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Emergence to an information society: A case study of the European Community

Kreeb, Donna Elisabeth, M.A.

The American University, 1992

UMI300 N. Zeeb Rd.Ann Arbor, MI 48106

EMERGENCE TO AN INFORMATION SOCIETY:

A CASE STUDY OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

Faculty of the School of International Service

in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirement for the Degree of

Master of Arts

International Communication

Donna Elisabeth Kreeb

Submitted to the

Signatures of the Committee:

Chair:

Louis W. Goodman, Dean, SIS

1992The American University *73/^1Washington, D.C. 20016

THE iiiSiilCAK 1‘iiIVESSITY LIBRARY

Donna Elisabeth Kreeb 1 9 9 2

Donna Elisabeth Kreeb

ABSTRACT: EMERGENCE TO AN INFORMATION SOCIETY A CASE STUDY OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

"EC 1992" has become the flagship campaign for creating the long sought after European Community, integrating the twelve Member States economically, politically, and culturally. With newly emerging technologies, the EC will be confronted with changes in its societal structure as faced by many societies entering into the information age.

This study is an inquiry on the theory of "Information Society" and by means of a case study on the European Community, it discusses some of the changing international and domestic relationships of societies due to current technological innovations. Public opinion polls taken in 1977 and 1990 in Member States of the Community are compared to examine the extent of structural change of technological acceptance as encountered by the societies of the individual countries. In a second step, these structural changes are compared to communication expenditures of the Member States as a means of studying communication's contribution to the changing components of an Information Society.

Table of ContentsChapter Page

Introduction ............................................. 1I. The Controversial Societal Environment: A Theoretical

Perspective of the Information Society............. 7A. US Mainstream Approach

1. Technological Determinism2. New Characteristics of Society3. Dealing With a Modified Reality4. Daniel Bell Revisited5. New Assessments

B. The Critical View1. Commodification2. Social Control

C. The Japanese Tradition1. Policy Results Through Synergy2. An Information Society Blueprint

D. Mapping RealityII. The Case of the European Community: History,

Telecommunications and Strategic Planning.........48A. EC HistoryB. EC Telecommunications

1. Pressure from Outside2. Costs3. Global Aspirations vs. European Firm4. International Regulation5. Public Procurement6. Community Aims7. Strategic Planning8. Research and Development

C. Social Dimension1. Social Planning2. Declaration of European Interest

D. Telecommunications as a Role Model for FutureSectors

III. Europe as an Information Society..................83

A. Facing the Double ChallengeB. In the Shadows of the Japanese Success StoryC. Evaluating Structural Change in Europe's Societies

1. Existing Methodologiesa. Johoka Shakai Studiesb. The US/Japan Censusc. Public Acceptability Study

2. Quantitative Analysis on Structure in Europea. EC Structure 1977b. Early 90sc. Overall Comparison: 1977 vs. 1990

i. General Pictureii. User/Non User Evaluationiii. Status Factors

d. Comparison to Communication ExpenditurePercentage Growth Chart

Conclusion .............................................138Appendix ...............................................141

1. Variable Constructions for Quantitative Analysis onPublic Acceptability of Technology

2. Conversion Charts of Nominal Data into Weighted Data3. Lightyear Models leading to Rank Orders of the

Countries4. Direct Comparison of 1977 and 1990 Models5. Overall Growth in Communication Expenditures as

Compared to Acceptance Variables

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page1. Daniel Bell: Components of Society............ 132. Technology as the Social Thrust ............... 163. Cultural Decisionmaking ....................... 274. World Market Provisions: Telecommunications ....565. Member State Expenditures for Telecommunication

Technologies .................................. 626. Yearly Earnings in Relation to Yearly Work Time

in the Member Countries ....................... 747. EC 1988 Regional Development Allocation

(in Percentages) .............................. 768. The EC Double Challenge ....................... 859. Primary and Secondary Criteria of Public

Acceptance of Technology ..................... 10810. Overall Evaluation: Attitude About

Integration .................................. 11611. Two Main Tracks of Public Acceptance of

Technology ................................... 11712. User/Non-User Comparison..................... 11813. Status Comparison .............................11914. Overall Opinion vs. Occupation/Education..... 12015. Comparison II: Common Market Evaluation...... 12416. User/Non-User Test: 1990 Data Set ............ 12517. Status Comparison: Second Data Set .......... 12618. Together vs. Occupation/Education: 1990 Data ..13119. Communications 1977-1989 ..................... 133

INTRODUCTION

Soon advanced technologies and telecommunications will be linking the twelve Member States of the European Community in all aspects of cross border information flow, direct broadcast, and virtually any point-to-point contact desired. Financial, business and personal data sectors will be most affected in that data and information can move freely and guickly throughout any parts of the Community territory. This unprecedented information flow will change the relationships between the individual states, within their business communities as well as in their projection outward. With this emerging information explosion taking place, it is increasingly necessary to understand its effects on society as a whole, namely how it is dealing with this new environment, what societal ramifications are resulting from this and how the public views these seemingly inevitable changes.

The idea of the European Community, dating back to the early post World War II period originally encompassed political and economic unity, largely disregarding the enormous implications it would have on the individual citizens. Over thirty years and many advanced technological innovations later, one seems only marginally more interested in how its public will actually react to the consolidation of virtually all sectors of society. Communications technologies, notably telecommunications will mean a major step forward for the unification process, but due to its

inherent character to expose the values, ideas and cultural frames of the newly interlinked societies, one must study the potential transformations of these societies in view of their increased contact.

