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L.A.
A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION EDUCATION
AND TRAINING IN NIGERIA UNIVERSITIES: A CASE STUDY OF FOUR
Chukwuma Ugwuoke
ii
. NJOKU
A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION EDUCATION
AND TRAINING IN NIGERIA UNIVERSITIES: A CASE STUDY OF FOUR
MASS COMMUNICATION
Chukwuma Ugwuoke
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A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION EDUCATION
AND TRAINING IN NIGERIA UNIVERSITIES: A CASE STUDY OF FOUR
: Content manager’s Name
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iii
A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN NIGERIA UNIVERSITIES: A CASE STUDY
OF FOUR UNIVERSITIES IN EDO AND ENUGU STATES.
BY
I.A. NJOKU
PG/MA/04/35727
Being a project submitted to the Department of Mass Communication,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in partial fulfillment for the award of
a Master of Arts (MA) Degree in Mass Communication
Supervisor: NNANYELUGO, OKORO
JUNE 2011.
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the research project entitled: A Comparative Assessment of
Mass Communication Education and Training in Nigerian Universities: A Case
Study of UNN: UNIBEN, BENSON IDAHOSA UNIVERSITY and
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY. Presented by I.A. Njoku has been found worthy to
be accepted in partial fulfillment for the award of a Master of Arts (MA) Degree in
Mass Communication.
___________________________ ________________________
Project Supervisor Head of Department
Okoro Nnanyelugo Okoro Nnanyelugo
________________________________
External Examiner
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DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to the glory of God Almighty for the gift of the mental
and physical strength to overcome the spirit of procrastination. And to my family –
my wife, Joy, my Twins Arinze and Akudo; Chinaraekele and Izuchuwhu for their
support and care.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
My sincere appreciation and profound gratitude goes to my Supervisor Mr.
Nnanyeleugo Okoro whose brotherly advice, useful suggestion, constructive
criticism and patience in reading through the manuscript helped me a lot.
Also I give special thanks to the entire lecturers in the department for their ability
and capability of keeping the Jackson fire burning.
And to my classmates, I appreciate you all and to my colleagues in BIU may God
bless us. Amen.
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ABSTRACT
This study was undertaken to assess the training that students of mass
communication receive in Nigerian universities. That is, carefully identifying the
areas of strength and weakness of the various mass communication training
programmes in these Universities, and to see whether the nomenclature of their
degrees has any bearing on the designing of the training programmes. In carrying
out this study, I used the survey research method since I am not going to study all
the Universities in Nigeria that are offering training programmes in Mass
Communication. With stratified sampling technique, the Universities in Nigeria
were divided into two: Publicly owned and Privately owned. A sample of four
Universities was selected from the two broad groups, two from each group. The
research relied on questionnaires, observation and interviews to generate primary
data while the secondary data was gotten from existing text. The population of
study was the students and lecturers working journalist in the selected
Universities. The study found that some universities award B.A. degree in Mass
Communication while some award B.Sc. degree. Also, the nomenclature of the
degrees influenced the designing of the training programmes offered by the
University. For instance those that award B.Sc. emphasize credit passes in
Mathematics with less emphasis on Literature while those that award B.A lay more
emphasis to Literature and less to Mathematics. Generally, the training
programmes in the selected universities are of a high quality in scope and contact
although more emphasis should be given to practical training than to theory.
Based on these findings, the work went ahead to recommend that all Universities
offering training programmes in Mass Communication should have functional
studios and as a matter of fact they should apply for license to operate their own
campus Broadcast outfit. They should also sustain and strengthen the media
attachment course in their programmes. Furthermore they should put in place a
functional printing press to print their
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - - - i
Certification - - - - - - - - - ii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgment - - - - - - - - - iv
Abstract - - - - - - - - - - v
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - iv
Chapter one: Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem - - - - - - 7
1.3 Objective of the Study - - - - - - - 8
1.4. Significance of the Study - - - - - - 9
1.5. Research Questions - - - - - - - 10
1.6. Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - 10
1.7. Definition of Basic Concept - - - - - - 14
Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.0. Introduction - - - - - - - - 20
2.1. Background of Media Education in Nigeria - - - - 23
2.2. Careers in Mass Communications - - - - - 30
2.3. Journalism as a Profession - - - - - - 33
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Chapter Three: Methodology
3.1. Research Design - - - - - - - - 40
3.2. Description of the Research Population - - - - 41
3.2. Sample Size and Sampling Techniques - - - - 42
3.4. Techniques of Data Collection - - - - - - 44
3.5. Techniques of Data Presentation and Analysis - - - 45
3.6. Limitation of Study - - - - - - - 45
Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Presentation
4.1. Presentation and Analysis of Data - - - - - 47
4.2. Discussion - - - - - - - - - 57
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1. Summary - - - - - - - - - 60
5.2. Conclusions - - - - - - - - - 62
5.3. Recommendations - - - - - - - - 63
Bibliography - - - - - - - - - 67
Appendix I - - - - - - - - - - 73
Appendix II - - - - - - - - - - 77
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The world is living in the era of public opinion, when the opinion of the
people counts so much in all aspects of human activity from government to
business. According to Lippamann (1972:20), the mass media play a very
important role in the formation of opinion. There is no way one can read and
practice Mass Communication without being noticed or without nf1uencing the
society. Studies on the mass media usually focus on one of the three related
problems: on the process by which mediated messages are generated; on the
message content itself; or on the diffusion of information through a population, and
its impacts on individuals, groups, or the society as a whole (Stone, 1976:43).
There are a few studies done African and non-Africans on this area. However the
volume of study is inadequate to properly eliminate the area of Mass
Communication
In this study, we present the result of a comprehensive comparative analysis
of study programmes or curriculum of tertiary institutions in Nigeria train
journalists. My decision to study this aspect is borne out of my experience in media
training in Nigeria Universities. I vehemently believe that the level of
enlightenment and quality of entertainment the society gets from the media
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depends on the quality of training that those at package media software received. A
survey of global literature will reveal various terms used to describe the press - like
watch dog, the voice the voiceless, etc. (Daramola, 1990:28).
It is also known as the 4th estate of the realm” after the executive, judiciary
and legislature (Denneberg; 1976:18). All these expressions no doubt, depict the
sociological value of the media in society. It is no secret at a lot of people depend
on the media for further education on contemporary social issues. According to
Njoku (2002:14) before the journalists can properly inform the public, they must
first be properly informed. And being well informed here hinges on the quality of
training and education received by this crop of men and women, who cross the
land everyday to ensure that the society is well-informed, entertained and educated.
One wonders the kind of education one gets from a half educated man. This study
hopes to realistically picture the kind of journalistic training available in Nigeria
today.
However, fortunately or unfortunately, there had been no formula for
automatically producing successful journalists. No amount of reading,
attending lectures, or practicing can ensure automatic success. Success comes
through proper adaptation and combination of the above factors together with the
various human qualities. In general, there are two schools of thought on the subject
of training Mass Communicators — one emphasizes mechanics or technicalities or
3
literary ingenuity Hyde (1976:24). The other largely ignores mechanics and
substitutes a strong emphasis on communicating ideas, regardless of skills Flesch
(1972:86). Since good journalism has resulted from both approaches, this study
will look at the possibilities of combining both.
I strongly believe that the proper training and education of Mass
Communicators is important because the dramatic explosion of knowledge in the
past few years requires adequate training of Mass Communicators for the 201st
century and beyond. More than ever before, we now have sophisticated media
consumers. What should one then study, if one intends to become a Mass
Communicator? From the little experience in the classroom, this question must be
answered in two ways. First, one should pursue subjects that will most quickly and
obviously prepare one for the job. Second, one should have a general background
in arts and sciences. As we will see when we will be comparing the curricula of
selected universities, we will see courses practiced under these two readings. And
sound Mass Communication education should emphasize both kinds of education,
as a way of appreciating the breadth of Mass Communication practice.
In general, the term mass media refers to institutions that are in business to
educate, inform, persuade and entertain large numbers of people. The largest of
mass media fields are newspapers, television, radio, magazines, book, film,
advertising agencies, public relation firms, wire services, freelance photography,
4
graphic arts, the internet and the Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) (Baran, 2004:65). Universities in Nigeria frequently use mass
communication to label departments or schools that specialize in preparing
students for jobs in various mass media fields. These programmes can offer
training in the practical aspects of communicating as well as courses on the
theories and psychology of human communication, from simple conversation to
worldwide networks.
A student majoring in Mass Communication is required to take several
courses, which cover the basics of Mass Communication. A 1990 study conducted
for the Dew Jones Newspaper Fund in America found that 75% percent of
journalists hired are Mass Communication majors Ghiglione, 1992:13). In Nigeria,
the National Universities Commission (NUC) that accredits university programmes
requires universities to ensure that graduates have taken a total of 163 credits
before graduating (NUC: 2003: 54).
At this point, additional discussion is necessary to clarify some of the
peculiar issues to Mass Communication training in Nigeria. The first of these
issues is the school or university perspective. In Nigeria, we have three categories
of universities that prepare students for journalism jobs. They are prominent
Federal Universities among them is the University of Nigeria. The second category
are the state owned universities, like Enugu State University of Science and
5
Technology; Delta State University, Abraka, etc. And finally, we have the
privately-owned universities who joined the chain in 2001 with the establishment
of lgbinedion University, Okada and Madonna University at Okija. It is from these
groups that we select our sample of study.
Furthermore, the nomenclature of the degrees offered in these universities
will be examined against the courses that they offer. How this defines the
programme will be looked at from the angle of their training tools. Many things
dictate that Mass Communicators be well trained in under to avoid societal
misinformation and disinformation and its ugly consequences.
Another issue we would like to bring forward is the seemingly over
stretching of the training facilities and manpower. It would have been a welcome
development to see the private universities join the training and education of mass
communicators but the private universities that are coming in their leaps and
bounds all offer Mass Communication programmes. However, the informal
implication of this is that the facilities available in Nigeria for training Mass
Communicators are being stressed to a point of ineffectiveness. The senior
manpower needed to groom these programmes to maturity is not there. We do not
have up to 20 professors of Mass Communication in Nigeria, but we have over
twenty universities offering Mass Communication. Those with doctorate degrees
are very few. They are the ageing crop of Nigerians that were lucky to have gone
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to foreign institutions in those days and acquired the degree. Unfortunately, they
have not been mindful of the future of Mass Communication education. It is
however gladdening to then generation universities like Benue State lnamdi
Azikiwe University, Awka have Doctorate Degree programmes.
However, our major concern in this study is the bachelors degree
programmes and other basic training programmes available in Nigeria. Experience
reveals that the training of journalists in Nigeria can be formal or informal.
Formal, which is the main thrust of this work, deals with training for one’s
job, that is, going to a recognized school, and spend some years to acquire some
training and education that will make one practice a profession. In Nigeria, we
have universities, polytechnics and various institutes that offer formal education in
Mass Communication. Some examples of these institutes are Time Journalism
Institute, Lagos that offers formal practical-oriented specialist training in print
journalism, and the Television College, Jos that does the same for broadcasting.
Informal training comes in form of journalists training on the job. Our
concern here is a situation where protégées without any form of training arts
practicing. If Mass Communication practice is to be recognized and respected as a
profession, this type of training or practice must be stopped. It has created avenue
that has made mass communication practice an all-comers affair. It is unthinkable
that someone who did not have any formal training in Law and Medicine will get a
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job in a Law Firm or hospital with the hope of becoming a lawyer or a doctor
through practical experience alone.
