c Q) 73 5-1 (U <u u

M-l <U

\ C 0

•H -P fO

u 0

C -P 'O 0 03 U -H <U C M -H <u s 4J 'B

fO 0 <U -P

Ti 03 •H (U

Q)

C7> C

•H 13

c •H -P

c 0

m r-o

•

o

CM <T\ ^

• CM

<Ti

00 •

M

i n CM

• M

VO i n

• M

l ^ r-

• M

c 0 •H 03 C

<u -p X <u \

<u u •H > 5-1 <U 03

> i -P •H C P g g 0

0 Cn

Q) Q) > M M C

•H r-4 fO fO

0 tn C 0

• «k

03 0 3

03 0 c 0 x : x : C U 0 Ê 0 -H

£ 03 03 0 0 -P 03 S-l 5-1 5-1 0 fO O4 <0 M-l e 0 03 0 M 5-1 0 u fo a^H II 5-1 5-1 D 0 0 -P U X! ^ C

ty;

A=

li

st

t le

e

•H J fO Æ 03 0 fO S-l •* M EH

0 e > fO -P

•H 5-1 fO • C Gi 0 Z3 0 ' 0 U

-1 C C Cn O4 fO fO

c u

-P -P

0 -p 0 Æ •

M U V Z3 D

•H 03 0 03 U 03 03 C 0 fO fo a u c

nif

i as

a

uti

o

Cn 5 -P •H -H 03 - ^ -P

M 03 tP M C C -H

•H 5-1 -P 0 5-1 fO 0 u M x: •H -— \

•H 03 0 -H 13 03 + j -p cnM-i C 5-1 0 -H fO fO M c

C Q) -r-i •H cnx:

0 U M tjl-K M ^C CP M 0 •H

fO U 03 0 ^ II -P 0 5-1 O4 <0 X I 0 5-4 •H •H •^ 0 M C 0

M 0 x: 0 -p • -P U 03 > i •H •H 5-1 ^ 03 M 0

-P CP —V 5-1 -P 0

-P 3 D M fO C -P U fO •!-> M II 0 fO 0 fO 0 M T3 U

T3 03 S-l > S-l 0

S-i 0 w 0 M-4 > i II

M-l -P W x : 0 •H

u c -5-4 -P 3 S-i <o fO e 0 0 x: e x: 03 -p 0 -P 0 u 0 U Q) II II Cn M E-t D 0 <0 0 05 M 0

M > | •«.

2 fO C 5-1 0 <

- 0 Oii-q CM ^ 03 II •H 0 0

co M 5-1 x : W -P íH x: 0 ^ cn c c

3 •H 0 0 * ^ SZ Q) T^ fO -P 03 0 U M C -P 03 < 0 03

04^H 03 M

• • 0 > i - p • 0 0 U CM 73

'O II :3 0 5-1 Oí -P U 0 l-D 03

•• > i • - M-l W -P ^ 0 EH •H M 0 03 M 03 2 Sq 0

0 5-4 03 > 0 5H

•H 3 C M 0

O473 5-1 0 C 5-1

CM 0 0 fO > i 5-1

fO 0 -H 03 X3 <0 0

C C S-i 0 5-1 C 0

0 0 U 03 •H 03 0 M -P 5-1 0 03 C 0 > 0 fO U 0 D 0

> X! U U 13 ^ U 03 M D E

o*

o o m vo

o vo CM

w i j CQ < EH

Q 2 <

2 O M E-i D EH

M EH

æ 2

2 O M EH

< N M 2 < O Oí

o w o w 04 >H E-i

C/3 W M EH M

æ 05 W > M 2 D C/D W ^ W hJ

o u tn 05 o EH <C o: E-t C/3

Q <

W o æ u M ffi 04 < 05 U O

w Q

W i n CM

vo i n i n

o 00 m

EH O

05

<

D U

D 05

0 04 > i

EH

vO m

CN

i n CN

m

CN

m

03

fO x:

o >i 0 -P 13

•H >

c •H

'O 0 > M o >

M C M •H o u c

0 >1 0

2 ^

•H 03 5-1 0 >

• H C

:3

0 CP 0

- p o.

0 0

tJ" c •H u c 0 5-4 0

M-4 C o ^ U 0 0 M M fO

0 u -P 03

0 x: -p

o -p

CTi

vo

m

i n CN

m

CTv 00

m

m m

•

m

13 0

I > t-\ ^ •

C O -P 3 > 04 -> c o (U •H 0 r -

m CT ' C 00 0 C • H —

0 > 03 -i ^ Q) 0

O Æ M-l U >i u o c S-l 03 0 fO > , fO SH S-l 3 e x : 0 0

C Æ MH <o -p >i e c: ID C -P ZJ o - -

0 •H C U 0 03 03 - ^ 0 M 0 S-l M fO S-i 0 C 0 u

e o 5-t Ii4 O4 > •H -P 03

0 e o

I u 0 0 M i 3 0 •P M

vO m

CM

O

o

m

vo i n

CM

m vo

CM

O 0 13 - H >

• H

5 Cn C •H

0 U

> c 0 0 •H 5-1 M 0 0 MH XI C

O M U

— 0

c > O - H •H -P -P •H 03 03 0 0 O > ;3 O4 •H cr -P

• • fO 13 0 cr> 0 M 0 'O <o 2 c u\ 0 03 I c • 0 - p - p O i O4 3 O 0

"-^ m 2

fO 5-1

144

0 tJ

0 0 > M

•H rH 03 0 C U 0 x: 03 0 -p 5-1 5-1 0 4 fO e 0 M U fO II S-i D 0 U X3

•H •». M >1 II -»-> < •H yA 03 5-4 -0 g > fO •H U C Cn

>

'-t C 5-4 <0 fO 0 C 0 0 e -^

•H (U 03 0 > 03 5-4 0 0 fO M

M-l 0 03 i n 5-1 0 0 O f H •

u 0 -P 0 l c x: -p 0 -p

03 0 5-1

0 0 u u

•H 03 fO c c c <0 0 0 •H e -p 03 0 0 c D cr *

03 0 0 M J=

-p 0 0 Æ -p 03 M 4J fo ja 0 (0 V M EH

0 -P u fO • c

0 fO 3 0 13 U U

5-1 C C -H D^ O4 fO fO M-l C

•H 03 -P -P C 5-1 fO <0 U t r i M

fO 0 5-1 -p 0 fO Xi U -H 0 M -P U fO 0

13 03 U

U 0 0 M-l

M-l r, 0 u 5-1 -p fO fO 0 x: 03 -P 0 5-1 0 II Cn D 0 oá M

M •• 0 0 U (

TJ 0 u

U 0

•• > i W -P ' E-t •H 1 0 03 \ 2 8H

0 >

•H

U -H Q) -rA C

•H 03 •» 03 x : 0 u 04 D

03 fO

03 03 fO <0 ^ c

0 —^ -H

CPM-I tT>M -P 0 -H -H M C 03 M tJi

M P -P

^^ •H 0 •H CP 0 -P U 03 C

II •H S-l OH -P 0 <0

•H •* U C Q) -r^ 3 3 13

• r i M C fO •H

U > 0 •K

w >i 11 x: -P W -P •H -H c - ^ 3 S-i e 0 13 e x: 0 0 -p -P u 0 0

03 M C ^ •H

0 5-1 t7> 0 0 x: M " ^ M 03 0 •H u x:

03 ' U • -p 0 >1 5-1 -P 5-1 fO 03 0

•H C71 <-^ <-\ Q) fO -P S-l . p fO 0 C U

II C i2 0 u ^ fO 0 0 0 M

•H T5 < M C i-q

0 > i ••' fO x : O4 0

> i u "N ' d 03 II 0

CT> 03 x : D 0 -P 0 5H

05 -P 0 Æ c r) 03 x:

-p • * M-4 - 0 c H 0 H 03

•P 0 •H M C <C 13

* 0 0 -P

• 03 03 0 03 'O C -H

5-1 03 0 0 5H 5-1

3 0 C M 0 u 3 -

C 0 M 0 O4 > i 03 0 0 0 5-1

- ' U 03 12 V4 fO

145

reasons of a change of address. Again, the method used to

identify the location of the respondent was to identify

the postmark location of the returned questionnaire

envelope. The high 22.5% of returned envelopes without

readable (or any) postmarks (see the "other" category of

Table 11) indicates a problem in using this method of

identification. Apparently, postage paid envelopes, as

with metered and bulk mail, are sometimes not cancelled in

the same way as with ordinary mail. In any event, the

coding of envelopes that could be identified still

presents evidence that the United States distribution of

the respondents is nationwide with every area represented

(see Table 11).

As with the college and university questionnaire, the

South Atlantic region with 19.6% (35) of respondents is

the region with the greatest number of returns except

those in the "other" category. When one compares Table 11

with the population figures in Table 4, the South Atlantic

region has the second highest population. It is

interesting to note that the highest region in population

size, East North Central (see Table 4), was listed second

with 15.1% (27) of respondents (see Table 11). Other

population similarities do exist with New England being

the smallest population size in Table 4 and the smallest

U.S. size in Table 11. Pacific is fourth in population in

146

TABLE 11

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE USERS

Location respondent mailed questionnaire:

Southwest (SW) [West South Central] 8.4% (15)

Pacific (PAC) 10.6% (19)

Mountain (MT) 8.9% (16)

West North Central (WNC) 14.0% (25)

East North Central (ENC) 15.1% (27)

East South Central (ESC) 8.9% (16)

South Atlantic (SA) 19.6% (35)

Middle Atlantic (MA) 8.9% (16)

New England (NE) 2.8% (5)

Other (OT) [Relative Frequency] 22.5% (52)

Canadian (CAN) l-^^ (4)

NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies (unless otherwise noted) with n=231 respondents. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. States included in each region are: SW=Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana; PAC=Washington, Oregon, California, Alaska, Hawaii; MT=Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada; WNC=North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, lowa, Missouri; ENC=Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio; ESC=Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama; SA-West Virginia, Maryland, Washington D.C., ^elaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida; MA=New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey; NE=Vermont, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island; OT=Other (areas without postmark on postage paid envelope); CAN=Canadian.

147

Table 4 and also fourth (not counting "other") in Table 11

with 10.6% or 19 respondents. Thus, strong similarities

exist with the known population of the regions and the

percentage of responses with the User Questionnaire. The

Canadian sample is small with 1.7% or 4 respondents. It

appears that the survey respondents were not

over-represented by any one region.

Orqanization of the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire

The Video Teleconference User Questionnaire was

designed with six parts: demographics, agreement/dis-

agreement attitude responses, yes/no; true/false

responses, degree of importance of variables for a

successful video teleconference, degree of success with

video teleconferences on various subjects, and variables

necessary for a successful video teleconference. Demo-

graphic responses include user questionnaire numbers

(pages and question numbers are User Questionnaire items)

2-5, page 1; 1, page 6; and 2, 3, 4, page 7. Agree-

ment/disagreement attitude responses include numbers 6-15,

page 2. Yes/no; true/false responses include

questionnaire numbers 1, page 1; 16, 17, page 2; 18, page

3; and 11, page 8.

Degree of importance of variables for a successful

video teleconference include numbers 19-33, page 3; 34-50,

148

page 4; and 51-53, page 5. Degree of success with video

teleconferences on various subjects include numbers 1-16,

page 5; and 17-37, page 6. Variables necessary for a

successful video teleconference include numbers 5-8, page

7; and 9, 10, and optional open-ended question, page 8.

Responses to Demographic State-ments on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire

Table 12 shows descriptive demographic data for the

User Questionnaire. Institutional division for question

two generally follows the 1970 Carnegie Commission on

higher education typology (Levine, 1981) with some

categories combined as with the College and University

Administrator Questionnaire. The greatest percentage of

respondents, 30.7% (71) were found in the research or

doctorate granting university. The second highest

percentage of respondents with 29.9% (69) were broadcast

television stations. Both percentages reflect the mailing

lists with the large number of PBS stations sent

questionnaires and the number of major universities that

teleconference in one way or another. The 19.5% (45) in

the "other" category reflects the diverse nature of the

video teleconference medium. Organizations listed in the

other category include non-profit agencies, area vo-tech

centers, post secondary vocational technical institutes

and one high energy physics research center. At this

149

TABLE 12

DEMOGRAPHICS OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE USERS

My organization/institution is best described as:

research or doctorate granting university 30.7% (71)

comprehensive university or

college that offers a liberal arts program 6.9% (16)

liberal arts college (I or II) 0.0% (0)

2 year community or junior college; and at

least two professional courses of study 5.6% (13)

a firm or privately owned corporation 5.6% (13)

independent small business 0.9% (2)

broadcast television station 29.9% (69) other 19.5% (45)

n 229

Title of respondent:

President 2.2% (5) Vice President or Vice or Associate Dean 6.1% (14)

Provost O-O^ ÍO)

Dean 0-4% (1)

Chairperson of Department of Communications 4.3% (10)

Director, Television Services; Program Director; Production Manager 3 2.0% (7 4)

150

TABLE 12—Continued

Assistant Director 3.0% (7)

Adult Extension Director 14.7% (34)

Assistant Extension Director 4.8% (11)

Other 32.5% (75)

n 231

1 have been involved with video teleconferencing:

less than 1 year 4.8% (9) 1 to 2 years 21.5% (40)

2 to 3 years 33.9% (63) 4 to 5 years 22.6% (42)

5 to 7 years 7.0% (13) 7 to 9 years 4.3% (8)

about 10 years 3.8% (7) 11 to 15 years 1.6% (3)

15 to 20 years 0.5% (1) more than 20 years 0.0% (0)

n 186

From January 1983 to the present I have been involved with:

one video teleconference 2.7% (5)

2 - 4 video teleconferences 13.4% (25)

5 - 8 video teleconferences 27.4% (51)

9 - 1 2 video teleconferences 26.3% (49)

more than one video teleconference each month 14.5% (27)

several video teleconferences each month 14.5% (27)

I have not been involved with any video teleconferences during that time although I have been involved with video teleconferences before 0.5% (1)

n 184

151

TABLE 12—Continued

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants: (consider all participants at all sites)

2-5 persons 0.5% (1) 51-100 persons 7.0% (13)

6-25 persons 34.8% (65) 101-250 persons 2.7% (5)

26-50 persons 24.1% (45) 251 or more 11.2% (21)

amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists 19.8% (37)

n 187

As part of my job, I am involved with video teleconferencing approximately:

under 10 percent of the time 5 2.4% (100)

10-25 percent of the time 27.7% (53)

26-50 percent of the time 8.4% (16)

51-75 percent of the time 3.7% (7)

76-95 percent of the time 1-6% (3)

all or nearly all of the time 6.3% (12)

n 191

The average number of earth station sites for a video teleconference(s) I have conducted or been a part of is:

Two: 15.7% (26) Three: 3.6% (6) Four: 0.0% (0) Five: 1.8% (3) Six: 1.2% (2) Seven: 0.6% (1) Eight: 1.2% (2) Nme: 0.0% (0) Ten+ 32.5% (54)

impossible to say as the number of sites per teleconference varies considerably 4z.o^ W-L;

165 n

152

TABLE 12—Continued

My experience with video teleconferencing is one that is involved with (select only one):

producing or organizing profit tele-conferences for others 18.3% (33)

teleconferences that are held in conjunction with other offices or divisions of my

company 26.1% (47)

non-profit teleconferences for others 28.3% (51)

technical matters only 5.6% (10) other 21.7% (39)

n 180

I help to (select all that apply):

write 11-8% (2)

produce 2 8.3% (53)

coordinate different locations 58.3% (109)

supervise 59.4% (111)

technically operate 27.3% (51)

promote 55.6% (104)

other 26.7% (50)

n 480

NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted •frequencies with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category.

153

time, one would not expect an independent small business

to do much video teleconferencing and, thus, the 0.9% (2)

in this category seems reasonable.

The titles of the respondents also indicate extreme

diversity in the respondents. The highest percentage of

respondents are found in the "other" category with 3 2.5%

(75). Such a high percentage indicates the "newness" of

the video teleconference medium. While other titles could

have been used on the User Questionnaire, the selection of

additional titles would have been impossible given the

diversity. Apparently, some institutions or organizations

are still experimenting with who should organize video

teleconferences. Respondent titles written on the

questionnaire and coded in the "other" category include

(duplicate titles not given):

electronic engineer

teleconferencing coordinator

coordinator of instructional programs

telecommunications coordinator

director of teleconference activities

director of teleconferencing

network coordinator

program manager of conferences

director of engineering

director of development and marketing

154

director of university conferences

director of program development

director, learning resources

department head of distance learning

executive director

chairman, interactive telehealth network

assistant professor and conference

coordinator

director of academic telecommunications

supervisor of alternative learning systems

lifelong education specialist

special assistant to the director of

telecommunications division

executive secretary

director, division of independent study

faculty coordinator for satellite

facilities

director of business and professional

continuing education

director of communication services

consortium of colleges and universities

statewide

production projects director

medical school program coordinator

director of special projects

155

director of marketing

communications management specialist of the

teaching medical center

assistant director of educational design

and development

director of the center for professional

development

assistant director of telecommunications

based instruction

supervisor of publicly held corporation

production contracts administrator

director of TAGER services

director of media development

senior director of operations

associate director of the Teleconference

Design Group (state-owned educational television

network)

communication engineer for the police

department

supervisor of systems development for the

provincial government of Ontario, Canada

senior administrator of corporate

communications

coordinator of client services

director of business and industry

156

statewide director of university

instructional telecommunication services

business promotions specialist and

videoconference producer

instructional technology coordinator

director of business and industrial

training services

dean of distance education and

teleconferencing

director of public information

assistant superintendent of vo-tech school

coordinator of electronic services

teleconferencing services manager

telecommunications resource controller

director of telecommunications planning

librarian of community college

television traffic supervisor and

teleconference coordinator

Although the questionnaire was not directed toward

administrators, nothing prevented an administrator from

filling out the form. Thus, the small percentages of

responses from president, 2.2% (5), vice president or

vice/associate dean 6.1%, or dean may indicate their

involvement with video teleconferencing. As one might

157

expect with the mailing to all PBS stations, television

station titles of director, television services; program

director; and production manager include 32% (74) and was

the second highest category in Table 12. Also well

represented were adult extension directors, 14.7% (34),

and assistant extension directors, 4.8% (11).

As Table 12 shows, most respondents had 1 to 5 years

of video teleconferencing experience with the highest

percentage 33.9% (63), 2 to 3 years. 22.6% (42) had 4 to

5 years of experience. Several percentages had

considerable video teleconferencing experience: 5 to 7

years, 7.0% (13); 7 to 9 years, 4.3% (8); about 10 years,

3.8% (7); and 11 to 15 years, 1.6% (3). One respondent

had 15 to 20 years of experience, 0.5% (1). No respondent

had more than 20 years of experience.

For the period of January 1983 to the time the

respondent mailed the questionnaire (March 1985; about 26

months), the largest percentage of respondents had

conducted 5-8 video teleconferences, 27.4% (51), and about

the same number, 26.3% (49), had conducted 9-12 video

teleconferences. When the last two categories are

combined (more than one video teleconference each month,

14.5% [27], and several video teleconferences each month,

14.5% [27]), 29% of the respondents could be said to be

involved with video teleconferencing on a monthly basis.

158

Only one respondent, 0.5%, had not been involved with

video teleconferencing during the 26 month time period.

The greatest percentage of respondents, 34.8% (65),

reported being involved with video teleconferences of 6-25

persons. The second highest percentage, 24.1% (45) falls

in the 26-50 person category. But the diversity of the

video teleconference medium is shown with 19.8% (37) of

the respondents finding that no typical enrollment exists

for video teleconferencing. Further, 11.2% (21) of the

respondents reported total audience participants to have

sizes of 251 or more persons. Thus, 2-5 persons can be

involved with a video teleconference as can 251 or more

persons.

Few respondents, 6.3% (12), can be considered to be

involved with video teleconferencing on an all or nearly

all of the time basis, as Table 12 shows. Despite the

high numbers of video teleconferences conducted as

previously mentioned, 52.4% (100) of the respondents were

involved with video teleconferencing under 10% of the time

and 27.7% (53) were involved 10-25% of the time. Thus,

more than 75% of the respondents (52.4% + 27.7%) spent 25%-

or less of work time with video teleconferences as Table

12 shows.

The average number of earth station sites for video

teleconferences conducted by respondents falls into two

159

extremes [two sites, 15.7% (26); and ten or more, 32.5%

(54)] or is impossible to say as the number of sites per

video teleconference varies considerably with 42.8% (71)

of respondents reporting that the number of sites is

impossible to say as the number varies considerably.

Thus, one could say that the number of video

teleconference sites are diverse in nature with most of

the number of sites being three or less or 10 or more.

The respondents experience with video

teleconferencing is also diverse in nature with most

respondents, 28.3% (51), being involved with non-profit

teleconferences for others; 26.1% (47) involved with video

teleconferences held in conjunction with other offices or

divisions of the respondent's company; 21.7% (39) being in

the "other" category; and 18.3% (33) producing or

organizing profit teleconferences for others. Thus, Table

12 shows a wide range of purposes the respondents have had

to be involved with video teleconferencing. Only 5.6%

(10) of the respondents were involved with technical

matters only.

The last statement in Table 12 shows that the

respondents have more than one function (respondent was

not limited to any number of items) for involvement with

video teleconferencing. More than half of the respondents

supervised, 59.4% (111); coordinated different locations.

160

58.3% (109); or helped to promote video. teleconferences.

More than 25% of the respondents produced, 28.3% (53);

technically operated, 27.3% (51); or performed "other"

functions, 26.7% (50). The smallest percentage, 11.8%

(2), wrote for video teleconferences. Probably, the

"live" nature of the medium calls for impromptu remarks

around areas for discussion without carefully rehearsed

scripts.

Responses to Agreement/Disagreement Attitude Statements On The Video Teleconference User Questionnaire

Table 13 shows response percentages to agree-

ment/disagreement attitude statements on the Video

Teleconference User Questionnaire. The highest negative

or "strongly disagree" (5 on the scale) statements are

found in the questionnaire statements, "Video telecon-

ferences are appropriate for any subject matter," 30.1%

(56) ; and "Video teleconferences are best handled through

a university with teleconference facilities," 27.1% (51).

The highest positive or "strongly agree" statements are

found with the questionnaire statements, "The future of

video teleconferencing is promising," 43.6% (82); "Larger,

university-type video teleconferences designed for groups

of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very

different from smaller, business type video tele-

conferences that are designed for 'in-house' use,"

m

CQ <£: E-<

M

u W P^ W t 4 2 O u w w t^ o pa Q

C L 4

o

H U) D

;>H

PQ

w æ 2 O 04 m w C3::

E-t 2 w s w w

<

E-t 2 W S w w

0 0 5-1 CP fO 03

• H Q

C

o 5-1

-P

0 0 5-1

<

cr> c o 5-1 • P W

in

ro

CN

0 M ^ <0

• H S-l fO >

VD Ln

dP

o m

in ro

dP

00

00

dP ro

• in

ro m

i n M

dP M

• 00

> 1

c fO 5-1 O 5-1

IW 0 - p

0 - p - P fO fO g

• H 5-1 - P

0* u O 0 5-1 •(-!

fO 0)

ro

dP \S)

<T

dP 00

ro

<íP r-

•

o CN

in in

dP m

• (T> CN

rsi 0 0

dP

• ro

I 0 M 0 -P

o 0

•H r> tT" > C C

•H -H M-l O 0) O C -H

0 5-1 0

3 M-l CL -P C í3 O M-í U

0 S-l

Ê o 5-1

03 • H

ro ( N

d9 m

9

CN

00

i n CN

o

dP

ro

ro

dP VX5

•

V£) M

m

o

00

fO 03

03 04 3

-P •H

5

O 5-1 CP

T3 in 0 CN 03 S u

0 -p TJ 03 C 0 3

CN

dP 0 0

• CN

O

CN

00

dP

m

ro

CM

<ÍP cr>

ro

VX)

dP

00

03

Cu

o 5 CP

in Æ CN -P •H C 5 (0

73 -P 0

03 0

O

^ B 03 0 U-l XI o

in

dp

CN

r~

(35

)

dp

r—1

VO

dP CN

00

CN

dP m

•

CN

i n ro

dP

V£>

00

i n CN

dP m

• ro

03 0 > i U -P 0 C -H U 0 03 C 5-1 T3 >-i 0 0 0 0 5-1 <W M > 0 C TS -H U-l 0 C C C U fO 3 0 0 x: u M fO 0 0 -P M -P 03 Æ 0

0 57» -P 0 x> ^ 0 0 £

•X3 0 5-1 -P •H 5-1 x : M > fO JJ 5

03 0 •H -P •H M -H U fO M-<

ro

CN

dP

I 03 0 0 rH

g 0 O -P u 0 x : XJ -P

•H 0 ^

c O 5-1 0 fO e -H O M 03 •H

6 03 fO fO 4-1

r -00

dP O

vo

ro r>

dP vo

• 00 ro

I CU 0 u u fO

03 - 0

CP >

c o • H S-l

u o. e •H

c 0 5-1 0 0 M-l U C C O fO U - P

ro i n

162

o-P O

dP VO

dP

rvj CN

CN i n ro 00

dP i n

dP i n

00

o^ ro

• ^

ro <T\ cvj

dP m

00

dP (S\

i n CN

o^ 00

rvi

o 00 i n 00

t n

CN

o'P r-

• o ro

dP m

VO • ^

rsj r ^

CM ' 3 '

m vo

dP

00 ro

I I > i C -M O •H U 03 0 5-1 M 0 0 > -P

•H

C O í3 0

T3 ^ • H

5-1 > 0 t7> 0 U 04 (0 > t

M -P

> 1 5-1 0 > 0 S-l fO

03 0 U

c 0 I H 5-1 I H 0 -H

I

c

5-1 O

M-l

e o u

<w

- p c 0 u 0

03 03 0 C

•H 03 3

J3

^ 5-1 0

M M fO

e 03

0 T3 U 0 M 0 •P

0 c C7>

•H 03 0

0 T3 0

T3 •H >

0

03 0 U

c 0

a >i 0 -p 4-1 :

0 03 3

r 0 03 Í3 0

£ 1 C

•H

> 1 - p •H 03

0 >

•H C 3 M

M 5-1 fO O -P

03 > c C -H fO a T 3 e M o :3 u o

s: fO 03

03 fO

I 5-1 O

03 0 4

o^ CN

• fvj CN

0 •H -P •H

Ê 0

•H j a

o c 03 íO

u

fO

c O

•H U 03 fO - H -P

4-1 -H e

-p D •p C -H fO 0 T3 Æ C 0 -P fO g e -P 5-1 0 C 0 x : fo Û4-P -P

0 > 03

•H •H -P 03 U fO 0 JQ

4-1 4-1 5-1 0 fO

M

0 tP 03 0

I C 5-1 -H 0

4-1 13 C M O 0 U Æ 0

M -P 0 03 -P 0

i 2 O 0 0

TJ 5-1 •H fO >

03 0 0 B u O c 03 0

-P U

C 0 -P O To 5 O

^ fO -P -P D 04 fO 03 fO 0 6 5-1 5^ 03 i 2 O fO J C -H

o'P vo

ro

0 U

c U 0 D S-i

- e

4-4 M • H

0 6 Oi-H > t 03 -P

5-1 O 03

0 • H 5-1

-P C O

e 5-1 O

03 03 O

a 03

•H

03 -P 0 ^ •H Ê 0

0 fO 0 03 03 03 5 fO

0 4-1

o c o o -P u r 0

M O 0

T3 -P

O 0 -P C

O >. 5-1 C -P -H

T3 0 :3 c •H -P c o u I I

ro

W

OQ <

0 0

CP fO 03 •H m Q

> i

M S

tro

n

•íi<

r o

rvi

0 0 u Qn <<

M > , ^ t7> c: 0 5-1 -p C/D

0 M ja (0

•H 5-4 fO >

(T> CN

.8%

m M

^_^

r--• « ^

o'P

r^ •

m CN

_ ^ <y\ m

dP CN

• CN r o

^^ CN ro

dP m

• r» M

^.^ m M «—'

0>P CVJ

• 00

> 1 - p =

> i - H 03 03 O-' -P 03 C 0 M •H 5 0 U > i 0 -P 0 ^ C M 3 -P C > fO 0 t7> -P 0 •H 0 5-1 TS 0

- 3 C ^ 0 M 5-1 j a •H :d 4-1 3 0

• ^ ^ C 0 -C t7> M-i > i s 0 x : -p c 0 C -P U 03 0 -H

fO 03 0 x: 0 04 0 M >1 0 -P 03 6 j a 0 x : ^ 0 c 0 -p 15 -p e 0 U 0 = 0 03 JC 0 -P W

> i - p 0 ^ - H 0 e t3 03 e w s: - 03 -H (0 'u fO -p —' -H > fO -C

UIO

s 4^ M

cn s: C -P

•H -H Cn 5 C fO 4-1 0 5-1 0 ^

tO C 5-1 U

0 03

s: J2 -p 6 fO •H :3 ^ C 0 -M

5 C 03 0 fO 0 Q) s: e

•H -P m 0 u 0 C 5-1 - 5-4 0 0 " ^ t ^ :2 fO U" 03 ^ 0 3 0 0 r o -H M -H 'O

4-4 U -C CN t7>

TS 0 C 0 13 » 0 4J C T M S-l 03 0 -P 3 5-1 03 03

•roM-i S-4 'O 0 ^7" fO 0 Æ c

-p e -H 0 3 :3 -u -P M C fO fC 0 u U 03 0 -H •H Æ x : 'O T3 fO E-i C C -H

•H 0 5-1 • m

-— fO > i ^ 5-1 -Tí 0 - - 0 c 5-4 — C7> tO

^ 0 C -P -P

03 -H fO C 0 x: u 0 cp-p e <0 -H Æ 0 -P 5 u 0 C fO 5-1 0 03 0 CP U 5^ fO 5-1 0 C 0 .Q •H Í7> cuB s: c

3 -P 0 M 2 -H 5-1 M 5 -P < 03

. 03 •• <T> -P cr>

W 00 C C E-t M 0 -H O ^3 -»-' 2 0 C fO

-P 0 u 04 -H

CN 03 'O 00 0 C M V-l -H

164

38.7% (72); "I have found that as someone becomes familiar

with teleconferencing, acceptance of the medium improves,"

38.6% (73); and "Some video teleconferences are best held

in a 'series' type format on the same or similar subject

weeks or months apart, as it is possible to try to do 'too

much' in one video teleconference," 34.6% (65). The

statement, "Some video teleconferences are best held in a

'series' type format on the same or similar subject weeks

or months apart, as it is possible to try to do 'too much'

in one video teleconference," has the highest agreement

with scale rating 2 of the 5 point scale with 46.3% (87).

A close "second" is the statement, "I have found that as

someone becomes familiar with teleconferencing, acceptance

of the medium improves," with 46% (87) with a 2 rating.

The questionnaire statement, "The sense of identity

common in higher education and business ('my company/

university is the best') weakens video teleconferences as,

'Why should I admit the other guy has something better?',"

brought a diverse response with most of the respondents,

32.2% (59), in the neutral or 3 scale rating. Also high

in the neutral rating was whether the respondents thought

that video teleconferencing was best used with small

(under 25) groups, 37.4% (70), or was best used with

groups of more than 25, 43.3% (81).

165

Responses to Yes/No; True/False Statements on the Video Teleconference User Questionnaire

The first statement on the User Questionnaire sought

a yes or no response: "I am involved with video

teleconferencing in my work situation." Although every

organization or person was listed by the mailing list

sources as being involved with video teleconferencing,

15.3% (3 5) of the respondents responded "No" to the

question as shown in Table 14. Thus, 3 5 respondents did

not complete the questionnaire. This has, however, little

or no effect on the percentages shown in the tables as the

relative frequency has not been used except in rare

instances when noted (such as in the open ended question

in Table 17) as adjusted frequencies do not include

omitted questions from any respondent. Thus, most of the

questions have a possible n of 194 respondents who were

involved with video teleconferencing in their work

situation.

A slight majority of 54.2% (103) of respondents were

involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video

teleconferences on a subject area designed for the same

(or mostly same) audience. Thus, 54.2% of respondents had

experience in dealing with video teleconferences on a

particular subject or subject matter. The majority of

subjects, 66.1% (125) did not have audio teleconferencing

166

TABLE 14

YES/NO AND TRUE/FALSE RESPONSES

BY VIDEO TELECONFERENCE USERS

YES NO n

I am involved with video teleconferencing in my work situation 84.7% (194) 15.3% (35) 229

I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconfer-ences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience.

Prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing

For some of the video teleconferences I've been involved in, there has been an attempt to measure how successful they were

54.2% (103) 45.8% (87) 190

33.9% (64) 66.1% (125) 189

90.6% (164) 8.8% (16) 180

TRUE FALSE

This questionnaire asked important questions about video teleconferencing 92.2% (153) 7.8% (13) 166

NOTE: All percentages (row) indicate adjusted frequencies with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies^or the number of respondents within each category. 'YES indicates agreement with the statement; 'NO' mdicates disagreement.

167

experience. A strong majority of respondents had sought

feedback from participants in one way or another with

90.6% indicating that they had attempted to measure how

successful the video teleconferences they had conducted

had been.

