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Simulation of Carbon Nanotubes Growth by Laser
Ablation Ahmed. A. Moosa 1, Hussain A. Jawad
2, Ali Zuhair Ridha
3
1Department of Materials,
Technical College, 54 Al Zafaraniya Street,
Baghdad, Iraq. E-mail: ahmeda1752@yahoo.com 2Institute of Laser for Postgraduate Studies,
University of Baghdad 3Institute of Technology,
54 Al Zafaraniya Street, Baghdad, Iraq
Abstract: One of the synthesis methods of the single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) is to use by laser ablation process.
A simulation program was built to simulate the nucleation process of the carbon nanotubes. The simulation is based on the
classical nucleation theory and the free energy of carbon nanotubes nucleus. In order to accurately simulate the growth of
carbon nanotubes by laser ablation, the laser-material interaction in addition to the nucleation process must be considered.
In this study the simulation is separated into two parts: laser ablation and Nucleation. The laser ablation process includes
the heat transfer within the target leading to ablation. Then the nucleation process will be described using classical
nucleation theory. The simulation results showed the diameters distributions of carbon nanotubes are around (1-1.7) nm over
all temperatures. Comparison between the experimental and simulation results showed there is a good agreement in their
behavior.
Keywords: Carbon nanotubes; Laser ablation; simulation.
1. Introduction The first MWCNTs were discovered by Iijima in 1991when
he found layers of rolled grapheme structure in the soot of
electric arc discharge method. Carbon nanotubes are
cylindrical structure formed by rolling single layer or
multilayers of grapheme sheets into cylinder [1]. In 1993,
Bethune group at IBM [2] and Iijima group at NEC [3]
reported the synthesis of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
(SWNTs). The pulsed laser-ablation process for the
production of single-wall carbon nanotubes was developed
by Guo et al. [4, 7] at Rice University. Other improvements
were made by Thess et al., [5] and and Rao et al., [6]. Laser
ablation method uses a high-power laser (YAG type) to
vaporize pure graphite targets inside a furnace at 1200 ± oC
under an Ar atmosphere to produce MWNTs [7]. SWCNTs
with purity as high as 90% can be produced by laser ablation
technique which are purer than CNTs produced by arc
discharge[8] .In general, the most commonly used catalysts
are Ni, Co, and Fe. These are used independently or mixed
with another metal. [9]
M. H. Rummeli (2010). The properties of CNTs prepared by
the pulsed laser deposition process are strongly dependent on
many parameters such as: the laser properties (energy
fluence, peak power, CW versus pulse, repetition rate and
oscillation wavelength), the composition of the target
material, the inert gas pressure, the substrate and ambient
temperature and the distance between the target and the
substrates [10]. In 1995 Guo et al., [4] were first to synthesis
of SWCNTs by Laser ablation technique. Later on used two
laser pulses 50ns to vaporize carbon target with a cobalt-
nickel catalyst, and achieved 70-90% efficiency [11]. The
atmospheric temperature controls the chemical reaction and
the laser intensity affects the process by which the particles
species ejected [12]. Laser ablation can be accomplished by
Ablation of a graphite target using either a pulsed laser [4, 5]
or a continuous laser [13].
In both cases, the nanotubes nucleate in the vapor phase,
coalesce, get carried away by the flowing argon and condense downstream on the water-cooled copper collector.
The soot contains amorphous carbon, metal particles, and
CNTs [13].In our previous work, CNTs was produced by
laser ablation using two targets technique (graphite and Ni)
instead of one target (Ni/graphite) to synthesis SWCNTs by
laser ablation process [14]. The aim of this work is to
simulate the growth of carbon nanotubes by laser ablation by
considering laser-material interaction in addition to the
nucleation process. The laser ablation process includes the
heat transfer within the target leading to ablation. The
nucleation process will be described using classical
nucleation theory. This simulation was design to simulate the
distribution of SWCNTs at different temperatures and then
compare these results with the experimental result.
2. Laser Ablation with Nanosecond
Laser Laser ablation can be divided into three main process,
bond breaking and plasma ignition, plasma expansion and
cooling, and particle ejection and condensation [15].
During the plasma ignition process, the dominant
mechanism is thermal vaporization: the temperature of the
solid surface increases, and a well-defined phase transition
occurs, from solid to liquid, liquid to vapor, and vapor to
plasma [16].