In such a situation, the lawyers and the doctors encourage the person to
enroll in school for formal training. But when it is Mass Communication, you hear
such comments as “it does not matter”. It is our stand that informal training should
be part and parcel of training a total mass communicator. But such informal
training can come after acquiring the formal training. We all agree that there is no
amount of formal training that will expose a trainee to all the skills he needs to
practice. Some skills must be acquired while on the job.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
By virtue of their level of influence on society, mass communicators
are supposed to be one of the best-trained professionals. But unfortunately,
practical evidence shows that they are not. Journalism is a very highly essential
and sensitive service to the society that training should be the best and the concern
of all in the society. It is one profession that Practitioners cannot hide from the
glare of the society. The society relies on it for further education, continuous and
continual information and entertainment (Daramola, 1990:30). While it will be
redundant to ask other professional groups what they studied, such question is far
from being obvious in the case of journalism in Nigeria. The continuing dilemma
8
for those pushing for professional status for journalism to note that it has no single
set of procedure or requirement for certifying its practitioners. Moreover, as we
shall see later on, there is little agreement among those current practitioners and
the training institutions as to how specifically to go about becoming a mass
communicator. The statement of the problem is that intending journalist do not
have the training they need to function effectively and training programmes in
universities appear not to be adequate to give them the necessary exposure they
need.
1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
It is now obvious that the mass media shape the particular image of social
reality. However, the clarity and relevance of these images depend on the sound of
training that those who package and process these realities received. In this study,
we undertook to look into the curriculum of universities that train mass
communicators in Nigeria. The principal Objective of the undertaking was to
present comprehensive information on ground that is to be added, dropped or
retrained in these training programmes in order to make our products or graduates
relevant for the demand of the century and beyond.
In addition, this study hopes to bring to the fore the level of adequacy
university training for mass communicators in terms of physical facilities and
human resources. This way we determine whether the facilities are equate for
9
effective and efficient training so that the National Universities Commission
(NUC) would be better informed before approving universities to run mass
communication programmes.
Furthermore, the study has determined the number of credits both for core
and elective courses needed to graduate and whether it is appropriate compared to
what is obtainable around the world.
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The importance of a study on how the occupational group most directly
responsible for the day-to-day information needs of our society is trained cannot be
over-emphasized. The study provided accurate information on the nature of
journalistic training in contemporary Nigeria. As Johnstone (1976:65) puts it,
news-media journalists are the occupational group currently very much in the
public eye. Therefore, an insight into how they are trained is of great significance
to the society.
The adage: a little learning is dangerous is more apt in a profession like mass
communication because of the level of mass influence that they
command in contemporary society.
Furthermore, the significance can be seen in the fact that there will be an
addition to a body of relevant literature in mass communication practice that would
be a reference point for reading and research.
10
Also one of the problems that most potential Mass Communication students
face is the issue of which the Nigerian universities are offering the programme. So
the study provides them with information on these universities that will help them
make wise choices. In addition, practicing mass communicators will be informed
on how and where they can get themselves trained and retrained for their job in this
21st century.
1.5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. How adequate is the present curriculum in Mass Communication education
and training in Nigerian Universities?
2. What is the ratio between theoretical and practical training the university
programmes?
3. What are the personality traits expected of trainee mass
communicators?
4. What areas would students of Mass Communication in Nigerian
universities be encouraged to take elective from?
5. Which aspects of the training need more emphasis to ensure smooth
transition from the classroom to the newsroom?
1.6. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The field of educational psychology is loaded with a lot of theories
that have to do with learning processes. Educational psychology is concerned with
11
learning and adjustment in schools. It makes recommendations on educational
placement and work on educational planning team. It does research on teaching
and learning Santrock (2001:124). It is therefore not out of place for this researcher
to immerse himself in educational psychology in the task of coming up with an
appropriate theoretical framework for the research work. Several of these theories
under educational psychology have emphasized different factors responsible for
attitude formation and attitude change. And education and training that is the crust
of this work has as its objective attitude formation and change. For the purpose of
this study, the researcher intends to use two theories for our theoretical framework
to support the drive towards ensuring that our media practitioners are well trained.
OBSERATIONALLEARNING THEORY
These are the observational theory. This theory also called imitation or
modeling, is learning that occurs when a person (student) observes and imitates
someone’s (lecturer) behavior. Bandura (1986:18) described four main processes
that are involved in observational learning: attention, retention, motor reproduction
and reinforcement. From this theory, it means that for learning or teaching or
intellectual exchange to effectively take place in our universities that teach Mass
Communication, should first attract the attention of the students. In order to
reproduce a teacher’s action, the student must attend to what the teacher is saying
or doing, which calls for concentration. The attention to the model/teacher is
12
influenced by a host of characteristics like warm, powerful typical people
command more attention than do cold, weak typical people. If mass
communication education imbibes the principles of this theory, our teaching
learning is likely to produce permanent change in behaviour. Commenting further
on this theory, Bandura (2000:73) believes that if we learn only in such a trial-and-
error fashion, learning would be exceedingly tedious and at times hazardous.
Although we can also acquire knowledge, skills, rules, strategies, beliefs and
attitudes through observation.
GARDNER’S THEORY OF EIGHT INTELLIGENCE.
Another working theory is Gardner’s theory of eight intelligence. Gardner
(2002:93) believes there are eight types of intelligence. They are described below:
1. Verbal skill: The ability to think in words and to use language to
express meaning. Occupations: Journalism, authors.
2. Mathematical skills: The ability to carry out mathematical operations.
3. Spatial skills: The ability to think three-dimensionally. Occupations:
architects, artists, sailors.
4. Bodily Kinesthetic skills. The ability to manipulate objects and be physically
adaptive. Occupations: surgeons, crafts people, dancers, athletes.
5. Musical skill> Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone. Occupation:
composers, musicians and sensitive listeners.
13
6. Interpersonal skills. The ability to understand and effectively interact with
others. Occupation: teachers, mental health professionals.
7. Interpersonal skills. The ability to understand oneself. Occupation:
theologians, psychologists.
8. Naturalist skills. The ability to observe pattern in nature and understand
natural human-made systems. Occupations: farmers, botanists, ecologists,
landscapers.
Gardner believes that each of the eight intelligences can be destroyed by
poor training. That each involves unique cognitive skills and that each
shows up in instructional classes in which the teacher lectures and gives
objective tests. Such arrangement often considers as smart students with good
grades. Students who are high in creative intelligence often are not in the top rung
of their class. (Sternberg 1999:104) says that many teachers have expectations
about how to assess students. Students who are high in creative intelligence often
are not in the top rung because they don’t give expected answers but unconditional
although correct answers. Also, students who are practically intelligent often do
not relate well to the demands of school. However, these students frequently do
well outside of the classroom walls. Sternberg (1999:100) believes that a few tasks
are purely analytic, creative or practical. Most tasks require some combination of
these skills.
14
This theory was adopted because as we can see above, it can stimulate mass
communication educator to think more broadly about what makes up people’s
intelligence and competence. And it is more appropriate here because Mass
Communication is a practical-skill-oriented profession. This theory will motivate
educators to develop programmes that instruct students in different domains.
1.7 DEFINITION OF BASIC CONCEPTS
Comparative Assessment: This is an attempt at bringing out the areas of common
ground in the academic training programmes of some government owned
universities on one hand the privately owned ones on the other and. Apart from the
common grounds in the training programmes, this comparative assessment will
also bring out areas of disparity. The target is to identify the SWOT (Strength,
weakness, opportunity and treats) of each programme. These will enable for a
proactive policy that will encourage and support the identified positive virtues and
discourage or downplay the negative ones. To assess is to determine the usefulness
or otherwise of something based on the inherent virtues and the needs that it is
suppose to serve. And that is why assessment is not judgmental but seeks to bring
out the inherent features of these training programmes without making any value
judgment statement.
Mass Communication: In this work, mass communication is used synonymously
with journalism. And we defined it as the institutionalized running record of a
15
society, and the day-to-day representation of ongoing social process as filtered
through the apparatus of the journalistic manpower.
Furthermore, mass communication is seen as a social force that informs,
entertains, delight, annoy and educate the public by moving their emotions,
challenging their intellects, insulting their intelligence and help define and shape
public relations (Baran: 2004:4).
Journalism Manpower: It is important for our readers to have an idea of
what journalism manpower is, since no profession is better than its empower. Here
it is defined as all-news media personnel who have editorial responsibility for the
preparation or transmission of new stories or other basic information. This edition
embracing those whose principal responsibilities lie in newsgathering, news,
processing and editing; or supervisors and managers of news operation (Johnstone
1976:4). This journalistic manpower of our dream requires the following skill-
ability, to talk or speak, write, listen, etc.
Education Training: Education or training can be defined as a process that leads
to the transformation of an individual. It involves passing through stages, that will
lead to the acquisition of a skill that is not available to the person before the
training started. Here we recognize two types of education or training, viz: formal
and informal. Training is formal when it is acquired at the four walls of the
classroom and going through detailed stages and with a minimum entry point
16
requirement. This kind of education leads to what is called training-for-one’s job.
Informal education occurs when in the process of working or interacting with
people in society, the person acquires some skills that are necessary for ones
continued existence. Here there is no procedure or formal states or entry
requirements. This kind of education leads to what is called training on the-job.
In Nigeria we have about 48 public and private universities; and almost all of them
offer training in mass communication. The university is at the apex of the
educational structure in Nigeria.
Public Universities: In Nigeria, public universities are those owned and operated
by either the Federal Government like the University Nigeria, Nsukka or those
owned and operated by the State Government Delta State University, Abraka.
These universities are under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. They
are usually established by the tax-payers money; and that is why they are called
public, because no one individual lays claim to its ownership. And trade unionism
is tolerated in public universities and prominent among the trade unions are ASUU
(Academic Staff Union of Universities), where incessant strikes almost led to the
collapse of the public universities and greatly contributed to the growth of the
private universities.
Private Universities: These universities are private concerns, purely owned and
operated by private citizens individually or in association. Prominent examples of
17
such universities are lgbinedion University, Okada, Benson Idahosa University,
Madonna University, Okija, The owners of these universities are usually the
chancellors and no of trade unionism is allowed. And job security here is very low
as any person can be thrown out any time. The profile and number of these
universities is increasing and one interesting thing is that so far all of them have
training programmes for mass communication.
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REFERENCES
Bandura, S. (1986). Social Foundation of Thought Action. New York: Prentice
Hall Inc.
Bandura, S.J. (2004) “Self Efficiency”, In Kazdin (ed.) Encyclopedia of
Psychology. New York. Prentice Hall Inc.
Baran, S.J. (2004). Introduction to Mass Communication. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Daramola, I. (2000). Introduction to Mass Communication, Lagos: Rothan Press
Ltd.
FIesCh, R. (1972). The art of Readable Writing. New York: Collier Books.
Gardner, H . (2001 ) “ The Pursuit of Excellence through Education” in
Terran, M. (E. D) For the Extraordinary Rich. New York: Michmah.
Ghiglione, L. (1992) Journalism Careers Guide for Minorities. New York: ASNE.
Hyde, S.W. (1970). Television and Radio Announcing Network: Prentice
Hall Int.
Johnstone, J.W.C. (1976) The News People, London: University of Illinois Press.
Lippmann, W. (1970) MsMec1taffie Fourth Branching Denenberg R.V. New
York: Fontana Press.
National Universities Commissions (NUC) Benchmark, 2003.
Njoku, l.A. (2002) Effective Communication in the work Place: Unpublished
Seminar paper presented at NNPC training workshop at P.T.I.,E ffurun.
19
Santrock, J.N. (2001). Educational Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.
Sternberg, R.J. (1999). “Intelligence Quotient in Runas et al., Educational
Psychology: Theoretical Framework. New York: Macmillian Inc.
Stone, V.A. (1970). “Broadcast News Educators and the Professions”, Journalism
Quarterly, Vol. l. 47, No.2..
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
There have been some theories put forward to explain the role that e mass media
play in society (Denenberg, 1970:20). The traditional and probably still most
accepted theory is that the mass media inform the sovereign electorate of what
their officials are doing or planning to do and enable public opinion to crystallize.