A strong majority of respondents, 92.2% (153), also

indicated that the questionnaire had asked important

questions about video teleconferencing although 7.8% (13)

respondents did not agree, as Table 14 shows. The diverse

nature of video teleconferencing and the diverse nature of

the respondents—from technician to university president

and the various titles of respondents—prevented any

questionnaire being "perfect" in the types of questions

asked. Some engaged in video teleconferencing within

higher education may have wished for more attention to be

given to course type video teleconferencing while

individuals within the business sector may have wished to

see more attention devoted to business and profit oriented

video teleconferencing. A technician may have wished to

see more technical type questions and so forth. The User

Questionnaire was designed to cover basic areas of video

teleconferencing and present data to benefit all groups.

Responses Statements

to D on

Teleconference

eqree of Importance the Video User Questionnaire

The respondents' perceptions of the degree of

168

importance of certain variables needed for successful

video teleconferencing (4=very important; 3=somewhat

important; 2=rarely important; l=not important) are shown

in Table 15. Variables considered to be very important by

more than 50 percent of the respondents include pace and

timing of material presented, 85.0% (159); technical

quality of the presentation, 84.4% (157); technical

expertise, 77.2% (142); ability to adapt curriculum or

subject matter to a technical medium, 67.9% (127);

adhering to a strict schedule, 66.8% (125); persons to

travel less than 150 miles to attend a video

teleconference, 64.3% (119); sending literature to persons

prior to attending, 58.6% (109); to have a recognized

expert discuss each topic, 51.4% (94); and live or

"normal" television instead of slow-scan TV, 50.9% (87).

Variables considered to be very important by more

than 35% but less than 50% of the respondents include

local group discussion at each site, 48.9% (91); two-way

voice communication among key individuals at all sites,

47.3% (89); a local question and answer session among

individuals at a location immediately after a

presentation, 45.9% (85); a moderator with "show business"

or communication skills at the key location who can

provide enthusiasm, coordination and motivation, 45.1%

(83); workbook materials to supplement the video

^ m

m

W

CQ < E H

O 2 M U 2 W O^ W W 2 O U W

w EH

O W Q M >

D W æ æ w u u

cn

pc: o w

w u 2 < : E-i

o

w o

w w o: o w Û

w o C/3 2 o M E H P4 w u cs w eu

ro • ' í '

• ^

o:

m

0 M

fO • H 5-1 fO >

oXO

CN

• CN

"^ —'

o ^ CN

t

CN

34

)

"-'

dp m

18.

(14

2

o\o

m •

ro

dP vo

• M

VO

m

o\o <j\

• C J

^ ^

CN M

o\° O

• 00

CN

o\o 0 0

• M M

M O M

o'P O

• m

00

o\o vo

M

00 M

cíP

<T>

vo m

cíP M

o ro

^^ <T\ O M

o\° M

CN

00 M

cíP VO

• <T

r

o\«>

o M • ^

CT 0 0

.7%

(

ro

CN 0 0

o^ M

•

• ^

<T m

dP o

• M CN

M

CN

.4%

(

m

uo CN

o\o • ^

• ro M

O 0 0

o\o O

• ro

M r

.9%

(

m

o 00

o\o M

•

m

dP m

• VO CN

M

o\o CN

0 03

•H 4J 5^ 0 Oi

0

fO u •H c s: u 0 -p

o'P <y\

• r-vo

m CVÍ

e

e M

u • H 03 U U O S - P U

5-1 - P 0 04 -P fO -P -H

T3 fO 13 fo e 0

e o -P -P U M

0 fO > lT-> U -P Æ -H •H P C M 03 Í :

U 5-1 0

•H

fO O -P

Cn c

• H

0 • H >

5-1 O

M-l

C 0 0 S-l

u 03

0

fO

fO

o\o VO

• 00 m

03 C o 03 5-1 0

o. o -p

0 cn 5-1 C :3 -H -P T3 fO c 5-4 0 0 -p -p -p •H fO i-H

o CP-P c •H 5-1 ^3 O C -H 0 5-1

•03 OU

dP ro

• r*> '=3'

o\o ro

C M O fO

• H - P - P fO fO U

• H 03 C M :3 fo e 3 e T3 o -H u >

•H 0 'O

u c •H -H o > > 1

0 > 1 ^ fO

I e o 03 U 0

-P 0 -H U 03 •H O M >

T í C fO

fO

5 I

o -P

(T» 03 C 0 O -P e -H fO 01

CP c o

o e 0 fO

'O •H C

> o •H

> 1 - p fO fO 5 U I H o

-p

c

e

dp CN

• 00 ro

03 -P C fO Du

• H U •H -P

03 0

S^ -P fO -H O4 03

t7> M C M O fO

e fO -P

fO

c o ^ •H 0 •P u u c fO 0 5-1 •H 0 T5 -P 3 C fO

•H ^

vo

O

c o •H -P u fO 5-4 0 - P C

• H

5-1 0 - P ;3 O4 e o u

170

m o M ro

r 00

o\o r^

CN

dP m

• m

o\o m

o\o vo

o\o CN

o\o 00

dP m

m CM

dP

CN

m

o\o

• ' ^

CN

CN M

o\o dP M M

• t

M cTi

VO ro

dP

<J\

m

dP m

00

o^

m

CN

o\o <y\

00 ro

00 00

o\o • l '

• 00

m CN

o'P

ro

m

o^ ro

• O

M 00 ""-'

o^

m •

r o • î"

m vo ^- '

o\o r o

• m r o

^ <T •^

dP m

• o m

<y\

-p 5-1 fO 0 15 03 03 M C fO fO :3

T í TJ - H

C > fO •H

T3

m 0 0

dP <y\

• m "^

5-1 0 -P U.4 fO

> 1 ^ 0 - p fO

•H C C ' O 0 - H

•H •P ÍJ> 03 C

0 0 0 e cr fo

M c fO 0 U •H 0 03 M 03

0 fO 03

0

e c e 0 •H - H U->

C fO 0 -P

•H C -P 0 fO 03 U 0 0 5-1 M a

fO fO

c 0

•H 03 03 0 03

5-1 0 > 03

c fO

73

<T r o

<íP

• M CN

> i i-H

S-l 0 0 -P

fO M - H M T3 fO 0

e - J e c fO - H 0

•H 03 03 -P

—1 C <0 fO 0 -P 3 -H C

C T3 -P 0 fO

C

•H fC 03 > U 0

•H 0 M 0 T3 M O4

•H -P 03

0 P

C •H M (0

fO !T> 5-1 S-4 C 0 0

tr 0 > -P

fO E 0 i H fO 03 fO

0

x: - p

M-l 0

tT>

c •H

e •H -P

73 C fO

0 U fC

m M

o\«> 0

m 00

13 0 •P C 0 03 0 5-4

a M fO

•H S-l 0 -P fO

a e

-P fO

c 0

•H 03 03 D U 03

•H T !

04 :3 0 S-i t p

M

M <T

dP <T

00 • " ^

0 -P •H 03

fO x :

u 0 M

U fO 0

.

c 0 03 5-4 0

c O4 0 3 •H 0 -P

O i 5-1 •H 1 C

•H S

M fO U 0 M

fO

0 > fO

s: 0 •p

D^T3 T3

^ fO 0

C ^ •H 03

C 03 0 ^

0 U

c 0 5-1 0

14-1 C 0 u 0 M 0 -p

0 0

•r^ C Ti -P 0 fO •H

-P 03 C 03

•H >

0 0 13 £ 03 U 0 03 5-4 •H

-p

0 04-73 -P

m vo

o\o CTN

• • ^

r o

C 0

•H -P fO -P

c 0 03 0 5-1 O4

03 0 -P •H 03

0 U

c 0 5-4 0

14-1 C 0 u 0 M 0

- p

0 0

T3 •H >

S 0

0 Cn 0

M M 0 u fO

- p fO

0 Æ

0 -p

^ .

00

dp m

9

• ^

> i -P •H 03 5 0 >

•H

c D

^ r

o\o 00

• cy\

le-

nce

3

O4 0 0. u 3 0 03 14-4

c 0 0 -P u

0 03 M

^ 0 fO -P

•H 5-1 0 0 0 -P -73 tO •H

e > ji<: 0 0 s: 0 -p

X I M -P s-i c 0 0 5 e

o CM m

o

dP •<T

o\o O

•

vo

o\o m

dP m

dP

CN

o\o O

ro 'íl"

^ o \S) <T\ • " ^

M dP •^

• • ^

0^1

o'P <Ti

• ro CN

<jP m

dP • ^

m

dP

00

dP

CN

G\

m o r-

CM

vo o o

00 r-00

T3 0

C •H -P c o u

I I

m

W

CQ <

M C/3

0 M Xí fO •H 5-1 fO >

o -p

0 c o

03 0

0 e CP o C 03 fO

03 x : 0 0 U 03 u :3 C 0 fO 0 M U 5 Æ 0 fO o

M-l 5-1 -P

c ^^ O 03 U fO 0 0

e

o\o r -

m

CM CN

o'P m

0 -p

5-1

o H >

0 fO u s: 0 3 0 Q) T) Xi

TS o •H 5-1 C > 04^H

03 0 5-1 O

0 fO T5

•H 03 > fO

0 CPJS - -C -P 0 •H U Æ cn c -P c 0 0 -H 5-4 e T3 0 O C M-4 03 0 C

-P O O -P u

73 fO 0 M

0 4 - 1 0 -P O -P

o\o

r-m

• ^

CN

o\o O

• ro

03 0 5 -P U 0 03 C C 0 0

5-1 5-1 -P 0 0 0 -p M-l Q) C C e -H O

U 0

dP m

O -P

03 - p C

5-1 fO M M 0 •H -P

e •H O

fO 03 0 04 n3

•H s: U -P •H •H -P ^ 5-1 fO 0 tP O 4 M C

04 -H S-l O 5-1 0 0 3

MH O t ' O

•H >

(0

m

dP •^

• •^r 00

0 s: -p

4-1

o > i -p •H M fO 3 c cr o

•H M -P fO fO u -P •H C C 0

s: 03 u 0 0 5-1 -p O4

o\o ro

• r -m

00 VD

dP 00

• VD ro

03 -P C fO Oi •H

u • H - P 5-1 fO O4 O

- p

- p 03 O

u

o

o s: 03

m

ro

ro 00

o\o

m • ^

C C O O •H •H -P -P (0 fO 03 U U 3

e 03 fO

• H

C O

• H - P fO >

• H •H o x : -p

o e

x: 4-» • H

C M -P

3 c e >i <u e 0 '^ o ^ 0 c U T5 fO

0 5-1 s: o -P 5-1

o -p = -p fO 03 fO 5-1 03

•H >

o 5-1

C

o •H O4-P fO

c c 0 0 03 fO -H 73 o e

C •H 03

U TJ

O O

o s: 03

- P • H

c o

• H - P fO

u •H

c e e o u 5-1

o

o'P

00

m CN

o\o 00

• ro

C

o ^ c •H e o -P 03 •H fO fO -P fO

> • H

U •H O 03

x : -p 0 -p o -p c e •H 0 03

0 13 C

x : T i fo

:i M s: o fO X3 Wî 5 u

5-1 o -p = fO 03 5-1 03 0 0

73 C O -H

e m fO i D

U fO 0

-P fO

C

o •H

H >

o S-i 0 . - P

fO

c c 03 fO • H M U 73 M 5-1 •H O O ^ £ O 03 ^ U

172

(30

.4

%

vo M

, ^

(47

.7%

m CM

(80

)

o\o

r-•

ro

(5)

.7%

CN

^^^^^^^

(13

.1

%

r

(71

) .8

%

0 0

f^

(93

.1%

• ^

m

89

)

.5%

CTi

ro

(10

) .8

%

m

(7)

.1%

^

(6)

.3%

m

(89

)

.8%

<y\

m

(12

]

o\o VO

vo

(34

)

o\o

r

00 M

(68

)

o\«> <y\

00 ' r

(38

)

dP CM

• M r g

(38

)

dP CM

M CM

(91

)

o\o 00

O

m

(38

)

cíP

m

21

. (4

1)

dP CM

23

.

00 00

o\o

r-•

<y\ • ^

(19

)

o'P

vo

10

. (2

3)

dP 00

12

.

00 00

o'P cy\

• 00 ^

(6)

dP <y\

9

(9)

o'P CM

• ro

(51

)

o\o

vo •

r-CN

ro • ^

dP m

23

. (5

6)

dP VO

30

. (7

3)

o\o cy\

*

<y\ m

vo CN

o\o

CN •

• ^

M

0 u c

0 0 - P 5^

0 5-1 14-4

0 C •P 0 fO U U 0 3 M

73 0 0 -P

M 0 fO 0 C T3 0 - H

•H > 03 03 fO 0

4-4 C

0 U> 5-1 - H O i 03

0 fO 73

-P

U 0 O4 X 0

TJ 0 N

•H C

• ^

cy\

dp

9

M

m

U •H O4

CTí 0

0 u

-P

0 -G 5-1

fO

0 > fO

s: 0

U (0 0

03 03

3 U 03

•H -P TD

c 0

•H 03

•H

> 0

M 0 -P

c fO

- ^

M

o\o VO

•

0

c 0

•H 03

•H

> 0

M 0 -P

= 0

> •H M

4-1

0

U 73 03 1

5 0 M 03

fO 0 -P 03

C •H

r-00

CÍP <7^

•

0

m

c 0

•H 03

•H >

> -t-> 0

M C 0 fO

•P u 03

= 1

- • ^ fO 0

e M 5-1 03

0 C 4-1

= 0 S-i T3 0 fO

0 0 -P > 03

•H C M •H

r " ^

o\o 00

m rvj

03 S-l -P

> i 0 c 0 4-4 fO

M Cu e -H

c 3 u •H •H • H

5-1 -P 73 0 5-1

0 -P fO U •H O4 fO 73

M :3 e Oi fO 0

5-1 03 C 4-1 0 fO C 03 0 4-1 C

x: 0 0 O4 •H 0 03 -P 5-4 -P 03 U S 0

•H fO 3

e 04 tr

0 CP

s fO

M

fO

CN M

<ÍP

r-

VO

c 0

•H -P fO N

•H

c fO tT« S-i

0

> i 5-1

J3 0

O4 C •H

Æ 03 S-l

0 03

C 0

0 •H -P fO -1

0 04

u 0. 0 03 u

M

0 •r-1 fO

e fO

> 1

Æ

04 •H

x: 03 5-1

0 03

c 0

0 M

o'P VO

•

m

> i -P •H 03' S-4

0 >

•H

O4 c 03 3

0

s: - p

e 0 ^

4-1

0 73 fO

e 0

XI

0 -p

- p •H 4-1

0 5-1

0 m

o'P 00

• r -rsi

0 U

c 0

u 0

4-1

C 0 u 0 M

0 -p

0 0

Q4T3

fO •H

>

C 0 fO 0

s: T3 -P •H

> 03 03 fO 0 M 73

c M 0 0 -P

> -P fO fO S-4

-P 0 -P

. 0 -P 03

0 03 M C •H

0 e 03 5-1 0

0 m 0 4 M

U 1

M

o\o ro

• • ^

VO

0

u c 0 5-4 0

4-1 C 0 u 0

f—t

0 -p

M

o'P 0

• VO

0 "H 0 O t m 0 0 C O4 fO

x: 4-1 4J

0 03

5-1 03

0 0 Si M Ê

3 0 C -P

0 0 s: -p -P - H

03 CP

c s: •H u -P (0 M 0

e •H -P M fO

•13 0 3 C

• H

-P C 0

u 1 1 1

m M

W

TABL

M 2

M

M

M >

0 r-l ^ fO

•H 5-1 fO >

CN — CN CN

dP dP M M

• • CM M M

CN ^ " ^ VD

o\o dP M CN

• • r o r o CM

O '=t <T\ m

o\o o\o m cTi

• • CTi 00 ' T CN

^ m 00 CN CM M

o\o <íP • ^ 00

• • m vo M vo

0 -P 0 •H M 03 3

T3 x : 0 U Æ fO u

4-4 0 03 0

e ••-' S-l 0 u 0 5-1 •H

^ 4 - 1 5-1

e -^ 3 73 03 C 0

M fO 0 03

Æ fO 0 -P -P

03 i C CP

C 0 c •H •H -H -P -P 5-4 •H 03 0 e 0 -C •r^ "ii 73 M CT* fO

r o M

o\o O

r -

m r o

o\° 00

00 M

VO 00

o'P CM

VD • ^

CM m

o^

o 00 CN

03 — 0 73 0 -P 0

0 -P 03 U •H 0 03 C 03 U 3 0 C U •H 0 fO 03 73 -P > -H 3 0 'O 73 fo e íO

0 CP e 5-1 C C 0 -H •H M fO 0 4-1 73 Æ

•P 0 03 fO C U C 0 -H 0 UJ 0 O. •H -P S-l 0 -P C U -P 03 fO 03 0 O i 0 3 -H 0 -P

cr u xí •H M

0 -P -P U > 5-1 03 •H

•H fO 3 -P M 04 e w

^^ o m

o\o CN

• 1 r-CN

o VO

<íP vo

• CM r o

CM VO

o^ r~

• r o r o

CN M

dP m

• vo

03 -P

0 03 'O 0 -P -H 0 U •H ^ -P ^ C 03 0 U 03 0 C fO 0 fO •H 0 fO U ^0 -P 04 > f H 0 3 0 . 0 73 x : fo e 73 ^

0 C 03 0 g 5-1 fO C C C 0 0 0 5-1 fO C •H ^ 0 3 14-1 0 -P 0 5-1

-P . p 03 U 0 03 fO -P 0 C O4 c -r^ :2 Q) 0 03 5-1 u's: > i c -H 4-> > - ^ . 0 0 -p c x : -H 03 fO 0 U 5-1 ;xí 4-) 0 CuXÍ 3 0 U 03 :3 -H 03 -P fO 0 Cr U 73 fO J3 3

•H M T3 5^ 1 53* 0 -P 3 0 0 -i í > S 0 - ^ 'O - ^ <1J

•H fo x : 03 0 fO J S

M 04 03 fo e -»-• •'^

e •: 0 -*-> 5-4 C M-l fO

-p t j i S-i c 0 •H Oi D e C M fO 4-4 5-4 0 - J

fO c 5-1 i i :

0 15 Æ X3 0 -M e e •H 3 0 ^ C C/3

II 03 0 M 0 x : 03 •H -P

quenc

s or

tant;

fre

ncie

mpor

73 0 M 0 3 -p c r > i 03 0 5-1 3 5 - 1 0

•ro4-4 > 73 II fO 0 M

-P > 0 3 -P M •• fO 0 0 U 03 73 • •H X ! 0 -t-> 73 (0 U C C fO

w) i

are

ry.

port

0 -^ 0 e 5-1 ^ tr^ M

^ 0 C -P -P

03 •H fO 0 0 £ U 2 t7>-P II fO •H £ M -P ^ U 2 C fO 0 03 0 •^ U J-l -P 5-1 0 C C 0 ^ •H fO 0* e Æ -P

3 -P 5-1 M 2 H 0 M ^ 0 4

< e • 03 M •• 00 -P

w 00 C > i E-i M 0 M 0 ' d 0 2 0 C 5^

-P 0 fO o . q í :

0 03 11 ( ^ 0 M

' M 5-1 qc;

174

teleconference, 39.8% (74); interaction among participants

(audience) at all sites, 38.2% (71); and low cost to

participants, 36.8% (68).

The two variables that had the lowest percentages in

the very important classification are computer

interaction, 0.6% (1), and slow-scan television instead of

"live" television, 0.6% (1). Variables with percentages

between 1 and 10% in the very important classification

include video teleconference sites to be at a college or

university, 4.3% (8); sponsorship by a major university,

5.6% (10); live questions from audience participants at a

remote site should be written and panelists asked such

questions by a moderator (hence, no direct talk-back by

person who asked the question) 6.5% (12); and sponsorship

by a large corporation or organization, 6.7% (12). While

slow-scan television has had some appeal with one person

to one person "individual" video teleconferences, the

technology for group presentations has made such "single

frame" video teleconferences obsolete. Thus, one would

expect such low percentages in that category. The low

percentages in the very important category that say, in

effect, live questions should come directly from audience

participants and not through a moderator reflect belief in

the Donahue type format that allows direct feedback from

audience members.

175

Perhaps, the most surprising negative response to a

variable with little "very important" support is how

important it is for video teleconference sites to be at a

college or university. A low, 4.3% (8), of the

respondents thought this to be "very important," although

3 5.3% (65) thought the variable to be "somewhat

important." Correspondingly, the highest "not important"

percentages were found with the variables, slow-scan

television instead of "live" television, 54.1% (93); and

whether video teleconference sites should be at a college

or university, 41.8% (77). However, the percentages do

change with the variable that asked how important it was

for sponsorship by a major university, with 49.7% (88)

responding in the somewhat important category although the

rarely important, 23.2% (41), and 21.5% (38) in the not

important category are relatively high percentages. One

should also note the low very important response, 6.7%

(12), with sponsorship by large corporations or

organization.

One can only speculate at the reasons for the

negative college/university response. It may be that the

lack of adequate funding by colleges and universities

limits advances in video teleconferencing. It could also

be that the respondents are saying that, in general,

sponsorship is not important regardless of whether such is

176

from a corporation or university. The perception by some

who consider university professors to live within "ivory

towers" may also be reflected in such percentages just as

is the perception that all corporations want is money.

The lack of familiarity with the medium by educators and

administrators may be another reason for the low

university response. In an age where electric typewriters

are obsolete for most purposes (even many forms today can

best be typed on advanced word processing/printing systems

through hand controlled movable friction printing

systems), the perception of someone in a college or

university still using manual or electric typewriters may

be transferred to the high technology medium of video

teleconferencing ('lf they still use manual typewriters,

how could they handle lasers and fiber optic

technology?').

For example, in editing and advising the Mass

Communicator of Texas Tech University, the author was told

by a technician in trying to service or replace a disk

drive, that the only place to replace such was through the

Smithsonian Institute, as that organization had been given

similar obsolete equipment (the typesetting computer

originally cost more than $90,000). Even universities

with multi million dollar budgets sometimes have a

difficult time replacing an $85,000 video camera or the

177

expensive equipment needed in video telecommunications.

However, as pointed out in the literature review of this

dissertation, universities and colleges constantly try to

update equipment.

In coding questionnaires, the author also remembers

one remark written by a junior college instructor who did

not like a questionnaire statement (item 46, page 4:

sponsorship by a major university) because it did not

include smaller colleges. His written response was, "Oh,

no—not another university snob." The questionnaire

statement or a different item might have included smaller

colleges within the statement although Table 12 shows that

only 5.6% (13) of respondents were video teleconferencing

at two-year community or junior colleges. An additional

reason for the high negative response may also be the

competition or feeling of independence within institutions

of higher education. At Texas Tech University, persons

associated with the University Daily (the student

newspaper) have told the author how important independence

is from the Department of Mass Communications or from

administrators at Texas Tech. In a similar way, persons

at the Texas Tech Press have stressed independence from

the university during tours of students in mass

communication classes taught by the author. One suspects

that some "feelings of independence" by PBS broadcast

178

stations associated with colleges and universities may

have contributed to some negative responses, (the

respondent thinking might go: my station is not really a

part of the university; thus, the station should sponsor

the video teleconference, not the university) although no

question was asked to support or deny such a conclusion.

Variables with more than 50% of responses in the

"somewhat important" category include low cost to

participants, 57.3% (106); for participants to meet new

people with similar interests during a video

teleconference, 57.1% (105); a large screen for viewing,

54.0% (101); video teleconferences to produce measurable

changes in behavior (to cause someone to do something as a

result of attending the video teleconference), 51.7% (91);

sponsorship by a large corporation or organization, 50.8%

(91); and workbook materials to supplement the video

teleconference, 50.5% (94).

Variables with more than 40% but less than 50% of

responses in the "somewhat important" category include

sponsorship by a major university, 49.7% (88); limiting

the number of questions asked from each site, 49.5% (90);

microphones placed in key parts of an auditorium for

questions from participants, 48.9% (89); a profit to be

made from the video teleconference, 48.9% (88); a question

and answer session among individuals at al1 or several

179

locations immediately after a presentation, 48.4% (88);

live questions from audience participants at a remote

site(s) must be screened in advance to stick to topic

being discussed, 46.2% (86); a professional educator to

design a video teleconference, 43.7% (80); to have local

"in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in

addition to the video teleconference presentation, 43.5%

(81); a moderator with "show business" or communication

skills at the key location who can provide enthusiasm,

coordination and motivation, 43.5% (80); interaction among

participants (audience) at all sites, 43.0% (80); two-way

voice communication among key individuals at all sites,

41.0% (77); and local group discussion at each site, 40.3%

(75) . The large number of variables (29) in Table 15 that

have percentages of more than 50% when the very important

and somewhat important categories are combined (compared

to the total of 35 variables in Table 15) attests to the

validity of the questionnaire and the attitude information

sought. Further, such variables present strong evidence

on what variables should be included within a video

teleconference. The results also indicate that computer

interaction is not necessary for video teleconferencing.

180

Responses to Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences and Various Subjects as Listed on the Video Tele-conference User Questionnaire

Using the National Center for Higher Education

Management Systems' subject list from its publication,

Adult Learning Activities (1978), 37 subjects were listed

on the User Questionnaire to determine the degree of

success respondents have had or thought they would have

from video teleconferencing related to such subjects (see

Table 16). Since the literature review had found atti-

tudes that certain subjects were more appropriate to the

medium than others (see Table 13), it was hypothesized

that the respondents' views about video teleconferencing

in specific subject areas might show important differ-

ences. The respondents had the option of determining the

degree of success (4=very successful; 3=somewhat success-

ful; 2=rarely successful; l=never successful) with each

subject from responding to the question, "How successful

do you believe video teleconferences are in dealing with

the following subjects?" Several items are worthy of

mention with the analysis of such data.

Several respondents apparently thought that video

teleconferencing could be successfully done no matter what

the subject content. Thus, unlike other questionnaire

responses, several respondents circled large "blocks" of

very or somewhat successful codes (VS or SS). Others did

m vo

ro "'3'

m ro

ro vo

r-> m

m m

<y\ m

vo •^r

VD

m vo f ^

cr* •<3"

o vo

C/3 2

M C N f ^ O r H ^ M ^ r 0 ^ 2 : ; ^ S

o\o o'P o\o dP dP dP dP dP o\o °^° ^ ^ ^

v o " = î ' C N O v o v o c M r - c r > c N O r - c : 3

C D M C M O O C M C M C N M O J O O O

VD

w PQ

EH

O 2 M

u 2 W Oí w w 2 O U

w

w E H o w Q

æ E-t M

:s w U3 w u u D C/3

E H

u w l ^ pa D C/D

C/3

C/3 U)

C/3 >

0 M XÍ fO

• H

fO >

^ o o o > ^ - — o o r - o m o o ^ ^

. ^ j . ^ C N c n C N M ' î r M M C N ^ ^ Î . Î ^ C l

dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP o'P o\o dP dP

' s r M m o o m v o æ < x > v o r - r H r - - c 3 ^ C N < T \ M M m M r O V O C T \ " = 3 ' [ ^ ' * ^

CM M ro '—I

m ^ ^ o o m r ^ c r > a > M v o M r o m " ^ m vD vo v o v o ^ ^ r ^ * ^ r - o o v o r -

o\o dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP r o c x D ' ^ c T i C J ^ v o r o v o r o c M C J ^ v o c N r o - ^ o o N O M m c x j c N C N O o r o v o f ^ ' v r m r o ^ r o r o ' ^ ' 3 ' m m ' N r ^ ^

0 ' ^ m m r - - ^ ' * o M C N < N c x 5 v D m M v o r o í T í O O o o c N v o r ^ ' í î ' ^ r - r ^

dP cJP dP cíP o\o dP dP dP dP dP dP dP dP v o o o < T > r o o c N r ^ o o c M O ^ o o < y i

r o ^ m o o r o ^ o o M v D O ' ^ M v D v D ' : r c N m m m M ' : í ' ^ r o r o m ' = í '

0 u c 0

•H u 03

s: -p M

fO 0 s:

0 5-1 :3 + j M

:3 u

• H >-l Cn fO

Cfl 0 •H ' d 0 -P w u •H c s: -p 0

4-1 0

fO 0 S-l fO

•p c 0 e 0 Cn fO c fO

e m cn 0 c •H cn 3

.Q

c 0 •H +J fO u :3

TÍ 0

æ •P

c: 0 > 0

co ^ 0 c:

CQ 0

fO p CP c fO

M

c: d^ •H 0 u 0 M-l

CO c 0 •H +J fO u •H c 3

e e 0 u CQ (0 fO

e

cn u •H c: 0 u 4-> u 0

M

0

0 >-l 3

•P

U 0 4J •H s: u M fO

03 0 U C 0 •H U 03

0 M-1 •H M

03 d 0 •H •P (Tî U •H c p

e e 0 u

03 0 U c 0 •H U 03

c 0 •H • p fO

e M o

M-l

c •H \ U 0 -P 3

a e 0 u

182 M • ^

M

.1%

CN

155

.6%

o

138

.8%

m

134

.2%

CM 140

.0%

m

133

.5%

M

135

.0%

ro

135

o\o

r-

o

128

r^

o'P

m

m

151

o

dP o

o

128

• ^

o'P M

ro

142

o

dP o

o

136

o

o\o O

O

125

CM

dP VO

M

126

o

o'P O

o

133

o

o'P O

O

CM CM

dP vo

m M

m

dP vo

r^ ro

ro vo

dP r-

• ^

'>r

M M

o\o M

r^

m

o\o M

V O

ro

r^ 00

o\o M

V O

m

00 rvj

dP m

o CM

m

dP M

<T>

ro

00

dp æ

' ií ' ro

m

o\o

00 M

VO

o'P O

r-'=1'

ro

dP M

CN

ro

• ^

ro

o\o

ro

• ^

CM

vo

o\o V O

ro • ^

00 ro

dP M

r^ CN

M

dP 00

CM M

m VO

dP <y\

00 ' 3 '

o\o

00

VO ro

CM M

dP cy>

00

vo r -

o\o

ro

vo m

ro • ^

dP <y\

M ro

r-M

dP VO

CN M

00 VD

o'P

O m

CTN • = ^

dP m

vo ro

ro

dP 00

m CM

o VD

o\o <T

VO

00 CM

dP <y\

M OJ

dP O

CM

ro VD

dP r~-

M • ^

m 00

dP m

vo m

(25)

dP m

cy\ M

VO

o'P 00

ro •«3<

ro

o\o V D

ro ro

o'P VD

m

<y\

dP m

'^ ro

m 00

o\o <Ti

<T>

m

dP <y\

m

vo

o\o

m

00

CM VD

dp VD

m • ^

(11)

o'P 00

00

m

o\o

o

CM

m

r^

dP VO

r-ro

dP VO

m

rvj

o\o CM

<y\

r-

dP CN

m (12)

o\o O

cy\

m

o\o <y\

00

vo

dP M

CN

03 -p u fO

C71 C

•H

e u 0

M-l ^ 0 a

M

fO 3 03

•H >

> i & i

0 1—1

o c s: u 0 -p

CP c •H 5-1 0 0 C

•H (J> C 0

0 -P (0

J2 0

Tí

s: u 0 0 a. 03

03 -P U (0

0 c

•H I H

03 U

•H -P fO

e 0 s: -p fO

e

03 U

•H

e 0 c 0 u 0

0 e 0

Æ

>. CP o M

0 x: u > i 03 Cu

03 0 U C 0

•H U 03

M

fO •H U 0 03

03 U 0 -P -P 0

M

J2 -P M fO 0

J

'd 0

•H M r-H

fO

03 0 u c 0

•H U 03

^ 03 >

•H ^ U U 10

\ > 1 }-l fO

u Si •H M

03 0

•H Cn 0 M

0 c x: u 0 -p

tj\

c •H 03 U 3 C

5 fO

1—(

03 0 U c 0

•H

u 03

>—i

fO

u •H 03 > i

x: a

> i Cn 0

« — 1

0 c x: u 0 •p

0 u c 0

•H

u 03

03 0 U

•H > u 0) cn

Tl C fO

03 S-i

•H fO

I H 4-1 fO

U •H -^ J2 D a

Lnue

d

-p

c 0 u 1 1 1 1

vo M

TABLE

c

íf)

C/3 05

C/3 C/3

C/3 >

0 i - H

ja fO

•H M fO >

cr> M M

ro

cíP

m •

CM

(26)

o\o

r-M CM

'vT m

dP

o m ^

vo ro

dP O

o ro

> i tJ> 0 M 0 0 s: -p

ro CM M

CN

o\o

VO

M (32)

o\o O

VO CN

ro vo

o ^ CN

M m

VD CM

dP M

M fM

> 1 5-1 (0 c

•H M

cu •H U 03

•H n3 5-1 0 -P C

• H 03 \ 0 •H •H -P T5 M 3 3 -P e w

00 ro M

M

o ^

• o

VO

dP m

• ^

vo vo

o\o 00

r^ • ^

m vo

CÍP M

r^ ^

> i

Xi c 0

13 •H 0 -P ^ fO

0 u 03 S C T3 0 0 CU 0) t7>

c 03 •H •P 3 U C 0 -H

•r-i^P ja c 3 0 03 U

m ro M

O

dP O

• O

ro

dP Oi

• CN

o VD

<ÍP • ^

' î î ' ' d '

CM r^

o'P ro

ro m

0 U 5-1 0 g g 0 u

• ^

03 03 0 c

•H 03 P

XÍ

m m M

o

o\o

o • o

m

dP 00

• ro

<» - r

dP M

vo ro

o 00

dP CN

O VO

M fO

u -H T3 0

e fO 5-1 fO Cu

13 C fO 03

0 s: u •P •H M > fO s 0 0

s: 03

m ro M

CM

o\o

m •

M

ro CN

<ÍP O

•

M

CN VO

dP G\

m •^r

00 "^

o\o vo

m ro

03 fO 0 5-1 fO

T5 0 4J fO >—> 0 5-1

• \

Cn c

•H 03 03 0 U 0 5-t

a fO • p fO

T3

O ^ M

M

<ÍP

r-• o

M

dP M

• CN M

m vo

dp

vo ^

r-m

o\o t ^

o "53"

01 0 3 03 03

•H

-P c 0

e 0 Cn fO

c fO

e 1 5-1 0 Xi fO M

r^ ro M

M

o'P

r-•

o

o M

dP ro

• r-

o r-

o'P M

M

m

VO

m

dP cr>

o • ^

T3 0 -p fO M 0 5-1

13 C (0

0 u •H 03 > 0 U -H 0 IJí 03 0

M U 0 •H C M s: XÍ u 3 0 Ou-P

03 0

•H U •-

(Jl C M c 0 :3 •H CJ MH > cr 03

•H 0 03 t7> 5-1 0

iw U C U

0 3 £ -P C/3 -P 3

s wi

bsol

Very

sful

0 fO II 03 •H Cn 0 U 0 > U

equen

0 ar

ode:

r Suc

5-1 U 0 M-l C >

•H 0 'O s: « 2 0 -p > i II -P •H 5-1 C/D 03 5 0 2 Zi Cn

• n cn 0 •" TJ 5-1 -P M fO 0 fO ZJ

.Û U tw 0 g 03 -P 3 -C 03 fO Z U 0 U fO U •H 0 U 13 • 3 C e C C/3 •H 0 -H

4J £ > i ^ -H -P M 5 •H 0 0 £ 5 M 5-1 U fO

— ' fO 03 ff; 0 -p II

03 C C/3 0 5-1 0 05 U> 0 13 fO CU C •" -P 0 M C 03 Û4 Í5 (1) 4J 03 IW U C 0 03 5-4 0 5-1 03 0 TJ 0 Û4 C M-l u

0 0 u M CL 3 M 03 5-1 æ 1< 0 0

5-1 ^ -P Ê fO

W 4-1 D £ EH 0 C 5 O 0 z 5-1 0 e

0 £ 0 . û ••-» æ

e II D 5-1 æ C 0 C/3

184

not and marked each item separately. Still others put

question marks on some variables, such as "visual/per-

forming arts" and "speech debate," apparently questioning

the subject content of such items. Still others noted

that they had had no familiarity with such subject and

left several or many items blank. One respondent wrote on

the questionnaire that any subject could be video

teleconferenced if properly handled. Despite the

differences in subject perception by the respondents,

subject differences do emerge.