Nano-sized particles will be formed from condensation of
the vapor. Condensation starts when the vapor plumes
temperature reaches the boiling temperature and stops at
the condensation temperature of the material. Liquid
ejection of particles can occur by high pressure gradient
forces within the highly expanding vapor plume acting as
the molten surface. Solid sample exfoliation can occur
from the large thermal stress gradients of the fast heating
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process; thermal stresses can break the sample into
irregular shaped particles, ejecting them from the surface.
[15].
3. Nucleation and Growth of Carbon
Nano-tubes Carbon nanotubes formation and growth mechanism
during the laser ablation process started by the formation
of liquid nanoparticles of metal supersaturated with
carbon. These nanoparticles originate from condensation
of the metal plasma/vapor in the moderate temperature
zone of the laser ablation chamber. During the nucleation
the metal nanoparticles can incorporate large amount of
carbon depending on the temperature and its size [17].
Through cooling the solubility limit of carbon in liquid
nanoparticles is decreased and the carbon begin to
segregate[18]. The segregation of carbon occurs via
diffusion towards the particles surface. The occurrence of
such segregation is supported by the absence of carbon
inside nanoparticles after solidification. Then the carbon
crystalize at the surface of nanoparticle according to the
two competing transformation which lead to the formation
of graphite sheet and to nucleation of single walled carbon
nanotubes.[19].
4. Computational Method In order to accurately simulate the growth of carbon
nanotubes by laser ablation, the laser-material interaction
in addition to the nucleation process must be considered.
In this study the simulation is separated into two parts:
laser ablation and Nucleation. The laser ablation process
includes the heat transfer within the target leading to
ablation. The nucleation process will be described using
classical nucleation theory.
4.1 Interaction of laser light with target surface
Interaction of laser light with target surface will increase the
internal energy of the target. The mode of interaction is
considered to be thermal i.e. the time scale of the process is
much longer than the relaxing time of the excited electron
(10-15
s). The heat transfer is modeled as having a local
thermal equilibrium within the target. The state of the target
can be described by time-rate first law of thermodynamic
and by neglecting heat transfer by convection because the
interaction related to the target [19].
( ) ( )stored in out cond in out radE E E E E (1)
The radiation term in equation (1) can be separated into two
parts, the surface radiation term as a boundary condition and
the laser energy as a heat source. Re-writing the heat transfer
by conduction into1-D heat transfer by conduction as:
.( )
( )pC T
KT q St
(2)
where .q = energy generation per unit volume, S = source
term for energy required for phase change. For laser at1064
nm, the absorption coefficient is ˂105cm
-1 so
.
q is
neglected [20]. Within the target there is no phase change
and S is considered to be zero. The heat transfer within the
target is given by
( )( )
pC TKT
t
(3)
The internal boundaries are kept at the initial temperature
T(t) = Tintial at (t = 0), The radiation boundary condition is
given by:
4 4 ..( )
( )surr laser
KTT T q
n
(4)
The algorithm of the COMSOL Program is shown in Fig. 1
4.2 Nucleation and Growth of Carbon nano-tubes
To describe the nucleation of carbon nano-tubes
mathematically various mechanisms for the formation of
carbon filamentous deposit have been introduced. In the first
group Baker et al [21] showed a mechanism include a stage
of carbon dissolution that is independent of carbon source.
The second mechanism is based on the diffusion of carbon at
the surface of the metal particle rather than on the bulk
diffusion of carbon through the catalyst particle [22-23]. The
third mechanism is based on the catalyst particles take part
only in the tube initiation process such that the increase in the
thickness in the primary tube occurs without the further
participation of the metal particle [24].
The fourth group based on small metal clusters activates
SWCNTs by moving around the open tube tip and bonding
carbon atoms from the gas phase. [25]. The fifth group
proposed a model for the formation of cylindrical layers
around a hollow core using a thermo dynamic approach [26].
For the purpose of this study the model proposed by Tibbets
and modified by Vladimir et al [ 27] will be used on the
nucleation of the carbon nano-tubes on a nickel nano-particle.