The media then take soundings of public opinion and report on the mood of the
people so that they may make appropriate response to the wishes of their
constituents.
As Lippmann (1970:20) puts it, media, acting upon everybody for thirty minutes in
twenty-four hours, the media are expected to create a mystical force called public
institutions.
According to de Tocqueville (1970:120) the media make political life circulate in
every corner of the entire society. Its eyes are never shut, and it lays bare the
secrets, shifts of policies, forcing public figures in turn to ear before the tribunal of
public opinion. And to Bryce (1983:118) public opinion is a power not satisfied
with choosing executive and legislative agents at certain intervals, but continuously
watching and guiding those agents. Wholeheartedly embracing this view of its role,
the media consider themselves as surrogate sovereign, a watchdog on behalf the
absent electorate.
21
The newsman’s mission is to ferret out corruption, malfeasance and misuse
of the taxpayer’s money. Without the media, the government would degenerate
into an irresponsible Cabal, perpetrating its schemes in secret. This is evidenced by
the number of government policies that die when exposed to the cruel of light of
day. There are also deficiencies in the performance of government that would not
be remedied were they not publicized. For instance, in Nigeria the case of Buhari
the former speaker of the Federal House of Representative resignation due to
media exposure certificate problems.
There is no gainsaying the fact that the media that have these great functions
to render to the society need a solid or practical and functional education/training.
There are some journalists who claim to have picked up most of what they know
without much deliberate effort in terms of formal training. But the early story of
those who have won success in this profession is almost invariably that of a
persistent and sustained search after a wider knowledge and understanding of the
societal issues. For those early journalists, the long hours spent at night school, or
in discipline private study after a hard day’s work are a familiar theme in the life of
stories of our great journalists. There is no easy road to a wiser education, although
with the part-time day release, on-line study programme and wide range of Mass
Communication training facilities, the way of the young journalist-in-training
today may be easier than that of their predecessors. But if facilities for study have
22
improved, the need for it and the hard work involved still remain. However,
desultory general reading although useful, it is not enough for it to apt to result in
a vague general knowledge which can be more dangerous than complete
ignorance.
The sensitive nature of the media and its function in societal well-being
requires a strong systematic study programme for trainee journalists to follow.
It is this that has led the British National Advisory Council for the training of
journalists to insist that, in addition to the vocational training which the trainee
journalist receives under the supervision of his superiors within the media
organization and shall follow a systematic course of further education either at the
university — which is our main concern here — Polytechnic or other subsidiary
institutions.
In analyzing their syllabi, it has been observed that the four universities used
as our case study were not flexible enough in drawing up their syllabi. There is
need therefore for ensuring that entrants to the profession shall acquire that
minimum education that is essential for them to undertake their duties adequately
as journalists. This brings to the fore the issue of curriculum review. It is an
exercise that must be constant, if any profession hopes to make its members
relevant and useful to the society. This is because the society is so dynamic and
flexible. According to Obioma (2006:46) Curriculum review in educational
23
institutions is part of the reform measures of the National Economic Empowerment
and Development Strategies (NEEDS).
2.1 BACKGROUND OF MEDIA EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Today, applications, continue to pour into the media training institutions. For
instance, in 1989, the University of Maiduguri, Mass Communication Department
received more than eight hundred applications for 20 in their undergraduate
programme. In the University of Lagos, Department of Mass Communication
programme, more than one thousand, five hundred applications were received for
only 50 for its degree programme for the same period. Other Mass Communication
programmes in other institutions also received large numbers of application for
very limited vacancies (Nwanwanne, 1989, p.9).
The same was also applicable to the University of Nigeria. For instance,
out of two thousand eight hundred and fifty-two candidates that applied for
admission in 1988, only seventy-five were admitted (Nwanwanne, 1989, p.11).
The story has not changed, as it was when Nwanwanne carried out his study as
most government owned universities are still battling with limited vacancies for
prospective students. Although the reverse is the case in private universities.
In an International press Institute (IPI) report, Healey noted how enrolment quotas
24
were not keeping up with the demands for journalism education. Bu the pertinent
questions are:
i. How should a Nigerian journalist be trained?
ii. Should there be any conflict between the government and the media
institutions in the education and training of journalist?
iii. To what extent should the private universities be allowed to
participate in the training and education of journalists?
All these questions are of particular significance in the story behind e
education and training of Nigerian journalists. Perhaps the most logical approach
to finding meaningful answers to these questions is first, to trace the evolution of
media education and training in Nigeria.
Unlike other professions such as law, medicine, accounting, engineering and
the like, journalism in Nigeria, for a very long time received very little or no
attention. Bu the general belief of the Nigerian elite was that scholars who
graduated from any of the Nigerian high schools should be able to write, read and
talk, therefore, writers, newsreaders, broadcasters and “journalists.” The profession
of journalism suffered seriously in its development in Nigeria, not only because of
the low literacy rate but also because Nigeria was colonized by Britain, a country
where formal journalism education and training developed very late.
John Whale, former editor of the London Sunday Times, and currently a teacher at
25
the University of Missouri, USA, calls journalism in Britain an “unqualified
profession yet to find its solid place” (Golding, 1977, p. 24)
McBarnet (1979, p. 16) writes that training provides an entry into both the
disciplining of journalists and the discipline of journalism. It is also arguable that
training helps to inculcate in a journalist’s career a discernible discipline of
reporting practice for any media organization-press or broadcasting.
Journalism training in Nigeria progresses from on-the-job to short- term
training from local in-service to oversea and local university training. The
Reverend Henry Townsend, who published the first Nigerian newspaper Iwe lrohin
in 1859, is said to have used on-the-job-training, the first ever known method of
media education in the country to train his staff.
Today, the on-the-job system of instruction is still the most predominant
method of training Nigerian journalists. However, if other systems become
predominant in the future, the likelihood is that they will not completely supplant
it. During the mid-fifties, the on-the-job method gave way to in-service or short-
term training given locally or abroad to staff members of media organizations by
communication experts.
In 1951, when the Nigerian Broadcasting Service was inaugurated, a training
school (now known as FRCN Training School) was set up almost immediately to
train newly recruited staff and it organized specialist courses for more seasoned
26
staff. Since 1960, the school has expanded considerably to train the staff of other
broadcasting organizations.
As far back as 1954, the University of lbadan (then a University College)
was organizing short-term training for junior journalists through its Department of
Extra-mural Studies. Special training programmes were also provided by the
regional ministries or information with the assistance of the United States agency
for International Development (USAID). In 1961, for example, the Western
Nigeria Communication Centre was set up in the Regional Ministry of Information
in collaboration with other ministries in Ibadan to offer in-service training to
officers involved in the production of visual media.
In November 1965, the International Press Institute launched a training
scheme for journalists at the University of Lagos It was a six- month course
sponsored with Ford Foundation grants for West African Journalists.
The overseas training programme took various forms. For example, the
Federal Government made about 15 overseas scholarship awards for the training of
Nigerian journalists between 1955 and 1960
These awards included degree courses in American universities, a one- year
diploma course at the Regent Street Polytechnic, London, and periods of
attachment to British provincial newspapers and the British Broadcasting
Corporation.
27
The era of consolidating the training scheme for journalists for full-
time education in Nigeria falls under two kinds of formal education.
i. The non-university — (Diploma programme) and
ii. The university programme (degree).
Of the 40 formal Journalism Training Institutes in Nigeria, seven are
presently offering diploma programmes leading to the award of the
National and Higher National Diploma (ND/HND) of this number, only two are of
the university type — the Univ6y of Lagos and the University of Nigeria Diploma
programmes.
The Daily Times of Nigeria Limited realized that the success of a modern
newspaper organization depends largely on educated and trained journalists, and
then established a formal journalism training school in January 1965. Since 1970,
the scope of training has been enlarged, and today it has become a comprehensive
training centre for journalists and press technicians. The school, now known as
Times Institute of Journalism, awards a certificate and a diploma in courses lasting
a year or longer.
Another certificate or diploma awarding institution which has contributed
immensely to journalism education in the country is the Institute of Journalism
financed by the International press Institute (IPI), the Nigerian Newspaper
Proprietors Association and the Nigerian Guild of Editors. It was founded in Lagos
28
on October 12, 1971. (The IPI withdraw its assistance to NIJ in 1975). In the late
1970s, the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) teamed up with the Television
College in Jos, to train Electronic Media Journalists from all NTA stations. It
award certificates and diplomas in the various aspects of television production.
There has been a general trend since World War II towards university
training in journalism. This development has come slowly to Africa. In
early 1935, the American University in Cairo established a journalism programme
and the neighbouring University of Cairo started journalism courses in 1939, later
offering a four-year degree These North African curricula emphasized the print
media with only a course or two in broadcast news writing or production of more
homogeneous audience that know and care about the programme material being
offered.
The dramatic explosion of knowledge in the past several years will make
inadequate a contemporary Mass Communicator who does not grow with the
times. The makers of dictionaries have been adding new words at an
unprecedented pace each represents to the Mass Communicator not only a new
word to use but a new concept, a new technological breakthrough, newly perceived
human conditions, or a new phenomenon to know about Modern journalism is
placing a great number of independence on the journalist out there covering events
for both print and the electronic media most of the time they are on their own With
29
such independence, comes the necessity of having much information at hand to
share with the audience
It therefore follows that Mass Communication education and training must
emphasize courses that will most quickly and obviously prepare students for the
job. And secondly, courses that offer background knowledge in arts and sciences
must be emphasized. It therefore follows that a training programme for a
prospective Mass Communicator must emphasize core areas or specialist areas in
print and electronic media and general education courses. This training schedule
must be adhered to no matter the nomenclature of the degree being offered.
Mass communication departments, must package its courses according to
Hyde (1970, p.84) to stress the responsibilities of journalist in a democratic society
with courses in the way arts function in our lives, social behavioural sciences,
political science, international relations, sociology, economics, psychology,
linguistics, general semantics cybernetics and creative writing education,
especially child growth and development educational socio-psychology and
educational technology. Hyde went further to say that the consideration of the
courses will be done in conjunction with individual aptitude, interest and career
aspirations. The important thing is that non-mass communication courses will be of
lasting benefit and practical value to the student when he/she enters the media
market. In this era of globalization, the media influence can spread all over the
30
world. Media organizations like CNN (Cable News Network), BBC
World, VOA, etc have become household names. Cable and other pay-view
channels also pose a challenge for trainers of Mass Communication in Africa. It
will not be out of place for the formation of International Council or media
education to monitor the extent of training and education of Mass communicators
across the globe. As we said earlier, this drive is informed the sensitive nature of
Mass Communication practice. In countries like South Africa and Canada, Mass
Communication training has reached an advance stage that it will not be out of
place for universities that run Mass communication to send their curriculum
designers on a study tour of these, laces. Emphasis now is being placed more on
practical than theory institutions offering Mass Communication must therefore
have functional studios for their students to practice. Furthermore, they should
establish functional printing press, darkroom for processing pictures, Public
Relations and Advertising labs to enable students carry out analytical studies.
Equally important is the establishment of a Media Resource Centre (MR) to enable
students keep abreast with happenings around the world in the field of Mass
Communication and others.
2.2. CAREERS IN MASS COMMUNICATION
We will now consider the nature of careers in journalism and following
Glaser’s (1968, p.1) definition of an occupational career, will be concerned
31
with the patterned paths of organizational, social and geographic mobility
journalists follow in pursuing their vocation.
The first part of this section focuses on decisions to enter journalism and
links the timing with both socio-economic factors and with the amount and type of
education obtained. Also the paths of entry into the news media are described.
Although the dynamics of occupational choice in our society are not fully
understood, vocational decisions are thought to be made in one of two ways.