Table 16 shows the subject with the highest very

successful response to be health science, 63.6% (105),

followed by health and para medical services with 60.2%

(80) . The subject with the third highest very successful

response was also in a health related area—nursing—with

59.9% (85). Another health related area, allied health,

also had a high percentage at 56.3% (85). In addition to

the health areas mentioned, subjects with more than 50% of

respondents choosing the very successful category included

business management, 58.3% (95); engineering technology,

56.1% (87); news events, 54.2% (84); business/commerce,

53.3% (72); communications, 51.0% (76).

All but one of the subjects received less than 10% in

the never successful category. Foreign languages had

12.2% (17) in the never successful category and also had

185

the lowest very successful percentage with 18.7% (26). It

is interesting to note that no subject received a combined

percentage greater than 50% when the rarely successful and

never successful categories are combined. Thus, the

greater percentages are consistently found in the very and

somewhat successful categories.

Res for Adv

ponses to Variables a Successful and antaqeous Video Tel(

Necessary

econference

Table 17 shows that more than half of the

respondents, 53.8% (99), selected attendance and

acceptance of persons attending to be the most important

iteiT for a successful video teleconference. Acceptance of

persons attending, 30.4% (50) was also considered to be

necessary for a successful video teleconference. Only

3.3% (6) of respondents indicated "can't say."

The highest percentage of respondents, 42.5% (79), in

the category, "I believe the one most important element

for a successful teleconference is," selected the

variable, "subject matter that is appropriate for the

medium of teleconferencing." In other words, video

teleconferencing is not equally applicable to all subjects

or topics and, therefore, one must carefully select. The

variable, "there is no one important element," also had a

high percentage of respondents with 39.2% (73). Only 5.9%

(11) respondents thought a variable "other" than what was

186

TABLE 17

SUCCESS AND ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

BY USERS OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCING

To me, a successful video teleconference is one that (select only 1):

*1 is measured by attendance 3.8% (7)

*2 is measured by acceptance of persons

attending 30.4% (56)

*3 cannot be immediately measured 8.7% (16)

*4 measured by *1 and *2 53.8% (99)

*5 can't say 3.3% (6)

n 184

I believe the one most important element for a successful teleconference is:

good equipment and signal 6.5% (12)

dynamic leaders at individual sites 5.9% (11)

subject matter that is appropriate for the medium of teleconferencing 42.5% (79)

other 5.9% (11)

there is no one important element 3 9.2% (73)

n 186

187

TABLE 17—Continued

A successful video teleconference should have a length of: 2 or 3 days 0.5% (1)

no more than two days 0.5% (1)

no more than one day 10.3% (19)

only part of a day 14.7% (27)

actual video time of no more than 3 hours 14.7% (27)

will vary because of content and goals sought 57.6% (106)

Other 1.6% (3)

n 184

I believe the chief advantage for a video teleconference is (select only one):

*1 cost 3.7% (7)

*2 bringing people together who otherwise could not attend for reasons including distance 13.4% (25)

*3 the bringing together of personalities (sometimes experts in the subject area) who, otherwise, would be unable to meet at a single location 23.0% (43)

*4 other ^-^^ ^ ^

*5 it is impossible to give a single advantage as *1, *2, and *3 are all important a d v a n W ; 58.3% (109)

187

188

TABLE 17—Continued

I believe the chief disadvantage for a video teleconference is (select only one):

cost 20.8% (35)

the lack of human communication possible through video screens and not having face-to-face communication 24.4% (41)

the poor quality of equipment usually available for such endeavors 2.4% (4)

the inability of persons sponsoring video teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional techniques that utilize the video teleconference technology 47.6% (80)

video teleconferences have so many disadvantages that it is hard to pick one 4.8% (8)

n 168

I believe video teleconferencing will (See Appendix C for complete responses):

Positive Responses 56.5% (74)

Neutral Responses 37.4% (49)

Negative Responses 6.1% (8)

131

Missing Responses (% in Relative Frequency) 43.3% (100)

NOTE: All percentages (column) indicate adjusted frequencies unless labeled relative frequency with n giving number of respondents per each item. Numbers within 0 are absolute frequencies or the number of respondents within each category. Numbers with * indicate questionnaire response numbers that indicate a combination of possible answers.

189

mentioned was the one most important element.

As Table 17 shows, the majority of respondents who

indicated a time frame for a successful video

teleconference selected a time of one day or less with

10.3% (19) selecting no more than one day, 14.7% (27)

selecting only part of a day, and 14.7% (27) reporting

that the time will vary because of content and goals

sought. However, the highest percentage, 57.6% (106),

indicated that the time will vary because of content and

goals sought.

More than half of the respondents, 58.3% (109),

indicated that cost; bringing people together who

otherwise could not attend for reasons including distance;

and the bringing together of personalities (sometimes

experts in the subject area) who, otherwise, would be

unable to meet at a single location; were important

advantages and that it was impossible to give any one

single advantage. The second highest percentage of

possible responses was found with the variable—the

bringing together of personalities (sometimes experts in

the subject area) who, otherwise, would be unable to meet

at a single location--and brought 23% (43) of the

respondents to agree. Also showing a percentage of more

than 10% was the variable—bringing people together who

otherwise could not attend for reasons including

190

distance—with 13.4% (25). As with the length of the

video teleconference statement, only 1.6% (3) indicated a

chief advantage other than what was given (see Table 17).

Perhaps, the most interesting percentage to educators

who wish to utilize video teleconferencing is found with

the statement, "I believe the chief disadvantage for a

video teleconference is (select only one)." Nearly half

or 47.6% (80) of the respondents selected the completion

statement as, "the inability of persons sponsoring video

teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional

techniques that utilize the video teleconference

technology." Thus, as far as the respondents are

concerned, persons sponsoring video teleconferences have

not used the medium in a proper way. The next highest

percentage, 24.4% (41), also involves a human dimension:

the lack of human communication possible through video

screens and not having face-to-face communication. Cost,

20.8% (35), was a close third as a chief disadvantage.

Only 4.8% (8) selected the response, video teleconferences

have so many disadvantages that it is hard to pick one.

Appendix C lists complete responses for the open

ended question. Deciding which response was positive,

neutral, or negative was not easy, as someone could be

positive in one sense and negative in another sense within

the same response. Anyone who did not report anything

191

neutral or negative and, in general, thought video

teleconferencing could be beneficial, was judged to be

positive in response. Anyone who did not say anything

positive or negative was judged to be neutral. Anyone who

suggested failure within the medium was judged to be

negative. Again, the complete listing of positive,

neutral, and negative responses may be found in Appendix

C.

100 respondents or 4 3.3% did not respond to the open

ended question. Of the respondents who did, 56.5% (74)

gave positive responses; 37.4% (49) gave neutral respon-

ses; and 6.1% (8) have negative responses. The high

percentage of neutral responses indicates that video

teleconferencing probably does not have a "blind trust"

type of support. In any event, the views of the

respondents are listed verbatim in Appendix C.

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution By the Demographic Responses

Table 18 compares responses by the type of organi-

zation/institution on items relating to experience and job

description. Thus, the type of organization/institution

was considered to be important when compared with the

statements, "I have been involved with video tele-

conferencing (number of years involved with video

teleconferencing)," <.049; "From January 1983 to the

00

w m <

Q

<

z o M

D

M EH

æ z z o M

Cs] M Z <

O^ O

w o w Pu > i EH

w C/3 D

W U z w ff! W W Z o u w w E-t

O

w Q M > w o æ u M

<

o o s w Q

cu

CL4

E-< O

E-t

o cu

o:

<

D

u

D

•

o

ro Vû

CN

ro •

ro

o o

• CN

O • < ^

• ro

vo ro

•

r> o o

•

o

M m o

• ro

M r^

• ro

vo vo

• ro

O o

• CN

O •<3'

• m

M <y\

• ro

r-m o

• o

fV3 cr> o

• CN

<y\ M

• ro

" r <y\

• rNj

o o

• ro

O vo

• M

r-CM

• CN

O

m r~

• o

m r-m

• o

cy\ M

• M

00 O

• M

O O

• M

O ro

• M

00 M

• M

0

> 1 E-t

s: T3 -p 0 •H > > t P M

C 0 13 - H >

0 u c > C •H M 0 0 5-1 03 > 0 5-1 C I H fO •H C 0

1

c 0 u 0 M

CTN VD

ro

' 3 '

ro

ro

^_^ 1 — 1

0 M fO

u 03

• -P O,

0 o 0 >i-P

C U 0 0 IM 0 M 0

Xi 0 J-> 5

0 0 > 0 ^

0 0 13 •H >

fo 0 e £ J : 13 3

•H C M > - -

-p •H ^

M '—'

C7> C

•H U

c 0 5-1

0 M-l

0 £ -P

0 -p

ro

IW 0

5-1 0

C Xi 0 0

00 X I <y\ M 0

e p c —'

> s: > i fO -P

u s: fO 3 c fO 1-3

e 0 u ^

M

•P

c 0 03 0 U cu

•H >

13 0 > M 0

c 0

• 03 0 u c 0

u 0

M-l C 0 u 0 M 0 -p

0 0

> 13 C

•H •H >

ro CM

"íT

o r^

ro

^^

0 M fO

u 03

• -P û.

r *

0 0

13 •H >

s: -p •H

5 0

u c 0

•H ^ 0

03 • H

Cn c

• H U

c 0 -1

0 4-1

c Oi o X 0

u 0 M

> l 0 S -P

o o

ro

VD 00

CN

„ ^ 0 M fO

u 03

• -P 04

m ^

• • ^,^

13 0

13 r- 3

M iW U

0 c •H

£ U 0 fO Xi 0

^ 13 M

0 3 -P 0

U O. M 03 0 g s: 0

-p M - H

O O

M

O rvi

M

0 -P •H 5-1 5

00

o VD

ro m r~

ro ro

VD CNJ

o o

o m

vo ro

m

CN

• o ro o

<y\ m

CN 00

ro

o

• vo

ro <y\ vo

• o o o VO

VO

00 <y\

rvi 00 vo

CN

0 0 VO

M

CN

M

o o

M

o 00

M

0 0 m

M

rvj m

M

0 0 m

M

O o

M

O r-

M

r-vo

r^j

00 rsi

M

00 CN

M

O O

CN

O VO

M

O m

m

00 VD

M

O ro

M

O O

M

O CT^

M

ro 00

o

ro

M

VD

M

O o

M

O ro

M

M

^ m M

O

r~

m 00

M

r m

ro CN

M

VD M

CM VO

M

• ^

VD

00 O

M

O ro

<y\

00 vo

o o

•

m

o o

•

o

o o

•

• ^

r-M

o m

• ro m o

• m

0

u D 13 0 U CU

-P

c 0

u 0 4-1 iw •H 13

0 -P fO

c •H 13 5- 0 0 U

03 C 0

•H •p fO

u 0

M

0 03

•H > 5-1 0

a, 0 03

0 -P fO S-l 0

a 0

> i M 1—1

lO

u •H

c £ u 0 -p

0 -p 0 e 0 5-1

a

5-1 0

SZ -P 0

03 C ^ 5 - 1 ^ 0 0 0 0 0 ^

M-4 M-i U jQ fO O C U

03 0 S-l 03 5-1 0 S-l 0 0 -P 0

^ -H 4-4 13 -P e 03 C 0 Û4 D 0 -P C C U U O

0 0 13 M 0 -H M 13 ^ t P - P 0 C fO rO -P 0 4-1 5-1 -P U 0 0 03 0 > 0 0 -P fO £ 13 > S-i

-P •H fO lO 0 5-1 > x: cu s: fo E-i 0 fO M fO

193 0 Cn

0 0 > M

•H 03 C 0

x:

M fO

0 c u o

• H 03 03

0 -P 03 i-l 5-1 0 Q4 fO 4-1 e O O M M U fO Û4 II u D 0 U XD.

fO 0

O 5

•H -P • - M >^ II -P -P < 03 •H Jl fO

e 03

-P C 0 4-1

13 -H c c 0 Cn Û 4 - H 0 03

13 II

c o. •H II -

OQ 0 æ 3

u 03

xy\ C fO

•H •P 03 fO <0 03 U ^

•H

C M •H M

(0

c O

•H •p

O •P •H

M -P -P •H ^ 03

c M

03 5-1 0 >

• H

c

0

0

e fO -P 5-1 fO Cn O 13 u c

t n Q4 fC c

•H 03 0 •P -P CP C 5-1 fO fO 5-1 rH tJ>'-H O

fO u 0 5 -P 0 ro J3 5-1 •H O M -P U (0 O

13 03 5-1

5-1 0 O 4-1 >

4-1 -P x: o -H u 5-1 J^ fO fO

0 s: 03 4-»

w

c o

•H -p fO w 5-1

o -a 5-1 5-1 0

o s: U -P

0 e cn 0 0 5 -P M 0 •r^^ ^ s:

o \ U 03

•H fo 03 x : 0 -p

5-J 13 fO 0

-P

s: u

5-1 o

4-1

EH

o

5-1 O

•H C :3

13 0 C

o -c

> i o -H -H

fO -H 13 5 r-l 0 0

-P ^ -P O •H C ^H

> i 5-1 O tj\ 0

C -P

5-1 O

0 5-1 II D

c e e o u

0 4-> fO >

• H

a 5-1 o e 5-1

• H 4-4

- P fO

- P 03

C

o •H 03

•H > 0

M 0 •P

0 fO 13 U

0 -C c ' H Cn o < fo p a j U O 03 03 x : 0 0

•p 5-1 x ; 0 M

• c <

c o

-p o c c

•H

03 0 0 5^ M

o

M 0 13 0 03 0 > C -P

O 03 ^ • H 03 M

0 t j i S-l 0 fO ^ 0 M > i

.. o 0 U rsj

13 II O 5-1 p:: U O »^

fO -P II 03

O fO QA U

13 . » fO >i O

1 3 5-1

3 X! -P

U m 0 03 O 5-1 0

5-1 0 fO 5-1

•H 03

C fO 0 0 s: e -p fo 0

C 5-1 0 O U -P (0

c O

•H

o u 03

V -p II 03

.. >, ... W -P —

•H M 03 M 5-1 0 >

•H C M 3 —

CQ

03 C

O 2

5-1 O

03

4-4

o -03

03 03 0 0

0 0 0 fO •H S-l -P c 0

u c fO U 0

O 0

cr e o c

03 5-1

o

c • H

03

U X>

•H -H 4-1 i 2

0 •H •H ^ M C 03 03 jQ cn 03 :3 fo -H o x: E-i 03 Û j - P

194

present I have been involved with (number of video

teleconferences on 7 pt. scale)," <.007; "coordinate

different locations," <.030; "technically operate," <.016;

and "promote," <.000.

As Table 18 shows, the longest involvement with video

teleconferencing is found in the "other" category at a

mean score of 4.24. The lowest amount of time involved

with video teleconferencing is found in the small business

category, at 2.00. Also with a low mean score are

community or junior colleges at 2.36. Thus, for persons

with the most long term experience with video

teleconferencing, one would not want to contact most small

businesses or junior colleges with organizations outside

of higher education having the most experience.

Privately owned corporations have conducted the

greatest number of video teleconferences (from January

1983 to the present I have been involved with [number of

video teleconferences]) as the mean score of 5.40 shows.

Again, small businesses conducted the least number of

video teleconferences, as the mean scoré of 2.00 shows.

Privately owned corporations are the organizations

most likely to coordinate different locations (mean score,

1.80) while small businesses were the least likely at

1.00. Small businesses were the most likely to select

"technically operate" at 2.00 while research universities

195

were the least likely at 1.16.

Privately owned corporations were also the most

likely institutions/organizations to select the variable,

"promote," as the mean score of 1.90 in Table 18 shows.

Small businesses were the least likely to select promote

(1.00), followed by the PBS broadcast television stations

at 1.30.

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution By Agree-ment/Disaqreement Attitude Responses

Table 19 shows the dependent variables, "future of

video teleconferencing is promising," <0.023; "video

teleconferences are best handled through a university with

teleconference facilities," <0.000; and "larger,

university-type video teleconferences are very different

from smaller, business type video teleconferences designed

for 'in-house' use," 0.000, to be significant at the .05

level. The reader should remember that, unlike other

tables in the questionnaire, the coding used on the 5

point scale is reversed with l=strongly agree and

5=strongly disagree. With the future of video

teleconferencing is promising variable, the PBS broadcast

television stations have the lowest number of positive

responses as the mean score of 2.18 shows. Institutions

with the greatest number of positive responses were the

comprehensive colleges and universities at 1.21.

<T> M

W i-:i CQ <C H

2 O M EH D E i M EH

ín 2 M

2 O M E-i < N M 2 <

u O^

o w o w CL4 >^ E-i

m w w 2 o &4

æ w Cií

w w «

o <

æ M Q * ^

W W o: ^ <

o: w D

Q 2 <

&4

W

E- O

E-i

ca

CQ C/D

o

o::

<

D u

D o::

0 Cu >1 EH

m m vo

•

o

' îí ' <y\ vo

• o ^ m

•

ro

O ^

• ro o O

• ' ^

o m

• ro

vo ro

• ro CM O

• o

m M m

r^j

00 00

• M

00 M

CN

O o

• CN

O m

• M

• ^

vo

CM <y\ M

• O

vo vo ^

M

m CM

• ro

O o

• ro

o O

• rsj

o <Ti

• CN

^ * VO

<y\ rsi M

• O

00

r» vo

• M

00

m •

ro

<y\

o • ro

o O

• "=T

O

ro •

ro

vo ro

ro

ro

CM

ro

ro

vo 00

• r^i

M vo

M rvj

• M

r^ <y\

<y\ rsj

• ro

<y\ m

i ^

m •

ro

"îT <y\

rM

• o o o

'^ m ro •

vo

vo •

ro o r-•

ro o o

o

VO

ro

O O •

ro

vo VD

03 0 U 5-1 C 0 0 4-1 5-1 0 0

4-1 -P C fO 0 •H U 5-1 -P 0 Û4 U M 0 0 5-1

0 •r—i

-P C U X ! 04 P

0 fO 0 13 0 •H 5-1 > fO

03

> i

C fO

1 0 M

0 -P

0 0

13 •H >

4-1 0

0 U

tP C

• H U

c 0 5-4 0

P 4-1 -P D

4-1

C 0 u

tn c

•H 03

•H

e 0 5-1 04

03 • H

M M fO

e w 03 04

3 Æ 0 -P 5-1 • H CP 3

13 m 0 04 03 3 5-1

0 -P 13 03 C 0 3

X I - -

03 04 D 0 5-1 (J^

m X3 CM -P •H C ^ fO

x: ' d -P 0 03 0 3 S-i

0 •p e 03 0 4-1 X3 0

03 0 > i U -P 0 C •H U 0 03 C 5-1 T3 5-1 0 0 0 0 5-1

4H M > 0 C 13 • H 4-1 0 C C C U fO 3 0 0 x: u M fO 0 0 -P M •p 03 x : 0

0 tJ>^p 0 ja 3 0 o x:

13 0 »-4 -P • H 5-» x : • H > fO -P ^

03 0

• H -P •H M • H U fO

4-1

197

o OJ

CN

• ^

• o o o

ro '?r

00

o

o

ro M <y\

00

ro 00

m

CM <y\

o r-

o o

CM rsj

<y\

<y\

CN

CN

o ro

• rsi o o

•

rvj CM

CM

O O

•

m

r^j

m

00

CM

O

o

CN

cy\ 00

m

rsi

00 00

<y\

o o

• ro O O

• rvj

ro r-

ro <y\

r <y\

o m

• rvj 0 0

o o

rvj

cn ro

• CM

r-o

• rsi 00 00

1 03 0 0 M

e 0 0 -P u 0 x ;

X) -P •H

0 5 c 0 S-i 0 fO

e -H 0 M 03 •H

e 03 (0 fO 4-1

1 O4 0 U u fO

03 ^ 0

Cn > C 0

•H 5-1 U O4

c e 0 •H 5-1

0 0 4-1 U

c c 0 fO U -P

1 1 > i c -P 0 •H U 03 0 5-1 M 0 0 > •M

•H C 0 3 0

13 • •H

5H > 0 (J> 0

> i

U 0

> e 0 0 S-l u 4-1 fO

-p 03 C 0 0 u u C 0 0 4-4

5-1 O4 5-1 4-1 fO > i

M -P 0 -H

4-1 13

03 03 0 C

•H 03 3

X!

^ 5-1 0

M M fO

e 03

5-1 0

1 4-1

c 0 13 U 0 0 C M CJI 0 0 •H 03

-P 03 3 0

0 13 = 0 0

13 03 03 •H 0 3 > U 0

c x: 0 0 1 O4 5-1 c > i 0 -H

-p 4-1 =

>! -P •H 03 5-1 0 >

•H

c P M

M S-i fO 0 -P

03 > i c C •H fO O 4 I 3 e -1 0 3 U 0

s: lO 03

03 1 (0 M tO

0 03 O4 C 0 e 0 0

•H •H j a -p •H 0 C > . M 03 fO M •H 0 0 U 03 > 03 fTj •H -P -H •H

4-1 •H -P 03 e U fO

-P 3 -P 0 X! C -H rO 4-1 0 13 X ; 4-1 5-1 C 0 -P 0 fO fo e M e •M 13 3 5-1 0 c 0 cn 0 x : fo 03 0 Cl,+J -p 3 5-1

1 c 5-1 •H 0

4-4 13 C M 0 0 u x: 0 M 4J 0 03 -p 0

Xi 0 0 0

13 S-i •H fO >

03 0 0

e u 0 c 03 0

-p

u C 0 -P 0 T - i ^ 0 =

Æ 10 -P £ -P 3 0 . U (0 03 fO 0 3 e M g ^ 5-1 03 X5 0 fO £ -H 0

4-1 r-l +J c/3 0 •H C 03 -P

0 e 0 0 = 04-H g a > i 03 0 -P S-i 03 13

M 0 •H 03 0 0 0 03 -P 4J

•H 0 ^ -H s-i e 0 > i 0 fO 0 03 5-1 03 03 ^ (0 -P

0 u c 0 5-1 0

4-1

c 0 u 0 M 0 -p

0

c 0

c •H

04

13 0

c •H -P c o u I I

w CQ < : E-i

w

E H

o

E-i CQ

CQ

o

o:

D U

D

0 04 > i EH

> i 4-)

> i - H 03 -P •H -P c 0 13 •H

4-1 0

0 03

c 0 03

0 4= -P

03 C 5-1 0 0 ^ > fO •H 0 c ^ J

^iP C •P fO 03 O. 0 e xi 0 U 0

x: > i ^ p

e = 03 — •H

03 0 U C M 0 U 13 0 M

4-1 d

M VO CM

• O

00 <y\ CM

• M

00 CM

• ro

o CM

• ro

o o

• ^

o o

• -=3'

r--OJ

• ro

r m

• ro

ro O

• ro

£ C « 5-1

> i 0 3 •P CP-P

0 5-1 Xi 0

c 0 x: cn 0 -C U 03 0

-P C 0 -H

x: M > 1 0 -P 0 x: x: 0 -p ^

0 " 0 ^

13 03 •H fO >

•p e 0

-P 03 •H

e w ' O fO fo x:

0 tj\ r-H

0 0 M • > ^ M fO 0 •H ^ (0 e u 03 0 C 03 C

• V 0 u tj\

C U 0 fO < 0 •H -P U

X : 03 03 C •H 0 -P 03 0 4 - 4 ' U U 0 13 •H 04 fO 4-1 C C

>1 —1 CP • C M

£ 0 0 Cn 0 0 0 M 5-1 O f H U fO O4 0 03 il S-l 13 II

D 0 0 C Cl4 U ^ 5 -H

•H -P 11 - " . • rH 03 0 > i II -P C/3 í3 -P < 03 M •H (_:; fO ••' fO 03 0 C > 5-1 ••> ^ 0 0 g •H W > fO -P -P II

•H 5-1 fO (0 tx4 C tj\ U :3 0 13 0 —

5-1 C O4 5-1 tT> O4 fO S-i 0 C 0 £

5-1 > +J 0 :/D M 11 M m - ' 0

• 0 M 0 (0 x: U -P 03

0 0 -P 0 U V

fO 0 03 U •H C

•H 03 0 U -P 13 fO -P -P t7> 0 C SM 0 13 II fO fO --4 0 E-4 5-1 M C 0 Cn^ 0 5

torate

libera

unior c

ately 0

tation;

U fO T O > 03 0 -H

13 03 5-1 5-1 C 5-4 0 O4 0

5 - 1 0 - H 0 4-1 > i 5-1 03

4-4 -P 0 - H x : 0 -H >

earc

hat

mmun

f irm

tele

03 -P 0 0 U fO -P 5-10 II 03 II IT> 5-1 0 (0 D 0 fO CX4 U 05 M 0 13

M > i ••» fO • • 0 > i 0 0 U rg 13 5-1 13 II 3 Xí 0 5-1 05 -P II U 0 h3 03 E-i

CQ •• > i • - 4-1

• ^ U 0 •H 0 4-1 S-l -H CP C

point a

ing sig

-p m fO

u C -H 0 13

c 03 •H 0

scor

th *

•H C 5 fO 0 ^ e 0

0 0 u U CP fO fO

03 03 H 0 Q

•H 5-1 > i

W -P ^ 0 ' ^ -P ^ E-l •H M 0: 0 03 M 03 0" 2 5-4 0 a

0 5-1 03 C > 0 5-1 •^

C Cn 0 C

> 0 ; 0 5.4 ) M -P

•H 3 03 j a C/3 C M 0 D fO II 3 - - U XI EH ir>

199

As one might expect, research universities had the

strongest agreement, 2.66, with the variable whether video

teleconferences are best handled through a university with

teleconference facilities. Privately owned corporations

strongly disagreed and had a mean score of 4.70, the

highest score of any in Table 19. Small businesses had

the second highest disagreement score at 4.00. Thus, one

can say that businesses and universities do not agree

about who should handle video teleconferences.

Junior or community colleges had the strongest

disagreement, 4.00, with the statement that larger,

university type video teleconferences are very different

from smaller, business type video teleconferences designed

for in-house use. Research universities had the strongest

agreement score, 1.98, closely followed by small

businesses at 2.00. This finding is not as unusual as it

may seem at first glance. As the author has taught at two

junior or community colleges for five years, he knows from

first-hand experience the negative feelings held by

community college aciministrators and instructors toward

universities as a whole. Probably, the attitude that

"we're just as important as the big guys" by individuals

at the community college level had much to do with the

responses to this dependent variable. In recent years,

junior colleges even resented the name "junior" because

200

some said that the word was subservient to a larger

college or university. On the other hand, small business

managers see strengths in being small and, whether a video

teleconference is large or small, does not have the

perception of being inferior; hence, smal1 business

managers to not take offense to being small since such

difference does not mean inferiority. Research

universities, familiar with the small video teleconfer-

encing of the private business sector, probably, have some

experience with both types of teleconferences and have no

"inferiority feelings" about size. While this is

conjecture by the author, it would be an interesting

variable to further research.

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Orqanization/Institution By Yes/No; True/False Responses

Table 20 shows the two dependent variables to have

significance at the .05 level to be, "I have been involved

with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video

teleconferences on a subject area designed for the same

(or mostly same) audience," <0.031; and "Prior to my

involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been

involved with audio teleconferencing," <0.000.