4.3 Thermodynamic Treatment
The nucleation of carbon is a core step for the formation of
all types of carbon filament deposit. The critical size of
carbon nucleus determines the type of carbon deposit
because the size of the tube cannot be smaller than the
critical size. When the critical size of the carbon is
sufficiently small compared to the size of the metal particle
this allow the formation of on nucleus several nuclei. These
nucleus combines into small structure with the carbon atoms
arranged in hexagons which transform into grapheme sheet
bonded with its edges to the metal surfaces [28-29]. The
change in the free energy for the formation of two
dimensions nucleus can be written using Gibbs free energy
[30] as:
2
2( )I h
G G Inucleus nucleus gas nucleus surface surface gasv
m
I Estrain
ò
(5)
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Fig.1: COMSOl algorithm for Heat transfer within target.
Where I is a perimeter of nucleus, is geometrical factor
,vm is a molar volume, nucleusG is a change in the free
energy of 1mole of carbon precipitate from metal-carbon
solution, is a specific surface energy, ò is a specific edge
free energy and Estrain is a strain energy arising during the
bending of graphene layer on a metal surface.The change in
the free energy of nucleus nucleusG is given by [31]:
ln( ) ln( )a x
G k T k Tnucleus b ba x
(6)
where kb is a Boltzman constant, T is Temperature, a and
a are the carbon activities of the saturated and actual
solution respectively, x and x are the saturated and the
actual molar content of the dissolved carbon respectively
and Qc is a constant ( for CNT it is equal to 4.4 ev). Use the
continuum formalism of elasticity, the strain energy
(4.5
Q IcE
strain h ) arising from the bending of the
graphene layer on the metal is given by [32]. Substitute in
Eq. (5) to get the Gibbs free energy for the formation of
nucleus with perimeter I and height h. After differentiation
with respect to I , and rearrange to get I critical :
( )4.5
( )
Qc
hIcritical
hG
nucleus nucleus gas nucleus surface surface gasvm
ò
The critical number of carbon atoms which can form a stable
nucleus can be calculated by substituting the total number of
carbon atom in nucleus ( 2I h
nv
m
) in Eq. (7). If we
consider the nucleus has circular shape with (I=2πr and
γ=1/4 π) [33] then the critical size of the nucleus is given by
Eqs (8) and (9) :
2
( )4.5
( )
Qc
h hncritical v hm G
nucleus nucleus gas nucleus surface surface gasvm
ò
The critical radius in equation (9) means that the cluster that
has this critical size is energetically favorable to grow while
the smaller clusters will preferentially decay. For clusters
smaller than the critical cluster, the evaporation rate exceeds
the condensation rate and vice versa. An important
conclusion from the energy consideration is that the
evaporation rate of a cluster at a given temperature equals
the condensation rate of this cluster at the same temperature
and such a vapor pressure that the cluster is critical at it. The
condensation rate can be expressed by evaluating the
sticking cross-section. If Ni is the concentration of clusters
containing i monomers (i-clusters) the rate equation as
function of time can be written as follows:
1 1
1 1
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ); 2,3,....
ii i i i i
i i
dN tC N t C E N t
dt
E N t i
(10)
Where Ci is the rate of monomer sticking with an i-cluster
or condensation rate, and Ei is the rate of monomer
evaporation from an i-cluster. Since the classical nucleation
theory considers only the initial stage of cluster
condensation, where the total cluster mass is small as
compared to the vapor mass, it is assumed that the monomer
concentration is constant [34], then ( )
0idN t
dt . To solve
(7)
1( ) ( ) ( )4.5
Qc hr Gcritical nucleus nucleus gas nucleus surface surface gash v
m
ò
(8)
(9)
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Eq. (10), it is assumed that clusters larger than J-cluster are
instantly decomposed into monomers, so that
1 1
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )0;
JJ J J J J
i
dN tC N t C E N t
dt
dN ti J
dt
(11)
To get an approximate analytical solution for steady state
case using classical nucleation theory, rewrite equation (11)
as [35]:
1
( )( ) ( )i
i i
dN tA t A t
dt (12)
Where Ai i the number of freshly formed i-cluster per unit
volume and time and is given by
:1 1( ) ( ) ( ); 2,3.......,
( ) ( )
i i i i i
J J J
A t C N t E N t i J
A t C N t
(13)
The number density of i-cluster at total equilibrium is
( 1 exp( )ii
GD N
KT
). The important feature of Di is
that for i>>1 1
1
i i
i i
D E
D C
(14)
Rewrite equation (13) using equation (12) as
follows: 1
1
( )ss i i
i i i i
A N N
C D D D
(15)
Where Ass is steady state of i-cluster. For over all I getting
1
1
1ss
i i i
NA
C D D (16)
Using Taylor expansion for terms of i the sum in equation
(16) can be approximated
by1 1
exp( )
crit
Ji
ss i
i ii i i
GA K
C D C KT
(17)
Where 14i iK R D is the attachment rate constant
approximated by Park-Privman [36] . Where Ri is the radius
of the single CNT (Ri = 1
31.2iR hi ). The solute
diffusion coefficient can be estimated by using Einstein
formula for diffusion of cluster in the Argon gas [37] is
6
Bk TD
h , where is the viscosity of Argon and it can
be neglected [38]. For singlet carbon particle aggregates
according to the difference between density of the primary
nucleus formed and the rate of its transformation.