According to Johnstone (1973, p. 170), the first is when persons settle on a precise
occupation relative y early in life and then direct their education and training to the
specific requirements in question. This is a case of somebody casually entering a
profession by getting a lower job within the profession that will make him or her to
expire to build a career in that profession. In contrast to this a pattern in which
decisions about schooling, such as going to university are made and choice of
school following. For most persons, educational and occupational decisions are
closely interrelated. In the former case, vocational goals determine education and
training and in the latter the process is reversed. A Newsman’s educational
attainment is also influenced by his social origins and that socio economic
background has its most important effect on one’s chances of completing
university. The reason that persons from more substantial backgrounds make later
occupational decisions is that they are more likely to attend university. Since
32
journalism is not a field, which requires early commitment, firm entry decisions
among university students can be postponed until just before graduation — or even
later for that matter.
Although early career commitment in journalism may be remote, it should
be noted that journalists who coupled career plans with decisions to go to
university were more likely to become journalism giant. Early decision to enter the
communications field thus directs persons either to seek employment immediately
following secondary school.
These processes although intuitively obvious constitute important realities of
the early stages of journalism careers Johnstone (1976, p. 108) has been able to
illustrate the principal ways which socioeconomic origin have a bearing on
journalists in career beginnings First, socioeconomics background influences the
overall level of schooling one is likely to obtain, by affecting one’s chances of
entering University and entering graduate school Furthermore, social origin, have a
direct bearing on the type of university one attends, those from more prosperous
beginnings are likely to find their way into lgbinedion University, Okada or
Benson Idahosa University because of the high level of fees And in addition,
Benson Idahosa also adds the additional provision of the prospective student being
a practicing born-again Christian. Since these universities are new, we are yet to
33
determine or see whether there is a substantial difference between their products
and those from public universities.
2.3. JOURNALISM AS A PROFESSION
The long-standing battle between the media and the government has raised
questions about the security and stability of the professional role of Nigerian
journalists In addition to, or perhaps as a result of these conflicts, the credibility of
newsmen in the public mind is not static The increased frequency of contempt
citations of newsmen by courts for not revealing their sources of information, and
increased concern about Shield laws for newsmen, calls into question a
fundamental claim of all professions — the right to control their work free from
outside interference There are those who argue that once journalistic lips become
unsealed not only will journalists lose what remains of their professional status but
also a press operation without fear or favour will be doomed. The inclusion of this
aspect in this project is to sensitize the Mass Communication educators to address
it in the formulation of their curriculum development In the United States,
journalism educators have addressed the problem by specifying the characteristics
which journalism must display to be accepted as a profession and Kiniball (1965,
p.43) explicitly asks if journalism is an “art”, craft, or profession.
Fewer are the iconoclasts who call journalism a trade or who more neutrally, refer
to the job of the reporter as professional practice. Perhaps a fair summary of the
34
nature of these concerns is presented by MacDougall (1963). The immediate
question is not whether journalism should be a profession but whether it is one to
any appreciable extent.
Unfortunately for Mass Communication, MacDougall’s question is not
easily answered. First, in order to make an informed judgment of the extent to
which Mass Communication meets the criteria of a profession, a set of analytic
characteristics sufficient to qualify an occupational group as a profession must be
agreed upon. What is clear from even a cursory review of the literature on
professions is that there is not generally accepted definition of a profession, since
nearly every author on the subject offers a slightly different set of appropriate
criteria. One of the most fundamental observations, as Hughes (1970:350) suggest,
is to identify the circumstances in which people attempt to an occupation into a
profession, or the stages which characterize such transformations. After examining
several historical professions, Wilensky (1964:137) concluded that an occupational
group moves through the following sequence of stages in becoming established
and accepted as a profession.
• It begins to pursue an area of work full time.
• It establishes a training school
• A professional association is formed
35
• Representatives of the occupation agitate politically to win legal support
for the right to control their work.
• The professional association promulgates a formal code of ethics and
practice.
• Establishes body of knowledge.
Mass Communication in has passed through all of these stages, some more
successfully than others. Although journalism practice in this country did not begin
as an independent full-time occupation, by the 1920s under the colonial rule, the
population increases in metropolitan centres such as Lagos, Calabar, Ibadan and
Enugu and the increased literacy rate among these populations, provided the
economic base necessary to support news-gathering activities on a full-time basis.
For an occupation to be considered a profession, however, recruits to the field
must also be exposed to a body of abstract knowledge, which is the particular
province of the profession. It is here that formal recognition of journalism as a
profession is often challenged, since as critics of journalism education has
remarked, there is no system of abstract professions to which new recruits are
exposed and without which they cannot practice. The issue of what fledgling mass
communication should be taught is almost as old as journalism itself. Historically,
there have been two main schools of taught about the nature of education for Mass
Communication; practical version background instruction. In the contemporary
36
period in Nigeria, the background or theoretical method appear to be the more
prevalent, and a study of syllabi of the four universities used as a case, study
indicate that three quarters of all courses consisted of general background
instruction. While it does seem to be case that newsmen do not require specialized
training to practice journalism, there is now and has been for some time a very
great awareness of the importance of some kind of training for journalists. Given
the fact that journalists with university degrees are fewer than those without
however, the main problem confronting the field today may be in requiring
practitioners to complete any university programme rather than in insistin1 upon
their exposure to a specialized curriculum.
Mass Communication or journalism has a long history of professi7nal
organizations in Nigeria. For instance, we have; Nigerian Guild of Editors,
Newspaper Proprietors Association, etc. In addition to these somewhat
specialized national organizations, several state press associations. In the USA that
has been described as the global headquarters of journalism. It was not until 1912
that a National Association of American Teachers of Journalism. (AATJ) was
formed to deal explicitly with professional issues and were in some cases
influential in starting professional schools of journalism in the USA. Furthermore,
recently the Association for Education in Journalism (AEJ) has assumed primary
responsibility for evaluating and accrediting professional education in the field.
37
Unfortunately, in Nigeria there is no such body and the only accreditation
universities face comes from the NUC — National Universities Commission,
whose accreditation is now down-to-earth, that is, it is generic rather than specific.
Given this discussions, there seemed little doubt that at least in the abstract former
sense, Mass Communication can be considered a profession.
Our discussion on the professional status of Mass Communication will focus
on the journalists’ values regarding work. As a result of extended training, the
professional comes to feel that his special abilities entitle him to carry out his work
free from interference or pressure from persons either outside or inside the
profession. Professional autonomy and freedom from supervision are considered to
be of great importance to the professional.
Some journalists are able to work without these kinds of constraints,
although may are subject to a range of controls in this regard. To the extent that
journalists are oriented as professionals, however, they are expected to regard these
matters as especially important.
Another attitude which traditionally has been defined in pat of the
professional work ethics is a commitment to public service. Given the nature of
Mass Communication, it can be argued that journalists offer cliental public service
because the transmission and interpretation of information is clearly an activity,
which can be interpreted a public service.
38
REFERENCES
Bryce, S. (1 983) Mass Media, Mass Politics in Lane Political Life. New York,
Wadsworth Publishers Inc
De Tocqueville (1970) “The Media Role in Politics” in Denenberg R.V.
Understanding American Politics. New York, Fontana Press.
Glaser, B.G. (1 968) Organizational Careers: A Source Book for Theory Chicago
Aldine
Golding, P. (1 977) “Media Professionalism in the Third World” in Curran (ed)
Mass Communication and Society, London. Arnold Press. I6.
Hyde, S.W. (1970) Television and Radio Announcing. New York, Prentice Hall Int
Johnstone, J.W.C. (1976) The News People”. London. University of Illinois
Press
Iniball, P. (1965) “Journalism, Art, Craftor Profession” in Kenneth L. (ed.) The
Profession in America. Boston: Beacon Press.
ILippmann, w. (1970) “Mass Media and Fourth Branch”in Denenberg, R.V.
Understanding American Politics. New York: Fontana Press.
MacDougal, C.D. (1982) Interpretative Reporting. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co
Mcbernet, A (1 979) “Disciplining the Journalists “Media Culture and Society
Journal Vol. 1 No 2.
39
Nwanwanne, T. (1989) The Broadcasting Training Sequence in Nigeria”.
Unpublished M.A. Thesis UNN.
Obioma, C. (2006) “Curriculum Review in Educational Institutions and NEEDS”
in the Guardian, Monday, Sept 26, 2006
Ugboajah, F. (1980) Communication Policies in Nigeria: UNESCO Book Series.
H. (1 964). “ The Professionalisation of Everyone”. American Journal of
Sociology Vol. 79. No. 2.
40
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
1.3. RESEARCH DESIGN
The research method adopted for data and information generation for the study is
survey research method. This method was necessary because of the following
reasons. Firstly, the number of respondents both practicing journalists and
journalism students and educators are so many that it will not be humanly possible
to reach them on one-to-one. Secondly, in this kind of study, there is no much
already existing data, so it is important that the survey method is used. This
method involves the stratification of audience or respondents in groups and then
the selection of a group or strata that will be used to elicit data that is hoped to be a
true representation of the entire population. According to Nwosu (1990, p.15),
survey research method can be used to analyze accurately the character of a large
population. It is a process of examining samples of communication behaviour for
the purpose of inferring conclusion about the population from which the samples
were selected (Supporting Obasi (1999, p.132) describes survey method as a
“process eliciting data from a target population through instruments and subjecting
such data to a statistical analysis for the purpose of drawing conclusion.”
In creating the population and the sample, if a set of data consists of all
conceivable possible (or hypothetically possible) observation of certain
41
phenomenon, we call it a population. Continuing, he said that if the size of the
group being studied is very large, it might take too long to complete and be too
costly. Contacting all eligible respondents might be described when predicting
outcomes, but it would be time-consuming and cost. This made it possible for the
use of samples in survey researches.
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH POPULATION
According to Freund (1979, p. 28) if a set of data consists of all conceivably
possible (or hypothetically possible) observations of certain phenomenon, we call
it a population. Therefore, population in research means nothing more than all the
elements or variables units or individuals that are of overt interest to the researcher
for a specific investigation or study.
For the purpose of this study, the population comprised of two sets of
respondents. The first groups of respondents are student-journalists and journalism
educators in Nigerian universities. And the second groups are the practicing
journalists in Nigeria. That is, those who are directly involved in the editorial
responsibilities in their media organization, be it print or broadcast.
There is no gainsaying the fact that population is not only elitist and enlightened,
but they also help in shaping the opinion of the entire public through the kind of
information they serve the public. And since the media play a very important part
42
in the global contemporary world, this is very adequate and relevant for a study of
this type at this point in time.
3.3. SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling according to Osula (1987:104) is taking any porting of a
population or universe, as a representation of that population or universe. The first
task for the first population was to list universities in Nigeria, using JAMB current
brochure and filed (2006). Secondly, the population was stratified on the basis of
ownership. The two broad categories that emerged are — public universities and
private universities. For obvious reasons of paucity of time and other essential
resources and for convenience sake, four universities were selected. Two each
from both public and private universities, viz. University of Nigeria, Nsukka
(UNN), University of Benin (UNIBEN), Benson Idahosa University (BIU) and
lgbinedion University, Okada. For the second group, we were able to list through
Field (2006) about 372 daily newspapers, 100 weeklies, 24 magazines, 140 radio
stations and 253 television stations (source: National Broadcasting Commission’s
Brochure 2006).
At the end I was able to estimate about 2128 student journalists and
educators the four universities and a total manpower pool of about 69,500 full-time
personnel working within the news media. Population groups consist of about
0:06% of the 2006 census figure.