High technology and advanced communication and information capabilities mark the dawning of the information era and consequently that of the Information Society. As an abstract term, Information Society encompasses many aspects. There are varying views as to how society is changing as a result of new technology. Utopianists such as Daniel Bell (1973), Fritz Machlup (1962) and others propagate a technologically induced change in all aspects of society, but one in which the individual has a choice whether to use it to his/her advantage. It is therefore through the initiative of the citizen whether further information dealings are mutually acceptable to all aspects of society. Critics of this view discount all attempts to give input to the citizen as the globalization of business, communication- related, and also communication unrelated industries, in their look outward, are mainly interested in the economic gain from society. Critical scholars, among them Vincent Mosco (1989), Herbert Schiller (1976), and Anthony Smith (1991) attack the capitalist orientation to consolidate and homogenize our societies in order to create a more significant, possibly global market. These two traditions

emanate from an orthodox U.S. approach of the Information Society, with supply-push factors played up against demand- pull.

While prevalent in the study of Information society, there are also other types of traditions as well as critics of the Information Society. For example, another tradition originates from post World War II Japan, and its studies of Johoka Shakai- Informationalized Society. The Johoka Shakai approach (Ito, 1981) studies society as an organ and communication as a spiritual industry thereof, both intricately connected while the policies of the one are made with clear consideration of the other and vice versa. Communication has priority status in society and codetermines some of the most central decisions, based on general will and the common good of society. And there are those who not only criticize the concept of "Information Society" but view it merely as a "data-cratic society," especially in light of other historical factors (see Mowlana, 1986 and 1990).

Considering the three mainstream approaches to the concept of the information society, one can better understand the various perspectives of how the information society is viewed and how it has taken shape in a variety of contexts. An underlying aspect of this study, however, is understanding that with the emerging new technologies of the

information revolution come also the responsibilities of creating an appropriate environment for the citizens. How such an appropriate environment might look or how sociocultural policies can be implemented to work hand in hand with existing technology policies must be dealt with as a specific case of the country or countries seeking implementation.

December 31, 1992 marks the date on which the European Community plans to complete large sections of its economic, political and social unity. With only a few months to go, academics and policy makers world wide are evaluating the consequences of this attempt to gain a global market presence. The following case study of the newly emerging European Community will address various controversial issues surrounding the concept of the information society.

There are several assumptions underlying this paper. Firstly, communication and information technologies are becoming central to the European Community integration process and are having large-scale effects on Member States' societal structures. Secondly, as the EC telecommunication policies are based on the premises of economic incentives rather than cultural/societal priorities, these policies are determining the changes without properly taking public input into consideration. Furthermore, economic and political priorities to complete integration by the end of 1992 are

diverting attention away from the issues of information society in such a way that it is leading to general disinterest.

In view of these assumptions, the objective of this study is to determine whether there is proof of structural change in the individual Member States as a result of increased information and communication capability, and to what extent this capacity has promoted or discouraged Member State diversity in an increasingly integrated unity. Policy plans with intent to integrate economically, socially, and politically have been at the forefront of the greater 1992 campaign. But under specific investigation here are citizens' opinions on technology and how they see its implementation in view of their changing status in the global arena. Based on various European Community public opinion polls and using a framework by James Dyer and his colleagues (in Williams, 1988) on public acceptance of information technology, a model is developed for understanding how the citizens of the European Community view technology and their respective country's participation in a common market.

Two separate sets of data were used, namely those of a 1977 study on science and technology in the European Community and those of various 1990 studies on similar issues. The results, showing significant structural change

between the two years in question, is a valuable indicator of how one can evaluate information society criteria specific of the EC's evolution. These results in turn could be influential for understanding similar trends found on other newly emerging information societies.

The concept of Information Society has not become an issue of research for the European Community as a whole but has been at the center of discourse in such countries as France and Germany and has been an issue of interest for specific domestic policies (see Nora and Mine, 1982). However, the resulting policy concerns remain linked to standardization and procurement issues and the technical implementation of new information networks. What actually happens at the societal level is generally not investigated. The results of this study show that there is a need to address issues of a European Community style society, haven proven that there has been significant structural change in the frames of its Community Members in terms of technology usage and opinions related to this technology, as well as the more general issue of integration.

Chapter ITHE CONTROVERSIAL SOCIETAL ENVIRONMENT-

A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

With the industrial revolution it is not difficult in retrospect to realize its immediate far-reaching effects. Technical progress in textile manufacturing, coal mining, iron smelting, and the harnessing of steam were unprecedented technical advances that led not only to diversion of resources and orientation from the agricultural to the industrial sectors, but coupled with the advent of industrial expansion, it led also to the realization that lifestyles would change, wages would increase, and that overall living standards were bound to improve. Reductions in prices and innovations inequality made goods more desirable, opened the channels for international trade, accessed world-wide markets and helped bring about the ideas of mass consumerism in view of the overall economic development.

These changes, while largely affecting the economic bases of societies, were responsible for transforming social frameworks themselves in far-reaching ways. The taste of progress had changed life so much that this trend was

becoming irreversible.It is difficult to imagine that some other single major

innovation could have such an effect on us today, impacting our lifestyles in a way that would change our social framework to an extreme as did the industrial revolution.But it is argued that the advent of modern communication technologies brings along with it a changed social reality, a reality that by far necessitates unprecedented adaptations. It has become more and more common to term advanced industrialized nations 'Information Societies' by virtue of their common characteristic of information as the predominant economic thrust.

