Post on 05-Feb-2023
PSY 322
Psychology of Social
Identity
and Oppression
MAJOR ASSIGNMENT
Student name: Haiyu Wang
Student number: 3257420
Lecturer name: S. Savahl
Due Date: 28. 08. 2014
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use another’s work and pretend that it is my own.
2. I have used the South African Journal of
Psychology referencing guide for citation and
referencing. Each contribution to, and quotation
in this essay/report/project/………………… from the
work(s) of other people has been contributed, and
has been cited and referenced.
3. This essay/report/project/ ………………… is my own work.
4. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone
to copy my work.
Signature: Date:
Introduction
While bullies, gangs, weapons, and substance abuse all
contribute to the fear experienced by many of today's
students, violence in South Africa’s neighborhoods and
communities cannot be overlooked. Notwithstanding the
sometimes unfounded and overgeneralized fear and
apprehension about violence among children and adults,
often fueled by the media, violence in South Africa is a
legitimate concern for everyone. In the fast changing
context of post-apartheid South Africa, rates of violent
crime are among the highest in the world (Hamber, 2000;
Human Rights Watch, 2001). People here living in poorer
neighborhoods have been estimated to be 80 times more
likely to be victims of such crimes than those in more
affluent districts (Hamber, 2000). Especially the
children and youth in some communities live with violence
across layers of social relations – at school, at school
and in their neighborhoods. And there has been much
concern about the effects on them of these experiences.
This essay will focus on highlighting the problems of
sexual violence, gang violence, school violence in the
community and discuss the psychological effects of
violence on the children and youth of South Africa.
The context of violence in South Africa
South Africa is a country where a substantial portion of
the male population historically bonded in a violent and
highly militarized context, both universal conscription
of white men and the absorption of many black men into
the liberation struggle have contributed to a culture
that sees violence as a legitimate means of resolving
conflicts – a culture where ‘tough, aggressive, brutal
and competitive masculinity is promoted ’ and weakness
regarded, with contempt, as ‘feminine ’. (Dayan, 2013)
There are many reasons for the high levels of violence in
South Africa. The violence is partly due to the years of
apartheid which caused big differences between people
living in the country. We also know that alcohol and drug
abuse cause people to behave violently and hurt others,
especially children. Police statistics show that in 2011
and 2012 (a period of one year) a total of 50,688
children were victims of violent crimes in South Africa
(Unicef, 2013). It looks at various types of violence or
abuse that children experience in different places such
as their homes, schools and communities. Sometimes the
communities or areas where children live are unsafe. Many
children become victims of violence in places other than
their homes or schools, such as the streets or parks they
use. These children do various kinds of work such as car
watching, selling of goods or begging (Unicef, 2013).
Children living and working on the streets have no
protection against abuse and violence from their peers
and adults because no grown-ups are taking care of them
and they have to look after themselves.
While, as suggested above, violent crime in South Africa
seems to have been reduced in recent years (Dempster,
2002), it seems to remain at a high level
internationally. Significant events in 1990 (such as the
release of Nelson Mandela and other political leaders)
that ultimately lead to the end of apartheid in 1994 led
many South Africans to believe that post-apartheid South
Africa would be free from violence (Gilbert, 1996).
Political violence did in fact decline significantly, but
it was quickly replaced with various forms of
interpersonal violence. Lockhat and Van Niekerk (2000)
note the adverse conditions affecting children in post-
apartheid South Africa, including exposure to violence
and psychosocial trauma and distress.
Community violence in Cape Town is especially
problematic. Data from the South African Police Service
from 2001 (Isserow, 2005 ) indicate that violent crime
rates in Cape Town are quite high, much higher than
cities in the U.S. that also have high crime rates, such
as Detroit, Michigan. When compared with violent crime
rates for Detroit for 2003 (U.S. Federal Bureau of
Investigation, 2006), the rates of violent crime in Cape
Town are higher in every category, especially for murder
and rape. The rape rate was 1.5 times higher in Cape Town
than in Detroit and the murder rate was more than twice
as high as the murder rate in Detroit, although it is
possible that more individuals in Cape Town died as a
result of assault due to lack of medical care.
The rate of sexual violence in South Africa is among the
highest in the world. An estimated of 500,000 rape cases
take place in the country, every year. In Johannesburg,
More than 25 percent of South African men have raped.