43
The selection of the two private universities was based on the latest National
Universities Commission’s ranking of private universities (2010) in which
lgbinedion University was noted as having the first private license and Benson
ldahosa University came second in terms of quality academic programme
development. University of Nigeria was selected as the oldest journalism training
institution in West Africa. And University of Benin is selected because it is one of
the leading second generation universities in Nigeria. The sample size was
determined from the study population. My study population is as follows:
a. 2128 student-journalists and educators
b. 69,500 practicing full-time journalists in Nigeria
Therefore, the sample size will be determined using the statistical formula below:
N
I + N (2)2
10% error margin was used
Where,
n = Sample size
N = Study population
E = error margin
Sample size for the first group will be:
N = 2128 2128 = 97
n = +N (e)2 = 142128(0.1)
2 22
Therefore, the sample size will be 97 student-journalists and educators and
100 practicing journalists.
44
3.4 INSTRUMENT OF DATA COLLECTION
The formation to be reported in this work will be obtained from a sample of
practicing journalists in Nigeria and student-journalists and educators selected
through a rational probability sampling technique. A self-administered
questionnaire will be the major instrument of data collection. However, interviews
will also be used to elicit necessary support information from the respondents. The
use of questionnaire as the major instrument of information is borne out of the fact
that it is about the most reliable means of drawing out information from
respondents without threatening their confidentiality. Also, it enables the
respondents the time to actually think on the issues and make meaningful
contribution; whether the questionnaire is structured or open-ended. Furthermore,
the use of interview as a support instrument is justified by the fact that it allows for
physical interaction between the researcher and the respondents, which gives room
for further clarification of issues.
The questionnaire to be used for this study was of two types: the first
questionnaire will be meant for student-journalists and their educators in the four
selected universities, while the second one will be meant for the practicing
journalists selected as sample. The two instruments will be used by the researcher
to draw out data that will address the research questions. It is believed that the two
instruments will enable the researcher generate primary data.
45
However, it is important to add finally that some secondary data will be
generated through sources like the National Universities Commission’s (NUC)
handbook and National Broadcasting Commission’s (NBC) handbook.
3.5 TECHNIQUES OF DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
The data generated from this study will be presented in tabulation format
and n simple percentages. The researcher believes that the two methods will not
only make it concise to package and present the data but will also help in making
the data understandable to the average user of the work.
3.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
It is only human and realistic to mention some of the limitation that infringes the
completion of the study. Principal among these problems is the lack of research
materials both software and hardware. By software, I mean the knowledge level
needed to do a very good research work as fast as possible. Another problem was
time. The time frame within which to conduct the work is short going by the
number of commitments. But at the end, we give God glory that progress has been
made.
46
REFERENCES
Freund, J.E. (1979) Modern EIementa Statistics London Prentice Hall.
Nwosu, I. E (1991) Public Relations Writings Principles and Practice Enugu:
Acena Press
Obasi, I.N. (1999) Research Methodology in Political Science: Enugu: Academic
Publishers
Osula E C (1993) Introduction to Research Methodology, Onitsha: Africana
Publishers.
47
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Strictly following our sample size, a total number of 197 questionnaires
were distributed comprising of 97 for practicing journalists in Nigeria and 100 for
student-journalists and their educators in the four universities.
Initially, I thought of distributing the questionnaires according to the ratio of
the number of students, but at a second thought I decided to make it appear even
and scientific and so I shared the questionnaire 25 per university.
Despite our spirited effort to monitor the respondents, I still suffered
questionnaire mortality rate, although very low.
Of the 97 copies that were distributed to practicing journalists in Nigeria, 90
were successfully returned. And of the 100 that were distributed to student-
journalists and their educators, 92 were successfully completed and returned. In the
questionnaire, there is a section for practicing journalists, and another for student-
journalists and their educator. But as I was about to present the data, their tables
are not sub-divided we believe that the titles of the tables will be an enough guide
for the reader to easily understand the data. I started with the raised research
questions in chapter one and concluded with analysis of the questionnaire
questions.
48
Research question One: How adequate is the present curriculum
in Mass Communication Education and
Training in Nigerian Universities?
TABLE 1 for Research Question One
Responses Number Percent (%)
Adequate 50 46%
Inadequate 31 34.34%
Neutral 92 100%
Total 92 100%
Despite the fact that a majority of the respondents believed that the scope of their
curriculum is adequate, however, it is equally disturbing to note that 11 of the
respondents or 1.66% lack opinion concerning the issue at hand. Which means that
some of the students do not know whether their curriculum is adequate or not and
some educators do not also know which is not a pleasant development. This calls
for constant enlightenment among student-journalists and their educators by the
NUC to be able to fathom whether their curriculum is adequate or not. Equally
disturbing is the number (31) of the respondents or (34.34%) who believed that
their curriculum is inadequate. This means that Mass Communication training and
education curriculum in Nigerian universities need an upward review in order to
make it adequate in scope and relevant for the 21st century globalized world.
49
Research Question Two: What is the ratio between theoretical and
practical training in the universities
programmes?
TABLE 2: For Research Question Two
Responses Number Percent (%)
Practical 30 30.34%
Theory 60 60.66%
Total 92 100%
From the table above, we can see that the ratio between practical training and
theoretical training in our Mass Communication Department is 1.2. This
development can be disturbing because Mass Communication is practically
oriented profession. This calls for stepping up of the practical aspect of the Mass
Communication education in Nigerian universities.
Research Question Three: What are the Personality Traits expected of a
Trainee Mass Communicator?
Table 3: For Research Question Three
The following were the frequency of the Personality Traits gathered from the
respondents.
Traits Frequency Degree
Courage 20 800
Boldness 12 600
Integrity
Consistency
Sharpness
High command of English
In order to present the data in pie chart format, we have to convert to
dividing 360° by 90 and multiply with the appropriate
frequencies.
Speed
11%
High-Command of
English
50
10 400
10 400
10 400
25 1000
In order to present the data in pie chart format, we have to convert to
dividing 360° by 90 and multiply with the appropriate
Courage
22%
Boldness
17%
Integrity
11%
Consistency
11%
Command of
English
28%
In order to present the data in pie chart format, we have to convert to degree by
dividing 360° by 90 and multiply with the appropriate
Boldness
51
Research Question Four: Which aspect of the training needs more
emphasis to ensure smooth transition from the
classroom to the news room. Table 4: For Research Question Four:
Skill Category Number Percent (%)
Writing 45 50%
Speaking 20 22.2%
Reading 20 22.2%
Listening 05 5.6%
Total 92 100%
We can see from the table above, majority of the respondents believe to be
successful a Mass Communicator whether in the Broadcast ha or Print media or
engaged in private practice must be a powerful pen pusher. It is a little worrisome
that the respondents do not consider listening as an important skill for smooth
transition from the classroom to Newsroom. This emphasis unfortunate and can go
a long way in explaining why there are a lot of noise in our broadcast bulletins and
pages of our Newspapers and magazines.
52
This section analysis some selected Questionnaire Questions
Table 5: Practicing Journalists’ Area of Specialty
Category Number Percent(%)
Print 46 50%
Broadcast 29 32%
Public Relations 10 10%
Advertising 07 7.6%
Total 92 100%
The above table clearly reveals that majority of the sampled journalists or Mass
Communicators are engaged in print (50%) while (32%) are engaged in
broadcasting with Public Relations and Advertising engaging 10.40% and 7.6%
respectively. The low seemingly engagement of broadcasting with Public Relations
and Advertising engaging 10.4% and 7.6% respectively is s a result of those
engaged in this practices do not see themselves as engaged in Mass
Communication. Print Journalism no doubt will continue to engage more hands in
the Media Industry than any other branch Mass Community. As we discovered
during a field interview with the students, broadcasting, although appears to lure
students to Mass Communication, implication is that broadcasting training
facilities should be up-to-date in the institution offering Mass Communication, in
53
order to train quality broadcasters. Radio and Television have more speed and
openness to influence public opinion faster than print.
Table 6: Educational Attainment of Practicing Mass Communicators
Qualification Category Number Percent(%)
OND 42 46%
HND 14 16%
First Degree 30 33%
Maters 30 33%
Others - -
The implication of the above data as reviled by our study shows that majority of
practicing journalists in Nigeria are not graduates. This no doubt, has been
adversely affecting the quality of journalism practice in Nigeria. The origin of
these anomalies is the misconception that journalism is a field anybody can enter
anytime with little or no professional training. Our study further reveals that
majority of those with degree in Mass Communication prefer going into practice
because according to them, a media industry in Nigeria does not pay well.
54
Table 7: Working Experience of Mass Communicators
Year Number Percent
Year Number Percent(%)
1 -3 15 16%
4 – 9 35 38%
7 – 9 20 22%
10 above 22 24%
Total 92 100%
One can glean from the above data that the Mass Communicators are highly
experienced to be able to make suggestions and advice on the curriculum
development matters. As we said in the recommendations, Mass Communication
Education and Training in Nigeria would be richer and better if there is an accord
or an agreement between the industry and the training institutions.
Table 8: Relevance-of-training-To-Job-Rating
Response Category Number Percent(%)
Above average 30 33%
Average 35 40%
Below Average 10 17%
Neutral 7 10%
55
From the table above, it has been revealed that majority of the practicing
journalists rated their training for their job high. Although 10% of them can’t for
say for sure whether their training in school is relevant to their job or not. We can
deduce from the above table that training for one’s job is very important for
professional excellence. Training must be emphasized in all of Mass
Communication. Even those with a Degree in other fields wishing to enter the
practice must be made to undergo some training programme before practice.
Table 9: Mass Communicator’s Attendance of Refresher Courses
Response Number Percent(%)
Yes 31 33%
No 61 67%
Total 92 100%
From the table above , I can see that 61 practicing Mass Communicators or 67% of
the entire respondents have not attended any in-service or refresher courses since
they joined the profession. This high number is disturbing and underscores the high
level of incompetence and immaturity being leveled against the profession. Mass
Communication is such a sensitive profession that practitioners are expected to
attend refresher courses regularly in order to expose them. The state-of-the-art
practices in the profession and make them relevant to the Nigerian society in the
56
21st century. This is important because the society relies on the mass media for
raw materials to form public opinions. And one wonders the kind of raw materials
somebody who has no up-to-date information and knowledge will provide.
Table 10: Qualification in Mass Communication by Media Sector
Media Sector Number of
Graduate
Mass Communication
Major
Difference
Newspapers 18 10 -8
Radio 08 03 -5
Magazine 10 07 -3
Television 12 05 -7
Total 48 25 -23
This table reveals a more disturbing data than we had in Table 8. The revelation is
that even the small number of graduates practicing journalism is not even Mass
Communication Majors. This development is more acute in the broadcasting
industry — Radio/TV where people with Theatre Arts and English degrees are
competing seriously with Mass Communication majors. Out of the 48 graduates
that are working in the Mass Media industry, only 25 are Mass communication
majors while 23 are graduates other fields. If journalism is actually going to be
recognized as a profession like law, medicine, etc, as it is aspiring, this trend has to
57
be checked because it is not easy to find a medical practitioner or legal practitioner
without a medical or law degree respectively.
However, since those who started the practice in both Nigeria and America
saw it as a part-time job, it may not be easy to tell all those practicing without
Mass Communication degrees to leave the practice but her a directive can be given
by Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ), Broadcasting Organisations of Nigeria
(BON), National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) that no matter one’s area of
specialty, as long as one is practicing in the media industry, he/she must possess a
minimum of at least OND in Mass Communication. This can be complemented
with a professional certificate to be administered and used by an organization like
Nigerian Press Organization (NPO).
4.2. DISCUSSIONS
It is not funny that the four universities that constituted our case study only
one lecturer that has doctorate degree in mass communication at UNN. It is not a
good development for professional excellence. One would fore begin to wonder
why older mass communication training institutions like University of Nigeria,
Nsukka have not been able to mount a doctorate degree programme in mass
communication. In some universities where the programme exists, there seems to
be a lot of bottlenecks and setting of scores. The mass communication programme
in the case study universities has a strong and robust middle manpower. If only the
58
NUC aid the universities, the older ones of course to mount doctorate degree or
encourage the numerous experiences maters degree holders to travel out to obtain
doctorate degree from abroad. This will go a long way in checkmating the draught
of doctorate degree holders and professors of mass communication in Nigeria.