Whereas in the industrial revolution the manufactured good was predominant, the main vehicle of the information revolution is how information increasingly is becoming a commodity that is bought, sold, bartered and taxed as if it were a tangible good. But this good 'information' does not just incorporate the commodity status, moreover, it also represents the vehicle by which it can promote and further itself, as well as almost any other sector in question. Moreover, its strength lies therein that it is an undepletable resource, unlike the natural resources applied in the industrial revolution.

Due to this inherent self-serving characteristic of information, as well as its ability to apply itself to most

modern industrial sectors, isolating it becomes highly difficult, let alone understanding its full implications. Theories of how an Information Society looks or how it is structured have been introduced into the academic arena as an effort to structure our thoughts of what is occurring and to possibly locate future problem areas. With this knowledge in hand, attempts are made to alleviate large- scale structural difficulties, while further guiding the developments in our favor. But as anyone might guess, seeking to determine future is optimistic at best.

While technology is becoming a central force in our societies, the enormous changes occurring as a result of the new developments is ultimately turning into a reevaluation of the individual components of society, a 'revolution' - unprecedented and difficult to define. One major factor in this is the predominance of communication technology. In this context one must not only look at the change in information capacities along with content controversies, but more importantly also acknowledge the impacts resulting from "the experience with the medium itself and sometimes the social circumstances surrounding its use." 1 Man's relationship with his environment is changing as a result of new technologies, as are his expectations of that

1 Williams, Frederick. The Communications Revolution. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1982, p. 273.

10environment to supply the infrastructure for his further fulfillment. That is, when 'social improvements' are interpreted as the necessary introduction of still more technology, specifically communications technology becomes the justification for its own existence, in a sense, the means for its own end. And exactly this self-justifying ability is what makes communication technology so complicated and powerful at the same time, as both a means of creating wealth as well as steering the very infrastructure promoting its introduction, without which it, too, could not exist.

In the following are leading perspectives of the diverse research on Information Society, with which we hope to better understand this world and its emerging challenges.

US Mainstream ApproachThe first direction of academic research on Information

Society originates from a body of scholars in the United States during the 60s and early 70s. It sets itself off from the others in that it dissects society into its individual components and, in defining their relationships, tries to locate the reasons for its development and further progression. The perspectives of these authors, labeled "utopianists" by their critics, sparked an ongoing debate within the academic community. This utopian view, signaling

11that the emergence of an Information Society brought on by the growth and intensification of information and communication technologies, claims that society's inherent structure would go through a series of inevitable transformation processes.

Technological DeterminismThese transformations are seen as the result of the

advanced industrial society's internalization of the basic tenants of technology as a primary economic factor and a catalyst for change of the relationships between the individual components of society. Advanced communication technology in the hands of the individuals, it is argued, would enable greater input into the overall policy-making sphere and consequently, the creation of a more viable structure for social progress.

A post-industrial society cannot provide a transcendent ethic- except for the few who devote themselves to the temple of science. And the antimonian attitude plunges one into radical autism which, in the end, derempts the cords of community and the sharing with others. The lack of a rooted moral belief system is the cultural contradiction of the society, the deepest challenge to its survival.

-Daniel Bell2

One of the leading theorists on this theme is Harvard Sociologist Daniel Bell. In his well-known piece, The

2 Bell, Daniel. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. New York: Basic Books, 1973, p. 480.

12Coming of Post-Industrial Society (1973), he characterizes the overall interrelations between the components of our society. Bell divides society into three main sectors: Social Structure, encompassing all economic, technological and occupational systems; Polity, the system regulating the distribution of power and its respective judicial claims; and Culture, the realm of commonly shared expressive symbolism and meanings.

According to Bell, the traditional egalitarian society will work towards a balance in the relationship of the three sectors, ultimately creating the optimal environment for the growth and development of a population into the direction of overall self-fulfillment and personal enhancement. Former bourgeois/capitalist societies of the 19th century have been the prime example of the syncing of these relations.However, with the influx of a new factor, technology, the relationships tend to be modified towards an emphasis on the Social Structure/Polity relationship. Technology's strong influence on the two leaves the Culture sphere grossly neglected. Knowledge and Theory become the basis for all interaction, while the actual Promotion aspect of these new developments enjoys merely haphazard representation. The result is an eventual severing of the Social Structure/ Culture link. For a detailed diagram see Figure 1.

As the main characteristic of the Post-Industrial

Figure 113

[E con om izin g]

K n o w lo d g e

TechnologyP ro m o tio n

T h e o ry

CulturePolity

SocialStructure

[S o c io lo g iz in g ] [S e lf -E n h a n c e m e n t]

Society, Daniel Bell sees the changes initiated in the social sphere as a major influence towards modification of the other relationships. In his opinion, the changes in Social Structure are necessitating reevaluation of the other two areas, requiring an assessment of the players in a redefined environment. Changes in any one of the three relationships will have clear effects on the other two.

Bell sees a main problem in the technology-induced reconfiguration of the Polity. The importance of knowledge- based industries has given scientists and technical specialists a dominant position in the actual administration of the new factor. The preeminence of technology

specialists, such as engineers and scientists, is a new development, and their presence functions as an intervening variable in the course of events. The importance of new technology has displaced traditional policy-making procedures. Technicians are increasingly being called into the decision-making arena to serve as guides through the often unintelligible technology jungle. While aiding in the clarification of the events surrounding technological innovation, this pool of scientists further complicates the already highly bureaucratized situation. The main emphasis then becomes the validation of social goods and common interests as profit makers and their prioritization over the forces of social unity and acceptance.

