Post on 02-May-2023
Institutionalizing the Individual:Japan as a Psychologized Society in World
Perspective
Brian J. McVeigh, PhD
Counseling & Community Psychology, MA ProgramSchool of Health Sciences, Sage Graduate
School, Albany, NYmcveib@sage.edu
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Today’s talk: Prolegomenon to a project on Japan as a “psychologizing” society
“Psychologicality”?
● Turn inward: Individual is basic, self-contained unit of politics, economics, arts● Emotionalism: Intensive, nuanced focus on one’s sentiments, feelings, etc. ● Highlighting cognitive processes: Self-narratization, individuation, self-reflexivity, self-autonomy, self-authorization● Therapy culture: Social ills & personal problems demand psychotherapy● Unique self: Expresses its individuality by pursuing consumerist desires● Psychology: Invention as scholarly discipline in late 19th century
Premise: Psychologicality Is Increasing
(1) As feature of modernity, psychologicality becoming more salient over time(2) Psychologicality encoded in language
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3 time ranges (1) Longue Durée: 1600‒2000(2) Modern Period: 1800‒2000(3) Late Modern Period: 1950‒2000 5 "clusters" searched using Google Books Ngram Viewer: (1) Mental, mentality(2) Introspection, introspective, introspect(3) Psychology, psychological(4) Therapy, therapeutic(5) Conscious, consciousness
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Correlations: 11 out of 15 correlation coefficients (73.33%) support claim that psychologicality is increasing through history
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Modern societies are composed of “vastly expanded organizational structures” At the same time, societies become increasingly “rooted in individual persons,” so that organizations are “structured in terms of individual persons rather than corporate groups” (Meyer 2004)
Modern life is built around “project of the individual,” the “modern source of all meaning and action” (Meyer 2004; Frank and Meyer 2002)
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Individual: The “primordial or grounding element of all social structures,” is the “core element, the sovereign source of public life, whether political, economic, or cultural, as well as the source of problems in these areas” (Frank et al. 1995)
Supposedly, a “celebration of the individual” is found in Anglo–Protestant countries, the “hegemonic source” of individualism
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However, charting the landscape of psychologicality in Japan demonstrates that there too social structures are becoming increasingly designed to articulate the “interior structure of the individual” (Frank et al. 1995) This “institutionalized individualism” is not “Western” but operates at worldwide level
Thus the very modern emphasis on “therapeutic measures” (Frank et al. 1995)
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Examples of Increasing Psychologicality in Japan: ● Genre that critically explores psychologicality
Emotivism: 心心心心 (shinjō-shugi)Psychologism: 心心心心 (shinri-shugi)
● Professionalization: Increase in “psy” organizations
● “Psychotherapeutic” religions
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Examples of Increasing Psychologicality:
● “School Counseling”: How Japan’s educational culture has responded to professional psychologization
● Projection of human emotional needs into pets, granting animals a richer inner life than they possess
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Example: Psychologically-oriented “self-help” books
The Healing of Connection: The Development of Therapy Culture
Tanabe Shintarō and Shimazono Susumu, eds.
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The Sociology of Therapy Culture: Network Business, Self-Development, Trauma
Koikie Yasushi
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Ōhashi Maki
The Way of Living of the Therapist: Healing People is Healing Yourself
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The Era of Self-Development: The Cultural Sociological Search for “Self”
Makino Tomokazu
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Yamada Yōko
The Globalization of Knowledge about the “Heart” and the Ideal of the Autonomous Individual: The Sanctification and Management of the “Heart”
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Saitō Tamaki
The Psychologization of Society: Why the Need for Trauma and Healing?