Another important finding that deserves a special mention here is the age of
the mass communication curriculum in these universities. This is most acute in
UNN where the programme is very old. And the unfortunate aspect again is that
most of these new universities tend to copy from the old programme. A critical
look at the programmes show that the entire mass communication training and
education programme design and add new relevant courses and delete courses that
are not relevant for the 21st century mass communication practice. To this end, I
strongly move that a course in general history be introduced in mass
communication curriculum. This will ensure that journalists have at their fingertips
important international and national dates; names, places events, etc. also a course
in general geography should be added to ensure that journalists and mass
communicators understand world maps and time zones. A situation where a mass
communication does not know where Latin America is can be embarrassing and
inimical to sound public opinion formulation since the media plays an important
role in its formation.
59
It is also important to note that all the universities that made up our case
study only have interim accreditation. None have full accreditation, which is a
reflect of the poor material facilities and fraught of top-level manpower. The
institutions have no functional studios where live and regular broadcasting
activities can originate from. Some of them do not have a studio or a nursery
newspaper. These are among the findings that we believe deserve a special
mention in order to emphasis the importance of the issues discussed for efficient
programme development for training of world class mass communicators who will
understand and be conversant with Global Best Practices (GBP) in their field.
60
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
While in the years past, it was not at all uncommon for persons to enter the
news media directly out of secondary school, today this type of apprenticeship
route into the field is rare. The news media have increasingly restricted their
recruitment to persons with tertiary education background and current indications
are that this practice will continue and crease. There is no gainsaying the fact that
in the journalism field today Nigeria, older journalists have had less formal
schooling than their juniors, but their differential will become less pronounced as
these in the Idest age group are replaced by succeeding cohorts. A number of shifts
may also be observed in recent years in the type of university graduates at are
being recruited into the News Media. Before now aspirants journalists who went to
university were likely to have taken degrees in English and the humanities.
However, this practice is changing as the number of higher institutions that offer
formal training in journalism is creasing and professional associations geared
towards the promotion of Mass Communication practice are being recognized by
the authorities. Prominent among these authorities is decree 55 of 1988 that
recognized and gave legal muscles to Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria
(APCON) and decree 16 of 1992 that recognized and legalized the Nigerian
Institute of Public Relations (NIPR).
61
The media have begun to recruit heavily from professional journalism
schools. All in all, high level or degree of cohort differentiation characterizes
contemporary Nigerian news room, those who have been in the field the longest
may not have attended university at all and if they did, were likely to have focused
on developing literacy skills; those in the middle stages of their careers are likely
to have been professionally trained; and hose just starting out are most likely to be
liberal arts, social science Majors including Mass Communication.
Although journalists on the whole, recommend the same type of training
they themselves obtained, it is interesting that there are substantial numbers who
do not. This tendency is particularly noticeable in the Broadcast media, where
many more newsmen recommend training in journalism than obtain it themselves,
and in the wire services, where the reverse is true. Generally, mass communicators
are divided between those advocating subjects matter specialization and those who
recommend Preparation in a professional curriculum. Differences of opinion in this
regard seem to be linked to the sector of the media in which a journalist.
These discrepancies probably reflect differences in the kind of demands peculiar to
various sectors of the news industry.
An overview of Mass Communication in Nigeria as an occupational field
will reveal diverse entry routes and various levels and types of education and
62
training that is available and vibrant, although there is room for improvement both
practice and training. As such, one might well anticipate a high level of
differentiation and segmentation among journalists of journalistic excellence and
definition of professional responsibility Careers in news media journalism are
marked by an absence of common beginning points or fixed entry routes. There are
several different paths into journalism and Mass Communication One can decide to
enter the field relatively early in life or relatively late. One can opt for professional
training in the University or any of the higher educational institutions in Nigeria
and abroad or one can decide to train on the job. This comes in form of in-service
training practical workshops and refresher courses, etc.
5.2 CONCLUSION
One of the basic questions students ask about pursuing a career in Mass
Communication is what university or higher institution should they attend.
This initial question is a function of the level of human and material
resources available in such places of training and learning.
We tried in this work to provide data that will enable students and
prospective Mass Communicators decide whether to attend a government
owned or privately owned universities. Furthermore, data are also provided
on the various admission processes and training sequence obtainable in these
63
institutions. As we noted earlier under our discussion of findings, the various
variables surrounding the universities that make up our case study with
regards to their location; tuition fees, quality of instruction and admission
procedures, quality of life are unique and capable of providing reliable
information that can be of immense help to all stakeholders in the news
media industry. We also provided in this work possible up-to-date list of
institutions in Africa and Nigeria that offer courses and training in Mass
Communication and journalism.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
One of the hallmarks of this study is that is has been able to reveal some of
the things both material and human that must be in place if prospective journalists
are to receive the necessary training and education they need to effectively and
efficiently contribute their quota to the tasks of nation building and development.
And it will be inconclusive to leave the situation at that without making some input
on what can be done to better the situation on ground. Consequently, we humbly
render the following recommendations based on our findings.
The Need for a Training-Newspaper
Writing for the school paper papers a student for the kind of writing that
they will do when they enter the media industry. Not only did they learn how to
64
write interesting editorials, informative news pieces and features, but they also
horn their skills in interviewing editing and design and layout. Fuller 1992:21). As
university students, the idea of a professional career seems a long way off. But
getting involved in activities such as scholastic journalism can help to determine
what direction they want to travel as they chart their future goals and career
choices. Good clips from the university paper can also help show an editor your
potentials.
Inception of Strong Internship Programme
It is recommended that students begin to obtain practical journalism
experience as soon as possible. Freshman year is not too early to try for a part-time
or summer job with a newspaper or broadcast media. Universities should recognize
and uphold the practice of internship strongly in their programme.
It is so because internship gives student-journalists a chance to measure their
skills in a professional arena. Internship strengthens skills and marketability as the
student gradually transits from the classroom to the newsroom. Although according
Mercer (1992:45) internship and Campus newspapering don’t pay well financially,
they are invaluable experiences to any student interested in journalism. Not only do
you feel the satisfaction from a good interview and well-written news but also
begins to master the stress of deadline syndrome.
65
Maintenance of NUC Presence from our research finding, it is important to
observe that without the presence of the National Universities Commission (NUC)
most universities Faculties will turn secondary schools without much attention to
professional and academic excellence and training. These university faculties are
known to come alive any time the commission comes for accreditation of their
courses and programmes. Oftentimes, the drive for acquisition of human and
material resources that will make for efficient training is usually relaxed after the
mission’s visitation. So if these visits become regular and stronger, it is eyed that
most obsolete programmes will be shown the way out and the on ground made
stronger. Below is the commission’s benchmark statement for Mass
Communication training in Nigerian universities.
Higher Education institutions in Nigeria should design and approve
programme of study in Mass Communication.
• External Examiners and Academic Reviewers in Nigeria should verify
and set minimum standard for the study of Mass Communication.
• Professional regulatory bodies such as the Nigerian Press Council (NPC),
Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON), Nigerian
Institute of Public Relations (NIPR), National Broadcasting Commission
(NBC) and any other regulatory body should guide and regulate the
66
professional content and competence of Mass Communication
programmes in Nigerian Universities.
• In addition to their function, the National Universities Commission
should continue to accredit and/or de-accredit Mass Communication
programmes in Nigeria. They should also be fully empowered to set
and review minimum standards in all Nigerian Universities mounting Mass
Communication programmes. (NUC Benchmark Section 5.32. page54) ,
The Need for Functional Studio ‘
There is no gainsaying the fact that Broadcasting is the glamour of Mass
Communication, that is, majority of the students who enter Mass
Communication are attracted by the studio. A functional and efficient studio in
the universities offering Mass Communication will not only advertise and
popularize the course but will also give the students opportunity to sharpen their
skills in Broadcasting. It is a little bit disturbing that none of our case
universities has functional studio with a transmitter. It will not be out of place
for the university authorities to procure licenses and equip the studios for the
students to run regular broadcasting station as a training board.
67
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73
APPENDIX I
QUESTIONNAIRE
SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, UNN.
Dear Respondent,
A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES: CASE
STUDY OF UNN; UNIBEN; BENSON IDAHOSA UNIVERSITY AND
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY.
This questionnaire is designed to collect data for a postgraduate research,
which is being undertaken, on the above-named topic. It is the belief of the
researcher that this study will go a long way in helping to design an adequate
curriculum for Mass Communication training in Nigeria.
Please feel free to answer the questions honestly as your answers are strictly
for research purposes and are treated with utmost confidence.
Yours faithfully,
NJOKU l. A.
School of Postgraduate Studies
Department of Mass Communication
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
74
INSTRUCTIONS
Please tick (√) in the box provided against the answer most suitable to you.
Additional information is equally encouraged.
PERSONAL DATA
1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. Marital Status: Married [ ] Single [ ]
Separated/Divorced [ ]
3. Academic Qualification: SSCE [ ] First Degree [ ] Masters
[ ] Doctorate [ ]
4 Occupation: Lecturing [ ] Student [ ] Journalist [ ]
Section A (For Lecturers and Students)
5. Is the present Curriculum adequate? Yes [ ] No
6. What is the ratio between theory and practical training in your
programme? 50-50[ ] 40-60[ ] 30-70[ ]
7. What are the personality traits expected of a trainee mass communicator?
Courage [ ] Boldness [ ] Integrity[ ] Consistency [ ]
Speed [ ] High-command of English [ ]
8. Why? _______________________________________________________
9. Does the nomenclature of your degree have any impact on your course
75
content? Yes[ ] No [ ]
10. Which do you prefer? B.Sc. [ ] B.A [ ]
11. What informed your choice? __________________________________
12. Is your department accredited? Yes [ ] No [ ]
13. If yes, what kind? Interim[ ] Full [ ]
1 4. How vigorous is your admission procedure? Average [ ]
Above Average [ ] Below Average [ ]
15. Do you conduct post UME test? Yes [ ] No [ ]
16. Apart from JAMB score/SSCE, do you have other criteria for,
admission? Yes [ ] No [ ]
1 7. If yes, list __________________________________________________
SECTION B FOR PRACTICING JOURNALISTS
18. Educational attainment: SSCE[ ] OND[ ] HND [ ]
First Degree [ ] Masters [ ] Doctorate [ ]
19. How long have you been in the job? 1-3 years [ ] 4 — 6 Years [ ]
7 — 9 years [ ] 10 and above [ ]
20. How would you rate your formal education based on your practical
experience’? Average [ ] Below[ ] Average [ ]
21. Have you gone for any refresher course since you have been practicing?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
22. Do believe that the practical/theoretical content of your training was
adequate? Yes [ ] No [ ]
76
23. What courses must be emphasized to ensure smooth transition from the
classroom to newsroom?
24. Which branch of Mass Communication are you in? Print [ ]
Broadcast [ ] Public Relations [ ] Advertising [ ]
77
APPENDIX II
DIRECTORY OF SOME AFRICAN JOURNALISM TRAINING CENTRES
ALGERIA
Institute National Superieur de
Journalisme
National Higher Institute of
Journalism
LIBERIA
Department of Mass Communication
University of Liberia
Monrovia, Liberia.
UNIVERSITE D’ ALGER
Institute de Sciences Politique et de
I’ Information
Institute of Political Sciences and
2 Rue Jacques Cartier
Alger
MOROCCO
Institut Superieur de Journalisme
Higher Institute of Journalism
Rabat (Ar-Ribat)
CAMEROON
Ecole superleure International de
Journalisme de Yaounde (ESIJY)
International College of
Journalism Yaounde
Universite Federale du Cameroune
B.P. 1328
Yaounde, Cameroon
SENAGA
Centre for Information Studies
University of Dakar
Dakar
78
CONGO
Section of Journalism
National School
Barazzaville
Congo
TANZAN IA
Nyegezi Social Training Centre
Department of Journalism
P.O.B. 307
Mwanza
Tanzania
EGYPT
Institute of Communication
Cairo University
Cairo, Egypt.