Technology as the center constructs a second path from Social Structure to Polity, a link that seems to dominate as a result of the joint economizing and sociologizing nature of technology. A new "intelligentsia" begins to develop from the ranks of the technologically literate. Technology specialists gain their importance as a result of their knowledge base necessary to create new innovations. By the same token, their understanding of the respective economical underpinnings makes them invaluable to the organizations tasked with presiding over the regulatory functions.

A logical third link between Technology and Culture seems to be underrepresented. Technicians, the new policy

promoters, funnel their available resources into the creation [knowledge] and legitimation [theory] of new technology, disregarding any necessary campaign to touch base with the public being subject to it [promotion.]

The stronger the Knowledge and Theory axes become, the more the original Social Structure/Culture connection weakens, thus alienating the population base from the economic, technological and occupational infrastructures of Social Structure and the participatory aspect in the distribution of power in the Polity. This could lead to a possible de-individuation of the population and massification of its interests, proven to be counterproductive to Bell's thesis of self-enhancement through culture.

Technology, diverting resources from the cultural sphere will meet any new economizing/sociologizing challenges. More outside input merely adds to the bureaucratization. The main function of the Post-Industrial Society becomes the balancing between the Economizing and Sociologizing modes and thus turns the priorities involved in this into the main agenda for any dealings.

As the technology sphere becomes more and more determining of policy orientation, the politicians vie to compete with the newly emerging intelligentsia.

Essentially, this becomes a power play between the Empiricists (Politicians) and the Theorists (Technicians) which in many cases can result in the delaying and stagnating of policy, but nevertheless can turn unto a valuable transfer of ideas and strengthening of the overall task.

The Polity, monitored by its voters and bound to the constitutions that provide its grounds for election, not infrequently resorts to lip service to maintain the often forced and undynamic link between itself and Culture. A more specific view of the relationship is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

TechnologySpecialists

Empiricists 'heoristi

( Technology

.^T ech n o lo g y ^^^D ecisio

CulturePolity

SocialStructure

Seemingly deserted, Culture becomes antinomial and

anti-institutional, to use Bell's terminology, providing the basis for counter-culture and adversary culture.3 As dealings in the technology arena become more important, they show such a level of sophistication that increasingly prevents Culture from getting involved. Social Structure and Polity both have their respective boundaries of constraint, whereas technology is developing practically into largely undiscovered territory.

Bell argues that it is not the technological innovations per se that have caused these tremendous changes but rather consequences thereof, such as the emerging communication and transportation revolutions that lead to new economic interdependencies and new social interactions.

New networks of social relationships have been formed (pre-eminently the shift from kinship to occupational and professional ties); new densities, physical and social, become the matrix of human action.4

And it is the study of this new matrix that will give rise to the evaluation of society and its relationships. Taking this a step further, Bell's study of the matrix promises to make way for international and regional comparisons and to eventually lead to future-oriented evaluations. With the overall goal of reducing indeterminacy, Bell's method

3 Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, p. 479.4 Ibid., p. 189.

intends to give a better understanding of the changes in society with which one has the ability to recognize new developments and withstand their negative implications. A primary method for doing this is by performing need assessments.

New Characteristics of SocietyInformation technology has contributed significantly to

speeding up the process of change in revolutionizing the capacities of managing knowledge, promoting more ways of research and development, and modifying the means of applying theoretical knowledge. As a result, individuals must learn to cope with new and modernized means of communicating. Divorced from the actual proceedings, individuals increasingly need to rely on interpersonal interaction for establishing any input into the decisionmaking sphere. But this aspect finds poor support in Bell's economizing mode of technology implementation. With the system's emphasis on reaping economic gain, the human aspects fall into the background. Bell's call for a stronger public role results from his account of how such a central concept in the individual life (knowledge) can become the very product of its alienation. A more efficient economy does not necessarily mean a more effective and conscious populace, and vice versa, although their

19relationship is becoming clearer. New technology may serve as a bridge between the two, but the environment needsoversight by forces far too sophisticated to be regulated byeither one. Understanding these forces is a challenge that must be taken on by society as a whole.

Along the same lines, Fritz Machlup's work as early as1962 put into context some of these perceived changes of society. Machlup argued that these changes resulted mainly from occupational transformations stemming from the increase in knowledge-producing occupations and predominantly mental over manual labor. The subsequent reconfiguration of the employment hierarchy, at the risk of creating large-scale labor displacement, raised the status of engineers and scientists, effecting on our social acceptability of the new "knowledge industries." The chances for acceptability slowly decrease as the issues of technological implementation are removed from the general policy sphere into a more rigid, specialists-dominated environment. His economic treatment of the creation and communication of knowledge points out the importance in growth of the knowledge management sector. With the emergence of knowledge-producing occupations come also the knowledge- support occupations, the latter dealing with handling and formatting the material upon which decisions are based (administrative aspects.) Expanding the decision sphere,

20thus instantly bureaucratizing information distribution, makes the overall process virtually untenable for the average citizen.

For Peter Drucker, the main discontinuities facing this 'knowledge society,' as he terms it, stem from the emergence of new technologies; the resulting economic environment, managed by large-scale, transnational organizations and institutions; and the consolidation and homogenization of the conduct of society and polity, giving rise to power concentration and inequalities.