Table 20 shows that the organization most likely to

say "yes" to the statement, I have been involved with a

weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconferences

04

• M ro O

• o o o

(X4

E H

o

ro m

• rsj

r-m

m r^ o

• vo <y\ m

m

ro 00

o CN

W

CQ <i: E H

2

o M E H D E-i M E H cn 2 M 2 O M E H

<c N M 2 <c O 05 O w o w 04 > l E H

æ w æ 2 O 04 U) w 05

W C/3

< : w w D 05 E H

Q 2 <

O 2

w >4

ffi E-i

CQ

CQ CO

O 04

o;

<

D U

D 05

ro vo

vo O

O

00 r-

o o m

cy\ 00

o o

CM

0 Û4 > 1

E H

x: •p •H ^

13 0 > M

0

0 0

U 13 0 -H

> > ( ^ 4-1

> x: 0 c •H

c 0 0 Xl

0 > fO

s: M

4J C 03 0 0 e -H

5-4 * 0

CN vo

M

0 0 ro

M

5-1 ^

0 0 4-1 g

fO 13 03

fO 0 C > i

C tT* M 0 •H -P ^

03 03 O 03 0 0 2 0 13 e ^ U C/3 C fO 5-1 W 0 0 0 >^ 5-1 5-4 ^ - ^

0 fO > i 03 4-1 0 0

M

M M 0 fO 0 3

^ c c

fO fO

c -p e u 0 U fO C U 0 03 0 0 - m •H M X5 0 13 0 p x : :3 -P 03 -P fO

•p

c 0

e 0 > M

0 1 > 0 C M •H 0

•p > 1

e 0 0

0 13 -P •H

> 5-1

c 0 0

^

13 fO

• < *

m

M

m • ^

M

,^^

o 2

^ v

w w

0 >^ •H

x : 13

M

^

D fO

x: Cn-P c •H

u

•H

5

—

ÎJl

c •H

u c 0 5-1 0

C 13 4-1 0

u 0

0 x : 4H •H -P 5-1 -H 0* ^

c 0 u

0 >

f - H

0 > c •H

c 0 u 0 M

0 -p

c 0 0

Xî 03 0 fO Q) Q) SZ

13 > -H - 0 > M 5-1

0 0 03 x : x : 0 -p •P u

c -4-1 0 C 0 5-4 •H

0 0 4H 13 e c 0 0 0 > 03 U M

0 0 5-1 ^ >

0 0 c W •P •H

0 -p

-p

o. e 0 -p -p

00

o CN

^ cr»

M

M

3 4-1 03 03 ^

0 o U 2 u \ D U) 03 W

> l

l — 0

(0 x ; 0

c fO

c 0 0 Xi

5 0 0 5H 5 3 03 > i fO 0 0 x : e -p

202

rvj ro

r-m r

o o

CM

VD

r-

o o

•

CN

r^ vo

-p 13 D 0 0

M X^ 03 íO fO

03 0 C U 0

•H •H fO -P C 03 C 0 0 D

o o CN

CN <T\

M

tP c •H U c 0 5-1 0

4-4 C 0 - -

•H cr u w -p 03 -P 0 c ^J fO D' .p

u 03 0

0 æ M J 0 < -P w —. 0 w 0 D

•H a i 3 05 s: e EH •H

•H EH > ^

0

> • H 03 C 0 x: 0 5-1

0

0

o u 03

- p u

O4 (0 4-1

fO C

o •H 03 03 0 13

fO

e 03

- P C 0

e o U fO II s D 0 U X3

•H

O U

0 u c fO u

•H 4-1 •H

c

0

S-i EH II

CM

W

O. 0 13

C 0 tnco 04^H q

03

o -p

-p •H 03 U 0 >

•H C 3 O 13

5-1 C

tr^ o. fO c

03 - P S-l fO

c •H II

OQ

æ

< 11 b

0 4 \

w - D 0 05

< h-q

• e fO S-l ^

03 fO 0 M

-P fO

• c 0

•H -p fO 5-1

M fO 13 > C

fO (X4

11 -— &4 0

2

0 > 0

•H -P

c fO

u

o 04

o u

0 -p

fO SH

0

0 tJ 0 13 M 0

C

o

fO J2 5-1 •H O M -P U

o 1 3

U

O

s: u 5^ fO 0 03 0 5-1 II

D

o:

0 13 o u

(0

03 5-1 0

4-1 4-1 O

- P fO x: -p

0 tp 0

o u s o

•H

c • n

5-1 O

> i -P •H C

e e o u

0 - p fO

> • H 8^ O4

5-1 O

e u

• H 4-1 fO

S-l

0 x: -p o II

EH

o

c o •H -p fO w -p > l 03

fO

c o 03 0 S-l

o

03 0

>4 II

CM

o 2

Ui

c o

• H 03

• H > 0

M 0

- P

m o

0 s: 4->

O -P

V

0 u c fO

u •H 4-1 -H C tJ^

-H 03

CT» C

• H - P fO U

• H U 13

u o fO O4 0 > 1 • *

U rsj 13 II = 5

5-1 o:; O fD

-P 03 10 u

13 fO

> i O 5-1

-P 03

w EH

o 2

^

> i •P • H 03

0

> • H

c o •

M

4-1

o 03 0 03 5-1

o u

CQ

0) 03 0 c

• H 03

Xi

03

c fO 0

e 0 S-l fO

03 0

• H 5-4

- P C 0

0 M JO fO

C •H

x: -p •H

0 M (0 u 03

0 03

i-H

(0

w

203

on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same)

audience, is a firm or privately owned corporation, with a

mean score of 1.78. The institution least likely to say

"yes" to the statement is the research university, with a

mean score of 1.38. Small businesses had no responses in

this category.

The organization most likely to say "yes" to the

statement, "Prior to my involvement with video

teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio

teleconferencing," is comprehensive universities with a

mean score of 1.54. Junior colleges were second with a

mean score of 1.50. Again, small businesses had no

responses in this category. Of interest, is the group

least likely to say "yes"—the PBS stations with a mean

score of 1.06. Thus, the PBS television stations have

little experience with audio teleconferencing.

Analysis of Variance: : The Type of Organization/Institution By the Deqree of Importance Variables for a Successful Video Teleconference

Table 21 shows 11 dependent variables to be

significant at the .05 level or beyond. The variables

are: technical expertise, <0.002; ability to adapt

curriculum or subject matter to a technical medium,

<0.000; two-way video and voice communication among all

sites, <0,020; a local question and answer session among

individuals at a location immediately after a

o.

fM

w CQ < E H

W W Oí U W Q

W O

Ui 2 O M EH 04 W U 05 W 04

Q 2 <

2 O M EH D EH M EH

æ 2

2 O M EH <

M 2 < U 05 O

W

o w 04 >4 E H

U 2 M

u 2 W Oí W W 2 o u w HÍ w

o w Q M >

D W C/3 æ w u u D C/3

05 O W

W

u 2 < : E^ 05

o 04

w o

w

E H

o

E H CQ

CQ C/3

O

<c

D U

D 05

• CN O o

m m <y\

9

m

r^ m

• r o

00 00

ro

o O

ro

O O

VO

• ^

r o

r -

r o

0 04 > i

E H

0 03

• H - P 5-1 0 O . X 0

fO u

• H c x: u 0 -p

o o o

• o

<y\ cz> vo

• vO

O r

• ro

<y\ vo

• ro

o O

• o

00 r

• OJ

o 00

<y\ m ro

• o

<y\ o M

• M

<y\ o

• ro

m <y\

9

CM

O O

• M

<y\ 00

• CVJ

00 M

r o

m •

r o

r^ •

r o

I :3 o u -P

• H 5-1 5-1

5-1 0

:3 -P U -P

fO

e e M 13

-P 04 fO -P 0 13 u e fO 0

•ro M O J2 fO -P D U

03 •H > i C -p 5-1 x : •H o u M 0 •H e •<->

fO M fO

r o

r o rvj

• r o

00 CTi

• CM

5H

O 4-1

c 0 0 5-1 U 03

0 tJi CP C 5-1 •H fO 5 M 0

•H fO >

M rsi

o

o

r o

r o

o vo

• r o

o O

CM

CM CM

•

r o

m

r o

r o CM

r o

o

r o

O -P

0 5-1

-P fO 5-1 0 4J •H

cn 03 c c

• H 1 3 C 0 03

O - P

5-4 O •H 5-1 04 Cn

C •H 13 C 0 4-» -P

O 03 5-1 0 O4 fO

I fO u

• H C 3

CM CM

r « c» r o

r o

r o

CM

r o

o o

• r o

<y\ co

9

m

m m

• r o

O U

0 U •H O >

> 1 fO

I O

-p

r o

r o

CTi CN

• r o

I •H >

•H 13 03 C 0 -H -P

•H > i 03 0

M M

i fO C

o e fO c o

• H - p

fO

03 M

fO

1 3

0 U

• H o >

1 3 C

o 0

1 3 • H >

O CM O

00 m

• rsi r^» m

CM

OJ M

• CM

O O

• r o

O o

r o

00 M

• CM

00

r o

CN

O

o OJ

Cn C O

e fO fO

c O •H -p fO 03 U 0

> f H -P C •H 3 03

fO

I O

•p O M U fO

205

0 0 o rvj

• o

' 3 ' rsj ^

• M

r-00

• CM

• ^

M •

ro

o O

• ro

r-vo

• ro

M <y\

9

rvj

m 00 vo

• o

vo m vo

• o

"sr cy\

• M

r r CT\

9

M

O o

• CM

^ ^

• CN

rvj <y\

• M

• r^j o o

OJ

vo

r o

CM 00

• rsj

rsj o

• r o

o o

• CN

CN CM

ro

00 m

PO

vo ' ^ 00

• o

00 ' í ' ^

• o

^ <y\

• CM

ro r-

• CN

o o

• CM

<y\ 00

• CM

rvj cr>

m CM M

O

<T« <y\ vo

• M

m vo

t

ro

^ 00

• ro

o o

• ro

00 r-

• ro

m r^

M O O

• o rg C3 00

• ro

O O

• ro

00 M

• ro

o o

• r^j

o o

• ro

O m

CN r o r o

• o o o

•<3'

vo •

vo

m r -

• CM

00 •

CM

O O

• CvJ

00

r -

CM

m CN ro

rsi <y\

9

rsj

m CM

r o

0 U C 0

•H t n i 3 c D O fO

e — fO

03 03 C -P 0

C -P fO •H O. 03

•H fO U M 5-1 •H .-H 0 -P fO -P U C fO -P

•H 04 fO

o •H -p u

o o

• rsj

m o

• rsj

C O

•H -P U fO S-l 0 -P

c •H

5-1 0 -P

04 e o u

o

• r o

<y\ • ^

• r o

C O

•H -P fO

13 tr» u c c o fO O M

e ^ C fO fO 0 O -P

•H C •P 4H C •P O fO fO o 03 -H •H 0 03 03 > i 4 J P 03 M ^ fO t r 0 fO 0 -P

03 3 -P C M 13 fO 0 fO S-l - H • H 03 U 0 > 13 0 O ^ -H 0 M 0313 e

c c g fO fO •H •H

5-1 04

fO

03 M fO

S-i 13 0 •H ^ > 03 -H

O <y\

9

rvj

<y\

00

CM

0 - P

c o •H

C 13 M fO -P

O o

<y\ 00

ro

0 s: -p

4-1 13 O 0

-P cn c c 0

•H 03

e 0 •H 5-1 -P 04 13 M C fO fO -H

5-1 0 0 U -P fO fO 04 e

o m

• r o

O vo

• r o

-P fO

C

o • H 03 03 U 03

-H 13

a a O 0 5H - P IJi^H

03

fo s: u u O fO M 0

I c

• H

03

C

o • H

= -P fO

M -p fO c U 0 O 03 M 0

5-1 (0 O.

O 0

- - 13 03 -H

^ >

c O 0

•H JZ 03 -P 03 D O U -P 03

•H 13

C O

0 > fO

- C

o -p

c o 03 u 0 04

04 -P P -H O 13 5-1 13 tj> fO

U C O -H

o m

• r o

• " ^

r o

0 U c 0 u

c o M

0 -p 4-1 lO C -P O c U 0 0 03 f^ 0 0 u -p a

Oi

13 0

C •H -P c o u I I M CM

w CQ <

W

EH

o

EH 03

P3 U)

O 04

05

<:

D u

D 05

• o o o

• o

ro M vo

• r-

m 00

• M

<y\ 'sT

• M

O o

• CM

VD m

• M

ro 00

<y\ M m

• o

cr> vo 00

• o

o o

• ro

<y\ M

• ro

O o

• ro

CM CM

• ro

r-M

CN ro

M • î í m

• o

o • « ^

00 •

o

m 00

• CN

M m

• CN

O O

• ro

ro ro

• r^

m r^

• CN

O 0 0 m

• o

<y\ co r~

• o

m r-

• rsj

vo vo

• CN

O o

• OJ

r-vo

• CM

O o

• ro

M vo CN

• o

r-<y\ CN

• M

• ^

r^ •

ro

M 00

• ro

O o

• ro

o 00

• ro

M <y\

9

m

0 04 >1 EH

00 o

rvj

ro ' ^

CN

0 tJI 0 M

0 M U 0 c u 0 5-4 fO 0

4-1 -P C fO > i 0 -P U 0 •H 0 Æ 03 M 5-1 0 0 0 -P -P >

•H 0 03 C 0 0 :3 13 -P •H -H U > 03 0

0 4-) 0

0 03 13 M fO •H 5-1

• H >

0 0 x : -p fO e M 0 0

Xi ^ 5-4 0 ^

•P

•P

c

ro ro

ro

O ^

ro

0 U C 0 5-1 0

0 4-1

e 0 M

C 0 u

O. 0 a 3 03

M 0 -p

0 -p

03 0 U c 0

0 M

>H XI 0

4-1 C 0 u 0 M 0 -p

0

fO

1 0

0 e •P 0 ^ 03

5-1 0 0 13

•H > 0 fO •P

s-i x : p 0 0 03 X C fO 0

e 0 u p

0 13 13 •H >

0

0 C 0 •H e

0 03 03 0 tr> 0 C 03 fO p

4-4

o 0 0

4-> 13 M 3 03 0

•H >

0 u s: fO

03 10

4J

m r-

CN

m r^

CM

^-^ 0 u c 0 5-i

t7> 0 C 4-4 •H 13

CP c c •H

5-1 x : fo £ a u u • p

0 •P -P (0

c 0 u 0 M

0 -p

•P o 0 5-10 0 fO 13 B ^ -r^

•H > 0 e •P •H fO

03 03 tTí •p x : c C -P •H fO •H ^ 04 ^ :3 •H 13 U 0 •H M 03 •P 0 . -P 5-1 0 03 fO 0 0 O. 04 V-l

0 V l^ -P 0 0 c

4-1 C •H

CN <y\

CN

VO 0 0

rvj

0 U c 0 5-1 0

4H C 0 u 0 M 0 -p

o o

• • ^

C30 00

ro

0 s: •P

4-1 0

> 1 -p •H M fO 3 C G^ 0

•H M -P fO fO U -P •H C C 0

x : 03 U 0 0 5-1 -P Q4

207

o <y\ o

CM vo 00

r» m

• ro O rvj

• ro o o

•

o m

• ro m m

• ro

CN ro

ro CTi <y\

•

o

m M ro <y\ m

9

m

o o

• ro o o

• ro vo ro

• ro

.06

1

o

.05

8

CM

.78

CM

.44

o j

.00

( N

.20

rvj

cr\ o

.64

8

o

.70

3

o

.48

rsj

.39

CM

.00

rvj

.50

rvi

• ^

vo

.19

8

o

.45

3

M

fM M

ro

r-CN

ro

O o

ro

m CN

ro

m m

24

7

•

o

,32

9

M

ro m

M

cy\ • ^

M

O o ro

o m

M

m m

88

8

•

o

38

5

•

o M ' î j '

• ro

r-CN

• ro

O O

• ro

o m

• ro

m m

ro rsi ro ro

M •

ro

.25

ro

03 •P C fO a

•H U

•H -P U fO

a 0 -p

-p 03 0 u ^ 0 M

15 0 x: 03

=

x: -p •H ^

5-1 0 -P fO S-i 0

13 0

e

0 C 1 13 O fO > i - H -H U 0 > -P

•H ^ 0 fO

c u c p 0 a ^ H e x: 13 e -p c 5-1 0 fO 0 U -P U 0

fO u 5-1 0 0 03 x : ^

- ^ e = M c/3 03 -H C fO 03 4^ 0 •H 0 03 -H 03 C -P D •H c fo x:

'"îí' VO

t

ro

o ro

a

ro

C 0

•H •P fO >

•H -P 0

e 03 0 U -P 13 D •H 0 C

fO X2 -P M 0 c fO

^ o s: 03

z

s: •p •H ^

u 0 -p fO 5H 0

13 0

e

0 0 c 1 -P 13 0 fO -H -H •H U 03 > -P

•H O fO c x: 5-1 c D u a^H e fo 13 e 0 c 5 0 fO 0 U -P U 0

fO u 5H 0 0 03 x : *

-• ^ e = M 03 03 -H C fO 03 J^ 0 -H 0 03 -H 03 C •P D •H c fo x:

O O

ro

CN

r>

CN

C 0

•H -P fO >

•H -P 0

e 03 O U •P 13 í3 -H 0 C

fO Æ -P M 0 c fO

5-4 0 -P fO U 13

13 0

M fO c 0

•H 03 03 0

4-1 0

0 0

13 •H >

fO

c

ro r^

CN

O (^

CM

0 u c 0 5H 0

tJ>4-l -H 03 0

5-1 13 a fO

0 -p

C 0 u 0 M 0 -p

ro r>

• ro

rsi m

ro

U •H a 0 -p

13 0 x: N u

•H fO C 0 XJ\ 0 03 U 03 0 3 u u

03 fO -H

13 0 > •P fO 5-1 x: 0

a 0 X •p 0

r-CN

• M

O VO

• M

c > 0 •P

•H 03 =

•H 0 > > 0 •H

f H ^

0 = -P

4-1 C 0 (0 U 13 03 fO 1 0

^ • 1 - ' 0 03 M C 03 •H

> AJ

-M fO

e 5-1 0

m m

• ro

r-ro

• ro

> 4J

c fO o 03 1 ^ 0 M 03

C 4-1

5-1 0

0 >

•H M

0

13 fO 0 4J 03 C

• H

1 3 0 :3 c •H -P c o u I I

M CM

w PQ

E H

04

E H

o

E H CQ

P3

cn

O 04

05

D U

D 05

011*

• o

86

5 •

CN

r-

• rsj

CN 00

t

CM

o o

t

• < *

ro vo

t

ro

.91

CN

09

9

• o

817

• M m ro

t

CN

ro ro

t

rvj

o o

t

CM

ro M

CM

.91

OJ

00

5*

* o

,50

5

ro

ro m

CN

M M

rsi

o o

o

M r-

M

.30

CN

,00

1*

o

.47

0

"îT

VO M

OJ

<y\ 00

CN

o o

o

vo 00

CN

.30

ro

.09

9

o

.89

1

M

.74

ro

.42

ro

.00

o

.14

ro

.70

ro

.02

3*

o

.69

3

rM

.68

CM

.27

CN

.00

o

.00

ro

.70

CN

.18

9

o

.48

3

M

.67

ro

.44

ro

.00

ro

.83

ro

.67

ro

vo ro

t

ro

o <y\

M <y\

M

00 m

CN

CM

VO

OJ

ro

m o

.00

ro

vo m

.25

CN

M M

.88

ro

vo vo

CN CM rsi ro ro OJ ro

0 a > i

03 c 0

C -H •H -P

03 13 0 0 3 03 u cr-p fO c c M fO 5-1 fO

a 0 a 4-4 4-4 -H 03 0 U 0 e •H C 03 ^ -P 0 -P -H 5-1 Æ 4 5-1 fO a (0 0 a 0 a - p u -H e U > i l 3 0 •H 0 3 5-1 e ^ fo 4-1

1 fO

0 N tP^H S-l C fO fO M t7>

U fO 0

> i s XH 0

a c •H 0 x : -H 03 -P 5H fO 0 s 03 0 c a c 0 5-1

a 0 03 u

0 •H -P

5-1 0

•r-i fO e fO

> i Xi

a •H x: 03 5-1 0 03 c 0

> i -P •H 03 5-4 0 > •H

a c 03 3

e 0 0 u 5-1 c 4-1 0

5-1 0 0

13 4-4 fO C e 0 U 0 0

Xi M 0

0 -P -p

0 -p 0 •H 13 4-4 -H 0 > 5-1 a 0

s: fO -P

13 C

03 0 0 03 -P U 0 -P C M fO 0

5-1 M 0 0 0 •P 4-4

> c lO 03 0 5-1 0 U -P M 0

•H M

0 e 0 -p •p o

03 m 0 C M 0 0 13 03 C •H 5-1 10 > 0 s: a ^ p fo

4-1 O 0 -P

5-1 0 0 -p

XI -H e w p c x:

u 0 fO o

x : 0 m -p

-P c C7> fO fO

c x: •H 0 -P -P M •H a 03 6 0 03 •H 0 0 M a ^

-p u •H 5-1 -p 03

fO

0 -p

cn 0 C M •H D 5-4 13 0 0 x: x: 13 u 10 03

209

4-1 0 . u U 0 0 5-1

X3 4H

e D 13 C 0

^ 0 03

Æ fO •P

03 dn C C 0

•H •H -P -P •H 03 e 0 •H 3

m ^ ' 3 '

« O

a\ m <y\

t

o

00

m •

CN

M m CM

O

o

o VD

(30

CN

O

m t

CN

m r-

t

CM

CM 00

t

rsj

0 -P •H 03

x: u fO

M (J' 0

1 13 0 fO

e o 5-1

4H

03

c 0 •H -P 03 0 0 cr 0 >

•H M

fO 0

•P X3 fO

03 -P

c fO

a •H

u •H -P 5-1 fO a 0 u c 0

•H

-P 03

a e

^ ^ 03

^-' 0 -P •H

0 -P

0 U C

CP c •H 0

fO X2 >

13 fO

C •H

03 13

0 -p o e 0 5-1

0 c 0 0 S-i

u 03

U •H

a 0 -p

0 -p

M u

•H •p

.405

CS

m f ^ o M

O

(30

O I

VD cr>

t

CM

O

o t

CN

r* VO

t

CN

CN CN

t

ro

00 ro

t

CM

O I <y\

9

OJ

13 0 03 03 :3 u 03

•H 03 13

1 13 0 fO

e 0 5-1

4-1

03 C 0

•H -P 03 0 :3 cr 0 >

•H r - (

fO

-P 0 fO X2

03 -P C fO

13 M

3 0

ax: •H U •H -P 5-1 fO

a 0 u c 0

•H

03

0 -P •H 03

0 -P 0 e 0 u

03 -P 03

•H M

0 c fO

> i

j a

03

c 0

•H 4J 03

0 c ^ > 1

0 j a u C ^ 13 0

0 x: a p

13 c fO

c 0

cr x: u 3 03

—'

5H 0 -P fO 5-1 0

-P 13 13 -P •H 5-1

5

0 X 03 fO

0

e fO

u 0 fO M

XI 1

M M

03 fO

0 fO x : -p

-p u 0 5-1 •H 13

>

c 0 03 5-1

00 ' î r ' ^

t

o M

r <y\ t

o

o 00

t

M

r-M t CM

O

o t

rsj

o o

t

CN

ro ro

t

CN

m r '

t

M

O ro

t

OJ

^-^ C 0

-H -P 03 0 3 cr 0

0 x: a - p

0 CJI M

0 0 > M

•H ^ 03 0 C U 0

s: 03 0 -p 5 ^ 5-4

a fo e 0 -H U fO II u

D 0 U X2

•H ••• M >1 II -P < •H ^Jl 03 5-1 . -

0 e > fO

•H 5-1 C CP

M • M lO 0

fo e u C 03 C -P 0 fO fO •H -p u x: 03 C •H 5

V

0 U c fO

u •H 0 03 0 4-1 0 4-4 -H

0 13 •H g 4-1 C C 0 0 0 tTíC/3 5H a ^ H II a 0 03 ro

13 II 0 C 04 ••« 5 •H -p •P II - c

CQ 0 fO -P C/3 P -P 03 M 5-1 fO ••> fO 0

•H X3 C •H t j i 03 •H 03 03 0

0

c ^

03 a s: •p

t ^

x: u 03

03 a fo

Cn C (0

•H •P 03 fO fO U 5

•H 0 c > a i 3 - -M 0 e

•H W M •tJ •p II

C M •H M

fO fO £x4 >i^K S-i U U O

:3 0 13 o '^ 0 x : u c a 5-1 > -p M

cp a fo ^ 0 II c

•H 03 -P •P C 5-1 fO tO 5-4 tJl M

torate

libera

U fO 0

13 03 5-1

5-1 0 0 4-1

4-1

x: 0 u SH -P fO fO

0 x: 03 -P 0 5-4 0

0 x : •^ 0 U -P - -Cn 0 0 13 II 0 <-* 0) ír* ^ --4 C O fO 0 S U

unior c

ately o

tation;

4 pt. s

•r-i > 03 •H fO

5H JH C 0 a 0 c

•H 0 > i JH 03 •P 0 •H 03 •H > 0 C B Q) U 3 M M 0 e -H 0 U g 4-4 -P 03 O U fO -P C

II 03 fO II tP 5-1 O fO 0 D 0 05 -H

M

. . 0 0 u

13 0 s U 0

• • > i W -P EH •H O 03 Z 5

0 >

•H C ^ '

fo 04 u e 0 13 > i •- (0 0

> i 0 S-i CM 13 5-4 fO II 0 Xi 05 ••-> II 03

•H ^ 5

0 ^ Cn

C 0 •H -P

-P -H -P 03 C

•H

5-1 0

J3

03 •H

•p 0 x : C M fO M -P 0

t Impor

arts c

0 M

13 0

nt list

tegory.

0 fO 2 lO 13 U II 5-1

M 0 i 3

• * -H -P M

c fO x :

c 0 < a i - q 03 0 0 u s:

-p -P C7> 0 v 3 0 0 a ^ e -«-' M M

< > l

^ 0 • 5-1 M 10 0 05 > II 0

•"D 03 EH 0 OJ .H CQ -H

•^4 -1 5-1 - - 0 " •P M 03 C M 03 03 0

0 0 5-1 03 C 0 0 S •H M

D 03 X2 M 0 3 fO - U X3 EH

.«. m -P o c • fO -p 0 s-i x : 0 •P a e - J M fO

c c •H ^

0 13 03 0 C -P 0 03 a^H 03 ^ 0 5H 0

S-l 0 OJ 5-1

•H 03 fO 0 C 5-1 C 0 0 U •H 03 -P 03 C 0 fO D 0 CT e

210

presentation, <0.002; local group discussion at each site,

<0.001; to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or

group discussion(s) in addition to the video

teleconference presentation, <0.000; video teleconference

sites to be at a college or university, <0.000;

microphones placed in key parts of an auditorium for

questions from participants, <0.011; sponsorship by a

major university, <0.005; a profit to be made from the

video teleconference, <0.001; and, limiting the number of

people at each site to less than 50, <0.023.

The mean score of 4.00 with the variable, technical

expertise, shows junior or community colleges to be the

most likely to consider the variable important with the

PBS television stations in a close second at 3.88. Small

businesses did not have a score and the organizations

least likely to consider technical expertise important are

firms or privately owned corporations.

The variable, ability to adapt curriculum or subject

matter to a technical medium, shows close high mean scores

with junior or community colleges, 3.80, and research

universities, 3.77. There were no responses to this

variable with small businesses. The lowest mean score is

for firms or privately owned businesses at 2.78.

The variable, two-way video and voice communication

among all sites, shows firms or privately owned

211

corporations to tie with small businesses for the highest

mean score, 3.00. The lowest score, 2.00, was found with

research universities. Thus, the research universities

consider two-way video and voice communication among all

sites to be relatively unimportant while small businesses

and privately owned corporations think the variable to be

important. Probably, universities are thinking in terms

of a larger audience than are small businesses and

privately owned corporations.

The variable, a local question and answer session

among individuals at a location immediately after a

presentation, had the highest mean score at 3.58 with

junior or community colleges and, thus, was considered

important in contrast to the lowest score, small

businesses, at 2.00. Research universities had the second

highest score, 3.49, and comprehensive universities the

third highest, 3.40. Research universities had the

highest mean score, 3.60, with the variable, local group

discussion at each site. Small businesses had the lowest

mean score, 2.00. Comprehensive universities and junior

colleges tied for the second highest mean score, 3.50.

Thus, research universities consider group discussion at

each site to be important while small businesses surveyed

do not.

The variable, to have a local "in-person"

212

presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the

video teleconference presentation, found the greatest

consideration for importance to be with comprehensive

colleges and universities, with a mean score of 3.50 while

the research university mean score was 3.49. The lowest

mean score was found with small businesses at 2.00. Thus,

comprehensive colleges and universities consider such

local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s)

to be important while small businesses do not.

The variable, video teleconference sites to be at a

college or university, found the greatest number of

respondents in the important categories to be junior

colleges with a mean score of 2.83. The PBS broadcast

television stations had the lowest mean score at 1.49. It

should be pointed out that the phrasing of the

questionnaire variable, "college or university," did not

show a difference between colleges or universities. No

doubt the mean scores would have been different if just

the word "university" had been used. Again, one might

expect the junior college mean score to be the highest

given the recruitment emphasis such smaller colleges have

and the integration of college and community.

The variable, microphones placed in key parts of an

auditorium for questions from participants, has the

highest mean score, 4.00, with small businesses. The

213

second highest mean score, 3.63, is with firms or

privately owned corporations and the lowest mean score,

2.47, is in the "other" category. One would expect small

businesses and privately owned corporations to be in

agreement with the variable that would make two-way video

and voice communication among all sites possible.

The junior college mean score, 2.30, drops in

relationship with the variable, sponsorship by a major

university. The highest important rating is with the mean

score for research universities at 2.67, followed by the

other category, 2.53; and the comprehensive universities

at 2.42. The lowest mean score is with privately owned

corporations at 1.71. Small businesses have a 0 mean

score. Thus, such figures may show the competition for

video teleconferences with universities and corporations

or the "different worlds" of the corporation, the research

university, and the junior college. The PBS stations have

the second lowest important score, 2.11.

Comprehensive universities rate, "a profit to be made

from the video teleconference," as important with the

highest mean score, 3.42. The mean score of 3.30 for

junior colleges is second in importance. The "other"

category, with the lowest mean score of 2.16, ranked

profit to be least important. Small businesses did not

respond to this variable.

214

Limiting the number of people at each site to less

than 50, is most important for privately owned

corporations and has the highest mean score of 3.00.

Research universities have the lowest score of 2.11 and

small businesses did not respond to this variable. Such

mean scores are what one would expect with universities

apparently wanting to hold larger video teleconferences

while businesses do not.

Analysis of Variance: The Type of Organization/Institution By the Degree of Success with Video Teleconferences On Various Subjects

Table 22 shows two subjects, mass communications and

mathematics, to differ with organization/institution

types. Mass communications is considered to have the

highest subject success with small businesses and has the

highest mean score of 4.00. Privately owned firms and

corporations ranked mass communications next with the

second highest mean score of 3.83. Mass communications is

considered to be least successful with junior or community

colleges and had the lowest mean score of 2.38. The low

junior college score probably indicates some of the

problems junior colleges have had to try to develop

programs in mass communications. Are the junior college

respondents reporting that mass communications would have

the lowest subject success with video teleconferencing?

Or, are the junior college respondents really reporting

OI CM

W J CQ <i: EH

U) 2 O M E^ 0-i W u 05 W CU

Q Z <

2 O M EH D EH M EH W 2 M

2 O M EH < N M 2 < o o: o fc o w 04 > l E-i

O 2 M U 2 W o: w fa 2 O u. w i-:i

EH

O w Q M >

a: H M 12

Ui Ui W u u D Ui

EH U pa CQ D

b o

o*

UA

EH

o

ÊH CQ

OQ

o 04

05

<c

D U

D Oí

0 a > i

755

o

568

o

ro m

705

o

631

o

o

928

o

314

o

M

243

o

345

M

r-m

665

o

681

o

r-m

.638

o

.715

o

VO

m

.498

o

.899

o

<y\ r-

.004*

o

.421

ro

t ^ M

.336

o

.153

M

CM

.412

o

.025

M

ro ro

.980

o

.189

o

m CM

ro

vo m

ro

o o

ro

r-VD

ro

cy\ M

ro

o O

ro

M

ro

o o

ro

O O

ro

O O

ro

<y\ m ro

o o ' í "

o o

ro

M vo

ro

O O

• ^

M r*

ro

M

ro

o o

ro

r-m

O I

o r-CM

o o ^

ro

ro

00 ro

ro

O O

• ^

ro 00

ro

ro ro

ro

O o

ro

ro 00

ro

00 M

ro

o o ro

r-M

ro

vo ro

ro

o O

ro

r-M

ro

O m

ro

ro

co m

m

m m m CM ro ro

VD 00

<y\ CM

ro • ^

O o

<y\ CN

o o

vo 00

ro ro ro ro CN ro ro

ro

m

ro

ro

• ^

• ^

ro

ro ro

ro

M

rsi

ro

ro

ro

ro

O o

ro

<y\ CN

OJ

00 ro

CN

QO

m m

00 00

CM

m CM

ro

<y\ CM

ro

00 vo

ro

ro • ^

CN

m o

ro

o vo

ro

CM ' í '

ro

' 3 ' •^

CM

ro m

ro

M ro

CM

r-ro

CN

O M

ro

os OJ

ro

0 u c 0

•H

u cn

Æ -P M fd 0 s:

0 u 0 4J M •3 u

•H U Cn fO

cn 0

•H T i 3 -P æ

u •H

c s: -p 0

M-l 0

rC 0 U fO

-P c 0 e 0 Cn fO C (T3

e cn cn 0 C

•H U3 3

XI

C 0

•H -P <d u :3

T5 0

cn -P G 0 > 0

cn > 0 c:

cn 0 IT> íO 3 CP c: fO M

c CP

• H 0 u 0

MH

cn c: 0 •H -P fO u

•H

c 3 e e 0 u cn cn fd e

cn u

• H

c: 0 u •p u 0 M 0

0 S-l :3 -P u 0 -p • H

s: u V-l fd

cn 0 u c 0

•H U cn

0 M-l • H M

216

.674

o

.670

o

.50

ro

.49

ro

.00

ro

.83

ro

.38

.301

o

.220

M

.42

ro

.44

ro

.00

'^

.20

ro

00

ro •

.209

o

.429

M

.33

ro

.37

ro

.00

ro

.80

ro

æ 00

.610

o .751

o

.42

ro

.42

ro

.00

ro

.40

ro

m CN

.084

o

.913

M

.42

fO

.09

ro

.00

ro

.80

ro

O

m

.315

o

.192

M .17

ro

.14

ro

.00

ro

.60

ro

O

m

.035*

o

.353

CM

r-CM « ro

•<3'

M

ro

O O

ro

r-M

ro

m l^

.812

o

.494

o

VD ro

ro

r-M

ro

o o ro

ro ro

ro

00 ro

,378

o

,081

M

vo •

ro o M

ro

O O •

ro ro ro

ro

m CN

544

•

o

836

•

o VO

• ro <y\ M •

ro O O «

ro ro ro •

ro ro M

168

•

o

551

• M

VO ro •

ro ro 00 •

OI

o o • ro O O «

ro m OJ

572

• O

800

•

o o r-•

ro

r

• ro o o •

ro O CX5 •

ro

O m

139

•

o

654

• M O O •

ro o ro •

ro

o o

« ro

o 'îî'

• ro o m

832

•

o

466

•

o o m

« ro

o vo •

ro

o o •

• ^

o vo •

ro

m rsi

154

•

o

602

« M

O

m • ro

r OJ •

ro

O O •

ro

O O •

ro M

ro ro CN ro CN OJ O I ro ro ro CN ro rsi ro ro

r-m ro

i^

m m

co c 0 •H -P fC U •H C D e e 0 0

mation

u 0 M-l c: •H *-

u 0 -p D a e 0 u

00 00

CN

• ^

'îî'

ro

cn 0 u c 0 •H u cn

m r-OJ

M CM

ing arts

3

Ê

P 0 M-l U 0 a •

<—i

fd 3 cn •H >

m CN

ro

o vo

chnology

3

0 -p

Cn C •H U 0 0 c •H CT c 0

m r-CN

CM <y\

CM

0 -P fd Xi 0 'C

s: u 0 0 a cn

ro M

ro

00 O

ro

cn -p u fd

0 c •H 4-1

00 ro CM

r-vo CN

cn u •H -P fd

e 0 s: -p fd

e

00 00

Ol

M OJ

ro

cn u •H

e 0 c 0 u 0

0 e 0 s:

o o ro

O M

ro

>i

Cn O M 0 -C u >1

cn a

ro M

ro

r-M

ro

cn 0 U C 0 -H

u cn .—( fd •H u 0 cn

m r CM

<y\ r-

OJ

cn u 0 -P -p 0 ^

o m

ro

OI vo

ro

sz -p M fd 0 s: 73 0 •H M M fd

al sciences

> •H

s: u u fd -- >i 5 fd 5-1 J2 •H M

00 00

rsi

ro (y\

OJ

cn 0 •H Cn 0 M 0 c: s: u 0 -p

O m ro

m m

ro

<J C •H cn u 3 C

m

ro

m • " ^

ro

^ fd 1—(

0

C •H • P c: o u

I I

CM CN

w CQ <i: E H

04

&4

E H

o

CQ

CQ C/3

O 04

05

<

D U

D Oí

0 a > .