TANZANIA SCHOOL OF
JOURNALISM
P.O. Box 4067
Dar es Salaam
GHANA
Ghana Broadcasting Corporation
P.O.B. 1633
Accra Ghana
TUNISIA
Institut de presse et des
Sciences de I” Information
Universite de Tunis
7 Impasse Mohamed Bachrouch
Montfyle u ry
Tunis
Tunisia
GHANA
Ghana Institute of Journalism
P.O.B. 667
Accra
Ghana
UGANDA
School of Journalism
Institute of Public Administration
P.O. Box20115, Lugogo
kampala
79
IVORY COAST
University of Abidjan
Section of Journalism
Box 1880
Abidjan
Ivory Coast
BURKUNA FASO
Centre Interacfrican d’ etudes en Radio-
rurale de Ouadagougou P.O.
(CIERRO)
BP. 385
Ouadagougou
Burkina Faso
KENYA
Communications Training Centre
All-African Conference of Churches
Nairobi.
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC CONGO
Department of Social Communication
National University of Kinshsa Congo
Kenya.
INSTITUTE DES SCIENCES ET
TECHNIQUES
De I Information de I’ universite
Nationale du DRC
P.O. Box 14998, Kinshasa
Department of Mass Communication
The University of Zambia
P.O. Box 50516
Lusaka
ZAMBIA
Africa Literature Centre for
Journalism and Art Training
Mindolo Ecumenical Foundition
P.O. Box 1319
Kitue — Zambia
Journalism Section
Evelyn Home College
P.O. Box 29.
ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe Institute of Mass Communication
P.O. B 8166 causeway
Ha rare—Zimbabwe
80
UNIVERSITIES OFFERING
MASS COMMUNICATION IN NIGERIA
LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITIES
(LASU) Lagos State.
UNIVERSITY MAIDUGURI
Bornu State
IMO STATE UNIVERSITY
(IMSU) OWERRI, Imo State
ADEKUNLE AJASIN
UNIVERSITY
(AAUA) Akungb
PRINCE ABUBAKR AUDU
UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY PAAU) Kogi
EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY
(EBSU) Ebonyi
BABCOCK UNIVERSITY
IILISHAN, Ogun State
Mass Communication
BAYELSA STATE UNIVERSITY
OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY
Institute Of (OOU) Ogun
ANAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY
Anambra
BENSON IDAHOSA UNIVERSITY
BENIN CITY EDOSTATE
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY
Edo State
AHMAD BELLO UNIVERSITY
(ABU) Zaria
COVENANT UNIVERSITY
Ota-Ogun State
ANAMBRA STATE UNIVERSITY
OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
ANAMBRA
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY
(DELSU) Delta State
NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY
Keff i Nasarawa
BAYERO UNIVERSITY
(BUK)
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
(UNN) NSUKA
81
POLYTECHNICS OFFERING MASS COMMUNICATION
FEDERAL POLYTECNICS
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC
OKO ORUMBA NORTH
ANAMBRA
(Fedpoko)
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC
Bauchi State
AUCHI POLYTECHNIC
(Auchi Poly)
KADUNA POLYTECHNIC
(Kaduna Poly)
IBADAN POLYTECHNIC
(Ibadan - PoIy)
INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND
TECH
(IMT) ENUGU
POLYTECHNICS OF CALABAR
Cross River (POLY CAL)
MOSHOOD ABIOLA POLYTECHNIC
(MAPA)
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC
Bida, Niger State
OSUN STATE POLYTECHNIC
(Osun Poly)
OUR SAVIOUR INSTITUTE OF
TECH
(Osisatech) ENUGU
Culled From: The Practice of Photo-Journalism: By John OLu Fasheke (pp. 71-
73:2004)
82
APPENDIX III
PROGRAMME DESCRIPTION IN OUR CASE STUDY UNIVERSITIES
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NUSKKA
B.A. (Hons.) MASS COMMUNICATION PROGRAMME
1ST
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER
Compulsory
1 MC 101 Introduction to Mass Communication 4 Credits
2 MC 102 History of the Nigerian Mass Media 2 Credits
3 MC 111 Elements of Journalistic Style 2 Credits
4 G.S. 101A Use of English 2 Credits
5 G.S. 103A Social Science 2 Credits
TOTAL 16 Credits
SECOND SEMESTER
COMPLUSORY
1 MC 104 African Communication System 4 Credits
2 MC 112 Writing for the Mass Media 2 Credits
83
3 MC 113 Typing 2 Credits
4 G.S. 103B Use of English 2 Credits
5 G.S. 103B Social Science 2 Credits
Required:
6 Introduction to Logic and Philosophy 2 Credits
Elective:
7 One Elective from the faculty 2 Credits
Total 16 Credits
2ND
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER
COMPULSORY
1 MC 211 Reporting 2 Credits
2 MC 212 Critical and Review Writing 2 Credits
3 MC 201 Theories of Mass Communication 2 Credits
4 MC 241 Principles of P.R. 2 Credits
Required
5 MC 261 Introduction to Film 2 Credits
84
Electives :
6 Any 2-credit courses from the list of electives 2 Credits
Total 16 credits
SECOND SEMESTER
Compulsory
1 MC 212 News writing 2 Credits
2 MC 202 Communication and Society 2 Credits
3 MC 242 Principles of Advertising 2 Credits
4 MC 221 Foundations of Broadcasting 2 Credits
5 GS 2 Credits
Required:
6 MC 251 Media Attachment 2 Credits
Electives:
7 Any two electives from the list 2 Credits
Total 16 Credits
85
First semester
Compulsory:
1 MC 311 News Editing 2 Credits
2 MC 312 Feature & Interpretative Writing 2 Credits
3 MC 331 Magazine Writing 2 Credits
4 MC 321 Radio / TV Programme Writing & Prod. 2 Credits
Required:
5 MC 301 Community Journalism 2 Credits
6 MC 361 Photojournalism 2 Credits
Elective:
7 Any two electives from the list 4 Credits
Total 16 Credits
SECOND SEMESTER
COMPULSORY
1 MC 313 Editorial Writing & Commentary 2 Credits
2 MC 302 Foundation of Communication Research 2 Credits
3 MC 314 Specialized Reporting 2 Credits
4 MC 322 Broadcasting Management and Programming 2 Credits
86
Required
5 MC 351 Media Attachment 2 Credits
Electives
6 Any two electives from the list 4 Credits
Total 15 Credits
FIRST SEMESTER
COMPULSORY
1 MC 410 Mass Comm. Law and Ethics 2 Credits
2 MC 402 International Communication 2 Credits
3 MC 421 Advanced Radio/TV Production 2 Credits
4 MC 441 Advanced PR 2 Credits
Required
5 MC 411 Advanced Newspaper Production 2 Credits
6 MC 431 Advanced Magazine Production 2 Credits
Electives:
7 Any two electives from the list 4 Credits
Total 16 Credits
87
SECOND SEMESTER
COMPULSORY
1 MC 442 Advanced Advertising 2 Credits
2 MC 461 Documentary Film Production 2 Credits
3 MC 412 Media Management 2 Credits
4 MC 451 Project 4 Credits
Required:
5 MC 422 Issues in Broadcasting 2 Credits
Electives:
6 Any two from the list of electives 4 Credits
* For list of electives, see the NUC Courses Contents.
88
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY, OKADA
B.Sc. (HONS) PROGRAMME
1ST
YEAR
FIRST
SEMESTER
COURSE CODE
COURSE TITLE CREDITS
GST 111 - Use of English 2 Credits
GST 112- Nigeria History & Culture 2 Credits
CSC 111 - Computer Application 1 2 Credits
Core Courses
MAC 111 - Introduction to Mass Communication 3 Credits
PRA 111 - Principles of Public Relations 3 Credits
MAC 112 - Introduction to News Writing & Reporting 3 Credits
MAC 113 – History of Nigeria Mass Media 3 Credits
MAC 114 - English for Mass Communication I 3 Credits
Elective One elective outside the college 2 Credits
Total Units 23 Credits
SECOND
SEMESTER
COURSE CODE GST Courses Credits
GST 121 - Use of English II 2 Credits
GST 122 - Philosophy & History of Science 2 Credits
CSC 123 - Computer Application II 2 Credits
Core Courses
MAC 121 - Introduction to Radio and Television 3 Credits
PRA 121 - Principles of Advertisement & Sales Promotion 3 Credits
MAC 122 - African Communication System 3 Credits
MAC 123 - English for Mass Communication II 2 Credits
MAC 124 - Journalistic Styles 3 Credits
PRA 125 - Marketing Foundation for Public Relations and 2 Credits
89
Advertisement
Elective
One elective from the college
2 Credits
Total Units 24
Total for the session 47
2nd
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER CREDITS
MAC 211 - Theories of Mass Communication 3
MAC 212 - Graphics of Mass Communication 3
MAC 213 Features and Magazine Article Writing 3
MAC 214 Fundamentals of Reporting 3
PRA 213 Public Relations in Government 3
MAC 215 Media Literacy 2
IRS 215 French for Beginners I 3
Elective (Student to Choose ONE)
POL 212 Introduction to Political Analysis 3
IRS 211 Theories of International Relations 3
PUL 204 Nigeria Legal System 4
PRA 211 Digital Public Relations 2
SECOND SEMESTER
CREDITS
MAC 221 - Media and Society 3
MAC 222 - Principles of Broadcasting 3
PRA 221 - Environmental Public Relations 2
MAC 223 - Investigative and Interpretative Reporting 2
PRA 223 - Advertising Media Planning 2
MAC 224 - Magazine Editing and Production 2
POL 222 - Social Science Statistics 3
PRA 225 - Speech Communication 3
IRA 225 - French for Beginners II 2
90
Elective (Students to choose ONE)
POL 226 - Rural Development in Nigeria 2
PRA 225 - Writing for Public Relations 2
Total 24
Total for the session 47/48
3RD
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER
MAC 311 - Development Journalism & Broadcasting 3
PRA 311 - Advertising Campaign Planning and Execution 3
MAC 313 - Ratio / TV Programming 3
MAC 314 - Book/Desktop Publishing 3
MAC 315 - Photo Journalism 3
MAC 316 - International Comm. & World Media Systems 3
MAC 317 - Critical Writing and Reviewing 3
MAC 318 - News Editing 3
Total 24
SECOND SEMESTER
MAC 321 - Introduction to Mass Comm. Research 3
MAC 322 - Specialized Reporting 3
MAC 323 - Editorial Writing 3
MAC 324 - TV/Radio Advert 3
MAC 325 - Mass Communication & National Dev. 3
MAC 321 - International Public Relations 3
MAC 324 - Advertising Copy and Layout 3
MAC 328 - Media Attachment 3
Total 24
Total for the session 48
4TH
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER
MAC 411 - Mass Communication Law & Ethics 3
MAC 412 - Documentary Film Production 3
MAC 413 - Station Management & Operations 3
91
MAC 414 - Advanced Newspapers / Magazine Production 3
MAC 415 - Public Heath Communication 3
PRA 415 - Management & Org. of Advert/ P.R Agency 3
PRA 413 - Public Relations in Practice 3
IRS 414 - Contemporary International Strategic Studies 1 3
Total 24
SECOND SEMESTER CREDITS
MAC 421 - Educational Broadcasting 3
MAC 423 - Media Management 3
MAC 424 - Communication and Development 3
MAC 425 - Project 6
Total 15 Credits
Total for the session 39
92
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION / THEATRE ARTS
B.A. (Hons) MASS COMMUNICATION PROGRAMME
1ST
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER Credits
Compulsory:
MAC 110 - Intro to Mass Communication 2 2
MAC 111 - History of Nigerian Mass Media 2
MAC 112 - Intro to News Writing and Reporting 2
MAC 113 - Mass Communication Theories I 2
MAC 114 - Basic Comm. Skills for Print & Electronic
Media
2
THR113 - Voice and Speech I 2
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass two electives of six credits from
two other departments.