1
2
( )j
j
dNdNt j
dt dt
(18)
Where is the formation of critical nuclei in (m-3
s-1
)
2( ) 4 exp( )criticalcritical
BT
Gt hn DC
K
(19)
The concentration of carbon particle (C (t)) is a function of
time and it decrease with formation and the growth of
critical nuclei. Assuming the process of formation is
irreversible the concentration as a function of time can then
be written as [6]:
( )critical
dcn t
dt (20)
The master equation for population of large cluster (i>3) can
be written as follows [39]:
1 1 1 2 1i
i i i
dNK N N k N N
dt (21)
To apply nucleation theory method numerically we used the
following algorithm as shown in Fig.2.
5. Heat Transfer within Target In the present work the heat transfer within target (graphite)
due to the interaction of the laser beam with graphite under
flowing of Argon gas and furnace temperature of 1000°C
was introduced upon heat transfer within target Eq. (3). The
laser source to perform laser ablation simulation was
Nd:YAG with fluence of 1.5 J/cm2, pulse duration = 10ns
and wavelength = 1064 nm. The laser target has a dimension
of (10*10*0.3) mm3with effective area (2*2) mm
2. The
numerical procedure was developed under COMSOl
Multiphysics Project ver (3.5).
The target was simplified to 2-D rectangle as shown as
shown in Fig.3. The target was treated with mesh size (1nm)
(boundary 3). Only the interface between heated and
unheated target was solved i.e. a half of the target is
irradiated by laser and the other half was not. Surface
boundary condition for irradiated area (boundary 3 in Fig.3
is described by Eq.(4) . The unheated are (boundary 4) had
the same equation as boundary 3 but without heat source
distribution. Left bottom and right side (boundary 1, 2 and 5)
are thermally insulated, adiabatic condition (
.( . ) 0n K T ). The computer program was run for
physical time (10ns) pulse duration. The maximum time step
was limited after several trial and errors to 2.5*10-13
s. The
computational domain was taken as having area of 4mm2
and depth of 3μm. The space step was taken to 10nm. . As a
result Fig. 4shows temperature field evolution of the target
for time 10ns during laser action. Table 1 shows some global
expressions and constants used in the simulation of the laser
ablation.
Fig. 3: Sketch of selected part of bulk sample for modeling
in COMSOL with numbers of boundary conditions with
material surface (dimensions in mm).
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Time step (dt ) to calculate the population 0f clusters
Calculation of first concentration
of C 3 cluster
Calculation of concentration of C 3 at
dt
Calculation of production rate of
critical particle at dt
Open loop for number of nuclei n from 1-1000
Update of time
step dt
Calculation of the population of clusters of
n=1,2,3.. nuclei
Calculation of CNTs size
distribution
Update
Open loop to Calculate CNTs
size distribution
Update of time
step ,dt
Update of time
step dt
Calculation of critical particle size
Calculation of production rate of
critical particle
End
Time step dt
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Fig. 4: Temperature field evolution for time 10ns
Table 1: Parameters required estimating critical nucleus
ϵ Specific free energy J/A=1.8*10-19
[40]
h Height of the nucleus A=3.4
vm Molar volume A3/mol=5.3*10
-24
graph
Specific surface free energy of the basal
plane of graphite J/m2 =0.077 [41]
Wad Work of adhesion of graphitic-metal
system J/m2 = 0.4-0.14 [42]
Figures 5 and 6 represent surface temperature versus time
and depth respectively. As shown from these figures the
temperature distribution within the target surface differs
from subsurface. This means that at the beginning before the
laser hits the target the temperature of the surface is equal to
furnace temperature 1000°C and after the laser hits the target
the surface temperature will rise to reach its maximum value
at the end of the laser pulse. Also once can notice from Fig. 6
that the temperature decreases gradually from the surface to
sub surface to reach at depth 2.3μm to the furnace
temperature. These results are agreed with Michael Shusser
[43].