E H

o M VD

• O

m r -

o OJ

ro

r-CN

ro

o o

• ro

o æ

ro

o o

ro

ro

cn 0 U C 0

•H u cn

fd u •H cn > i s: a

ro

'3'

00 o CJS

' ^ • ^ *

• ro

vo ro

ro

O o

ro

vo

ro

O O

ro

ro

vo CN ro

'^ r-

r-» vo

• ro

00 CN

• ro

o o

•

ro

vo

> i CP O M

o c x: u 0 - p

0 u c: 0

•H u cn

r -m • ' ^

cy\ m <y\

vo m

• ro

m <y\

9

CN

O O

• ro

ro ro

ro

O O

ro

ro 00

ro CM

ro

cn 0 U •H > U 0 cn

o9

co u

• H fd

M-l

fd

u •H M XÍ o a

CM

m m • 'd '

CM VO <y\

o o

• ro

m cr>

• CM

O O

• 00

<y\ CSI M •

O

m <y\ vo M

r-vo • ro

M ro • ro

o o

o m CN « o

o ro ro M

o VD • ro m ** • ro

O O

ro

ro 00

ro

ro 00

ro

O m

ro

O O

ro

o m

OJ ro ro

> i

O M o 0 s: - p

CN

> 1 U fd c •H M

a •H u cn •H ^ 3 U 0 4-> C •H cn \ 0 •H -H -P Ti M 3 e W

ro ro

ro

O CN

O m

• ro

r-m

• ro

o o

•

ro

ro 00 ro

m OJ

ro

> i Xi C

O T5 •H 0 -P U O cn

<d u

C 'O O 0

a cn t7>

c cn -H -p 3 u c 0 -H

•ro4-> ^ C 3 O CO U

ro

fd U

• H n 0

e <d u fd a

c fd cn

0 s: - p M fd

u •H > U

0 0 x: cn

r-vo M •

O

m m m

M

o ro • ro

r-CN • ro

O O • ro

t^

vo r-vo • o

00 vo VD

o

O ^ • ro æ ro • ro

o o • ro

O

ro

m CN

ro

OJ

T3 0 -P fd M 0

u

C •H cn co 0 u o }-l a

cn fd fd -P 0 <d >-i

T3 (d

m

ro

m OJ

ro

m CM

ro

(y\ OI

m OJ

ro

m • ^

m OJ

ro

OJ

o o ro

m <y\

o m OJ

00 <y\

m CM

ro

ro • ^ *

ro M

ro

vo m

m CN

ro

M VO

o m OJ

00 cy\

00 00

OI

r-CM

ro

cn 0

cn cn •H

- P C 0 e 0 cr fd c fd e I u o Xi fd

218

o m ^

• o

00 VO <y\

9

o

o m

• ro

00 ro

• ro

O o

• ro

r-vo

• ro

ro M

• ro

o O

• ro

<y\ rsi

• ro

cn 0

73 -H C Cn fd 0

M 0 0 u c •H s: > u U 0 0 -p cn

T3 U 0 •H -P M fd Æ M ;3 0 a s-i

0 tji M

0 0 M • > M M (d 0 •H M fd e u -p cn 0 C cn c fd c u 0 fd x : 0 •H -P u ^ x: cn cn c -H 0 0 4-> cn 0 M-i e ÍH 5H 0 T3 -H 0 a fd M-1 c c ui B 0 0 t7» II 0 M 5-1 a - H ro u fd a 0 cn II M 13 II ^ D 0 0 C 04 M U .Q ^ -H 3

£

fd

cn fd 5

,-^ M M

CP C 5-1 H 0 -P (d M U ^ •H

•H -P II — M-l TJ 0 ••. 1—1 cQ 0 cn > i II -p c/3 P cn -P < cn M 0 •H ^q (d - fd u cn 0 c > u

C Cn •H 0

M • ^

0 ^í •* M 0 D x : u 0 e M pL, æ > rd -P -P 11

-P •H cn

• H j - i ( d f d t i 4 > i 5 - P C CP ÎH u D 0 T l 0 • - 0

M c a >H > t j i a fd s-i 0 II c 0 s: '^r •H cn 0 u -p —' -P -P Cn 0 c m 0 T3 II 0 fd fd M 0 EH M u M c o fd CPM 0 5 U

(d u 0 •* cn Q) u c -P 0 JH > i 0 • fd JQ O M -H •P

u 3 cn

cn td

c 0 •H -P 3 -P •H -P cn c M

S-l 0 x: cn •H JS

S-l 73 ^ (d r H

3 M iH (d cn s-i cn 0 0 Xi U -H U M 3 w x:

0 •P • cn > i -H 5-1 M 0

Cn -P 0 C -P 0 fd

TJ U c CP 0 <

SH C3

0 0 5-1 •H -H 0 -p a > x : 0 M c -p fd -p 3 fd -p •^ u fd -1-1 > cn 0 -H (d

fO cn 5-1 SH c 5-4 0 a 0 c

5H 0 •H O 0 MH > i M cn

M-4 -P 0 -H cn x : 0 -H > 0 u c e 0 5H >-l -P :3 5-1 M 0 (d fd e -H 0 u 0 x : e "+^ -^ w CO -P 0 0 u fd -p c 5 0 II cn fd II tp 5-1 o fd 0 D 0 fd 04 u e 05 M 0 ' d

M > i • - fd 0 • • 0 > i 0 5H 0 U o j -73 s-i fd

73 II 3 ^ 0 M 05 +J II cn U 0 ^o cn EH 0

CQ -H • • > i — M-i 5-1 [jq 4J ^ 0 — -•-' 9H -H M cn c O cn M cn cn 0 Z 5-1 0 0

0 5-1 cn c 0 > 0 5-1 -H M •H 13 cn . û c M 0 3 fd D ^ U XJ EH

0 -p Z M II <

M

^ • M M 3 0

M-l > cn 0 cn M 0 U m u o 3 • Ui

0 > I J : M -P 0 U -P fd fd o: 11 V

CN 0

- u M C 3 fd

M-l U cn •H

a j cn 0 0 SH X :

-p 0 c c •H ^

0 T3 cn 0 C -P 0 cn a - H cn M 0 S-i 0

S-l 0 fd u •H cn fd 0 C 5-1 C 0 0 u •H cn -P cn c 0 fd 3 0 cr e 0 0 M c

cn M-i Æ 0 •H u c u cr 3 •H æ cn

•H - cn cn

> cn 3 0 s: Ou-P

219

a perception of failure with internal programs of mass

communications? The dependent variable of mass

communications probably says much about favorable views

with business and mass communications and unfavorable

views or perceptions persons in junior colleges have

toward mass communications as a discipline. Of course,

this is conjecture and more research would be needed to

conclude such.

The dependent variable, mathematics with the highest

mean score, 3.27, and, therefore, the highest perception

of subject success in the "other" category followed

closely, at 3.17, with a group that one might predict

would have such a favorable perception of mathematics

(given the billions of dollars spent on computers and

mathematical spread sheets and the attention in the

private sector to profit and loss statements): privately

owned corporations. The group with the least favorable

perception of mathematics is the comprehensive college or

university, at 2.38.

Ana of the

lysis of Variance: The Type Orqanization/Institution Variables Necessary for

By a

Successful Video Teleconference

Table 23 shows one variable significant at the .05

level or beyond and is the statement, "I believe the chief

disadvantage for a video teleconference is," at a mean

score of <0.006. However, the numbers have no meaning

ro CM

W

CQ < EH

Q

<

U) Ui pa u u D Ui

Q 2

<:

o M EH

D EH M

z o M EH

<c M Z <; o 05 o tl4

o w 04 > l EH

u z M

u 2 H o; w tÍ4 z o u w w E^

o w Q

w o

o: w æ D

>H

CQ

Ui w o < EH

z

> Q

<c Ui Ui w o < EH

z <c > Q

04

EH

o

EH

CQ

CQ co

o 04

o;

<:

D

u

D 05

0 a > 1

EH

r-vo

ro r VD

vo CN

• ro 00

o •

ro o o

«

r-M

« ro o r-

• CM

O

ro

VD oi

ro

O 0 T3 •H > 0

C M O 3 ^ M-i cn 0 cn -H M cn fd 0 0 u u u cn u c 3 0 • cn SH -P

0 a fd M-i

C m - O -^

0 u e cD -p

M fd o 0 x: EH -P •P

-p cn s-i O O e «+-1 0 -p c c O 0

e 0 0

x : M -p 0

.74

3

o

58

3

• o o o

•

•íT

m •

ro O o

• ro r-vo

• ro O ro

.78

5

o

,52

9

o

vo CM

m

o M

m

o o

vo

ro CX5

m

o M

.46

1

o

.95

1

o

.32

^

.02

• ^

.00

CM

.67

ro

O m

.00

6

o

.17

2

ro

.58

OJ

.44

ro

.00

M

.00

CM

o m

ro

o ro

• ro

o vo

• ro

-P a m

cn •H

0 U c 0 S-l

0 -P cn 0 > C cn M-i 0 fd 0 H -P M SH

O 0 Xi a cn

e

c U O ^ U U 0 :3 Q) r-t

fd 0 u

m

o ro

•

m

o M

m

I 0 M 0 -P

fd

ro

00

ro

I 0

>-v I

x: o 0 ^3

n M

0 0 > -H fd fd

u cn

•H >

M -H fd -P cn

3 -P o a s:-

M cn r^ 3 ^

M-l 0 Cn U MH cn c o 0 0 U 5-1 £ U 0 -P 3 u-4 cr> cn c C

O 0 < u M

73 0 fd -P

• M-l O -P 0 0 a

•H T3 x : -H m u > - -0 fd cn

s: •H -P 5-4

o 0 0 MH U > c 0 0 0

•H On SH ^ M (d 0 0 (1) -p M-l M .û c c fd

fd o u M > u cn

OJ

o 04

ro

OI

I cn •H T3 O

0 MH 73 0 •H

• H > x: u (d

0 SH

x: o •P M-l

0 0 > tj 0 td

•H -P M C 0 (d Xi >

73 H (d

-p a m

cn

•H

0

u c 0 S-i 0

M-l

c O ^ U 0 0 M M (d 0 u -p cn

2 2 1

c~ m

vo vo

r -m

• CN

r -m

• CN

O O

m o j

•

CN

O m CN

r o 00

• CN

00 r o

• CN

I 0 C > 0 -H

I a • -p 0 o -p fd M — 04 u» 0 0 -P r-í r o Z

o 0

•H >

•H •.» 5 C

O

C -P cn •H

0 U 0 > C 3

0 0 cr •H S-l M 0 TJ 0 M-l 0

J2 C 'T3 O C

M U 0

0 >

•H -P •H cn O — 04 M II (d 0 SH

M -P fd 3 u 0 cn z

0 >

•H cn c 0

x: 0 5-4

0

0

o u

cn 4-) S-i

fd c O

•H cn cn 0

fd

e cn -P c

a fd MH

0 u c fd u M

0 M-l Ti •H

C •H -P fd u

•H T3 C

•H

fd

cn fd

e o u II

D U

O S-i

(d u 0

X! •H

C 0

a

c cn^ H

a 0 73

cn

> i II -P <c •H ^ cn $H • ^ 0 >

• H c 3

O

-P

4J cn fd 0

c •H II

CQ Ui

s: -p H

M M

5-1 O

04 •H —

-P fd

e fd u Cr> O 73 5H C

t j i a fd c

cn - P 5-1 fd

Pt4

•H -p c fd 5-1 cn

0 -P fd S-l O -p u o

T!

U O

s: u u fd 0 cn 0 u II

D 05

fd S-i 0

X I •H

fd

cn s-i 0

M-4 MH

o -p fd

J C

-p

0 CP 0

0 C7> 0 T) -H 0

c

o

c o

• H 4-> fd w SH

o a S - l o u

o u

5-1 O

• H C 3

5H

0

- P O II

o

u o

> . -p •H c 3 e e o u

u fd 0 > i

0 -p fd >

•H S-l

a -1

o

e u

•H M-l

fd

c o

•H -P fd -p cn

c o

• H cn

• H > 0

M 0 -P

e 0 -p •H

x: u (d 0

S-l

o M-l

73 0 -P O

c

0 M fd u cn 0

s: - p

c o

0

0

O U

cn - p $H fd

fd 5-4 0

Xi •H

x: u 3 cn

cn fd

c O

• H - p 3

- p • H - P cn c

• H

5H

0

s: cn

• H x :

0 - P cn

• H

3 O

x : - p

• p c 0

73 C O < a j cn

> . u o cr-0 -p fd u

0 u

o c

0 s: -p

c • H

cn > 0 0 S-l M o U m cn o

0 13 cn 0 c -P O cn a ^ H cn M 0 SH

0 T3 O

U

U OJ 73 3

o:

-p cn fd u

73 fd

> i o u

Xi -P cn

O

> 1 - p • H cn SH

0 >

• H

c 3 •

— M-l - O

E H

OQ

cn 0 cn ^-1 3 O U

cn cn 0 c

• H cn 3

Xi

c fd 0

e 0 5H fd cn 0

•H u -p c 0

0 1 - 4

X ! fd

0 x : -p

-p fd

V

0 u c fd u

• H MH • H C (ji cn

•H O

0 S-i

•H fd c c o

• H - P cn 0 3

CT'

0

X! •H cn

0 5-1 fd

cn 0 SH

o u cn

c fd 0 e o c

cn 3

x: cn a - p

222

because of the 5 pt. scale of answers that include:

l=cost; 2=the lack of human communication possible through

video screens and not having face-to-face communication;

3=the poor quality of equipment usually available for such

endeavors; 4=the inability of persons sponsoring video

teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional

techniques that utilize the video teleconference

technology; 5=video teleconferences have so many

disadvantages that it is hard to pick one. Table 23 is

presented for comparison purposes only as clear

interpretation is not possible.

Video Teleconferences Best Used With Groups of More Than 25 Compared With Degree of mportance and Subject Success

When the independent variable, video teleconferences

are best used with groups of more than 25, is compared

with variables in all User Questionnaire categories

(demographics, agree/disagree, yes/no; true/false, degree

of importance, degree of subject success, and elements for

a successful video teleconference) two areas—importance

and subject success—have significant variables at the

0.05 level or beyond. Table 24 shows the comparison with

the degree of importance and Table 25 shows the comparison

with the degree of subject success. Only the significant

variables are shown in Table 24 and Table 25.

With Table 24, the reader should remember that 1 is

• ^

CM

w l-í CQ < EH

m CM

<

EH

W o: o s w o w 04 D o 05 O

EH M

Q W Ui D

W U z <t:

o: o 04

w o

04

w

m

H æ w CQ

W W u s w 05 W W IS o u w vA W EH

o w Q

W W 05 O W Q

Q Z <

ro

OJ

223

• CM O

o

• 00 ro o

OJ m • ^

• ^

i ^ m

o M r -

• CN

I ^ • ^

OI

m

VD

CM

ro

rsi

ro

ro • ^

• ro

• ^

r-«

ro

VO OJ

• r o

<y\ vo

M r -

• r o

vo ro

ro

• 00 ro O

CN VD

• CN

o o ro

O r-

rsj

00 <y\

9

CN

OJ «

ro

vo ro

• CM

e 0 5-1

M-l

0 73 0 fd U

e c 0

0 5-1 Xi 0

MH 0 c •P 0

u -p 0 •H M M-4 0 0 -P 5-1 a 0

x: fd -P

-p

u •H S-4 -p cn

fd

0 -p

cr> 0 c

•H M

3 S-l 73 0

SZ 73 (d

0 s: u cn

e 0 S-i

M-l

cn c 0

•H -P cn 0 3

•P CP fd c

0 •H cn 0 -P 0 -P ^ Xi C 0 fd -p u u a cn c •H

•H 3 fd a u e > 0

•H 73 -P -P 0 fd SH 4J 0 fd •H c x : a cn •H -P

73 0 0 T ! 0 0 u -P 0 -P cn

cr c 0 c cn

0 0 e 0 ^ 3

•H 0 0 U U > 73 5-1 S-l •H cn

•H M

3 U -P -H fd fd cn cn 73

M-l 0

0 0 5-1 -P

C Cn 0 (d 0 2 0 73 II -e ^ 0 a s-fC

0 0 5H

M-l 3 ) 0 — M 1 -P fd

0 C > M (d

- fd -p w U 5-1 II cn 0 w

a D^ • E •• fd cn

•H Q

-P M 0 a 73

> i 0 •"i^ M u

0 > i fd M •

M fd M CT) C 05 0 C 0 S-i -P

æ II

m

73 C fd

0 0 S-l

0 II > OJ 0

cn <-< 0 .^ M -p LD X ! C O fd fd •

•H -P S-l S-i 0 fd 0 J > a - P

e -P M -P c fd 0 -P

^T3 fd V < c x:

0 :5, 0 > i a 0 u >—\ 0 e c tT>73 d fd c 0 5-1 -P Ui II

M —

cn 0

•H S-l -P c 0

0 ^ Xî fd

EH

• • w EH

o 2

U) u -H II -H ^ fO M-l fd •H

- c x: -P cr> -P C -H -H (d cn ^ -P

s^ cn 0 0 0 M a - P fd e fd U M U cn -H

> inD • s^ C

-P 0 •H

a> II -K 0 m • ^ U

—' c fd • fd

0 — u C U -P -H 0 C C MH

(d fd •H cn -p -P c 0 S-i S-i IT» SH 0 0 •H

0 a a cn u e e 11 cn •H M O4

224

m CM

W J OQ < EH

m oo

2 < ffi EH

W 05 O S

w o Ui 04 D o 05 O

E EH M S

Q W Ui D

EH C/3 w CQ

W w u 2 W 05 W W 2 o u w f j

w EH

o w Q

æ w w u u D Ui

EH U w •^ CQ D W

W o

w w 05 O w Q

Q 2 <

04

w

m

- r

ro

CM

• r^ ro o

• o

r-•sy vo

• O I OJ

o •

o

00 r-<y\

• o M O

• o

VD r-' T

OJ

r-o

• ro

ro 00

• OJ

ro

m

ro

o

ro

o j

o o

• ro

O m

ro

CN

m

ro

O VD

ro

ro

ro

ro

O o j

ro

o 00

« o j

• ^

OJ

ro

CN

ro

ro

o vo

• ro

•K

ro o

<y\ <y\ vo

• CN

VO

OJ

VO 00

• CM

ro ro

• ro

ro

ro

O O

• ro

0 5-1 3 -P U 0 -P •H

x: u 5-1 fd

> i Cn 0

M

0 c

SZ u 0 -p

tp c

•H

u 0 0 c

M tp c 0

> 1 Cr> 0 M

0 x: u > i

cn a

cn 0 u c 0

•H U cn

M

fd >

•H x: cn U 0 SH •H fd cn

\ 0 > i ^ 5H 0 fd C SH JC

XI u •H 0 M -P

w 1!

73 W C (d ••

0 0 73 0 O >H U Cn < •

M >1 0 •zL > ^ 0 C M

o SH m

- P o Ui • II

M 0 ^ s:

-p 0 M -p fd fd u cn V • 0

-p u a c

fd m u

•H fd M-i

•H c c O tJ

•H cn cn 0 u o u

C M

cn -P fd

c fd u

•H 0 73

e c •H

0 U •K

fd

cn .p 0 ^H •H ^ . S-l 0 -P ^ u c 0 c 0 0 fd

SH U 0 Cn^H

(d M-i cn •H

•H C EH Q tP

•H •• > i cn

X5 fd

w EH O 2

cr>04 c o -5-1 0 •P 3 CO M II fd

m >

225

the highest agreement category (2, agree; 3, neutral; 4,

disagree; and 5, strongly disagree) with the independent

variable while 4 is the highest degree of importance (4

very important; 3 somewhat important; 2, rarely important,

1 not important) with the dependent variable. Thus, with

the dependent variable, a profit to be made from the

teleconference, the agree or 2 category has the highest

mean score at 3.26 and the strongly disagree or 5 category

has the lowest mean score at 2.57. One would expect

persons who believe video teleconferences are best used

with groups of more than 25 to also have a higher rate of

wanting to show some profit, although, as one can see from

the scale, the scores are not exact with 2.69 being in the

strongly agree category. Probably, the nature of the

non-profit public institution plays a part in the

analysis. Thus, even though a university would probably

like to show "black ink" rather than "red" or a deficit,

profit is not tremendously important.

The dependent variable, adhering to a strict

schedule, has the highest mean or degree of importance

score in the neutral category with respondents who report

that video teleconferences are best used with groups of

more than 25. Such a rating probably reflects the unknown

with the respondents' views although the agree column is

also high at 3.71. Thus, some attention has been paid to

226

adhering to a strict schedule by respondents who believe

video teleconferences are best used with groups of more

than 25.

The dependent variable, live questions from audience

participants at a remote site must be screened in advance

to stick to the topic being discussed, shows disagreement

and diversity among respondents who believe video

teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25.

The highest mean score, 3.24 in the agree or 2 category,

and the 3.00 in the strongly disagree category show the

diverse views. The respondents may not know that the talk

show hosts who conducted successful or high rated talk

shows thought this variable to be extremely important

(Marder, 1977) .

Table 25 shows 4 subjects to have significant ratings

of success with persons who report that video

teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25.

Architecture, at 3.45, has the highest mean score in the

agree category; engineering technology, at 3.73, has the

highest mean score in strongly agree category; psychology,

at 3.60, has the highest mean score in strongly agree

category; and library/archival sciences technologies, at

3.33, has the highest mean score in the neutral category.

The library/archival sciences technologies neutral score

probably reflects the "I don't know" views of the

227

respondents. Further research is needed before one could

speculate or conclude from the significant subjects.

Pearson cient: ] ference Variabli

"r" Correlation Number of Video Participants Wi

Coeffi-Telecon-th Predic

es (Agree/Disagree) :ted

The correlation coefficient r;, introduced by Karl

Pearson, is a measure of linear relationship with a range

from -1 to +1. When r is squared, it indicates the

percent of variance in Y explained by X. Thus, the 2

greater the coefficient r or r , the stronger the

relationship is between the variables (Blalock, 1972).

Further, the coefficient can be plus or minus, indicating

a direct or inverse relationship, respectively.

Table 26 shows correlations between the number of

video teleconference participants with the predicted

variables. Of the significant correlations marked with

"*", no r coefficient shows a plus or minus significance

greater than 0.1976, the r for the dependent variable,

"video teleconferences are best used with small (under 25)

groups." Thus, about 4% (.0390) of responses to this item

are explained by the number of video teleconference

participants.

Conversely, the variable, "video teleconferences are

best used with groups of more than 25," has a negative r

of -0.1400 with P<0.029. Thus, respondents who are

involved with video teleconferences with high numbers of

228

TABLE 26

NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS WITH

PREDICTED VARIABLES (AGREE/DISAGREE)

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n

video teleconferences are appropriate for any subject matter -0.1023 0.085 182

video teleconferences are best used with small (under 25) groups

video teleconferences best used with groups more than 2 5

a r e of

0 . 1 9 7 6

- 0 . 1 4 0 0

0 . 0 0 4 *

0 . 0 2 9 *

183

183

larger, university-type video teleconferences designed for groups of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very different from smaller, business type video teleconferences that are designed for "in-house" use 0.1186 0.055* 182

Some video teleconferences are best held in a "series type format on the same or similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possible to try to do "too much" in one video tele-conference -0.1288 0.041* 184

229

TABLE 26—Continued

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n

I have found that as some-one becomes familiar with teleconferencing, accept-ance of the medium improves -0.1189 0.054* 185

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 5 pt. scale (l=Strongly Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree). P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.

230

persons are more likely to agree that video teleconfer-

ences are best handled with groups of more than 25. The

lowest negative correlation, "Some video teleconferences

are best held in a 'series' type format on the same or

similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possible

to try to do 'too much' in one video teleconference,"

shows a significant positive correlation with the number

of video teleconference participants as shown in Table 26.

A similar relationship is found with the variable, "I have

found that as someone becomes familiar with teleconfer-

encing, acceptance of the medium improves," with an r of

-0.1189 and P<0.054. Thus, with larger video telecon-

ferences, respondents have found that familiarity with

2 teleconferencing improves, although the correlation has r

at 0.014%.

Pearson cient: ference Variabl

"r" Correl Number of V

ation Coeffi-ideo Telecon-

Participants With Predic es (Yes/No; True/False)

ted

Table 27 shows only one yes/no variable, "I have been

involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video

teleconferences on a subject area designed for the same

(or mostly same) audience," with r at 0.1638 and P<0.013.

Thus, as the number of participants of video telecon-

ferencing increases, a r or .026% correlation shows that

there is a greater chance that the respondents have been

involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series

231

TABLE 2 7

NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS

WITH PREDICTED VARIABLES (YES/NO)

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n

I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconfer-ences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience

prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing

0.1638 0.013* 186

0.1086 0.071 185

for some of the video teleconferences I've been involved in, there has been some attempt to measure how successful they were 0.0828 0.137 177

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 2 pt. yes (2) / no (1) scale. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.

232

of video teleconferences. No other yes/no or true/false

variables are significant on the User Questionnaire.

Pearson II i i

cient: Numbe ference Part

Correlation r of Video icipants Wi

Coeffi-Telecon-th Pre-

dicted Variables (Degrees of Importance)

Table 28 shows the dependent variables technical

expertise (r=0.1211); a local question and answer session

among individuals at a location immediately after a

presentation (r=-0.1877); local group discussion at each

site (r=-0.1294); to have a local "in-person"

presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the

video teleconference presentation (r=-0.1247); persons to

travel less than 150 miles to attend a video

teleconference (r=-0.1479); limiting the number of people

at each site to less than 50 (r=-0.1734); and limiting the

number of questions asked from each site (r=-0.1429), to

have significant correlations with the number of video

teleconference participants. All the significant

correlations (*) except technical expertise, indicate that

respondents who are involved with teleconferences with

lower numbers of persons, are less likely to consider the

variables to be important. Technical expertise is the

exception, which is considered to be more important by

persons who are involved with teleconferences that have

fewer individuals. No other variables for the degrees of

A—^^*..,^^^ ^ +. „ ^f 4-he User Questionnaire are

233

TABLE 2 8

NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS WITH

PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEGREES OF IMPORTANCE)

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) n

technical expertise 0.1211 0.053* 180

sending literature to persons prior to attending a teleconference 0.1121 0.066 182

a local question and answer session among individuals at a location immediately after a presentation -0.1877 0.006* 181

local group discussion at each site -0.1294 0.041* 182

to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the video teleconference presentation -0.1247 0.047* 182

sponsorship by a major university

persons to travel less than 150 miles to attend a video teleconference

-0.1164

-0.1479

0.064

0.023*

173

181

limiting the number of people at each site to less than 50 -0.1734 0.010* 179

234

TABLE 28--Continued

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n

limiting the number of questions asked from each site -0.1429 0.029* 178

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. importance rating scale of the listed questionnaire item: (4) Very Important; (3) Somewhat Important; (2) Rarely Important; (1) Not Important. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.

235

at the significant .05 level.

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Parti-cipants With Predicted Variables (Degrees of Subject Success)

Table 29 shows 23 significant (*) correlations

between the number of video teleconference participants

and the degrees of subject success. The following

correlations are for the 23 predicted variables: health

science (r=0.1245; P<0.058); agriculture (r=0.1688;

P<0.023) area of ethnic studies (r=0.3347; P<0.000);

business management (r=0.1278; P<0.054); education

(r=0.1926; P<0.007); news events (r=0.2518; P<0.001);

foreign languages (r=0.2087; P<0.008; electronics (0.1538;

P<0.029); life sciences (r=0.1698; P<0.023);

visual/performing arts (r=0.1878; P<0.014); speech debate

(r=0.1873; P<0.015); mathematics (r=0.1973; P<0.010); home

economics (r=0.1487; P<0.045); psychology (r=0.2265;

P<0.004); letters (r=0.1700; P<0.029); library/archival

sciences technologies (r=0.2248; P<0.006); law (r=0.3225;

P<0.000); public affairs and services (r=0.2918; P<0.000);

theology (r=0.2447; P<0.004); multi/interdisciplinary

studies (r=0.2454; P<0.003); subjects sponsored by

continuing education (r=0.1374; P<0.056); labor-management

issues (r=0.2176; P<0.005); and public service and related

technologies (r=0.2348; P<0.003).

The three suhiects with the highest r's are area of

236

TABLE 2 9

NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS WITH

PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEGREES OF SUBJECT SUCCESS)

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n

health science

agriculture

area of ethnic studies

business management

education

news events

foreign languages

mass communications

electronics

architecture

life sciences

communications

computer/information sciences

visual/performing arts

engineering technology

speech debate

0.1245

0.1688

0.3347

0.1278

0.1926

0.2518

0.2087

0.1289

0.1538

0.0079

0.1698

0.1013

0.1199

0.1878

0.0147

0.1873

0.058*

0.023*

0.000*

0.054*

0.007*

0.001*

0.008*

0.063

0.029*

0.186

0.023*

0.112

0.067

0.014*

0.429

0.015*

161

139

132

160

160

152

135

143

153

133

138

146

157

137

152

134

237

TABLE 29—Continued

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n

fine arts 0.1103 0.105 131

mathematics 0.1973 0.010* 137

home economics 0.1487 0.045* 131

psychology 0.2265 0.004* 133

social sciences 0.1344 0.061 133

letters 0.1700 0.029* 126

allied health 0.0857 0.149 149

library/archival sciences technologies 0.2248 0.006* 127

nursmg

law

0.0204 0.406 139

0.3225 0.000* 134

physical sciences 0.1402 0.061 123

science technology 0.0392 0.334 123

public affairs and services 0.2918 0.000* 131

theology

multi/interdisciplinary studies

subjects sponsored by continuing education

business/commerce

0.2447 0.004* 118

0.2454 0.003* 121

0.1374 0.056* 135

0.1291 0.070 132

238

TABLE 29--Continued

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n

health and para medical

services 0.0851 0.168 130

data processing/related areas 0.1252 0.076 133

labor-management issues 0.2176 0.005* 138

public service and related technologies 0.2348 0.003* 135

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. success rating scale of the listed questionnaire item (subject): (4) Very Successful; (3) Somewhat Successful; (2) Rarely Successful; (1) Never Successful). P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1) 2-5 persons; (2) 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.

239

ethnic studies (r=0.3347; r =11%), law (r=0.3225; r^=10%),

and public affairs and services (r=0.2918; r^=8.5%).

Thus, persons involved with more persons in video

teleconferences are more likely to have a perception of

video teleconference subject success with teleconferences

that involve ethnic studies, law and public affairs and 2

services to the r or r noted (see Table 29).

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants With Predicted Variables (Demographics)

Table 30 shows two significant variables, produce

(r=.1745; P<.009) and "other" (r=.037; P<.037) to have r's

that show respondents involved with higher numbers of

participants are more likely to produce and do something

not shown with the variable "other."

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Number of Video Teleconference Participants With Predicted Variables (Success/Length)

No variable has significance with the Pearson r with

the User Questionnaire in the success/length category as

some questions were not in true scale form and cannot be

completed using this statistical method.