These discontinuities, rather than the massive momentum of the apparent trends, are likely to mold and shape our tomorrow, the closing decades of the twentieth century. These discontinuities are, so to speak, our "recent future" -both already accomplished fact and challenges to come. 5

As knowledge becomes a major power in all fields of society, the logistics of knowledge, meaning gaining access to knowledge and the means by which to apply it, determine the impact it will have on further developments. In view of the changes, society's major concern will be faced with "making organization fully effective as a major instrument and tool of man and as a central organ of human society," 6

5 Drucker, Peter. The Acre of Discontinuity: Guidelines to our Changing Society. New York: Harper & Row, 1969, p.ix.

6 Ibid., p. 382.

rather than enabling knowledge to be consolidated and used counteractively against the individual.

Until now the human mind has manifested itself in a static fashion in isolated groups. What sort of current will be generated when the world billions are suddenly wired together? -James Martin7

In Martin's observation, advanced communications alterthe way in which society functions. Former power structuresare diminishing, creating new, decentralized and horizontalmethods of dealing with one another. The era oftransportation highways is giving way to new, more powerfulelectronic highways. The dimensions of space and time areonce again altered, creating even faster and more efficientcommunication. Social interaction will be focused no longeron traditional settings, but in "virtual cities," such ascommunities, campuses, laboratories, corporate offices; eachbeing scattered, but connected electronically. 8

In his focus on the human dimensions of society, andhow it will effect individuals, Martin elaborates on achanged lifestyle from the

rigid patterns that suppress the imagination, creativity, dreams, empathy with nature, and personal uniqueness. ... Most boring jobs can be done by machines; lengthy commuting can be avoided; we can have enough leisure to follow interesting pursuits outside our work; environmental destruction can be avoided; and

7 Martin, James. Telematic Society. Englewood Cliffs,N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978, p.222.

8 Ibid., p. 155.

the opportunities for personal creativity will beunlimited. 9He envisions the changed (mature, participant, active)

society as one adhering to 'global threads', the use of new forms of communication technology for specific values and interests to surpass boundaries and distances in order to make the most of an individual's creativity. Communicating with others of equal potential, possibly contributing to a field of knowledge, turns into an enriching advancement for tomorrow. And this new form of cohesion, while founded on shared interests rather than haphazard societal distinctions, could prove more beneficial.

Cultural threads from the past have been for example free-press nations, entertainment from America, tv drama from Great Britain, and films from France.10 Martin believes that in a changed adherence to common interests "some people will feel more loyalty to their global cultural thread than to their country," thus displacing traditional social structures and replacing them for modified forms of interaction.11

Yet there exist complaints about the ills of a system unable to deal with the balancing out of greater information

9 Ibid., p. 172.10 Ibid. , p. 215.11 Ibid., pp. 215.

capabilities with the ever increasing social ambiguities.The myth of modernization has captured many environments eager to achieve quick results with the least amount of structural change. Myth has it that an increase in technological capacity is the key to rapid improvements and unprecedented achievement of wealth. Herein lies the main problem: Adherence to a method of modernization toouncritically accepted into an environment for which it was not initially designed, can leave far-reaching and drastic repercussions not only in its economic and political bases, but more specifically in the societal sphere, losing the trust and confidence of the people it was intended to help.

As the policy-making arena is becoming victim to the convergence of the technological, economic, and political forces, it renders the interplay of the various factors so complicated that it overshadows the ability to look at social concerns. "The challenge is in applying them [machines] with a clear perception of social needs and in giving emotional texture to the new environment they will create." 12 The emphasis is on redefining the environment in terms of its new form and purpose, essentially the way it

12 Dizard, Wilson. The Coming Information Acre, third edition. New York: Longman, 1989, p. 11.

24intends to function.13

Wilson Dizard's contention is to capitalize on the ideas that "citizens share enough information, beliefs, and assumptions to function together in a rough consensus", which can be used to create an environment in which the people feel comfortable in taking part in the stake of their society.14

Dealing With a Modified RealityTechnological advances and the increasing

sophistication of communications capability are reconfiguring society's structure, altering the relationships of the motors of society, thereby redefining its components and laying out new ground rules for the conduct of society's activities.

An underlying issue in the viewpoint of the mainstream US approach remains the concern with individuals in society and how they deal with new realities. The authors remain cautious in suggesting any large-scale solutions, rather they point out the areas that should receive added attention as their changing influence becomes apparent.

But the main idea underlying all of the contributions in this category is the necessity of man to understand the

13 Ibid., p. 53.14 Ibid., p. 13.

25changes that have occurred as well as those approaching, and to realize that our basic concepts of human rights, such as political philosophy, human freedom, and individual

creativity are taking on new shapes as a result of these changes.

The first step deals with acknowledging these changes and developing a concern for the implications involved. Without this awareness, the forces of the economy and the supposed authorities will continue to take charge of the situation, disregarding any concerns felt by the general public. Once this awareness has been created, however, there must follow an education process in which those concerned receive the "know-how" of implementing their ideas. Subsequently, it requires an available structure to assist in the voicing of these opinions, supporting the channels from the public to the administrative and commercial players. Of utmost importance is the definition of these channels and agreement on the rules of the game.But great care must be taken so that the cost of participating, be it financially, ideologically, or social status wise, will not overshadow its benefits in view of past experience of shutting out participants as a result of too rigid social distinctions, giving priority of some over others and resorting to structural discrimination from the onset.