(IRIN) In addition, South Africa has some of the highest
incidences of child and infant rape in the world (Perry,
2007). In 2001, it was reported by the South African
Police Service that children are the victims of 41
percent of all rapes reported in the country.( Anthony &
LoBaido, 2001) Although there are varying numbers on the
number of reported rapes of children, one report states
that in 2000, 21,538 rapes and attempted rapes of
children under the age of 18 were reported and another
from 2001 states that there were 24,892 rapes.(Dempster,
2002).
Gang violence, criminal and domestic violence, and
substance abuse were major concerns in the neighborhood
(Jones Peterson and Carolissen, 2000). In another study
located in the same neighborhood, 70 percent of primary
school aged children reported that they had experienced
direct exposure to violence (van der Merwe and Dawes,
2000). Gang formation in South African townships has been
associated with poverty and unemployment, changing pat-
terns of family life and socialization caused by
urbanization (Glaser, 2000) and the dislocation caused by
forced removals (Pinnock, 1984).
Psychological Effects on Children
The diverse sequelae associated with violence have been
well documented. Osofsky, Wewers, Hann, and Fick (1993)
reported that exposure to violence, witnessed or directly
experienced, was related to both children's self-reports
of distress and parents' observations of distress
symptoms in their children. The observed symptoms
included loneliness and sadness, loss of desire for
amusement, daydreaming, inattention, disrupted sleep,
nightmares, easy perturbation, intrusive disturbing and
imagery, separation anxiety, and fear of death. Children
may cope with the fear and loss associated with violence
by restricting their activities, pretending not to care
about anything, chronic worry about safety, anxious
attachment to mothers, imitative aggressive play, and
counter-phobic displays of bravado (Osofsky, Wewers,
Hann, & Fick, 1993).
The effects of violence may also spill over into
relationships with peers in the form of emotional
withdrawal and aggressive behavior, both of which may
contribute ultimately to rejection by those peers
(Cooleyquille, Turner, & Beidel, 1995). The frequent
report of fears, difficulty concentrating, reliving or
re-enactment of distressing incidents, heightened
arousal, irritability, anger, fear of being alone,
nightmares about separation, and recurrent distress that
is characterized by crying, tantrums, misery, emotional
numbness, apathy, or social withdrawal have led some
investigators to conceptualize children's response to
violence in terms of post-traumatic stress disorder
(Pynoos et al., 1987). However, the evidence suggests a
broad range of dysfunction that includes depression,
conduct problems, attention deficits, social
maladjustment, and academic difficulties (Attar, Guerra,
& Tolan, 1994; Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 1998).
Sexual abuse also has long-lasting negative effects on
children. Sexually abused children have a higher
prevalence of psychiatric disorders. (McLeer, Dixon,
Henry, Ruggiero, Escovitz, Niedda & Scholle, 1998;
Zlotnick, Mattia & Zimmerman, 2001). Research shows that
having a history of childhood sexual abuse is a risk
factor for a broad range of psychiatric disorders and a
higher rate of multiple Axis 1 disorders. As well, there
is a strong presence of Post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) and post-traumatic stress symptoms in sexually
abused children (McLeer et al., 1998; Zlotnick et al.,
2001). Depression is also found in sexually abused
children (Briere & Runtz, 1988; Roosa, Reinholtz
&Angelini, 1999). These studies have indicated that
sexually abused children are more likely to report
symptoms of depression on various tests, such as the
Children’s Depression Inventory, the Hopkins Symptom
Checklist, and the Epidemiological Studies Depression
Scale (McLeer et al., 1998; Briere & Runtz, 1988; Roosa
et al., 1999). It was also noted that having a history of
childhood sexual abuse appeared to be linked to a longer
duration of the index depressive episode and longer bouts
of depression (Zlotnick et al., 2001).
Another effect noted in victims of childhood sexual abuse
is anxiety. Research has shown that anxiety levels in
victims of childhood sexual abuse were significantly
higher than the non-abused group. This was indicated on
many measures (McLeer et al., 1998; Briere & Runtz, 1988;
Mian, Marton & LeBaron, 1996). Suicidal ideation has also
been linked to sexual abuse. In one study, it was shown
that close to half of the sexually abused children
reported depression and suicidal ideation. This has been
displayed in other studies as well (Molnar, Berkman &
Buka, 2001). Many children who are sexually abused
display maladaptive sexual behaviors. Previous studies
indicate that sexually abused children display more
inappropriate sexual behaviors than non-abused children
(McLeer et al., 1998; Zlotnick et al., 2001).