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencinq and Predicted Variables (Demographics)

Table 31 shows the 5 variables to have significant

240

TABLE 3 0

NUMBER OF VIDEO TELECONFERENCE PARTICIPANTS

WITH PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEMOGRAPHICS)

I am generally involved with video teleconferences that have the following average number of participants (low: 2-5 persons; high: 251 or more persons; 7 pt. scale) r P n

I help to (select all that apply) [respondent had 2 pt. scale: checked or not checked]:

write 0.0104 0.444 183

produce 0.1745 0.009* 183

coordinate different locations 0.0706 0.171 183

supervise 0.0506 0.248 183

technically operate 0.0090 0.452 183

promote 0.0947 0.101 183

other 0.1323 0.037* 183

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on the scale noted. P=significance with * indicating significance < to the .05 level or beyond with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 7 pt. scale for the average number of participants at all sites includes: (1 2-5 persons; 2 6-25 persons; (3) 26-50 persons; (4) 51-100 persons; (5) 101-250 persons; (6) 251 or more persons; (7) amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists.

241

TABLE 31

AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND

PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEMOGRAPHICS)

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

I help to (select all that apply) [respondent had 2 pt. scale: checked or not checked]:

write -0.0047

produce 0.1932

coordinate different locations 0.2719

supervise

technically operate

promote

other

0.1285

0.1600

0.2099

-0.0052

0.475

0.004*

0.000*

0.040*

0.014*

0.002*

0.472

187

187

187

187

187

187

187

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on the scale noted. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencing includes: (1) under 10% of the time; (2) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) (4) 51-75 percent of the time; time; (6) all or nearly all of

26-50 percent of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the the time.

242

correlations with the amount of time involved with video

teleconferencing to be: produce (r=0.1932; P<0.004);

coordinate different locations (r=0.2719; P<0.000);

supervise (r=0.1285; P<0.040); technically operate

(r=0.1600; P<0.014); andpromote (r=0.2099; P<0.002).

Thus, as the amount of time with video teleconferencing

increases, so does the correlation or likelihood that such

respondents would be involved with the significant

responsibilities as listed. It is interesting to note

that the highest r coefficient occurs with "coordinate 2

different locations" with an r =7%. While the

relationship with the number of video teleconferences and

the coordination of different locations does not indicate

"startling" or unexpected data, such coefficients give

credibility to the overall data.

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencing and Predicted Variables (Agree/Disagree)

Table 3 2 shows that the highest r is found with the

variable, "I have found that as someone becomes familiar

with teleconferencing, acceptance of the medium improves,"

with an "r" of -0.2916 at the significance level of 0.000.

The negative numbers result from the positive end of

strongly agree being 1 rather than 5. This is an

interesting and significant finding that indicates that as

the respondents spend more time and become more familiar

243

TABLE 3 2

AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND

PREDICTED VARIABLES (AGREE/DISAGREE)

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

video teleconferences are appropriate for any subject matter -0.1480 0.022* 186

the future of video tele-conferencing is promising -0.1792 0.007* 188

video teleconferences are best used with small (under 25) groups -0.0207 0.389 187

video teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25 -0.1067 0.073 187

larger, university-type video teleconferences designed for groups of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very different from smaller, business type video teleconferences that are designed for "in-house" use -0.0061 0.467 186

244

TABLE 3 2—Continued

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

Some video teleconferences are best held in a "series type format on the same or similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possible to try to do "too much" in one video tele-conference -0.1381 0.029* 188

I have found that as some-one becomes familiar with teleconferencing, accept-ance of the medium improves -0.2916 0.000* 189

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 5 pt. scale (l=Strongly Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree). P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencing includes: (1) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) (4) 51-7 5 percent of the time; time; (6) all or nearly all of

under 10% of the time; (2) 26-50 percent of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the the time.

245

with the video teleconference medium, the greater the

likelihood that acceptance of the medium improves. The

significant variables in Table 32 indicate that as the

amount of time spent with video teleconferences increases,

so does the appropriateness for any subject matter, the

future and the variables listed in Table 32. Of interest

is that the closest variable to 0 is "larger,

university-type video teleconferences designed for groups

of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very

different from smaller, business type video

teleconferences that are designed for 'in-house' use" at

-0.0061 which indicates almost no difference with the

amount of time spent on video teleconferences. Probably,

this is yet stronger evidence of acceptance of the two

different types of video teleconferences as, with this

variable, a high correlation coefficient would indicate

"differences accepting differences."

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount Of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencinq And Predicted Variables (Yes/No)

Table 33 shows one significant correlation with the

variable, "I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or

annual series of video teleconferences on a subject area

designed for the same (or mostly same) audience" to have

an "r" coefficient of 0.2337 with <P of 0.001. Thus, with

2 ^^^ ^'^ th' dst. r.c.wns that as the amount of time with

246

TABLE 3 3

AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND

PREDICTED VARIABLES (YES/NO)

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

I have been involved with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video teleconfer-ences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience

prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing

for some of the video teleconferences I've been involved in, there has been some attempt to measure how successful they were

0.2337 0.001* 190

-0.0462 0.264 189

0.0685 0.180 181

(2)

the

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 2 pt. YES / NO (1) scale. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for amount of time involved with video teleconferencmg includes: (1) under 10% of the time; (2) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) 26-50 percent of the time; (4) 51-75 percent of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the time; (6) all or nearly all of the time.

247

video teleconferencing increases, the greater the

likelihood of being involved with a weekly, monthly or

annual series.

Pearson "r" Correlation Amount of Time Involved

Coefficient: With Video

Teleconferencing And Predicted Variables (Degrees of Importance)

Table 34 shows significant correlations with the

variables technical expertise (r=-0.2361; P<0.001);

sending literature to persons prior to attending a

teleconference (r=-0.1371; P<0.031); a local question and

answer session among individuals at a location immediately

after a presentation (r=-0.1877; P<0.006); two-way voice

communication among key individuals at all sites

(r=0.1586; P<0.015); live questions from audience

participants at a remote site(s) must be screened in

advance to stick to the topic being discussed (r=-0.1197;

P<0.052); and live questions from audience participants at

a remote site should be written and panelists asked such

questions by a moderator (r=-0.1544; P<0.018).

The correlation with the variable, technical

expertise (r=-0.2361; P<0.001), is at the highest r level.

Thus, as importance concerning technical expertise

increases, the amount of time involved with video

teleconferencing increases. The variable, a local

question and answer session among individuals at a

location immediately after a presentation, (r=-0.1877;

248

TABLE 3 4

AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING AND

PREDICTED VARIABLES (DEGREES OF IMPORTANCE)

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

technical expertise -0.2361 0.001* 184

sending literature to persons prior to attending a teleconference -0.1371 0.031* 186

a local question and answer session among individuals at a location immediately after a presentation

two-way voice communication among key individuals at all sites

-0.1877

0.1586

0.006*

0.015*

181

188

local group discussion at each site

to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the video teleconference presentation

sponsorship by a major university

persons to travel less than 150 miles to attend a video teleconference

-0.0634

-0.0844

-0.0669

-0.0530

0.195

0.126

0.188

0.237

186

186

177

185

249

TABLE 34--Continued

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

limiting the number of people at each site to less than 50 0.0075 0.460 183

limiting the number of questions asked from each site -0.0928 0.106 182

live questions from aud-ience participants at a remote site(s) must be screened in advance to stick to the topic being discussed

live questions from aud-ience participants at a remote site should be written and panelists asked such questions by a moderator (hence, no direct talk-back by person who asked the question)

-0.1197 0.052* 186

-0.1544 0.018* 184

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. scale: (4) Very Important; (3) Somewhat Important; (2) Rarely Important; (1) Not Important. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencmg

,,v -1 _ irto ^£ *.v.r^ ••-•iTTio* í9) in-25 Derc includes: the time;

(1) under 10% of the time; (2) (3) 26-50 percent of the time;

10-25 percent of (4) 51-75 percent

250

TABLE 3 4—Continued

of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the time; (6) all or nearly all of the time.

251

P<0.006) is also in the same direction which means that

such sessions would be more likely to happen with greater

amounts of time involved.

Only one positive correlation exists that is

significant. The variable, two-way voice communication

among key individuals at all sites (r=0.1586; P<0.015),

has a greater correlation or likelihood to be considered

important by persons who spend less time with video

teleconferencing.

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencing And Predicted Variables (Subject Success)

Table 3 5 shows significant correlations between the

amount of time involved with video teleconferencing and

the subject success variables: business management

(r=0.1482; P<0.029); life sciences (r=0.1864; P<0.013);

letters (r=0.2009; P<0.012); public affairs and services

(r=0.1546; P<0.038); and subjects sponsored by continuing

education (r=0.2947; P<0.000). Thevariable, subjects

sponsored by continuing education, has the highest r

coefficient at 0.2947 or r^=8.7% with P<0.000. Thus, the

respondents who spend more time with video

teleconferencing are more likely to have success with the

significant subjects. This is yet more evidence that two

distinct types of video teleconferences exist.

252

TABLE 3 5

AMOUNT OF TIME INVOLVED WITH VIDEO TELECONFERENCING

AND PREDICTED VARIABLES (SUBJECT SUCCESS)

As part of my job, I am involved with video tele-conferencing approximately (6 pt. scale with low: under 10 percent of time and high: all or nearly all of the time) n

agriculture

area of ethnic studies

business management

life sciences

psychology

letters

public affairs and services

theology

subjects sponsored by continuing education

data processing/related areas

^ices

i areas

0.1130

0.1304

0.1482

0.1864

0.1309

0.2009

0.1546

0.1345

0.2947

0.1176

0.089

0.066

0.029*

0.013*

0.065

0.012*

0.038*

0.071

0.000*

0.087

143

135

163

141

135

128

133

120

138

135

NOTE: Table entries (r) are Pearson correlation coefficients. Attitude statements are on a 4 pt. scale: (4) Very Successful; (3) Somewhat Successful; (2) Rarely Successful; (1) Never Successful. P=significance with * indicating significance < at the .05 level with n=number of respondents. Complete range of the 6 pt. scale for the amount of time involved with video teleconferencing includes: (1) under 10% of the time; (2) 10-25 percent of the time; (3) 26-50 percent of the time; (4) 51-75 percent

253

TABLE 3 5—Continued

of the time; (5) 76-95 percent of the time; (6) all or nearly all of the time.

254

Pearson "r" Correlation Coefficient: Amount Of Time Involved With Video Teleconferencing And Predicted Variables (Success/Length)

No variable correlations exist between the amount of

time involved with video teleconferencing and the

success/length variables. Because of the nature of the

information sought, some questions were not in true scale

form and cannot be completed using this statistical

method.

Discussion

One of the major problems with any mail survey is the

potential lack of response by those being surveyed. It

should be stressed that this study comprises a mailing to

the entire universe of persons involved in the sponsorship

or production of video teleconferences in the United

States and Canada. Of course, not everyone responded to

the questionnaire and the mailing lists probably did not

include all organizations who have been involved with

video teleconferencing. But, for the first time, through

the statistics shown in this chapter, one can define video

teleconferencing on a national basis with statistical

evidence to include the unique characteristics of the

medium.

This video teleconferencing "definition" changes

dimensions with the type of institution or organization,

perceptions of how video teleconferencing can be used with

different numbers of participants, and the amount of time

255

spent by individuals who are involved with video

teleconferencing. Further, characteristics of two types

of video teleconferencing emerge from the data; each type

has similarities and differences.

The larger type video teleconference (termed LVT for

purposes of discussion) has been shown to have differences

with the smaller type video teleconference (termed SVT for

purposes of discussion). Thus, what may work with one

type of video teleconference may not work with another

type. Further, the job skills necessary to be successful

with LVT's may be different from success with SVT's.

One must be careful to realize that experience with video

teleconferencing does not necessarily mean success. The

data presented in this chapter without interpretation or

understanding the context is useless. The final chapter

summarizes, explains and interprets the numbers within the

"whole" of the video teleconference medium.

CHAPTER IV

SUMMATION, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

Summation of the Literature Review

The communications satellite has allowed video

teleconferencing meetings of individuals from virtually

anywhere on planet Earth. This "revolution" in com-

munications gradually provided the means for visual and

audio information to be sent in different forms and to

different interactive audiences, although, like audio

teleconferencing or talk radio (Marder, 1977), most early

programming involved one-way television distribution.

Sometimes, the electronic meetings involved methods for

formal educational delivery while, on other occasions, the

meetings were for purposes of business.

The first experiment in two-way educational video

teleconferencing by satellite took place between the

United States and France on May 31, 1965, when a French

class of 30 students in West Bend, Wisconsin, was linked

to an English class at the Lycee Henri IV in Paris.

Several thousand miles of space and land distance were

covered in the electronic interchange between a Fre.nch

class in Wisconsin and an English class in Paris (Feldman

& Kelly, 1970) .

Today, through sophisticated, direct broadcast

satellites, satellite teleconferences are possible with

256

257

relatively inexpensive equipment. Less developed nations

such as India, Brazil and Turkey have used satellites to

deliver correspondence study and a wide range of tele-

courses not before possible. Some have argued that, in

the United States, only a small percent of course content

can be conveyed through television with the primary

function of television being to motivate students rather

than convey information (Wiesner, 1983).

In 1979 the Chinese Television University enrolled

more than 600,000 persons through 29 participating

colleges throughout China. Full time distance learning

students studied an average of three courses and mainly

came from worker type homes (McCormick, 1980). In the

United States, the PBS Adult Learning Service has provided

the first and largest nationwide effort to provide adult

learning and college credit through television with more

than a third of a million students enrolled since 1981.

Through narrowcasting, PBS plans a form of video telecon-

ferencing and in February 1986 will begin programming in

20 cities with live, interactive seminars in law,

accounting, medicine and banking (Phillip, 1985). In

Texas, a Coordinating Board Memorandum (1985) has

established guidelines to have telecourses maintain the

same quality as resident credit instruction.

In business, the United States Chamber of Commerce

operates a full-service business television network via a

258

closed-circuit satellite system to provide business-

oriented programming and teleconferencing to targeted

audiences. IBM's Interactive Satellite Education Network

has video teleconference courses that range from

programming languages to systems management ("Satelite

Teleconferencing Success," 1985). One study by Dutton,

Fulk and Steinfield (cited in Bretz, 1982) reported that

video teleconferencing could satisfy a number of company

needs including negotiation, planning, decision making,

instructing, delegating and resolving disagreements. Yet,

despite a 1984 Wall Street Journal article (Shaffer, 1984)

that reports 84 percent of the Fortune 500 companies plan

video teleconference installations in the near future,

scientists have estimated that less than 1 percent of all

organizations in the private business sector use video

teleconferencing on a regular basis (Parker, 1984).

Ruchinskas and Svenning (1984) suggested three arenas

of answers that concluded that (1) teleconferencing was

not a single innovation; (2) organizational teleconfer-

encing required organizational adoption and individual/

group acceptance; and (3) teleconferencing was just one of

several communication options. They also described two

basic versions of video teleconferencing that included (1)

point-multipoint and (2) fully interactive two-way video

that allows participants in two locations to see and hear

one another.

259

Korzenny and Bauer (1981) tested the theory of

propinquity, defined as the psychological distance between

communicators or the degree of perceived closeness of

another person or group of people. In teleconferencing,

propinquity was defined as the information transmission

capacity of the available sensory channels (visual,

auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory) for verbal

and nonverbal communication. Thus, face-to-face

conferences have all five channels available for

communication (a wide bandwidth) while video teleconfer-

encing had only two channels (visual and auditory) or a

medium bandwidth. Audio teleconferences had only one

channel available and was defined as having a narrow

bandwidth. The researchers did not find that increased

bandwidth increased psychological propinquity and,

therefore, could not determine a proper model of

electronic propinquity. The most interesting result of

the study had to do with feedback in predicting

psychological propinquity and communication satisfaction.

Rushton (1981) found no measurable difference existed

between scores of subjects receiving instruction through

teleconferencing and those to whom conventional

instruction was administered. Skinner (1982) concluded

that a teleconferencing system should be as unobtrusive as

possible with all participants having the feeling of being

260

face-to-face. Skinner also concluded that it was possible

for many simultaneous but independent conferences to take

place. Bretz (1982) used the Delphi technique to project

the future of satellite teleconferencing. Bretz focused

on technology, utilization, policies and procedures but,

because of the Delphi nature of the study, used subjective

data to support conclusions.

Ronald Rice (1982) suggested that for embarrassing or

conflictful interactions, computer conferencing "may be"

the medium of choice because it minimizes the inter-

personal dimension. Rice concluded that the next break-

through in teleconferencing would be to combine technol-

ogies and approaches for data processing, telecommunica-

tions, human communication and information retrieval.

Krueger (1976) used various sized groups of persons within

teletype and televoice modes to assess performance or

consensus about various issues. Krueger found communica-

tion rates to be higher in the two conference modes that

had voice, face-to-face and televoice channels than in the

teletype mode. Increases in group size resulted in

increases in every group measure of communication. Larger

groups used more messages, more words that had voice,

face-to-face and televoice channels than in the teletype

mode. In 197 6, Lawrence Newton Redd described video

teleconferencing in racially imbalanced schools.

261

Conclusions were drawn from observation methodology and

were not quantitatively evaluated. One conclusion was

that video teleconferencing via cable television could

achieve science education experience.

In 1982 the International Association of Business

Communicators (lABC) surveyed 1200 organizational

communicators after a single, four hour video teleconfer-

ence. Profit-seeking organizations included 78% of the

survey group. More than half or 64% of the teleconference

participants said teleconferencing was inappropriate for

negotiating while 90% said teleconferencing was appro-

priate for training and professional development. It was

concluded that teleconferencing was as effective for

studio audiences at remote locations as it was for live

participants.

Some have argued that developing a philosophy

consistent with the new technology of video telecon-

ferencing is important to understand and use telecon-

ferencing to its full advantage (however, before this

study, no scientific survey of video teleconferencing had

determined on any representative sample basis that the

medium had problems with curriculum). Two video

teleconference educational networks, British Columbia's

Knowledge Network and the Indiana Higher Education

Telecommunications System, have struggled with the

262

problems and have designed educational networks to cope

with the perceived problems.

Delivered through the Anik C-3 satellite, the

Knowledge Network's mandate is to assist higher education

and agencies of the government to establish and maintain

and operate a telecommunications network. The Knowledge

Network defines telecourses as learning opportunities that

combine television programs for credit or non-credit

combined with various materials while a teleseries

contains related topics which is always non-credit and may

or may not have support materials. About 10 percent of

all Knowledge Network programs are telecast live (video

teleconferencing) to allow for interaction between viewers

and presenters with the average live-interactive program

containing about ten to fifteen minutes of interactive

time per hour. Further, nearly all live interactive

programs contain pre-produced segments as part of the

program format (Catchpole & MacGregor, 1984).

The Indiana Higher Education Telecommunications

System features team taught credit and non-credit courses

with interaction to enable students at distant locations

to question the instructor during a program. Typical

audiences for television courses are generally well

educated, successful people serious about seeking

more information. From the experiences of individuals

involved in the telecourse teleconferencing, successful

263

television presenters were said to have good professional

reputations, have pleasing personalitiés, have reasonably

good appearance, have effective teaching styles and were

willing to learn to adapt classroom style to the

television presentation (Davis & Branson, 1984) .

Understanding the Results of the Two Surveys

Through the literature review of this study, video

teleconferencing has emerged as a multifarious medium

thought to have certain commonalities and differences.

The purpose of this study was to determine the state of

the art of video teleconferencing by surveying samples of

persons who have produced or been involved with video

teleconferencing. Video teleconferencing is defined as a

means of permitting groups and individuals in disparate

locations to conduct meetings together and hear and see

each other through various options that can include the

use of microprocessor technology, satellite and cable

hook-ups. While individual experiences not statistically

combined with similar experiences from others can give

insight and information, such items alone do not provide

perspective of the "whole" of video teleconferencing as a

basis to draw conclusions.

For example, one or two video teleconference

"producers" might perceive that a recognized expert is

264

not necessary or that the subject "health science" is the

only successful subject for video teleconferencing

(Colbert, 1984; Hect, 1985; Munsey, 1982). But when

representative samples of persons involved in work

situations represent the whole of video teleconferencing

and indicate that only certain subjects, for example, work

with the video teleconference medium while others do not—

such information is vital in understanding the state of

the art. Before this study, little, if any, data existed

to support or deny conclusions about the experiences and

perceptions of the state of the art by individuals who use

the medium in the United States and Canada.

But how could one or two questionnaire instruments be

designed to survey answers from all groups involved in

video teleconferencing? One could theorize that educators

or persons who design the curriculum of video telecon-

ferences might find interest in certain questions and

non-relevancy with others (Baird & Monson, 1982). An

engineer, for example, might well see the value with

certain questions of video teleconference techniques

while, perhaps, not understanding or appreciating problems

an educator might face with curriculum (Cordes & Boysen,

1984) . On the other hand, an educator might not

understand or appreciate such variables as pace or timing

or technical expertise. Would business executives respond

265

to questions about teleconferencing for subjects in

continuing education?

A well designed questionnaire should enable one to

learn as much as possible about experiences and

perceptions others have had through first hand experiences

with the medium. The risks with the two questionnaires

developed were considerable. An instrument that omitted

any questions a person experienced in video teleconfer-

encing might wish asked, might be thought to be an

"inferior" questionnaire. At the same time, who would

answer 200 or 300 items that could be asked? Thus, the

two questionnaires had to be designed to reach as many

persons as possible and to gather quality information that

would aid all groups involved in video teleconferencing.

The questionnaire designed for administrators at

colleges and universities was a short, two page

instrument, as many university presidents or vice

presidents would not have the day-to-day working knowledge

of video teleconferencing. Respondents who returned

questionnaires included 58 (56.8%) college/university

administrators. The questionnaire designed for all groups

of individuals who used video teleconferencing was a

lengthy, eight page questionnaire that sought responses on

108 items. The User Questionnaire respondents totaled 231

(41.5%).

266

Empirical Evidence: The Research Questions Answered

What Is Scientific Truth?: An Overview

Science is concerned with the understanding of

natural phenomena. Behavioral science has been

characterized by a strong empirical attitude and approach

toward seeking truth. For the scientist, "empirical"

means guided by evidence obtained in systematic and

controlled scientific research. Kerlinger (1979) writes:

Because a statement is empirical does not necessarily mean that it is true. Since it is based on scientific research and evidence, it is more likely to be true than a statement based wholly on beliefs. Nevertheless, it may still not be true. . . . Still, the probability of a statement based on empirical evidence being true is greater than the probability of a nonempirical statement being true. Carefully obtained empirical evidence . . . is a healthy and necessary corrective of man's beliefs and a salutary means of decreasing ignorance. Nonempirical evidence, on the other hand, can and often does help perpetuate ignorance, as old proverbs do. Empirical evidence, in short, checks our frequently unbridled addiction to making assertions about the world, assertions that may or may not be true. (p. 14)

Thus, the conclusions that follow are based on the

reported experiences of individuals close to the video

teleconference medium who, in some way, produce or oversee

video teleconferences.

Demoqraphics of the Respondents

The administrator respondents included 48.4% at the

Dean's level or above with the largest number of

267

respondents being vice presidents at 25.9%. More than

half (51.8%) of the administrator respondents had been

involved with video teleconferencing a reasonably short

time of 1 to 3 years with 8.9% involved for more than 15

years.

Persons who answered the User Questionnaire include

the greatest percentage of respondents (30.7%) being in

doctorate granting universities with a close second

(29.9%) working in PBS broadcast stations. The "other"

category includes 19.5% while 5.6% represent 2 year

community or junior colleges and 5.6% firms or

corporations. This diversity is further reflected in the

diverse nature of the respondents' titles in the "other"

category that include engineer, faculty coordinator for

satellite facilities, and supervisor of publicly held

corporations (to name a few). Most respondents (28.3%)

are involved with non-profit teleconferences for others

with 26.1% involved with video teleconferences held in

conjunction with other offices or divisions of the

respondent's company. The respondents had more than one

task (several job functions could be indicated) with more

than half supervising (59.4%) and 58.3% coordinating

different locations.

268

Do to

Successes How

Formats One U! Vide(

and Failures ses Or

Relate

D Teleconferencing?

As discussed in the literature review of this

dissertation, video teleconferences have been reported to

be at the two extremes of success and failure. The

questionnaire found the video teleconference format to

have many variables to be important for a successful video

teleconference. Thus, success or failure does relate to

how one uses or formats video teleconferencing.

Pace and timing of the material presented was

reported to be very important by 8 5% of the respondents

while the technical quality of the presentation was very

important by 84.4%. Variables thought to be important by

more than 50% of the user respondents include (see Table

15) low cost to participants, participants to meet new

people with similar interests, a large screen for viewing,

video teleconferences to produce measurable changes in

behavior, sponsorship by a large corporation or

organization, and workbook materials to supplement the

video teleconference. Format variables considered to be

important by more than 40% but under 50% include

sponsorship by a major university, limiting the number of

questions asked from each site, microphones placed in key

parts of an auditorium for questions from participants, a

profit to be made from the video teleconference, a

269

question and answer session among individuals at all or

several locations immediately after a presentation, live

questions from audience participants to be screened in

advance from remote sites, a professional educator to

design a video teleconference, a local in-person

presentation or group discussion in addition to the video

teleconference presentation, a moderator with show

business or communication skills at the key location,

interaction among participants at all sites, two-way voice

communication among key individuals at all sites and local

group discussion at each site. More than half (58.3%) of

the user respondents thought that a variable necessary for

a successful video teleconference included reasonable cost

with 20.8% indicated cost as the chief disadvantage.

It is clear from the data that the respondents agree

that interaction and question and answer sessions as well

as the variables just mentioned are important to include

as part of a video teleconference format. A format that

does not include such variables would not be a successful

format to the respondents of the study.

Do Some Topics Work Well With Video Teleconferencing While Others Do Not?

The users found that some topics work well while

others do not. Topics or subjects appropriate for the

medium of video teleconferencing (see question 6, page 7)

270

are thought to be important by the highest percentage

(42.5%) of respondents. Thus, the respondents are saying

that subject matter must be carefully chosen. Health

science is considered by 63.6% of the respondents to be

"very successful" followed by health and para medical

services with 60.2%; nursing with 59.9%; and allied health

with 56.3%. Additional subjects with more that 50% of the

respondents choosing the very successful category include

business management, 58.3%; engineering technology, 56.1%;

news events, 54.2%; business/commerce, 53.3%; and

communications, 51.0%. Foreign languages had the highest

never successful rating of 12.2%.

Thus, as far as the respondents are concerned, one

would exert caution with the production of a video

teleconference around a foreign language.

What Should be the "Mix" of Personal and Electronic Contact?

The answer to this question begins with comments from

the user respondents who commented on the mix of personal

and electronic contact. Two user respondents write (as

listed in Appendix C):

(1) I think that more creative use of the medium has to be developed through the utilization of clear, colorful graphics, video location footage, information displays via videfont, etc.

(2) Television was going to revolutionize education. It didn't. Video teleconferencing was going to revolutionize education. It won't.

271

The best conferences to date have been those that discussed an issue of national importance by a panel of experts from a central point. The network was then "killed" while local participants discussed the pros and cons of the national presentation. The network was again activated for a question and answer period. Three to seven hours seemed to suffice.

The study found the variable, computer interaction,

to have only one user respondent who thought the variable

was very important (see Table 15). More than half (58.3%)

of the user respondents thought that variables necessary

for a successful video teleconference included bringing

people together who otherwise could not attend for reasons

including distance, and the bringing together of

personalities or experts in the subject area are important

advantages and that it is impossible to give any single

advantage for a video teleconference. An important

finding is that nearly half (47.6%) of the respondents

thought that the inability of persons sponsoring video

teleconferences to develop delivery or instructional

techniques that utilize the video teleconference

technology to be the chief disadvantage for the video

teleconference medium. Nearly a quarter of the

respondents (24.4%) thought that the lack of human

communication possible through video screens without

face-to-face communication is the chief disadvantage.

Thus, a mix of personal and electronic contact that

272

uses a "different set" of instructional techniques must be

developed to utilize the video teleconference medium. It

is the author's opinion that the respondent who wrote

about the weaving process of network to local and local to

network has suggested an "ideal" mix of personal and

electronic contact.

Does the Type of Educational Institution or Business Relate

to Successful Video Teleconferencing?

The study found that the respondents' experience/per-

ception of successful video teleconferencing changes

depending upon the type of institution and business or

organization the respondent is a member of. Therefore,

elements considered to relate to successful video

teleconferencing will change depending upon what group or

organization an individual has gained experience from.

Such data should be important to anyone who plans a video

teleconference because it provides an opportunity to

discover what others—including businesses or institutions

apart from the individual seeking information—have

learned about the medium.

When the type of institution was compared with all

questionnaire variables, important differences emerged.

The longest involvement with video teleconferencing was

found in the "other" category with privately owned

corporations conducting the greatest number of video

273

teleconferences. Organizations most likely to be involved

with a weekly, monthly or annual series of video

teleconferences on a subject designed for a similar

audience are firms or corporations while the institution

least likely to be a part of a series is the research

university. Such data indicate that the research

university has greater differences in video telecon-

ference subject matter than does the private

sector.

The survey found that businesses and universities do

not agree about who should handle video teleconferences.

Universities generally agree that video teleconferences

are best handled through a university with teleconference

facilities while businesses generally disagree.

Persons at junior colleges are the most likely to

consider technical expertise important while firms or

corporations are the least likely to consider technical

expertise important. Junior colleges and universities

agree that the ability to adapt curriculum or subject

matter to a technical medium is important. While firms or

privately owned businesses consider two way video and

voice communication among all sites to be important,

research universities do not (see Table 21).

Comprehensive colleges and universities and research

universities report that local "in-person" presentations

274

or group discussions in addition to the video tele-

conference presentation are very important while small

businesses do not. Limiting the number of people at each

site to less than 50 is most important for privately owned

corporations and least important for research

universities.

Two subjects—mass communications and mathematics

—are at the .05 level when compared with organization/in-

stitution types. Mass communic'ations is considered to

have high subject success with small businesses, firms and

corporations and little success with junior or community

colleges.

Thus, the type of educational institution or business

relates to successful video teleconferencing in ways

suggested by the respondents. What works with a business

does not necessarily work with a university.

What is the Importance of the Size of the Video Teleconference; the Diver-sity of Subject Matter; And The Previous Experience of Persons Involved With Video Teleconferencing?

Size of the Video Teleconference

Video teleconferencing reported to be best used with

groups of more or less than 25 brought different

perceptions with the respondents. Responses are mixed

with whether profit is important for video teleconferences

best used with groups of more than 25. One should

275

remember that many larger video teleconferences are hosted

by universities that, generally, do not have the same

profit motives as corporations. Whether a video

teleconference should adhere to a strict schedule is

questionable with respondents who are a part of large and

small video teleconferences. Whether live questions from

audience participants at a remote site must be screened in

advance to stick to the topic being discussed is not an

agreed to procedure with persons involved with groups of

more than 25.

In addition to the subject areas with the greatest

percentages, persons who are involved with larger video

teleconferences are more likely to agree that

architecture, engineering technology, and psychology are

subject areas of success. Further, a number of variables

(using Pearson "r" correlation) increase in the perception

of success as the number of video teleconference

participants increase (see Table 29).

With format, larger video teleconference groups of

more than 25 consider local question and answer sessions

after a presentation; local group discussion at each site;

a local "in-person" presentation or group discussion; each

site to be limited to less than 50; and limiting the

number of questions asked from each site to be more

important than do video teleconference users of less than

276

25. The same respondents also thought that persons should

travel less than 150 miles. With persons who are part of

smaller, under 25, video teleconferences, technical

expertise is considered to be more important than

respondents who are part of larger video teleconferences.

As the number of persons involved with video

teleconferences increases, so does the likelihood that the

respondents are more likely to produce, coordinate

different locations, supervise and technically operate and

do something in addition (with the "other" category).

Diversity of Subject Matter

A large majority, 91.2%, of administrators report

positive perceptions about video teleconferencing with

72.2% reporting that video teleconferencing is best

administered through continuing education/community

service/extension. About half or 49.1% of the respondents

reported that their college/university did not have credit

courses that included some form of video teleconferencing.

Only 5.5% of the administrator respondents strongly

agreed that video teleconferencing was an appropriate

instructional delivery system for any subject matter.

More than half or 67.3% agreed to some extent that a

college/university should install permanent facilities for

video teleconferencing as the medium is so important that

it can be used effectively on a regular basis. Thus, as a

277

whole, the administrators had more positive than negative

views about video teleconferencing.

Previous Experience

The video teleconference users found the highest

percentage (33.9%) of respondents having 2 to 3 years of

experience with 22.6% having 4 to 5 years of experience.

Thus, given the relative newness of the medium, the

respondents do have experience with developing the state

of the art of video teleconferencing. At the same time,

however, 52.4% of the users were involved with video

teleconferencing under 10% of the the time with 27.7%

involved 10-25% of the time.

In this dissertation, experience relates to the

amount of time one spends with video teleconferencing.

The video teleconference perception changes with the

amount of time spent on video teleconferencing when

compared with the questionnaire variables. As the

respondents spend more time with video teleconferencing,

the greater is the likelihood of acceptance with the

medium. Persons who are involved with larger

teleconferences spend about the same amount of time as

persons involved with smaller teleconferences. Further,

as the amount of time with video teleconferencing

increases, the greater is the likelihood of being involved

with a weekly, monthly or annual series.