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Matsushita Ryōhei
The Power of Knowing: Beyond the Moral Education of Emotivism
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Mori Shinichi
The Cage of Self-Control
How the “soft iron cage” of “psychologism” ( 心心心心 ) is used to control people
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Example: Professionalization---Increase in “Psy” Organizations
Many assume “higher levels of professionalized psychology” characterize societies strongly centered on the individual
Not unexpectedly, correlation exists between variations in levels of “institutionalized individualism” & prevalence of professionalized psychology
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Japan, like other affluent, consumerist capitalist, democratic societies, is becoming a “therapeutic society,” following “therapeutic imperative”:
Expansion of mental health profession, increase in psychotherapy, proliferation of counseling services, popularity of psychology
Note growth, spread, institutionalization of “psy” organizations/discourse: Psychology, Psychotherapy, Psychiatry
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Prewar 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 20000
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Establishment of "Psy" Associations
Years
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- Association of Japanese Clinical Psychology (Nihon Shinri Rinji Gakkai) ‘82- Behaviormetric Society of Japan (Nihon Kōdo Keiryo Gakkai) ‘73- Color Science Association of Japan (Nihon Iroshoku Gakkai) ‘92- Information Processing Society of Japan (Jōhō Shori Gakkai) ‘60- Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (Denshi Jōhō Tsūshin Gakkai) ‘87- Japan Academy for Health Behavioral Science (Nihon Hoken Iryō Kōdō-ka Gakkai) ‘86- Japan Academy of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing (Nihon Seishin Hoken Kango Gakkai) ‘91- Japan Association for Research on Testing (Nihon Tesuto Gakkai) ‘00- Japan Association for School Mental Health (Nihon Gakkō Mentaruherusu Gakkai) ‘97- Japan Association of Applied Psychology (Nihon Ōyō Shinri Gakkai) ‘31- Japan Association of Group Psychotherapy (Nihon Shūdan Seishin Ryōhō Gakkai) ‘83- Japan Association of Mental Health Sociology (Nihon Seishin Hoken Shakaigaku Gakkai) ‘93- Japan Association of Play Therapy (Nihon Yūgi Ryōhō Gakkai) ’95- Japan Association of Sandplay Therapy (Nihon Hakoniwa Ryōhō Gakkai) ‘87- Japan Dance Therapy Association (Nihon Dansu Serapī Kyōkai) ‘82- Japan Ergonomics Society (Nihon Ningenkō Gakkai) ‘64- Japan Industrial Counseling Association (Nihon Sangyō Kānserā Kyōkai) ‘96- Japan Neuroscience Society (Nihon Shinkei Kagaku Gakkai) ‘74- Japan Psychoanalytic Association (Nippon Seishin Bunseki Gakkai) ‘31- Japan Psychoanalytic Society (Nippon Seishin Bunseki Kyōkai) ‘55- Japan Psycho-Oncology Society (Nihon Saiko-onkorojī Gakkai) ‘87- Japan Society for Research on Emotions (Nihon Kanjō Shinri Gakkai) ‘92- Japan Society of Developmental Psychology (Nihon Hattatsu Shinri Gakkai) ‘89- Japan Society of Personality Psychology (Nihon Pāsonaritī Shinri Gakkai) ‘92- Japan Society of Stress Management (Nihon Sutoresumanejimento Gakkai) ‘02