In addition, gang violence causes the most commonly
expressed fears are of the security forces, of future
attacks especially on the children and youth. First of
all, it will cause emotional changes, such as feelings of
emotional numbing, powerlessness, of extreme
vulnerability and lack of safety. (Pinnock, 1984)
Anxiety, restlessness and irritability. Having no
interest in life, feeling guilt or bad to be alive. No
energy and feeling tired all of the time. Changing
quickly from one mood to another. Secondly, difficulties
with sleeping and dreaming, like nightmares about attacks
and fear of falling asleep. Thirdly, difficulties with
thinking, for example, constantly thinking about and re-
experiencing the traumatic experience. Not being able to
concentrate and to remember properly. Fourthly, it will
lead to social difficulties, not wanting to be social
with other children, being aggressive with others.
(Zlotnick et al., 2001)
The factor which increases the risk of experiencing
school-based violence is learner’s relationships with
peers who influence them negatively. According to
Nofziger and Kurtz (2008), children and youth who are
brought up in violent communities tend to interact and
spend time with delinquent, criminal or antisocial peers.
Importantly, these friendships both increase their risk
of being negatively influenced in turn engaging in
violent activities themselves as well as their chance of
having violence committed against them. The School
Violence study was able to support this hypothesis, as
those children who had friends involved in antisocial
behavior (drug-related or criminal) were significantly
more likely to report the experience of violence against
them than their peers who spent time with more
conventional friends (Burton, 2008; Leoschut, 2006).
Problematically, the high rates of crime and violence
within South African society means that there is a very
high possibility that children and youth will be exposed
to criminal and violent individuals/peers.
In addition, violent acts directed against children send
the message that people are not to be trusted because
they may harm you in a very fundamental way. A child who
has committed violence also believes this because if they
can do this, so can anybody else. The implications of
this are sad and politically very serious - a person who
is unable to trust is generally unable to create lasting
and respectful relationships. This is true, not only in
terms of love relationships, but also in friendships,
political alliances and working relationships. (Stavrou,
1993)
Last but not least, children will loss of self-esteem and
feelings of personal power. Children report that the
feelings of helplessness and inability to change the
violent situation, makes some of them want to avoid all
future situations which may result in conflict and
possibly violence. (Stavrou, 1993)The long-term effect of
this may be that young people feel that they do not have
much internal strength and the power to control their own
lives, and so feel generally weakened in their ability to
cope and succeed in the future.
Conclusion
In summary, to better understand the effects of
children's exposure to violence, it is important to
broaden the primary focus on victims and perpetrators to
include the important "ripple effects" of the
psychological impacts on children who may be witnesses.
Violence carries multiple meanings and thus may have
multiple consequences for children, as they strive to
make sense of their experiences.
For the South African children, violence in the community
was a constant threat, which undermined their safety. So
society should pay more attention to this phenomenon.
There are some recommendations to alleviate the effects
of violence exposure. Firstly, strengthening culture’s
ability to protect youth may be an important means to
help prevent violence. Psychologists can promote greater
respect for culture by helping to increase understanding
about culture, by promoting acceptance of cultural
diversity, and by respecting ethnic minority cultural
values and norms and incorporating them into violence
prevention programs. (Felitti, Anda, Nordenberg
Williamson, 1998).
Secondly, parents who are most likely to be responsible
when children with disabilities are abused. Examples are
the “home visitor” programs available in 24 states to
provide parenting instruction and support on a recurring
basis in the home, to teach parents how to respond to the
complexities of raising children with disabilities.
Children also should receive instruction in how to
recognize, refuse, and report inappropriate sexual
contact, an approach that has been tried in several
programs.
Thirdly, children who have already shown seriously
aggressive and violent behavior, sustained, multi-modal
treatment appears to be the most effective. Such
psychological treatment consists of carefully designed
and coordinated components involving school, parents,
teachers, peers, and community, often coordinated around
family intervention. By the time youth with antisocial
behavior are referred clinically, their dysfunction often
is pervasive and severe, and multiple counter influences
need to be brought to bear to achieve significant impact.
(Gorman-Smith, Tolan, 1998).
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