Fig. 5: Average surface temperature versus time
Fig. 6: Average surface temperature versus depth.
6. Carbon Nanotubes Formation In the first step of nucleation process several carbon nuclei
precipitate on the surface of the same metal surface (catalyst)
and increase in diameter to form highly packed mosaic
structure. If the nucleation rate is highly enough, the size of
single wall nano-tubes tends toward minimal value that
corresponds to critical nucleus. So that the first step in
nucleation of carbon nano-tubes is estimation of critical
nuclei (nc).By using Eq. (8) the estimation of the critical
nucleus in the range of (500-1400)°K could be established
which is typical for the formation of different catalytic
carbon deposit. The numerical result for estimation of critical
nucleus of carbon nano-tubes as a function of reaction
temperature for Ni Catalyst is presented in Fig. 7. With
increasing the temperature, the number of nuclei inside a
critical cluster is decreased. Thus, with increasing the
temperature the cluster size and also the diameter of the
produced carbon nano-tubes are decreased. The probability
of formation of SWCNTs is high at high temperature. The
relation between the critical nuclei and critical radius rof
formation carbon nano-tube can be estimated using Eq. 9.
The critical nucleus as a function of critical radius is shown
in Fig. 8. It is clear from this figure the decrease of critical
nuclei will decrease the critical cluster radius with increasing
temperature.
Fig. 7: Critical nucleus of CNTs Versus the reaction
Temperature (K) for Ni Catalyst.
Using Eqs. 18,19, 20 and 21 ,the distribution of carbon
nanotubes diameter can be established. Some approximations
for simplification were done such as: Ignoring the cluster –
cluster interaction (aggregation) and the radius of the
primary nuclei is closed to radius of critical nuclei.
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Fig. 8: Critical nucleus of CNTs versus Critical radius (nm).
Fig. 9 show the simulation results of carbon nanotubes
distribution at different temperature (850-1000)°C. This
simulation was design to simulate the distribution of
SWCNTs at different temperatures and then compare these
results with the experimental result. The concentration of the
solution is related to C3 cluster which is (1024
)m-3
.
Fig. 9: Simulation results for carbon nanotubes distribution
at (a) 850, (b) 900 and (c) 1000°C.
From Fig 9 the diameters distributions of carbon nanotubes
are around (1-1.7) nm over all temperatures. The yield of the
nanotubes increased with increasing temperature. Finally the
yield of the larger diameter increased as temperature
increased. These results are reasonable if we consider that
each temperature has its intrinsic nc. Fig. 9 was then
compared with the experimental distribution of SWCNTs at
different temperatures Fig. 10 from our previous work [14]
which gives the same behavior but with different yield value
and the diameters of the nanotubes were around ~(1-2)nm.
This difference in the results between the simulation and the
experimental work is resulted from the cluster formed after
laser ablation is only C3 it contains C2 , C and metal particle.
In our previous work [14] it was found that at temperature
between 750-800 ºC the structure of the deposit carbon
nanotubes has a web-like structure. At temperature 850ºC -
1000ºC there is a transformation of the deposit carbon
nanotubes structure from web-like structure to spaghetti-like
structure [14] . The temperature dependence of the carbon
nanotubes diameter (nm) can be explained by changes in the
cooling rate of the ablated carbon species. As the carbon
vapor plume expands and cools down, the nanotubes
structure become kinetically fixed [21]. As the nuclei size
changes there is balance between the strain energy of the
curved graphene sheet is and strain energy of an open
graphene edge. A decrease in the nucleus diameter for fixed
number of carbon atoms. Probably the nanotubes do not
reach thermal equilibrium in rapidly expanding and cooling
plume of carbon cluster [27].
Fig. 10: Experimental SEM image Histogarm of carbon
nanotubes distribution at 850ºC ; 900ºC and 1000 ºC [14 ]
7. Conclusions The production of the carbon nanotubes by using laser
ablation is considered as an effective method for production
of SWCNTs. In order to get best results in the simulation of
carbon nanotube distribution is to take into account all types
of clusters formed and the growth time of the nanotubes
within these clusters.
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