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- Japan Society of Vocational Rehabilitation (Nihon Shokugyō Rehabiritēshon Gakkai) ‘90- Japan Society of Youth and Adolescent Psychology (Nihon Seinen Shinri Gakkai) ‘93- Japan Statistical Society (Nihon Tōkei Gakkai) ‘31- Japanese Academy of Learning Disabilities (Nihon LD Gakkai) ‘92- Japanese Association for Behavior Analysis (Nihon Kōdō Bunseki Gakkai) ‘83- Japanese Association for Cognitive Therapy (Nihon Ninchi Ryōhō Gakkai) ‘01- Japanese Association for Family Therapy (Nihon Kazoku Kenkyū Kazoku Ryōhō Gakkai) ‘84- Japanese Association for Humanistic Psychology (Nihon Ningensei Shinri Gakkai) ‘85- Japanese Association for Mental Health (Nihon Seishin Eisei Gakkai) ‘85- Japanese Association for Morita Therapy (Nihon Morita Iryō Gakkai) ‘83- Japanese Association for the Study of Developmental Disabilities (Nihon Hattasu Shōgai Gakkai) ‘66- Japanese Association for the Study of Guidance and Counseling (Nihon Seito Shidō Gakkai) ‘00- Japanese Association for Transpersonal Psychology/Psychiatry (Nihon Toransupāsonaru Shinrigaku/Seishin Igakkai) ‘98- Japanese Association of Behavioral Science (Nihon Kōdō Kagaku Gakkai) ‘60- Japanese Association of Behavioral Therapy (Nihon Kōdō Ryōhō Gakkai) ‘75- Japanese Association of Brief Psychotherapy (Nihon Burīfusaikoserapī Gakkai) ‘91- Japanese Association of Clinical Psychology (Nihon Shinri Rinshō Gakkai) ‘82- Japanese Association of Counseling Science (Nihon Kānseringu Gakkai) ‘67- Japanese Association of Criminal Psychology (Nihon Hanzai Shinri Gakkai) ‘63- Japanese Association of Educational Psychology (Nihon Kyōiku Shinri Gakkai) ‘59
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- Japanese Association of Health Psychology (Nihon Kenkō Shinri Gakkai) ‘88- Japanese Association of Industrial/Organizational Psychology (Nihon Sangyō Soshiki Shinri Gakkai) ‘85- Japanese Association of Microcounseling (Nihon Maikurokaunseringu Gakkai) ‘08- Japanese Association of Occupational Therapists (Nihon Sagyō Ryōhōshi Kyōkai) ‘66- Japanese Association of Psychiatric Rehabilitation (Nihon Seishin Shōgaisha Rehabiritēshon Gakkai) ‘93- Japanese Association of Psychiatric Social Workers (Nihon Seishin Hoken Fuku-shi Kyōkai) ‘93- Japanese Association of Rehabilitation Psychology (Nihon Rehabiritēshon Shinri Gakkai) ‘76- Japanese Association of School Counseling and Guidance (Nihon Gakkō Kyōiku Sōdan Gakkai) ‘90- Japanese Association of School Health Counseling (Nihon Gakkō Kenkō Sōdan Gakkai) ‘04- Japanese Association of Social Skills Training (SST Fukyū Kyōkai) ‘95- Japanese Association of Special Education (Nihon Tokushu Kyōiku Gakkai) ‘63- Japanese Association of Stress Science (Nihon Sutoresu Gakkai) ‘85- Japanese Association of Student Counseling (Nihon Gakusei Sōdan Gakkai) ‘55- Japanese Association of Theoretical Psychology (Nihon Riron Shinri Gakkai) ‘56- Japanese Association of Traffic Psychology (Nihon Kōtsū Shinri Gakkai) ‘75- Japanese Federation of Psychotherapy (Nihon Saikoserapī Gakkai) ‘99- Japanese Group Dynamics Association (Nihon Gurūpu Dainamikkusu Gakkai) ’49- Japanese Neural Network Society (Nihon Shinkei Kairo Gakkai) ‘89- Japanese Psychological Association (Nihon Shinri Gakkai) ‘27- Japanese Psychonomic Society (Nihon Kiso Shinri Gakkai) ‘81- Japanese School Counseling Association (Nihon Gakkō Kaunseringu Gakkai) ‘96 - Japanese Society for Animal Psychology (Nihon Dōbutsu Shinri Gakkai) ‘33- Japanese Society for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Nihon Jidō Seinen Seishin Igaku-kai) ‘60- Japanese Society for Cognitive Psychology (Nihon Ninchi Shinri Gakkai) ‘03