From the practice of this information phase comes the participant's ability to pass on the developments. And once a judgement is decided upon, the participant must understand how to implement the necessary resources to achieve the intended outcome.

This leads us to ask a number of questions such as:What alternative channels of participation are being created? Are they useful? What are the characteristics of these channels? Often it is not enough for the polity to solely attend to its main issues and for society to wait until these efforts can trickle-down into the cultural sphere. Society must have access to its own means of initiating new priorities and following through with their implementation. A set of new skills must accompany the changes.

Daniel Bell RevisitedDaniel Bell explains a scenario that aims to target

some of these problems. The new environment will take on a modified appearance. With the calls for more input from the cultural sphere, there are assertions of how the environment ought to work. In an attempt to displace the technology sphere from the center of attraction and getting culture more involved, idealist plans could suggest the structure as

in the following diagram. Figure 3

SocialStructure

C o n su l ta t io n Q ua li ty of Life

Technology

Polity Culture

DecisionCultura l P r e s e rv a t io nFeasablllty Research

The cultural environment must learn to deal with technology. It familiarizes itself and initiates the new and refined decision-making process. In a first step, culture defines goals and voices them to the technology sphere. This development then branches into two separate processes:

a) The Functionality of the goals is determined by the technology specialists.

b) The Feasibility is assessed by the decision-makingbody.

Both reports are then presented back to Culture, Social Structure dealing with the tenants of quality of life and Polity making good on its duties of preserving the unique

culture of its society. Culture then, presented with all of the facts, is tasked with deciding; and Culture's fair share in the implementation process must also be respected. Bargaining and negotiation within this context might very well replace political debate.15

New AssessmentsWhile new technology gives the individual more command

over his/her environment, at the same time it can support a scenario that binds the individual to a set structure capable of manipulation, liking a dependency situation. As the two conditions are not mutually exclusive, society sees itself in defining the parameters of the interplay between the individual and the policy-makers to ameliorate the often cost/benefit or give or take situation.

When individuals become connected to the overall infrastructure and they base their entire activities on the information gained through these means, the extent of the information gathering can be determined by the system itself. Should any organization or governmental entity have exclusive power over the proceedings, there could exist the threat of monopolization of ideas. The occurrence of this is greater, the less public opinion is voiced. As public attitudes are often not taken into consideration until well

15 Ibid., p. 24.

29into the policy process, when little change is possible, a general refocusing might be necessary to include users' opinions early on.

A clear definition of the role of society would be advisable, that is, in formulating a role that enables society to separate itself from the dynamics of the overall structure and to function as an autonomous entity equally interested in the well-being of the environment. In achieving this, one can possibly create a more human- oriented environment, one in which individuals feel like their opinion is relevant and where there exists enough cause for credibility in the system as a whole.

But as social structures vary, cultural practices and beliefs create different environments, although based on similar prospects and predispositions, each social entity must be observed as a distinct situation. And the outcomes of this situation must be seen within the context of a clear interaction between society's desire to enforce its rules on citizens and the citizens' ability to counter unwanted effects. It is often not just a simple give and take situation but moreover a complex weighing of priorities and capabilities offsetting social reign with more democratization of interests.

Rather than considering modern communication technology as "complex systems of people and equipment guided by

30technique and designed by specialists16, the environment is becoming more of a social relationship between the players, an environment that for the most part has been uncovered.

The Critical ViewThe claim by the scholars propagating a utopian view of

the information society, namely that developments in communication and information technology will be the main source in society's transformation from an industrialized society into a more individual oriented input-seeking construct is refuted by a number of critical communication researchers.

The basic tenant of our new social relationships, so critical scholars, is definitely related to the advances in communication and information technology, but is not technology as a direct consequence of social change.Instead, technology serves as the main force that gives depth and breadth to our current advanced industrial society, specifically its inherent commodification and social control mechanisms, creating in a sense, a higher form of capitalism, as argued by critical scholar Vincent

16 Danziger, Dutton, Kling and Kraemer, in Dutton and Blumler, 1982, p. 63.

M o s c o . 17

CommodificationCommodification of information, the buying, selling and

marketing of knowledge, has progressed into an enormous industrial sector. Communication and information technology provide the vehicles by which producers of information can effectively and more quickly disseminate their products. Information as a marketable good is becoming of strategic importance, for those who own the information can determine its availability. Ownership implies the power to control access to it, marketing this access can lead to means of reaping economic gain. Ownership of not only the information itself is of extreme importance but almost more important is also the ownership of the means of distribution.

Advanced communications are overcoming former constraints of space and time. The transfer of information is becoming quicker and more cost efficient, easily moving great volumes. These routes are establishing themselves as the new highways of transport and are making themselves indispensable to our economic infrastructure. But as the latest developments in these technologies show that market

17 Mosco, Vincent. The Pav-Per Society. Computers and Communication in the Information Age. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex, 1989, pp 26.

32presence involves keeping up with the newest innovations, ittakes a certain type of investor to keep up with the trends.Market presence is expensive and therefore usually reservedfor corporate and governmental actors, that is, fororganizations large enough to hold out the initial tied upincome before cost efficiency can set in.