278

The respondents who spend less time with video

teleconferencing are more likely to consider two-way voice

communication among key individuals at all sites to be

important than are individuals who spend more time with

video teleconferencing. Respondents who spend more time

with video teleconferencing report greater success with

business management, life sciences, letters, public

affairs and services and subjects sponsored by continuing

education.

A Perspective In Understanding the Survey Results

The data presented in A Descriptive and Investigative

Study of Radio Talk Programming (Marder 1977, p. 88)

suggests that several variables important in audio tele-

conferencing with talk shows are also important in video

teleconferencing. The importance of pace and timing, for

example, was considered to be important by 98.3% of the

talk show hosts surveyed in Canada and the United States.

Having informed callers (86.2%) and listeners (86.2%) was

also thought to be important with the talk show hosts.

Jack Webster (cited in Marder, 1977), the highest paid

Canadian radio (CJOR) talk show host in 1977, made the

following statement in an interview with the author:

Axiom is, garbage [subject matter] out—garbage in. Good stuff out, good stuff in. It's an axiom of the business. We edit incoming calls and we keep them to the topic, too . . . (p. 326)

279

At the time Webster made the statement, CJOR was part

of a radio audio teleconferencing network for commercial

purposes. His audio teleconferencing talk shows have

included many types of guests including the prime minister

of Canada. The person in video teleconferencing might

well apply Webster and other radio/television talk show

hosts' techniques of having a producer talk with callers

before airing a brief, live broadcast with the caller.

For many radio talk shows, callers are carefully screened

with the host being advised beforehand about the

information or views the caller wishes to air. What

appears to be a sequence of callers in the order called is

often a selected caller who has comments or questions

about the topic just discussed on the air (Tramer &

Jeoffres, 1983) . Thus, the lack of experience with caller

interaction by persons involved in video teleconferencing

who take calls from another video teleconference site may

well lead to a negative caller view by persons who are

involved with larger video teleconferences.

Such radio talk shows use "show business" techniques

as such hosts generally admit. Probably, some educators

consider such "show business" techniques to be outside of

the scope of education and not worthy devices of

communication. At the same time, commercial television

280

programming such as the syndicated "Donahue" talk show or

the PBS MacNeil/Lehrer News Hour that regularly use types

of video/audio teleconferencing, have attracted large

audiences. For example, the audio teleconferencing

surveys of talk show radio (Marder, 1977) represented

89,347,000 persons according to the data received on the

station manager or program director questionnaire. Of

course, as has been shown by the data in this

dissertation, video teleconferences can be large (LVT) or

small (SVT). While variables within the video

teleconference change with the size of the video

teleconference, one should not assume one type of video

teleconference to be "better" than another. LVT's serve

particular purposes as do SVT's.

The data and variables discussed provide important

information for understanding the video teleconference

state of the art. One might ask, "Which viewpoint is more

important in understanding the video teleconference?: The

views by respondents who have jobs at various institutions

or organizations? The views by respondents who are

involved with larger video teleconferences? Or the view

of persons who spend more time with video teleconferences?

Do any general principles of video teleconferencing

apply?"

In the last analysis, the data and resource material

281

presented throughout this dissertation must be, of course,

left for the reader to determine importance. The respon-

dents' views are important because they are responses from

persons very close to the video teleconference medium. A

viewpoint close to the purpose of the'intended video

teleconference should be carefully considered. From the

study, several principles of video teleconferencing should

be considered:

(1) It is clear from the respondents' views

that educators cannot take traditional

curriculum principles and apply such to video

teleconferencing. Video teleconferencing is

very different from traditional classroom

teaching and requires planning and delivery akin

to the medium (Haaland & Newby, 1984). Good

video teleconferences match subject matter with

what the medium can and cannot do. Chapter III

of this dissertation provides an overview of

what the medium can and cannot do according to

experts across the United States and Canada.

(2) Rarely have transmission time of more

than half a day. The nature of video

teleconferencing is such that the medium is

"slow" when compared with print or other

instruments of mass communications.

282

(3) Choose presenters who are skilled in

television type presentations that allow

audience interaction (Ershler, 1984).

(4) Consider alternative methods of

delivery. The experts say that video telecon-

ferencing does not work with all subjects and in

all situations (Drasin, 1983).

(5) Provide supporting workbook or print

material before and after the video telecon-

ference.

(6) Interaction is extremely important and

separates video teleconferences from simply

watching a television program. However, inter-

action must be controlled at the local site and

through the network by individuals skilled in

editing unnecessary remarks. Pace and timing

may be lost without skillful weaving of presen-

tation and interaction.

(7) Poor technical quality will ruin a

vidéo teleconference. Nothing could be worse

than having 200 or so people squinting at a 19

inch television screen or failing to hear

comments made because of poor audio.

283

Additional Developments, Research and Predictions About the Future

Today, in December of 1985, news about developments

with the video teleconference technology continue to

present elements that suggest change. For example, a

recent Kellogg grant has enabled the University of

Georgia's Center for Continuing Education to install á new

uplink for video teleconferencing ("Satellite Uplink,"

1985). Georgia plans to develop teleconferences for

"national distribution."

Another technological development that has much to do

with the quality of a large screen for video telecon-

ferences has to do with the lack of a world-wide common

standard for large screen television. None of the three

main television formats provides a television image as

good as the 3 5mm film used in movie theaters. The 525

scanning lines, the standard in the United States, is

inadequate for large screen viewing. Japan has proposed

using 1,125 lines to transmit a movielike, wide-screen

image much closer in quality to film. Problems include

the fact that current television channels cannot transmit

high-definition programs because of insufficient

bandwidth. CBS has proposed using two channels, one

transmitting a 525 line signal; the other a 600 line

signal. Another possibility includes the Multiplexed

284

Analog Components (MAC) system that breaks the television

signal into separate components for image, color and audio

information that results in a noticeable difference in

picture quality. The Private Satellite Network, Inc,

uses such a system for closed broadcasts to private

companies. Before December 1985 Australia's new direct-

broadcast satellite will use the MAC system said to be

"the best TV signal on Earth" (Marcom, 1985).

Advances in the technology could change the results

of the surveys. Researchers interested in the video

teleconference medium might target specific groups (such

as businesses) and seek additional, in-depth information

about how certain organizations have designed video

teleconferences to help in particular problem solving

(Rash, 1984) . Little has been said about European video

teleconferencing, an area worthy of research (Bodie,

1982) .

Probably, many individuals would argue that video

teleconferencing would not be preferred to personal

contact if such contact were possible given the same

considerations of cost, time to meet with all involved,

travel and other considerations. At the same time, anyone

who has experienced fright or terror from watching a movie

has first hand knowledge of the power of the visual and

auditory image. By definition, we on planet Earth live in

285

different locations and have different tasks and responsi-

bilities to perform each day. Face-to-face meetings with

experts and people who must communicate with each other

are not always possible given "real-world" considerations.

Perhaps the most far-reaching consequence of a form

of teleconferencing began in 1959 with Project Ozma,

named, from the series of books by L. Frank Baum (cited in

Sullivan, 1985), for the princess of the imaginary land of

Oz. The first part of teleconferencing to the stars

—listening—was a reality in 1960 when two stars, Tau

Ceti and Epsilon Eridani, were targeted by an 85 foot

dish. In 1985 a study underway by Paul Horowitz of

Harvard (cited in Sullivan, 1985) was capable of scanning

some 128,000 channels in the universe searching for

someone in a distant galaxy to interact or talk with. And

as of the Autumn of 1985, Harvard University's new Mega-

channel Extraterrestrial Assay (META) now has the capacity

to monitor and analyze eight million channels at once.

Questions such as "Who should send the response," and

"What should the response be?" are now seriously being

debated in a similar program sponsored through NASA's SETI

program. By the 1990s NASA will reach yet another stage

of signal analysis with the reading of drifting, pulsed

signals over yet a broader range of frequencies aimed at

the discovery of life among the stars. And still.

286

billions of possible frequencies will exist (Sullivan,

1985) .

Think, for a moment, about the possibility of a video

teleconference "conversation" that would take years or

lifetimes for a single message to be sent and received

with a civilization nothing is known about. Will we, one

day, find the princess and be able to communicate?

Final Conclusions

McLuhan (1972) has suggested that an electronic

medium does more than simply deliver a message; hence,

becoming a part of the message. The data in this

dissertation supports the idea of the whole of video

teleconferencing having unique differences and similar-

ities that exist with certain variables or conditions.

Thus, a face-to-face meeting is not the same as an

electronic meeting. Each can add dimensions or become a

part of a message or communication. The study was

conducted in an honest search for truth with limited

preconceived ideas about the findings. The statistical

representations of experiences by persons active in video

teleconferencing provide an important framework for future

analysis and discovery.

Today, as humankind reaches for the stars, the new

technology will not vanish as long as humanity survives.

As humanity colonizes the moon and walks on the planets in

287

the decades to come, it is difficult to imagine any future

time when video teleconferencing will not continue, in

some form, to be part of electronic communication. Video

teleconferencing makes learning possible anywhere as

someone in the most remote region imaginable can instantly

interact with anyone anywhere at any time on planet Earth.

And, at the same time, this does not mean that video

teleconferencing replaces the more traditional methods of

learning.

Walter Cronkite (cited in Marder, 1977) has used the

analogy that one 30 minute newscast delivers about as much

information as the content of one page of a daily news-

paper. When the author taught television, he would

sometimes ask students, "Which is faster? The electronic

or print medium?" After most of the class would answer

"electronic," assignments would be given to count the news

stories and the amount of time and the number of facts

given by three major networks (PBS did not have a similar

newscast at the time). Someone also counted the stories

and the number of facts within a newspaper. In class

discussion, students were asked to estimate the amount of

time one would have to watch television to learn the same

amount of information. Estimates ranged from watching

television several hours to several days to duplicate the

amount of information. One could argue that, in the sense

288

of learning facts, television is an extremely slow medium.

This conclusion is supported with the emphasis of the

importance of pace and timing as the data indicates in

audio and video teleconferencing. Pace and timing would

be unimportant with a "faster" medium.

At the same time, the visual and quality of

information is very different. One can develop a sense of

"being an eyewitness" that is not possible through print.

The more productive video teleconferences may well use a

combination of media to develop an understanding. Used in

conjunction with a video teleconference, brochures,

pamphlets and books can carry much information while the

video teleconference can increase overall understanding

and aid with motivation. As the respondents indicate,

workbook materials to supplement a video teleconference is

very important. Talk stations such as CJOR in Vancouver

and KABC in Los Angeles have discovered, for example, that

publishing a newspaper adds a certain "depth" to what is

said on the air and increases ratings. It is important to

understand that anyone who holds the view that all

learning should take place through the video teleconfer-

ence medium or, conversely, through fraditional lectures

or the print medium, does not understand how each medium

can be used to full advantage.

This dissertation has not discovered "all there is to

289

know" about the video teleconference medium. At the same

time, much information has been presented. Of course,

someone may have success with something different from the

success reported by the respondents. But knowledge about

the views of others experienced with the video telecon-

ference medium can only help the implementation of a

successful video teleconference.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A report to the Board of Educational Finance concerning the Instructional-Fixed Service System. (1980, September 9). Portales: Eastern New Mexico University.

A summary of the communications technology satellite project. (1981) . Denver, Colorado: Public Service Satellite Consortium.

Adult learning activities: records and reports series. (1978, June). Washington: National Center for Higher Education Management Systems.

Aldrich, H. (1979) . Organizations and environments. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1979.

Allstate in good hands with teleconferencing. (1983, Feb-ruary). Communications News, p. 75.

Arnell, G. (1984, April 6). Instructional television fixed services: An analysis of ITFS operations (Report). Washington, D.C.: Office of Policy Development and Planning Corporation for Public Broadcasting.

Ashworth, K. H. (1985, March 11). Memorandum to chief executive officers of public institutions and systems. Proceedings about institutional plans for televised instruction. Austin, Texas: Coordinating Board.

Baird, M., & Monson, M. (1982, August). How to tackle training for teleconference users. Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 45-50.

Bates, A. W. (Ed.). (1984). The role of technology in distance education. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc.

Benham, D., & Fischer, M. L. (1983, February). Video network boosts Fairchild productivity. Communica-tions News, pp. 64-65.

290

291

Bennison, D. (1984) . A framework for monitoring the impact of videoconferencing on organisational communications. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencinq and Electronic Communications III (pp. 275-281). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, Uni-versity of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Blalock, H. (1972) . Social statistics. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Blau, P. (1977) . Inequality and heterogeneity: a primitive theory of social structure. New York: Free Press.

Block, R. S. (1984). The information utility. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III (pp. 403-407). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Blumler, J., & Katz, E. (1974). The uses of mass communications. Beveriy Hills, California: Sage.

Bodie, E. (1982, August). This is London—via video-conference. Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 31-33 .

Bond, A. (1983, January). Teleconferencing: the business revolution is making face-to-face electronic meet-ings a reality. Technical Photography, pp. 26-27.

Bond, Al. (1984, March). Adhoc satellite conferencing: how to make the most of its benefits. AV Video, pp. 35, 36, 46, 47.

Bond, Al. (1982, June/July). Video teleconferencing: pro-ducing an in-house videoconference. Video User, pp. 19-20.

Borko, Harold. (1967) . Automated language processing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Braby, R., Henry, J. M., Parrish, W. F., & Swope, W. M. (1975) . A technique for choosing cost-effective instructional delivery systems. Orlando, Florida: Navy Publications.

292

Bretz, R. G. (1982) . Satellite teleconferencing in continuing education (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1983). University Microfilms International No. 8306472.

Brewer, R. R. (1969) . A feasibility study of communication satellites for education in the United States (Doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1969) .

Brown, A. (1982, December). Assessing videoconferencing for your meeting. Video User, pp. 8, 24.

Brown, J. W., & Thornton, J. W. (1963). New media in higher education. Washington, D.C.: Association for Higher Education and the Division of Audio-visual Instructional Service of the National Educa-tion Association.

Cable no hindrance: PBS chief says. (1982, October 15). Lubbock Avalanche-Journal, Lubbock, Texas, p. 20.

Caramanico, T. (1984, Spring). Tele/Scope: how to confer-ence on CompuServe. Commodore Power/Play Home Computing, p. 125.

Carruthers, J. (1972, February 28). Anik's benefit to north questioned by study report. Vancouver Sun, Vancouver, British Columbia, p. 15.

Cassier, H. R. (1962). Television teaching today. Place de Fontenoy, Paris: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Catchpole, M. J., & MacGregor, A. A. (1984). British Columbia's knowledge network: macro and micro perspectives on the use of television in educational delivery. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencinq and Electronic Communications l l (pp. 109-121). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Inter-active Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Cavuto, N. (1985, May). The nightly business report. Washington: Public Broadcasting Service.

293

Chapman, J. H. (1970, April). Canadian domestic satellite communications policy. Ottawa: Department of Communications, Paper 70-428 of AIAA 3rd Communi-cations Satellite Systems Conference, Los Angeles, California, p. 36.

Chiaviello, A., & Macy, R. (1982, September). Direct-to-home broadcast satellite service: where it's headed and who it will affect. Broadcast Communications,' pp. 7 2-77 .

Chin, K. (1984, May 7). The elderly learn to compute. Info-World: The Newsweekly for Microcomputer Users, pp. 24-28.

Christopher, G. R. (1982-1983). Evaluating educational technology: the old shoe. The Journal of Educational Technoloqy Systems, IJ^(l), 93-99.

Chrysler "does it better" through multi-feed satellite conference. (1983, February). Communications News, p. 78.

Colbert, D. C. (1984) . Nursing management in the 80s: a seven-part teleconference series. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III (pp. 97-100). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, Univer-sity of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Conferencing by satellite—a selection of case studies. (1982, August). Educational and Industrial Tele-vision, pp. 36-39.

Conquest, R. (1985, November 19). Star peace: TV satel-lites for Soviet-U.S. concord. Wall Street Journal, p. 34.

Conrath, D., Elton, M., & Lucas, W. (1978). Evaluating new telecommunications services. New York: Plenum.

Coordinating Board (Texas) Memorandum. (1985, January). Austin, Texas: Coordinating Board, p. 1.

294

Cordes, D. L., & Boysen, A. E. (1984). Assessing the traming of producers, onsite coordinators and users of teleconferencing. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III (pp. 174-181). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Corporation for Public Broadcasting directory. (1984-1985). Washington: Corporation for Public Broadcasting.

Cortes-Vergara, M. C. (1983, February). Telephone confer-ences offer savings through efficient use of time. Communications News, p. 83.

Cross, T. (1983, February). It's time to get out of the bleachers and onto the field of computer confer-encing. Communications News, pp. 76-77.

Dana, S. R. (1982, October). The videoconferencing facility at Allstate Insurance. Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 23, 24, 26, 28.

Davis, S. M., & Branson, F. F. (1984). Extending the impact of the cooperative extension service through closed circuit television. In Lorne A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Elec-tronic Communications III (pp. 101-108). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Delavan, J. (1984, June). Chancellor anchors huge University of Illinois videoconference. ABC Communication World, pp. 1-3.

Dlugatch, I. (1970). Status report on communications satellite systems for developing nations. Culver City, California: Hughes Aircraft Company, p. 1.

Dogan, U. (1975). The feasibility of utilizing a direct broadcast satellite for educational and national development in Turkey (Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, 1975).

Drasin, R. (1983, July/August). Videoconferencing: avoiding the 'lt's sexy so we'll do it' trap. Video User, p. 18.

295

Elton, C. J., & Boomstein, D. (1983, April). Planning the video in videoconferencing. Video User, pp. 15-16.

Ershler, L. E. (1984). The moderator: who, when, why and how. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III (pp. 182-185) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Feasley, C. E. (1983). Serving learners at a distance: a guide to program practices. Higher Education Research Reports: Executive Summary Report No. 5.

Feldman, N. E., & Kelly, C. M. (1970). Communication satellites for the 70s: systems. London, England: MIT Press.

First satellite built by India soars aloft on Russian rocket. (1975, April 21). Toronto Globe and Mail, p. 18.

Fraser, D. R. (1983, March). Advent of direct broadcast satellites bringing wide range of new services. Communications News, pp. 68-71.

Fredin, E. S. (1983, October). The context of communica-tion: interactive telecommunication, interpersonal communication, and their effect on ideas. Communi-cation Research, 1^(4), 553-581.

Frost, M. (1984, March). International teleconferencing: a state-of-the-art report. International Television, pp. 54-60.

Gould, E., & Singletary, S. (1983, February). Current trends in the purchase of audio/video teleconference systems. Conimunications News, pp. 60-61.

Gould, E. (1982, October). Trends in teleconferencing today indicate increasing corporate use. Communi-cations News, pp. 48-49.

Gruebel, J. (1982, February). Bridging higher education in Indiana: 'meet-me' by telephone. The Higher Education Journal, 9 (2), 59-60.

296

Gudgel, J., & Sheekey, A. (1984, October). Focus on tele-conferencing. Telescan, pp. 1, 2, 11.

Haaland, B. A., & Newby, W. G. (1984). Student perception of effective teaching behaviours: an examination of conventional and teleconference-based instruction. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Telecon-ferencing and Electronic Communications III (pp. 211-217) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Haavind, R. (1984, March). 1984: start of the misinfor-mation age? High Technology, p. 2.

Hamilton, S. (1984) . How transparent is the medium? In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 408-417) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Hansell, K. J. , Green, D., & Erbring, L. (1982, Septem-ber) . A report on a survey of teleconferencing users. Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 70-76.

Harkness, R. C. (1982). Estimating teleconferencing travel substitution potential in large business organiza-tions. In Teleconferencing and electronic communi-cations. Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Hect, R. (1985, May) . Planning a successful video telecon-ference. Health Care Conference Planner, pp. 20-21.

Homans, G. (1961) . Social behavior: its elementary forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.

Hon, D. (1983, July/August). Interactive video: the future comes to town. Video User, p. 11.

Hough, B. R. (1982, November). So you want to do telecon-ferencing? Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 52, 56, 60. ~

297

Hughes system improves productivity of groups. (1982, February). Communications News, p. 64.

Ikert, N. (1982, February). Airline and pilot's associa-tion negotiate via teleconferencing. Communica-tions News, p. 66.

Ikert, N. (1981, August). Satellite communication technology takes another giant leap. Video Systems, pp. 38-40.

Inglis, A. (1983, March). Satellites bringing next revolu-tion in broadcast and DBS distribution. Communica-tions News, pp. 60-63 .

International Association of Business Communicators survey teleconferencing. (1982, November). Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 24, 26, 30.

Jaffe, L. (1966). Communications in space. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.

Kay, E. (1983, October). Moving information rather than people: teleconferencing as a management tool. Communications News, pp. 56-59.

Keiper, R. (1983, December). Systems approach to videocon-ferencing puts emphasis, on systems utility rather than on system components. Communications News, pp. 91, 92.

Kelleher, K. (1983, February). Move the expertise not the expert with slow-scan videoconferencing. Communi-cations News, pp. 70-71.

Kenda, W. (1984) . International teleconferencing. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III/ (pp. 122-127). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1979). Behavioral research: a conceptual approach. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Kern, R. (Ed.). (1985, July 22). 1985 survey of buying power [Special issue]. Sales & Marketing Manage-ment, pp. A-5, A-19.

298

Kistler, C. (1977). Cable television and higher education at Texas Tech University: A Model (Doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, 1977) .

Kling, K. (1984, October). Dean Ishler makes pre-dictions about education. University Daily, p. 1.

Korzenny, F., & Bauer, C. (1981, October). Testing the theory of electronic propinquity: organizational teleconferencing. Communication Research, 8.(4) , 479-498.

Krueger, G. P. (1976). Conferencing and teleconferencing in three communication modes as a function of the number of conferees. (Doctoral dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1976) . University Micro-films International No. 7707741.

Kullen, M. B. (1984). Evaluating the benefits of telecon-ferencing as a capital investment. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications II , (pp. 157-165) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Kwiatek, K. K. (1982-1983) . New ideas in the workplace: learning from interactive television. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, lj.(2), 117-129.

Large, A. J. (1985, November 18). Out of orbit: space satellites face rising competition in beaming messages. The Wall Street Journal, pp. 1, 16.

Lasswell, H. (1948). The structure and function of communication in society. In L. Bryson (Ed.), The communication of ideas. New York: Harper, pp. 37-51.

Leddick, K. (1983, February). Hotels hosting increasing number of large multi-city teleconferences. Communications News, pp. 67-69.

Levine, A. (1981). Handbook on Underaraduate Curriculum. Washington: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Lu, C. (1984, March). Picture processing reaches micros. Hiqh Technoloqy, p. 27.

299

Maddox, B. (1981, December). The telecommunications revolution: government and industry join in a global race to innovate. World Press Review, pp. 21-23. '

Marcom, J. (1985, October 25). World outlook is still fuzzy for film-quality TV pictures. Wall Street Journal, p. 25.

Marder, J. (1977) . A descriptive and investigative study of radio talk programming. (Master's thesis, Texas Tech University, 1977).

Martin, J. (1978) . The wired society. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Mascioni, M. (1982, December). For cost-effective teleconferencing. Videopro, pp. 58-65.

McCormick, R. (1980, June). The Chinese television uni-versity. Educational Broadcasting International, p. 62 .

McLuhan, M. (1972). Understanding media: the extensions of man. In W. Schram & D. F. Roberts (Eds.), The process and effects of mass communication (pp. 100-115). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Mendelsohn, H., & Crespi, I. (1972). Polls, television, and the new politics. Scranton, Pennsylvania: The Chandler Publishing Company.

Mikesell, D. (1983, March). Expanding satellite systems bring new offerings of enhanced services. Communi-cations News, pp. 58-59.

Miller, D. L. (1984). Not a success—but a triumph information distribution systems: a multi-purpose audio-video teleconferencing application for the department of defense. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 285-291). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

300

Miller, W. C. (1984). Re-training the work force: a university-corporate partnership through inter-actional telecommunications. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Elec-tronic Communications III, (pp. 285-291). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, Univer-sity of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Miura, A.,•Stevenson, S., & Linker, D. (1982, February). Videoteleconferencing brings new direction to business in the 1980s. Communications News, pp. 52-54. '

Morgan, R. P. & Margolin, J. B. (1970). Systems for emerqing nations: an overview. Washington: Program of Policy in Science and Technology.

Munsey, W. (1982, February). First phase of telemedicine program is prescription for improved health care. Communications News, pp. 6 2-63.

Naisbitt, J. (1982). Megatrends. New York: Warner Books.

Nanberg, D. W. (1984, December). How to reduce your risk. Association Management, pp. 152-156.

National narrowcast service. (1985, June). Washington: PBS papers.

Newcast for independent network news. (1984, March). Atlanta: Cable News Network.

O'Keefe, R. , & Cerny, R. (1983, February) . Aetna's tele-conference net merges fiber, coax, microwave and satellite. Communications News, p. 56.

Ostroff, D. H. (1984). Career preparation for videoconfer-ence professionals. In L. A. Parker and C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencinq and Electronic Communica-tions III, (pp. 399-402) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Ozman, H. A., & Craver, S. M. (1981). Philosophical found-ations of education. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.

301

Pagano, P. (1985, March 11). More firms rely on video linkups. Los Anqeles Times., Business Section, pp. 1-4.

Parker, L. A. (1984) . Teletraining: an overview. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications II , (pp. 128-133). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Parker, L. A., & Olgren, C. H. (Eds.). (1984). Teleconfer-encinq and Electronic Communications III. Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, Univer-sity of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Parker, L. A., & Olgren, C. H. (Eds.). (1985). Teleconfer-encinq Directory of the Center for Interactive Proqrams. Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Patterson, R. M. (1982, August). The anatomy of a portable TVRO network. Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 40, 44.

Paulsen, G. (1982, April). The view from VideoNet: a sweeping look at teleconferencing by one of the leaders in the field. Video Systems, pp. 15-21.

Pease, P. S., & Threlkeld, R. M. (1984). Telecommunica-tions and changes in higher education. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 388-394). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Penland, P. R. Communication science and technology. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1974.

Pensinger, G. (1982, September). How to build profits with teleconferencing. Broadcast Communications, pp. 70-71.

Pereyra, S. (1983, February). "Soaps" to surgical gowns: market research through teleconferencing. Commun-ications News, pp. 72-73.

302

Phillip, W. H. (1985). Facts about PBS education services. Washington, D. C.: PBS Adult Learning Service.

Pinches, C. A. (1976). The technological side of teaching by telephone. In L. A. Parker & B. Riccomini (Eds.), Second Annual Communications Conference—The Status of the Telephone in Education, (pp. 88-92) Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Ploch, M. (1984, March). Micros flood campuses: power-ful micros and advanced network technologies are changing US higher education. High Technology, p. 47. — ^

Pritchard, W. L. (1968, April). Communications satellites and the world of tomorrow. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 6 (4), p. 32.

PSSC coordinates more than 200 videoconferences for diverse groups. (1983, February). Communications News, pp. 80-81.

Rash, P. (1984) . Successful uses of videoconferencing. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Telecon-ferencinq and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 186-189) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Inter-active Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Redd, L. N. (1976) . A descriptive study of the use of teleconferencing via two-way cable television in racially imbalanced schools. (Doctoral disserta-tion, Michigan State University, 1982) . University Microfilms International No. 162573.

Rice, H. (1983, March). Satellites are a national resource to educate/train corporate America. Communications News, pp. 80-81.

Rice, R. (1982) . Human communication networking in a teleconferencinq environment (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1982) . University Microfilms International No. 8220526.

303

Rice, R. (1984). The new media. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

Robertson, J. (1980, June-November). Satellite teleconfer-encing. Washington: Corporation for Public Broad-casting Technical Report 8011.

Rosen, H. A. (1968, April). A satellite system for educational television. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 6 (4), p. 58.

Ruark, H. C. (1982, October). AV news and reviews: survey results indicate continuing industry-business training needs. Technical Photography, p. 14.

Ruark, H. C. (1981, August). Teleconferencing: a medium for a maximum number of people at minimum cost. Technical Photography, pp. 12, 13.

Ruchinskas, J. E., & Svenning, L. L. (1984). Research support for designing and implementing teleconfer-encing systems: the case of Arcovision. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 166-173). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Interactive Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Rumble, G., & Keegan, H. (1982). The distance teaching universities. London: Croom Helm.

Rushton, A. F. (1981). Teleconferencing versus conven-tional delivery in complex skills (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1981). Uni-versity Microfilms International No. 8125787.

Sagan, C. (1980) . Cosmos. New York: Random House.

Sagan, C. (Producer). (1983, November). Nuclear Winter [Video Teleconferencei. Washington, DC: Open Space Institute.

Sanders, W. H. (1982, November 3). Going digital. Instructional Innovation, p. 20.

Satellite teleconferencing success stories featured. (1985, July/August). Public Service Satellite Consortium Newsletter, p. 3.

304

Satellite uplink to expand delivery systems. (1985, Fall) Georqia Center Quarterly, p. 1.

Schramm, W. (1968) . Communication satellites for education, sciince and culture. Paris: UNESCQ Press.

Shaffer, R. A. (1984, August 3). Video conferences are seen becoming more popular in '84. The Wall Street Journal, p. 19.

Shared telecom services are planned for several "intelli-gent buildings" in Dallas. (1983, March). Communi-cations News, p. 2.

Sharkan, W., & Goodman, J. E. (1982, May). Improving the climate for educational technology. Instructional Innovator, p. 38.

Skinner, T. P. (1982). Distributed computer control for a multinode video teleconferencing system (Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, 1982). University Microfilms International No. 8221033.

Southworth, G. (1982, February). Slow-scan tv holds promise for teleconferencing and other areas. Communications News, pp. 60-61.

Sullivan, W. T. (1985, September/October). Twenty-five years of searching: SETI scientists celebrate an anniversary. The Planetary Report, pp. 10-12.

Sumner, J. A. (1984) . An investigation of participation barriers in telecommunications instruction. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 207-210) . Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Inter-active Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Television in education: report of the Educational Television Program Institute. (1952). Washington: The American Council on Education.

Thomas, W., & C. (1982, August). Investment trends in teleconferencing. Educational and Industrial Television, pp. 34-35.

305

Thomas, W., & C. (1982, February). Teleconferencing reaching a critical pivotal stage in growth and development. Communications News, p. 46.

Three Thousand Futures. (1981) . Washington: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Tramer, H., & Jeoffres, L. W. (1983, Summer). Talk radio—forum and companion. Journal of Broad-castinq, ^ ( 3 ) , 297-300.

Turkle, J. (1984) . The second self: computers and the human spirit. New York: Random House.

University sets pace in providing teleconferencing use and training. (1983, February). Communications News, p. 82.

User demand spurring a teleconferencing boom. Communica-tions News, February 1983, pp. 54-55.

Veith, R. (1976, August 8). The fourth network given birth by domestic satellite. San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, p. 1.

Videoconferencing edges into corporations. (1983, July/ August). Video User, pp. 1, 31.

Video: telemeetings and tv dinners. (1983, August). Audio-Visual Communications, pp. 14-16.

Vizard, F. (1985). Guide to satellite TV star gazing. Popular Mechanics, pp. 104-107; 128-129.

Weingand, D. E. (1984) . Telecommunications and the traditional classroom: a study of the delivery of education. In L. A. Parker & C. H. Olgren (Eds.), Teleconferencinq and Electronic Communications III, (pp. 269-274). Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Inter-active Programs, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Lowell Hall.

Wiesner, Peter. (1983, Summer). Some observations on telecourse research and practice. Adult Education Quarterly, 11(4), 215-221.

306

Yore, John J. (1984, November/December). Wetacom: a multi-service company. Motion Magazine. p. 44.

APPENDICES

A. USER QUESTIONNAIRE (QUESTIONNAIRE ONE)

AND COVER LETTERS

B. ADMINISTRATOR QUESTIONNAIRE (QUESTIONNAIRE TWO)

AND COVER LETTER

C. OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM THE USER QUESTIONNAIRE

D. OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM THE ADMINISTRATOR

QUESTIONNAIRE

307

APPENDIX A: USER QUESTIONNAIRE

(QUESTIONNAIRE ONE) AND COVER LETTERS

308

309

Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education Office of the Director

Dear NUTN Video Teleconference User/Producer:

WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!

Dr. J. O. Grantham, executive director of the National University Teleconference Network, has approved the survey of member NUTN colleges/universities for my dissertation subject on the video teleconference. I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications).

Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium. A shorter questionnaire has been sent to individuals in your college/university who administratively oversee video teleconferences.

YOU AND YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY ARE IMPORTANT TO US1

Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or school identification should be placed on the questionnaire.

Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.

PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.

Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available at the next NUTN annual meeting.

Sincerely,

John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman

310

Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education Office of the Director

Dear Video Teleconference User/Producer:

WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!

I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications). My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.

Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium.

YOU AND YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY ARE IMPORTANT TO US!

Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or identification should be placed on the questionnaire.

Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.

PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.

Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon completion of the study.

Sincerely,

John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman

311

Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education

Office of the Director

Dear Video Teleconference Organization:

WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!

I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications). My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.

Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium.

YOU AND YOUR BUSINESS/ORGANIZATION ARE IMPORTANT TO US!

Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or identification should be placed on the questionnaire.

Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.

PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.

Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon completion of the study.

Sincerely,

John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman

312

Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education

Office of the Director

Dear PBS Station Manager/Video Teleconference User:

WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!