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- Japanese Society for Parapsychology (Nihon Chōshin Shinri Gakkai) ‘68- Japanese Society for Physiological Psychology and Psychophysiology (Nihon Seirei Shinri Gakkai) ‘68- Japanese Society of Autogenic Therapy (Nihon Jiritsu Kunren Gakkai) ‘78- Japanese Society of Behavioral Medicine (Nihon Kōdō Igakkai) ‘92- Japanese Society of Behavioral Sciences for the Elderly (Nihon Rōnen Kōdō Kagakkai) ‘98- Japanese Society of Biofeedback Research (Nihon Baiofuīdobakku Gakkai) ‘83- Japanese Society of Clinical Educational Psychology (Nihon Ōyō Kyō iku Shingri Gakkai) ‘84- Japanese Society of Hypnosis (Nihon Saimin Igaku Shinri Gakkai) ‘56- Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology (Nihon Seishin Shinkei Gakkai) ‘02- Japanese Society of Psychosomatic Dentistry (Nihon Shika Shinshin Igakkai) ‘86- Japanese Society of Psychosomatic Internal Medicine (Nihon Shinryō Naika Gakkai) ‘96- Japanese Society of Psychosomatic Medicine (Nihon Shinshin Igakkai) ‘59- Japanese Society of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology (Hihon Josei ShinshinIgakkai) ‘74- Japanese Society of Psychosomatic Pediatrics (Nihon Shōni Shinshin Igakkai) ‘82- Japanese Society of Social Psychology (Nihon Shakai Shinri Gakkai) ‘60- Japanese Society of Transactional Analysis (Nihon Kōryū Bunseki Gakkai) ‘76- Japanese Union of Associations for Psychomedical Therapy (Nihon Shinri Iryō Sho-Gakkai Rengō) ‘87- Japanese Union of Psychological Associations (Nihon Shinri Gakusha Gakkai Rengō) ‘96- Virtual Reality Society of Japan (Nihon Bāchyaruriaritī Gakkai) ‘96- Vision Society of Japan (Nihon Shikaku Gakkai) ‘91
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Example: Emergence of “School Counselors” in Japan
Therapeutizing and psychologizing education
Traditionally teachers expected to be generalists; schools did not employ specialists
1965: School Education Counseling and Guidance Association endorsed teachers for performing school counseling and guidance
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Only relatively recently “school counselor” became employed part-time in schools
1995: MEXT implemented a school counselor pilot project, family violence, bullying, school refusal; revolutionary approach, bring outside specialists into the schools
Considering using “clinical school counselor” but dropped
Harada Masafumi,
Rethinking School Counseling
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School counselors
1996: 553 schools
1997: 1,065 schools 4,000 schools utilize retired teachers & youth group leaders designated as “advisors in the classroom for easing children’s minds” (Yagi 2008:144)
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Example: “Psychotherapeutic Religions” (from Shimazono Susumu)
Traditionally, intervention of transcendental power believed necessary (“power of other” tariki 心心 )
Many now uncomfortable with absolute ethical norms
Do not prefer to conceive the divine as impersonal, distant
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New religions encourage changing individual’s way of thinking (psychologicality), not necessarily the world
NRs emphasize “power of self” (jiriki 心心 )
Shimazono gives examples of Yoshimoto Naikan
Yoshimoto Ishin’s (1916‒88) mother was a fervent follower of Pure Land Shin sect of Buddhism, & Yoshimoto himself advocated Buddhism
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Followers of a group within the Shin sect of who searched for salvation were byōnin 心心 (patients)
Practiced “self-inspection” (mishirabe 心心心 ) under guidance of kaigonin 心心心 (enlightened ones)
“To experience a concentrated mind” (ichinen ni au 心心心心一 )
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Yoshimoto developed a form of intensive meditation, method of inner observation, “see into one’s self” (naikan 心心 )
Point is to change one’s attitude toward others by reflecting on one’s failings, specifically mother other family members, cultivate feelings of gratitude under guidance of shidōsha 指指指 (counselor)