Once obtained, market presence can be determining. Forone thing, the larger investors are more adept atdetermining the structure of the participation in themarket, such as through maintaining a check on technologicalstandards as well as through influencing the general rulesof the market itself. Inevitably, actors with moreinvestment capital have more power as to who the otherplayers are of the game, whose information is moresuccessful and whom it will ultimately reach.Theoretically, with the entering of other players into thegame, one would imagine more diversity in the mainparticipants. But needless to say, conglomeration andcross-ownership of communication industries have beenongoing trends to consolidate and homogenize these sectors.Instead, we are moving into a new reality. Making his casefor media systems, Anthony Smith identifies this trend:

... we are moving into an era in which the distinction between the corporations and institutions that own and manage these different media entities is becoming impossible to draw. The processes of the new technologies and the pressures generated in the new regulatory environment are beginning to suggest to

33managers of these enterprises that survival and further growth depend upon mergers and alliances across the divides that were so carefully continue in the past.18

Both production and distribution of information areincreasingly being concentrated into a game of relativelyfew, but powerful players, sending seemingly diverse, butfairly homogenous messages, and by virtue of advancedcommunication technologies, reaching a targeted, as opposedto mass, audience.

Furthermore, by controlling the production anddistribution stages, these actors not only determine thecharacteristics of the general flow of information, but moreimportantly its contents, along with the values, images,attitudes and predispositions associated with thesecontents. Naturally, with less diversity in supply, contentbecomes more standardized and begins to represent the styleor convictions of those organizations orchestrating itsdissemination. With time, identification with thesecontents becomes more natural for the recipient.

Commodification of information has therefore become asignificant characteristic of the developments associatedwith the new innovations of communication and informationtechnology. When one considers that this technology hasbeen the most dominant recent development for the

18 Smith, Anthony. The Age of the Behemoths. The Globalization of Mass Media Firms. New York, N.Y.: Priority Press, 1991, p. 17.

34functioning of our economies, one must not downplay the effect that it is having on society as a whole. When one component of our society -information technology- has the ability to span almost all aspects of the transfer of ideas and values associated with products, or related information thereof, then the exact nature of this component must be properly understood.

It is interesting to consider how all aspects of the sale of a product can fall under tight scrutiny of an information system: With the help of extensive data basesproviding personal information, target audiences are located according to their compatibility with the sale item. Increased accessibility to these potential buyers through the advancement of on-line computer links and direct broadcast technology is not only more cost efficient but also alleviates the concentration on the public as a whole and the large portion of incompatible buyers. With the appropriate background knowledge one can make a good case for the product in question, tailoring it to more specific types of buyers and raising a more defined need for the product. The item is then henceforth packaged and marketed in related information industries, cross-ownership providing the avenues for relatively uncomplicated multi-media approaches. The actual order, sale, and billing of the product can take place on a computer terminal, immediately

and without the buyer even having to leave the convenience of his/her home. In the case of information commodities, delivery can occur via these exact communication networks.

What this scenario shows is that information transfer is an every day phenomenon; some economic sectors are even becoming reliant on communication technology as a foundation of its functioning, making it an unstoppable trend.

Social ControlIt is obvious that those promoting information

industries are primarily doing so for the purpose of increasing their own economic gain. Success in any one market can lead to its branching out into other, further connecting traditionally unrelated areas.

The previous section, discussing the characteristics of information commodification makes the case for ownership of the production and distribution stages being a prime indicator for the transfer of values and attitudes within societies. Equally important are the related considerations about the commodity itself.

Information is in itself a social statement: Its verycomposition, and similarly, the shape and form of its dissemination are strict representation of the social construction to which it is related. Behind its creation lie inherent motivations based on the attitudes, values, and

social norms of its society. Ownership of the informationgives rise to origin of is message and can serve as anindicator of exactly whom this information intends to serve,possibly also for what purposes. With the options in thehands of large actors (i.e. transnational businesses) actingon behalf of market realities, increasingly their actionsare taking over the jobs of defunct social institutions whocannot hold their own in these new environments. Control ofthe means by which to promote the transfer of these ideas inthe hands of a few can lead to overrepresentation of theseviewpoints and eventual cultural domination and imperialismas argued by Herbert Schiller, namely through

the sum of the processes by which a society is brought unto the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating center of the system.19

Information is disseminated for specific reasons and tobenefit specific aspects of society. Its verycharacteristics need to be taken under close scrutiny inorder to determine the exact effect it will have on societyand how this will influence the individual's relationship tohis/her society in general.

In a sense, so argue these critics of the Information

19 Schiller, Herbert. Communication and Cultural Domination. White Plains, N.Y.: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1976, p.9.

Society, our social relationships have not taken on any other modified form, but that we are essentially playing the same game of Capitalism, just more intensely, yet one with higher stakes, giving us more to loose, but more options by which to participate.

The Japanese TraditionAside from the two American trends in research, there

is another major approach for studying Information Society. In a sense it developed uniquely in an environment uncommon to Western understanding of the issues. The study of the Information Society in post World War II Japan has taken on a unique two-tiered method. Firstly, information society is considered a direct successor of industrial society, with information value taking over from materialistic value. Secondly, through historical analogy and pattern analysis one wanted to determine how the individual society would be transformed in specific. In a sense, one observed changes taking place initiated from without (new information and communication technologies) and from within society (human values, trends of thought, innovation technology, the market, economic structure, and political systems.)20 By combining the two, one could not only understand how

20 Masuda, Yoneji. The Information Society as Post- Industrial Society. Washington, D.C.: World Future Society, p. viii.

transformation was taking place, and why, but also one could attempt predictions into the future of what a new information society would look like. Based on this research, the Japanese established a blueprint for information society, "The Plan for Information Society- A national goal toward the year 2000," (1971) in which one proposed measures to create the optimal environment for changes to come, in a sense pre-programming for future transformations.