GENERAL STUDIES COURSES
GST 111 - Use of English 2
GST 112 – Philosophy of Logic 2
Total credits 22
SECOND SEMESTER
COMPULSORY
MAC 120 Techniques of Radio / TV Production 2
MAC 121 Foundations of Communication 2
MAC 122 Psychology for Communication 2
MAC 123 Mass Communication Theories II 2
MAC 124 Cinematography U 2
THR 125 Voice and Speech II 2
93
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass two electives of
GENERAL STUDIES COURSES
GST 121 Use of English II 2
GST 122 Nigerian Peoples and Culture 2
GST 123 History and Philosophy of Science 2
Total Credits 24
Total Credits for the whole session 46
2ND
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER CREDITS
Compulsory 2
MAC 210 - Introduction to Development
Communication
2
MAC 211 - Investigative and Interpretative Journalism m 2
MAC 212 - Editorial Writing 2
MAC 213 - Introduction to Newspaper Production and
Management
2
MAC 214 - Copy Writing 2
MAC 215 - Principles of Public Relations 2
MAC 216 - Introduction to Computer Aided Design I 2
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass two electives of four (4) credits
from two other departments
GST 111 - Use of English 2
GST 112 - Philosophy and Logic 2
Total Credits for U.M.E. 18
Total Credits for D.E. 22
94
SECOND SEMESTER
The following courses are compulsory
MAC 220 - Intro. To Sub-Editing 2
MAC 221 - Principles of Advertising 2
MAC 222 - Sociology of Mass Communication 2
MAC 223 - Photography and Photo-Journalism 2
MAC 224 - Media and National Development 2
MAC 225 - Introduction to Publishing 2
MAC 226 - Introduction to Computer Aided Design II 2
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass two electives of four (4) credits
from two other departments.
GENERAL STUDIES (FOR DIRECT ENTRY STUDENTS)
GST 121 - Use of English II 2
GST 122 - Nigerian Peoples and Culture 2
GST 123 - History and Philosophy of Science 2
Total Credits for U.M.E. 18
Total Credits for D.E. 24
Total Credits for the whole Session
UME 36
D.E. 46
3RD YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER CREDITS
Compulsory / General Courses
MAC 310 (G) - Market Research & Media Monitoring 2
MAC 311 (G) - Introduction to International Information System 2
MAC 312 (G) Introduction to Media Law and Ethics I 2
MAC 313 (G) - Writing and Production for the Media I 2
MAC 314 (G) - Issues in Nigerian Mass Media History 2
95
SPECIALIZATION / OPTIONAL COURSES
BROADCAST OPTIONS
MAC 310 (B) - News Writing and Reporting 2
MAC 311 (B)- Television Commercial Production 2
MAC 312 (B) - Video Camera Operation 2
MAC 313 (B) - Children’s TV Production 2
PRINT OPTIONS
MAC 310 (P) - Investigative and Interpretative Journalism 2
MAC 311 (P)- Magazine Article Writing 2
MAC 312 (P) - Creating Minor Stories and Front Page News 2
MAC 313 (P) - Photo Journalism 2
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass at least four (4) credits units
Total Credits 22
SECOND SEMESTER
Compulsory / General Courses
MAC 320 (G) - Mass Media Law and Ethics II 2
SPECIALIZATION / OPTIONAL COURSES
BROADCAST OPTIONS
MAC 320 (B) - Advertising Campaign Workshop 2
MAC 321 (B) - Pictorial Composition and Graphics 2
MAC 322 (B) - The Television Interview and Announcing 2
MAC 323 (B) - Specialized Reporting 2
MAC 324 (B) - Broadcast Management 2
MAC 325 (B) - Media Drama 2
MAC 326 (B) - Writing and Producing for the Media II 2
PRINT OPTIONS
MAC 320 (P) - Newspaper Editing and Production 2
96
MAC 321 (P) - Magazine / Newspapers Production
&Management
2
MAC 322 (P) - News Editing 2
Electives:
Students are required to register for and pass at least four (4) credits units
ENL 321 - English for Business Communication
ENL 322 - English for Mass Communication
THR 326 - Research Methods
Total Credits for the Second Semester 20
Total Credits for the whole Session 42
4TH YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER CREDITS
Compulsory / General Courses
MAC 410 (G) - Seminar in Mass Communication I 2
MAC 411 (G) - Media Aesthetics I 2
MAC 412 (G) - Mass Media Audience 2
SPECIALIZATION / OPTIONAL COURSES
BROADCAST OPTIONS
MAC 410 (B) - Electronic News Gathering Techniques 2
MAC 4111 (B) - Film, Cinema and Literature 2
MAC 412 (B) - Broadcasting 2
MAC 413 (B) - Gender and Communication 2
PRINT OPTIONS
MAC 410 (P) - Internships in Newspaper & Magazine
Production
2
MAC 4111 (P) - Defining, Shaping & Tailoring the Publication 2
97
MAC 412 (P) - Editorial Planning 2
MAC 413 (P) - Book Development and Production 2
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass at least seven(7) credits units
MAC 417 Screen Directing 2
MAC 418 Producing Educational Media 2
MAC 419 Advanced Radio / Television Production 3
Total Credits for the First semester 17
SECOND SEMESTER
Compulsory / General Courses
MAC 420 (G) - Seminar in Mass Communication II 2
MAC 421 (G) - Media Aesthetics II 2
MAC 422 (G) - Design for Media Production 2
MAC 423 (G) - Comparative Mass Media Systems 2
MAC 424 (G) - Project in Mass Communication 2
SPECIALIZATION / OPTIONAL COURSES
BROADCAST OPTIONS
MAC 420 (B) - Internship in Radio / TV Production 2
MAC 421 (B) - Station Management and Operation 2
MAC 422 (B) - Broadcasting Programming and Trafficking 2
MAC 423 (B) - Cable, TV, Satellite Broadcasting and Home
videos
2
PRINT OPTIONS
MAC 420 (P) - Print Journalism and the Future 2
MAC 421 (P) - Issues in Publishing 2
MAC 422 (P) - Writing Skills for the Journalist 2
MAC 423 (P) - Newspaper and Magazine Production 2
98
Electives
Students are required to register for and pass at least six (6) credits units
MAC 437 Mass Comm. and Contemporary Development 2
MAC 428 Instructional Television Production 2
MAC 429 Mass Media and Society 2
Total Units for Second Semester 21
Total Units for the whole Session 38
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
99
BENSON IDAHOSA UNIVERSITY
B.SC. (HONS) MASS COMMUNICATION PROGRAMME
100 LEVEL
FIRST SEMESTER:
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE COURSE UNIT
MAC 111 Introduction to Mass Communication 3
MAC 112 History of the Nigerian Mass Media 2
MAC 113 Elements of Journalistic Style 2
MAC 115 Word Processing 2
GST 111 Communication in English 2
GST 112 Logic, Philosophy and Human Existence 2
ICS 111 Introduction to Computing 2
IDS 111 Rudiments of Christian Life 2
FRN 111 Communication in French I 2
Elective: one from the list below
SOC 111 Introduction to Sociology I 3
POL 111 Introduction to Political Sciences 3
TOTAL CREDIT 23
COMPULSORY
CD 113 Community Development I
SECOND SEMESTER:
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE COURSE UNIT
MAC 121: African Communication System 3
MAC 122: Writing for the Mass Media 3
MAC 123: Nigerian Legal System 3
MAC 125: Introduction to Speech 2
100
IDS 121: Christian Life 2
GST 121: Nigerian Peoples and Culture 2
GST 122: History and Philosophy of Science 2
GST 123: Use of English II 2
FRN 121: Functional French 2
ICS 121 Introduction to Computing 2
IDS 121: Life and Times of Archbishop 1
Elective:
POL 122 Nigerian Government, Citizen and the State 3
TOTAL CREDIT 27
COMPULSORY:
CDS 123: Community Development II
2ND
YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER:
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE COURSE UNIT
MAC 211: News Writing and Reporting 2
MAC 212: Critical and Review Writing 2
MAC 213: Graphics of Communication and Editing 2
MAC 214: Principles of Advertising 2
MAC 215: Radio and Television Script Writing 2
MAC 216: Precision Journalism 2
IDS 211: Bible and Christian Education 2
FRN 211: Functional French 2
101
Electives: Choose any one course
MAC 217: Radio/Television Operations 2
POL 212 Nigerian Government and Politics I 2
Total Credits 24
FOR DIRECT ENTRY STUDENTS ONLY
GST 111: Use of English and Library I 2
GST 112 Philosophy and Logic 2
SECOND SEMESTER:
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE COURSE UNIT
MAC 221: Specialized Reporting 2
MAC 222: Principles of Advertising 2
MAC 223: Media and Society 2
MAC 224: Foundation of Broadcasting 2
MAC 225: Speech Writing and Delivery Technique 2
MAC 226: Media Attachment 2
MAC 227: Introduction to Film and Literature 2
GST 222: Peace, Conflict Resolution 2
FRN 221: Functional French 2
Elective
POL 222 Nigerian Government and Politics II 2
FOR DIRECT ENTRY STUDENTS ONLY
GST 121: Nigerian Peoples and Cultures 2
GST 122: Communication in English II 2
FRN 121: Communication in French II 1
102
IDS 121: Life and Times of Archbishop Benson Idahosa 1
GST 121: Use of Library, Study Skills and Information
Technology (ICT) 2
COMPULSORY
CDS 123: Community Development II 0
TOTAL CREDIT 16/24
300 LEVEL
FIRST SEMESTER:
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE COURSE UNIT
MAC 310: Newspaper Production 2
MAC 311: International Communication 2
MAC 312: Radio/TV News Reporting and Production 2
MAC 313: Issues in Nigerian Mass Media History 2
MAC 314: Editorial and Opinion Writing 2
MAC 315: Feature Writing 2
MAC 316: Investigative and Interpretative Writing 2
MAC 317: Introduction to Film, Cinema and Literature 2
MAC 318: Mass Media Research 2
MAC 319: Screen Production and Directing 2
ENT 318: Introduction to Entrepreneurship Skills 2
TOTAL CREDITS 22/ 24
SECOND SEMESTER: 300 LEVELS
MAC 321: Media Attachment 15
TOTAL CREDIT 15
103
400 LEVELS
FIRST SEMESTER:
COURSE CODE COURSE TITLE COURSE UNIT
MAC 410: Data Analysis in Communication Research 3
MAC 411: Mass Media Law 2
MAC 412: Issues in Broadcasting 2
MAC 413: Documentary Film and Drama Production 2
MAC 414: Mass Media Ethics 2
MAC 415: Critical and Review Writing 2
MAC 416: Speech Writing & Delivery Techniques 2
MAC 417: Science and Technology Reporting 2
MAC 418 Magazine Writing and Production 2
Electives: Choose Any One Course
MAC 419: Organization & Management of Public Relations
Consultancies & Advertising Agencies 2
MAC 420: Health and Population Communication 2
TOTAL CREDIT 21
SECOND SEMESTER: 400 LEVELS UNIT
MAC 421: Educational Broadcasting 2
MAC 422: Community Journalism 2
MAC 423: Media Management 2
MAC 424: Development Communication 2
MAC 425: New Dimensions in Communication 2
MAC 426: Photojournalism 2
MAC 430: Research Project 6
ENT 328: Entrepreneurship Practical 2