I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education (minor, mass communications). My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.

Enclosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for persons who have experience with using the video teleconference medium.

YOU AND YOUR PBS STATION ARE IMPORTANT TO US!

Your experience and your views about video teleconferencing are extremely important to the success of my dissertation. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. As we are interested in your response only, no name or identification should be placed on the questionnaire.

Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.

PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.

Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon completion of the study.

Sincerely,

John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman

3 1 3

QUESHONNAIRE ON VIDEO TELECONFERENCING

All questions pertain to video teieconferencing only. Defined, video teleconferencing is a technological means of permitting groups and/or individuals in disparate locations to conduct meetings together. Thus, by means of a video screen and, sometimes, two-way voice, video, and/or computer oriented communication, programs may be presented that aliow groups or individuals hundreds or thousands of miles apart to interact or share information with one another.

Please Cirde Your Response

1. Yes No I am involved with video teieconferencing in my work situation.

Please Clrcie the Number Corresponding to Your Respome

2. My organization/institution is best described as:

1 .... research or doctorate granting university; 2 .... comprehensive university or coliege that offers a liberal arts program 3 .... iiberai arts college (I or II); • .... 2 year community or junior coiiege;

and at ieast two professionai courses of study; 5 .... a firm or privateiy owned corporation; 6 .... independent smaii business; 7 .... broadcast teievision station; S .... other (write in): ( )

3. My job title is (write in): ( )

Note: If you are not invoived in video teleconferencing, this compietes your questionnaire. Piease return questionnaire in the return enveiope provided or maii to: John Marder, PO Box 106, Lubbock, Texas 79*^08. Thanks for your information.

í . I am generally invoived with video teieconferences that have the íoilowing average number of participants: (consider ail participants at aii sites)

1 .... 2-5 persons • .... 51-100 persons 2 .... 6-25 persons 5 .... 101-250 persons 3 .... 26-50 persons 6 .... 251 or more persons

7 .... amount varies so much that no typical enrollment exists

5. As part of my job, I am invoived with video teleconferencing approximately:

1 .... under 10 percent of the time; * .... 51 - 75 percent of the time 2 .... 1 0 - 2 5 percent of the time 5 .... 76 - 95 percent of the time 3 .... 26 - 50 percent of the time 6 .... all or nearly ail of the time

-over-

3 1 4

Using the following scale (1 is strongly agree; 5 is strongly disa^ee) please cirde the appropriate nuinber that best represents yoir answer.

Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 * 5

6. 1 2 3 % 5 Video teleconferences are appropriate for any subject matter.

7. 1 2 3 4 3 The future of video teieconferencing is promising.

8. 1 2 3 * 3 Video teieconferences are best used with small (under 25) groups.

9. 1 2 3 * 3 Video teleconferences are best used with groups of more than 25.

10. 1 2 3 * 3 Video teleconferences are best handled through a university with teieconference facilities.

11. 1 2 3 * 3 Larger, university-type video teieconferences designed for groups of persons wanting to learn about a subject are very different from smaller, business type video teieconferences that are designed for "in-house" use.

12. 1 2 3 * 3 A company or university shouid instcUl permanent facilities for video teieconferencing as the medium is so important that it can be used effectiveiy on a reguiar basis.

13. 1 2 3 * 3 Some video teleconferences are best held in a "series" type format on the same or similar subject weeks or months apart, as it is possibie to try to do "too much" in one video teieconference

1* . 1 2 3 * 3 I have found that as someone becomes famiiiar with teieconferencing, acceptance of the medium improves.

15. 1 2 3 * 3 The sense of identity common in higher education and businesses ("my company/university is the best") weakens video teieconferences as, 'Why shouid I admit the other guy has something better?'

Please Cirde the Following Yes or No

16. Yes No I have been involved with a weekly, monthiy or annuai series of video teieconferences on a subject area designed for the same (or mostly same) audience.

17. Yes No Prior to my involvement with video teleconferencing, I had been involved with audio teleconferencing.

-see page 3-

3 1 5

18. Yes No For some of the video teieconferences I've been involved in, there has been an attempt to measure how successfui they were.

Code for the FoUowing; VI - Very Important SI - Somewhat Importm RI - Rarely Important NI - Not Important

How Important Is The FoUowing For A Successíul Video Teleconference?

Please Cirde the Correct Response

19. VI S RI NI technical expertise

20. VI SI RI NI ability to adapt curriculum or subject matter to a technical

medium

21. VI SI RI NI a large screen for viewing

22. VI SI RI NI sending literature to persons prior to attending a teleconference

23. VI SI RI NI . two-way voice communication among key individuais at all sites

2*. VI SI RI NI . . . . two-way video and voice communication among ail sites

25. VI 9 RI NI . . . interaction among participants (audience) at all sites

26. VI SI RI NI computer interaction

27. VI SI RI NI . . . a locai question and answer session among individuals at a location immediateiy after a presentation

28. VI a RI NI . . . a question and answer session among individuais at ail or severai locations immediateiy after a presentation

29. VI SI RI NI pace and timing of the material presented

30. VI SI RI NI locai group discussion at each site

31. VI SI RI NI . . . to have a local "in-person" presentation(s) or group discussion(s) in addition to the video teieconference presentation

32. VI SI RI NI . . video teieconference sites to be at a college or university

33. VI SI RI NI . . . video teleconferences to produce measurable changes in behavior (to cause someone to do something as a resuit of attending the video teleconference)

-over-

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

2 1 6

4

Code for the FoUowing: VI - Very Important SI - Somewhat Importmt RI - Rarely Important NI - Not Important

9 RI NI . . . workbook materiais to si4>plement the video teleconference

SI RI NI . . . for participants to meet new peopie with similar interests during a video teieconference

SI RI NI technicai quaiity of the presentation

Sl RI NI iow cost to participants

SI RI NI . . . a moderator with "show business" or communication skills at the key location who can provide enthusiasm, coordination and motivation

39. VI Sl RI NI . . . a moderator with "show business" or communication skiils at each site location who Ccui provide enthusiasm, coordination and motivation

SI RI NI a professionai educator to design a video teieconference

SI RI NI . . . to have a recognized expert discuss each topic

SI RI NI siow-scan television instead of "live" television

9 RI NI . . live or "normal" teievision instead of slow-scan television

SI RI NI . . . microphones placed in key parts of an auditorium for questions from participants

SI Ri Ni sponsorship by a large corporation or organization

51 Ri NI ^onsorship by a major university

SI RI NI a profit to be made from the video teleconference

SI RI NI . . . persons to travei less than 150 miles to attend a video teieconference

SI RI NI . limiting the number of people at each site to less than 50

SI RI NI . . . limiting the number of questions asked from each site

-see page 5-

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

VI

317

5

Code for the following: VI - Very Importanc SI - Somewhat Important RI - Rarely Imporcant NI - Noc Imporcanc

51. VI SI RI NI adhering co a scricC schedule

52. VI SI RI NI . . . live quescions from audience parcicipancs aC a remoce sice(s) musc be screened in advance co scick co che copic being discussed

53. VI SI RI NI . . . live quescions from audience parcicipancs aC a remoce sice should be wriCCen and panelisCs asked such quescions by a moderaCor (hence, no direcc Calk-back by person who asked Che quesCion)

Hov Successful Do You Believe Video Teleconferences Âre In Dealing Wich The Following SubjecCs?

Code for Che following:

VS - Very Successful SS - SonewhaC Successful RS - Rarely Successful HS - Never Successful

Please circle Che correcc response - example: VS SS lS NS

1. VS SS RS NS healch science 9. VS SS RS NS . . . eleccronics

2. VS SS RS NS agriculcure 10. VS SS RS NS . . archiceccure

3. VS SS RS NS area of echnic sCudies II. VS SS RS NS . . life sciences

4. VS SS RS NS . . business managemenC 12. VS SS RS NS . . communicacions

5. VS SS RS NS educacion 13. VS SS RS NS compucer/informacion sciences

6. VS SS RS NS news evenCs 14. VS SS RS NS visual/performing arcs

7. VS SS RS NS . . . foreign languages 15. VS SS RS NS engineering technology

8. VS SS RS NS . . mass communicacions 16. VS SS RS NS . . speech debace

313

17. VS SS RS NS fine arts 26. VS SS RS NS law

18. VS SS RS NS nachemacics

19. VS SS RS NS • . . • home economics

20. VS SS RS NS • • • • • • psychology

27• VS SS RS NS . physical sciences

28. VS SS RS NS . science cechnology

29. VS SS RS NS . public affairs and services

21. VS SS RS NS . • . • social sciences 30^ VS SS RS NS . . • . cheology

22^ VS SS RS NS letcers 31^ VS SS RS NS mulci/incer-disciplinary sCudies

23^ VS SS RS NS allied healch 32• VS SS RS NS . subjeccs sponsored by concinuing educacion

ZU, VS SS RS NS library/archival sciences 33^ VS SS RS NS business/commerce Cechnologies

25^ VS SS RS NS nursing 34^ VS SS RS NS healCh and para

medical services

35. VS SS RS NS daca processing/relaCed areas

36. VS SS RS NS labor - managemenc issues

37. VS SS RS NS public service and relaCed cechnologies.

Please Circle Tour Response

I. I have been involved wich video celeconferencing: 1 .• 2 .. 3 .. 4 .. 5 .. 6 .. 7 .. 8 .. 9 .. 10 ..

e Deen ].nvoi.vea wxtn • less chan one year; . 1 co 2 years; . 2 co 3 years; . 4 co 5 years; . 5 Co 7 years; • 7 Co 9 years; • abouC 10 years; • II co 15 years; • 13 Co 20 years; more Chan 20 years^

•see page 7-

319

2. From 3anuary 1983 to the present I have been involved with: 1 ..•• one video teleconference; 2 . . - 2 - ( video teleconíerences; 3 •— 3 - 8 video teleconferences; * •.- 9 - 12 video teieconierences; 5 .... more than one video teleconference each month; 6 . . - several video teieconferences each mcnth; 7 . . - I have not been involved with any video teieconferences during that time

although I have been invoived with video teleconferences before.

3. My experience with video teieconíerencing is one that is involved with (Seiect Only One): 1 . . - producing or organizing profit teieconferences for others; Z •— teieconferences that are heid in conjunction with other offices or divisions of my company; 3 •... non-profit teleconferences for others; • ••.. technicai matters oniy; 5 .— other

4. I heip to (Seiect All That Appiy): 1 . . - write; 2 .... produce;. 3 .... coordinate different locations; 4 . . - supervise; 5 . .- technically operate; 6 . . - promote; 7 . . - other - write in ( ) 5. To me, a successfui video teleconference is one that (Select Only 1): 1 .... is

measured by attendance; 2 . . - is measured by acceptance of persons attendine; 3 .... cannot be immediateiy measured; 4 - . . measured by 1 and 2; 5 .••. can t say.

6. I beiieve the one most important eiement for a successfui teieconference is (Seiect Only One): 1 . . - good equipment and signal; 2 .... dynamic leaders at individual sites; 3 . . - subject matter that is appropriate for the medium of teieconferencing; i^ .... other; 5 .— there is no one important eiement

7. A successful video teieconference shouid have a iength of: 1 .— 2 or 3 days; 2 .••• no more than two days; 3 — no more than 1 day; 4 .... only part of a day; 5 . . - actuai video time of no more than 3 hours; 6 . .- wiil vary because of content and goais sought; 7 .... other.

8. I beiieve the chief advantage for a video teieconference is (Select Only One): 1 . .- cost; 2 - . . bringing peopie together who otherwise couid not attend for reasons including distance; 3 . . - the bringing together of personalities (sometimes, experts in the subject area) who, otherwise, wouid be unabie to meet at a singie iocation; 4 . . - other; 5 .... it is impossibie to give a singie chief advantage as 1, 2, and 3 are ail important advantages.

-over-

3 2 0

8

9. I beiieve the chief disadvantage for a video teleconference is (Seiect Only One): 1 .... cost; 2 .... the iack of human communication possibie through video screens and not having face-to-face communication; 3 .... the poor quality of equipment usuaily available for such endeavors; 4 .... the inability of persons sponsoring video teleconferences to deveiop delivery or instructionai techniques that utilize the video teieconference technoiogy; 5 .... video teieconferences have so many disadvantages that it is hard to pick one.

10. Circle the average number of earth station sites for a video teieconference(s) you have conducted or been a part of: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+ ; or

L... impossible to say as the number of sites per teieconíerence varies considerabiy.

11. This questionnaire asked important questions about video teleconferencing.

True False

(Optional)

Complete the FoUowing Open-Ended Question: I believe video teleconferencing will:

ThaiA You. Please return questionnaire in envelope provided or to: 3ohn Marder, PO Box 106, Lubbodc, Texas 7940S.

Copyright 1985, 3ohn Marder

Any Other Comment:

APPENDIX B: ADMINISTRATOR QUESTIONNAIRE

(QUESTIONNAIRE TWO) AND COVER LETTER

321

322

Texas Tech University Division of Continuing Education Office of the Director

Dear University/College Administrator:

WE URGENTLY NEED YOUR HELP!

I am an instructor of journalism at Texas Tech University and a candidate for the doctorate in higher education. My dissertation subject is the video teleconference.

Ericlosed, please find a questionnaire(s) designed for university/college administrators. A longer questionnaire has been sent to individuals in your college/university who design/produce video teleconferences.

YOU AND YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY ARE IMPORTANT TO US!

As a university/college administrator who may oversee video teleconferencing, your views on video teleconferencing are especially important. We cannot complete the study without your assistance. We are interested in your response only and no name or school identification should be placed on the questionnaire.

Whatever your response may include, it is vital to the completeness and accuracy of our study.

PLEASE SEND US WHATEVER INFORMATION YOU CAN.

Please accept our sincere thanks. Present plans include results being made available upon request.

Sincerely,

John Marder, Michael Mezack Doctoral Candidate Committee Chairman

32;

QUESnONNAIRE ON VIDEO TELECONFERENCING

Aii questions pertain to video teieconferencing oniy. Defined, video teieconferencing is a technoiogicai means of permitting groups and/or individuals in disparate locations to conduct meetings together. Thus, by means of a video screen and, sometimes, two-way voice, video, and/or computer oriented communication, programs may be presented that ailow groups or individuais hundreds or thousands of miies apart to interact or share information with one another.

Please Cirde the Number Corresponding to Your Response

1. My institution is best described as: (Note: categories for coiieges and universities are combined institution types based upon the 1970 Camegie Commission study):

1 .... research or doctorate granting university 2 .... comprehensive university or k year coilege that offers a iiberai arts

program and at least two professionai courses of study 3 .... lii^erai arts coiiege 4 .... 2 year community or junior coiiege 3 .... other

2. My titie is (write in);

Using ttie FoUowii^ Scaie (1 is Strongiy Agree; 3 'is Strongly Oisagree) Please Cirde the Appropriate Number That Best Represents Your Ansi

Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

3. 1 2 3 4 5 Video teieconferencing is an appropriate instructionai deiivery system for any subject matter.

^. 1 2 3 4 5 The future of video teieconferencing is very promising.

5. 1 2 3 4 5 I am or wouid be wiiiing to commit funds to video teieconferencing because of its potentiai for increasing credit or non credit enrollments and, therefore, student interest in my coiiege/university.

6. 1 2 3 4 5 Video teieconferences are best handled through a university/coilege with teieconference faciiities.

7. 1 2 3 4 5 A coiiege/university shouid instaii permanent faciiities for video teieconferencing as the medium is so important that it can be used effectiveiy on a reguiar basis.

324

8.

9.

10.

11.

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

Please Cirde the FoUowing Yes or No

My coliege/university has been a site for a video teieconference(s) heid within the past 12 months.

My coiiege/university has tried to measure the efficiency or effectiveness of video teleconferencing.

My perceptions of video teieconferencing are generaily positive.

My coilege/university has credit courses that include some form of video teieconferencing.

12. Yes No Video teieconferencing is best administered through the division

of continuing education/community service/extension.

Please Clrde the Number That Best Represents Your Answer

13. My coiiege/university has been invoived in video teieconferencing: 1 .... less than one year; 2 .... 1 to 3 years; 3 .... 3 to 6 years; 4 .... 6 to 9 years; 5 .... 9 to 11 years; 6 .... 11 to 15 years; 7 .... more than 15 years. 8 .... has never been invoived

14. From 3anuary 1983 to the present my coiiege/university has been involved in: 1 .... one video teieconference; 2 .... 2 - 4 video teieconferences; 3 .... 5 - 8 video teieconferences; 4 .... 9 - 12 video teieconferences; 5 .... more than one video teieconference each month; 6 .... severai video teieconferences each month; 7 .... my coilege/university has not been invoived with any video

teieconferences during that time aithough we have been involved with video teieconferences before.

(Optionai)

Compiete the foilowing open-ended question: I beiieve video teieconferencing wiil

become^ :

Thank Youl Please return the questionnaire in the envelope provided or to 3ohn Marder, PO Box 106, Lubbod<, Texas 79408. Any Other Comment: (attach additional sheet if needed)

APPENDIX C: OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM

THE USER QUESTIONNAIRE

Question: I believe video teleconferencing will: ("*" put

at beginning of each response; all names except the

author's have been omitted)

Positive Responses:

*Open up greatly in the next 5 years. This is due to

increasing developments in technology as well as greater

acceptance of the medium.

*Increase in use, will cost less to produce and

receive, will not be so glamorous as it becomes more

accepted as a standard communication tool.

*Improve if we approach the design of the

communication and learning systems involved in a

scientific (rather than artistic or show-biz) manner.

*Become a major vehicle to deliver the latest

techniques and information to selected groups.

*Grow in acceptance and usage.

*Provide institutions with the means to reach new

students in the community and the potential to reach

students well beyond the community.

*Grow in service and be a great educationál tool.

*Be a valuable means of communicating a message to

325

326

geographically scattered individuals or large groups at a

single/multiple site(s). I think that more creative use

of the medium has to be developed through the utilization

of clear, colorful graphics, video location footage,

information displays via videfont, etc.

*Be successful.

*Be as common as the telephone in the not too distant

future. Our video teleconferencing has saved the Police

Department large amounts of money.

*Grow within major corporations and public services

because of the increasing need to free up communication

bottlenecks and to keep large groups up to speed on

current events without sending personnel to central

seminars.

*Be a significant medium of communications in

industry and education by the year 2000.

*Continue to grow because it is cheap, enabling

numerous personnel of a company to get together at one

time without traveling to a a major convention city.

*Improve the over-all communications skills of those

involved, and evolve into an indispensable tool for major

organizations world-wide.

*Grow in the future and hold great promise in the

area of continuing education. *Become a more important teaching medium in the

327

future.

*Grow as lower band width technologies and acceptance

of medium grows.

*Increase in popularity and quality in the future.

*Increase in significance as an educational medium.

*Assist in the exchange of information, ideas, and

skills.

*Continue to grow at corporations, universities,

churches, and motels.

*Become a popular conferencing tool in the future.

*Develop as an important delivery technique when

people realize it is not the answer to all delivery

instructions. Likewise, they must understand that not all

subjects can be effectively handled.

*Increase in use; become more cost effective for

smaller groups with fewer sites.

*Continue to increase as down-link equipment becomes

less expensive and participants become better versed in

the techniques.

*Become more accepted and legitimate in the future.

*Become more accepted and be used by both

undergraduates and graduates as well as non college

sessions.

*Be promising. Costs need to come down and the human

prescription changed.

328

*Continue to grow as a medium for dissemination of

information.

*Grow, become more cost effective and readily

available.

*Eventually be recognized as a very important

communications medium, especially as originating

institutions learn to bring in people who are national

leaders, well-known by the targeted audience.

*Develop and become more important in the next 3-5

years.

*Be successful if those coordinating conferences are

aware of the possibilities.

*Have a futurel

*Continue to grow at a rate that will astound even

the experts. It's potential and variations are limited

only by the mind.

*Continue to improve and be accepted by the

participants as an effective method of communicating

important issues.

*The nature of the service to higher education will

expand. The rest of society is moving rapidly in this

direction. Higher education must follow suit.

*Become an ever increasingly important tool to convey

information of all kinds to many different groups of

people.

329

*Continue to grow as a means of providing continuing

education provided the programs offer materials and

presentors that are most appropriately dealt with or

enhanced by video.

*Grow tremendously in the immediate future!

*Settle into a niche serving business communications

and some educational needs. Growth from here on out will

probably be slow and steady, generally following the trend

of product introductions to the marketplace.

*Become commonplace.

*Continue to improve (format and content) and gain

wider acceptance. It is still in its infancy.

*Continue with a steady growth with organizations and

corporations using their own equipment and networks.

*Bring expensive, expert close-up knowledge to a much

larger group than could afford such education in the past.

*Grow to be an accepted means of business

communications and education.

*Definitely grow.

*Be used more extensively in the 1990s as the cost

and ease of use of equipment makes it as accessible as the

telephone. However, it should not be taken out of context

of all new information technologies. What I needed is a

new paradigm and framework for understanding these

connection making technologies. Your questions do not

330

reflect such a new perspective. Often your questions were

trivial.

*Be an area of growth as people become more familiar

and comfortable with appearing and presenting on a TV

screen. (emphasis on Content communication Thru a

medium.)

*Become very important in the next decade.

*Become a more important means of teaching/learning

as participation becomes more widespread in subject

matter.

*Become the primary means of communications for

widely spread groups and companies.

*Have an impact in extending learning opportunities

(headquarters for the 19 campus CA state university

system).

*Continue to grow.

*Increase in # produced, # of participants as more

businesses, universities, corporations, recognize the

advantages of teleconferences.

*Grow considerably during the next 5 years. Costs

will come down and novel uses will be found for

videoconferencing by business and industry and education.

It will surpass current expectations.

*Not replace face-to-face conferences involving

travel, but will establish a niche as a good means of

331

distributing timely information to widely dispersed

audiences.

*Grow as acceptance increases and the technology

continues to be refined.

*Grow and develop in the coming years.

*Become very important in the next decade for

universities.

*Bring all levels of education to isolated, small

communities in the Alaska Bush.

*Evolve into a very effective delivery system for

professional continuing education.

*Improve and become more universally used.

*Will thrive if properly organized and promoted.

*Expand according to abilities to produce results, by

discipline, to the extent of the capabilities of the

medium and the creativity of those involved.

*Continue to experience a growth pattern and in the

next 5-10 years will be utilized by corporations and

companies and be viewed as an indispensable vehicle for

communication and training close to home.

*Continue to be an important part of post secondary

educational delivery systems.

*Become less expensive in the coming months. Be

better understood in the coming months. Become more

useful.

332

Neutral Responses;

*Succeed, but not in the hands of traditional

continuing education professionals. It requires advocacy

and a commitment to riding out the difficult,

uncomfortable early years.

*Change business practices; enhance life-long

learning opportunities; further the trend towards

education delivered by corporations—not universities.

*Be used successfully by organizations and businesses

who wish to communicate with discreet groups or

individuals on timely issues of immediate and critical

importance. I am not optimistic about its utilization as

a mass medium to general populations until participation

can take place from the home as with "call-in" television

and radio shows.

*Eventually find a niche in communications that will

help to benefit the host organisation with regard to its

image of high tech - high touch.

*Improve and expand as more companies become aware of

it.

*Find a minor but useful niche in the set of

alternative media formats.

*Grow, but not at the fast pace which some people

expected.

*Grow slowly—especially ad hoc.

333

*Gain acceptance very slowly.

*Shape the convention industry.

*Find its appropriate niche in the arsenal of

educational technology.

*Continue to become a part of our lives—used

successfully by some and inappropriately by others—just

as TV, telephones, and computers now are used and misused.

*Evolve to serve a better-defined purpose within the

total range of communication technologies.

*Grow, but not at the terrific rate predicted by

educators 3 years ago.

*Become accepted in academic areas accustomed to

technological change. Agriculture, medicine and

engineering will lead the way. History, foreign language

and literature will lag.

*Continue as one medium of communication in

education, training and business.

*Continue to experiment and adopt to the environment

of each site. This will be a continuous learning process.

It will always have to be flexible in order to respond to

the changing consumer.

*Grow as the need for information grows. It does not

replace in-person meetings—but functions as an additional

way of rapidly disseminating information and/or acquiring

information from large groups of people.

334

*Grow in its use in higher education/continuing

education but will not become a major delivery system when

compared to the more traditional delivery system now in

place.

*As a comprehensive high school the

video-conferencing medium is limited for classroom use.

It is however fairly effective for use in Staff

Development and Enrichment type programs. The

participants still have some difficulty with the medium as

there is no "live" speaker before the group. Again, I

feel the video-conference medium is going to improve but

the major hurdle will be getting the participants to

interact by telephone or other methods. Possibly with

time this hurdle will be overcome.

*Have tough competition from hotels who have good

facilities. Go away or die unless producers take care in

the design.

*Be more successful in business and industry than in

universities.

*Hopefully, reach a level of sophistication that will

make it a more effective educational delivery system.

*Be technology led and get away from mass group

presentations and more toward desk top teleconferencing.

*Become the "thing" of the future. They save

everyone time and money—both of which are high priorities

335

in today's society.

*Become a "way of life" in the business world and an

"adjunct" to post-secondary education (someday!).

*Improve and develop. Importance will have to be

given to technical quality as participants may forget

technique and professional communicators linking up

debates.

*Be studied to death!

*Grow slowly

*Continue to grow (in terms of numbers and types of

participants) but at a very slow rate. The slow rate will

be due to the absence of [respondent did not complete]

*Experience many changes, both in technology and

usage, during the next decade.

*Grow slowly.

*Remain a modest element in comprehensive continuing

education programs.

*Show slow but persistent growth over a period of the

next 5 years.

*Not measurably impact face-to-face meetings.

*Continue to grow but face difficulties in finances

for the rest of the decade.

Neqative Responses:

*Face some real problems in the future unless people

become more comfortable with the technology and other

336

human elements are built into programs. We really have a

hard time drawing a crowd.

*Have a questionable future unless production and

marketing techniques improve.

*Have need of significantly more sophisticated and

compelling programming and more technological

sophistication before it becomes a truly viable medium

attractive to audiences.

*Die at universities unless we can get the costs

down.

*Level out with continued use and will not become the

answer to all communication problems.

*Level off in the future.

*Not be a big winner unless costs drop.

Any Other Comment;

*Video teleconferencing has an odd built-in-paradox.

It is too expensive for many of the small, very

specialized audience it could serve, and, if the subject

matter is really of broad interest, it could get broadcast

time on Public TV or one of the specialized cable

networks. When the audience is too large—the potential

of interactivity is diminished, and the presentation might

as well be on video tape or broadcast.

*Television was going to revolutionize education. It

didn't. Video teleconferencing was going to revolutionize

337

education. It won't. The best conferences to date have

been those that discussed an issue of national importance

by a panel of experts from a central point. The network

V7as then "killed" while local participants discussed the

pros and cons of the national presentation. The network

was again activated for a question and answer period.

Three to seven hours seemed to suffice.

*The top administration of our universities and

colleges will come to recognize the importance of being

able to participate in teleconferencing. It is already

beginning. When this happens, the proper support will be

forthcoming (i.e., facilities, equipment and personnel).

Then, on campus instruction will be enriched, research

will be strengthened, cultural and institutional programs

will be expanded. It will come.

*In Indiana we've been doing "land-based" video

teleconferences for about 25 years, and that experience

colors many of my answers. On review, though, my answers

are just as applicable to satellite-delivered

teleconferences, although our experience there is less

extensive.

*Nice job!

*Teleconferencing does not appear to be living up to

all that bally-hoo about its potential.

*ln our case of using video teleconferencing between

338

Police Stations and Police Headquarters, a lot of the

questions did not apply. Thus [with regard to whether the

questionnaire asked important questions about video

teleconferencing] I would say false.

*Questionnaire is quite lop-sided. Misses business

applications.

*We only do microwave [video] teleconferencing. I

designed and built our system for one purpose only--we

have only two studios (one at each end). We originally

used it for the design of a new accelerator at Stanford.

It continues to be used mostly by physics experimenters at

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and the Stanford Linear

Accelerator Center.

*Interesting effort, John. Good luck.

*Many questions were structured in such a way as to

provide definitive answers.

*Talking heads should not be the norm in video

teleconferencing any more than it is in well produced

television programs. A certain amount of sophistication

is needed.

*I was site co-coordinator for 2 conferences—both

for the same group--and do not feel qualified to completé

more of this query.

*John: Some of your questions are impossible to

answer. (But I did, anyway). Teleconferencing can work

339

for any subject area with various degrees of success. It

depends on the topic and how it's produced. That question

was way too broad to answer. Many other topics in your

questionnaire suffered from the same problem. Thanks for

asking us to respond. If you have any questions, my card

is attached.

*I am very interested in the results of your

research. At the moment we are the only institution in

Canada active in teleconferencing.

*Several questions were ambiguous and difficult to

answer.

*Please send copy of results of study.

*John--Your questionnaire is too long. How will you

deal with all the information gathered in a statistical

manner? Good luck!

*Misses some fundamental, in my opinion, points.

*I would like to receive a copy of your summary and

conclusions.

*I am not sure your questionnaire distinguishes

between organizations and/or the receiving of

teleconferences. We do both. Therefore, sometimes I was

confused as to how I should respond.

*May I have a copy of your results?

*Please send me a copy of your results.

*Note: All General Rules (responses) are true except

340

when they are not!

*Good Luck!

*Answer choices sometimes limited (only one)

*The questions on successful videoconferences are too

inclusive. Many responses are guesses, as my experience

in different subjects is more limited than those covered

in your questionnaire.

*Please send results directly to me as I will not be

able to attend NUTN meeting. Thanks.

*Good luck!!

*But [questionnaire] seemed slanted or biased.

*We have reception in 7200 communities in British

Columbia.

*Our involvement with teleconferencing has been to

provide facilities, receivers, etc.—our experiences don't

pertain to most of this.

*Your questionnaire misses an important point: (1) Is

"videoconferencing" the origination of a conference, or

the receiving of a televised show? (2) The more

professional and more complete a presenter is (regarding

their area of expertise), the more "successful" a

teleconference. Teleconferencing is only a re-application

of existing media and technology.

*Questionnaire is too long and unduly detailed!!!

*In addition to high costs, there is a general lack

341

of expertise in videoconference program and format

development which must be addressed.

*I think this questionnaire asked a number of "off"

questions and framed responses to a number of additional

questions in a manner which may skew your findings.

*Choices of answers limiting.

*New Technology still scary to many.

*Note: I also responded to your short form

questionnaire.

*Lengthy.

APPENDIX D: OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FROM

THE ADMINISTRATOR QUESTIONNAIRE

Question: I believe video teleconferencing will become:

("*" put at beginning of each response; all names except

the author's have been omitted)

Positive Responses:

*More and more prevalent and useful.

*An important delivery system for numerous services

to higher education.

*A more accepted method of delivery as participants

become more familiar with the concept. Also, it will

become a more feasible method of delivering didactic,

non-clinical, non-laboratory information for update

training.

*Increasingly important as people become more

familiar with the concept and less awed by not having a

"live" speaker before them. A necessary method, to

minimize travel expense, for staff development seminars.

*The principal means for course enrichment and

keeping courses up-to-date.

*A major method of short term instruction.

*Essential to continuing education in non-credit

342

343

format and to academic departments and continuing

education in credit courses.

*A viable means for delivery of some types of

academic programs.

*An educational and administrative resource at all

major educational institutions.

*A standard instructional tool.

*More effective with better planning and better

quality control.

*More common, more affordable, more acceptable ij we

deal effectively with the need for personal interaction.

*A major educational delivery system—particularly

for seminars and workshops.

*A significant means whereby universities are able to

serve non-traditional clients such as corporations,

agencies, etc.

*A more important delivery system as its costs

decrease.

*Increasingly useful and provide a flexible means of

aiding resources to a university enterprise.

*Is an important medium for continuing education.

*Important to the extension of the University to the

people of the state—student as well as non-student.

*More widely used.

*An increasing component of the education process.

344

*An integral part of the educational process.

*A growing instructional delivery system.

*More common and more used.

*Very important delivery system for higher education.

*More highly used in the future by business and

industry.

*More widely used as people discover its usefulness.

Neutral Responses:

*More useful for essential information transfer to

specific target audiences.

*An effective tool for staff development.

*Widely used for meetings but rarely used for

instruction on a regular basis.

*An alternative delivery system for many business,

educational and cultural, entertainment events.

*Important to smaller colleges and voc-tech schools

than major research universities.

*More fully used as faculty acceptance and costs are

effectively developed and managed.

*An occasionally used, peripheral supplement to

main-line educational delivery systems.

*One of many technological enhancements to the

university.

*A method for program delivery for national

345

organizations.

*An alternative delivery system, but is not a

cure-all for education and training by itself.

*Another tool for delivering higher education.

*Be used primarily for commercial purposes.

Neqative Responses:

*More viable as it becomes less expensive. Satellite

time and uplink costs make it cheaper to travel!

Any Other Comment:

*We are a receive site only. We have not been an

originating site. No production.

*0K for some educational events. It will not replace

Association Meetings, etc., where networking with other

colleagues is paramount.

*At present I love my audio teleconferencing system

and would not consider upgrading to video for quite a

while.