Policy Results Through SynergyPolicy tradition in this sense takes on a much more

sophisticated approach in Japan than commonly known to Western countries. As exemplified by the study of communication, the holistic framework under which Japanese policy makers operate is a strategy specific of their operational culture.

The Japanese tradition uniquely brought forth an alternative communication research method of Johoka Shakai, the informationalized society, which through a process of sophistication became influential in the study of policy research domestically and abroad. Although there are various limitations to this approach, increased collaborative efforts are attempting to make this a more viable tool of policy consideration.

39The concept of information society has played a major

role in Japan and has been the foundation of many studies on Japanese life and culture. The Johoka Shakai Approach to the study of communication originates from a body of scholars in Japan during the early 60s. A leading scholar in the field was Tadao Umesao at Kyoto University who introduced a concept of classifying industries into a) agricultural, b) material and c) spiritual as opposed to the earlier division of primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors (agricultural, manufacturing, and services) by Colin Clark.

Umesao in the tradition of Japanese theoretical thought, compared the industrial structure to a living organism. Different stages of sophistication determine the scope of each industry. Agriculture functions as the means by which the first system can be maintained. It produces the necessary inputs to the organism. As the most primitive type of being, it gains its strength through basic digestive functions. Its dependency on its environment is clearly realized.

Material Industry is provided with more means by which to control its immediate environment. Locomotive functions enable it to adjust to challenges of the environment through policy regulation.

Spiritual Industry on the other hand, with the help of control functions, is empowered to control not only itself

40but also its environment. An interactive relationship develops between the internal and external environments, creating a more sophisticated regulatory process.

As industries develop through time, according to Umesao, one can trace the evolution from agricultural to material to spiritual components of society. Having surpassed the agricultural age, advanced industrial societies are dealing with the transition from a material to a spiritual industry characterized by "mass production and consumption of knowledge and information, the diffusion of higher education and other intellectual and cultural activities. "21

Undoubtedly influenced by works on the post industrialized societies by Western scholars such as Daniel Bell, Fritz Machlup, Anthony Weiner, and Zbignew Brzezinski, Umesao's spiritual attribution to industrial society was complemented in that these new ideas substantiated many of his theoretical bases. But as his work was not disseminated beyond the Japanese intellectual structure, little of his approach reached the West.

The term Johoka Shakai, however, was not developed

21 Ito, Youichi, "The Johoka Shakai Approach to the Study of Communication in Japan," Mass Communication Review Yearbook. Volume 2, Sage: 1981, p. 672.

41until some time later following an influential paper by Kenichi Kohyama in 1968. His paper, "Joho Shakai Ron Josetsu" (On Information Societies) deals with information as the revolutionary force leading to the emancipation of the industrial society. Further distinguishing informational from information society, Yujiro Hayashi's book "Johoka Shakai" in 1969 builds the ground work for all studies to come in the field of inquiry on Informationalized Society.

The resulting Johoka Shakai Approach to the study of communication in perceiving communication "as the infrastructure of and precondition for economic growth, and thus, development,"22 takes on a structuralist nature of analysis. More specifically, through its normative structuralism, a precise quantitative/econometric analysis gives rise to organizational change as a precondition for improvement.

This method sees communication as a holistic framework within society to integrate all sectors involved in the dissemination of information. As opposed to a more Western, functionalist approach of impact and effects research, this integrative approach deals primarily with utilizing

22 Mowlana, Hamid and Laurie J. Wilson. The Passing of Modernity. Communication and the Transformation of Society. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman, 1990, p. 58.

information from within to better structure a more complementary framework. Resembling studies of social engineering in the 50s, information is used to resolve social problems and to create a more appropriate system.The analysis goes beyond that of economic and political concerns, for the introduction of social and cultural considerations as perceived in a historical framework is used to gain a comprehensive view of past trends and future realities.

An Information Society BlueprintYoneji Masuda headed the Commission in 1971 that set

the foundation for a large-scale plan for creating the infrastructure of an information society by the year 1985. Actions included the creation of the following:

- Comprehensive administrative data bank- Computopia plan (computerized city)- Regional remote control medical system- Computer-oriented education in an experimental

school district- Pollution prevention system over a broad region- Think tank center- Introduction of MIS (Management Information

System) in small enterprises- Labor re-development center and- Computer peace corp

to create an information society prototype.23This blueprint incorporated many of the concepts

23 Masuda, Yoneji. Information Society as Post Industrial Society. 1980, pp. 31.

originally propagated by the early Johoka Shakai theorists, by creating a synthesis between the outside, and uncontrollable effects versus the inner and controllable structure. A synergy of underlying themes is stressed. Individuals in the system are motivated by the attainment of goals, rather than the ambition for further commodities. Voluntary community organizations will be at the forefront of society, creating synergy between individuals and the organization as a whole. Steered almost exclusively by the information capabilities of society through computer technology and the their attainment of knowledge as a result of society's emphasis on the so-called "intellectual industries," the economy will evolve from an exchange economy to a synergetic economy, distributing the benefits among all components. Evaluation of the situation leads to policy input which subsequently initiates measures to better the system. Elaborate quantitative studies on the information society produced status reports on society with which one evaluated the central components' relationships. This work subsequently led to policy formulation and ideas that modified individual factors and recycled them, in their changed form, into the established environment. Frequent monitoring would indicate whether the intended effect was being achieved. This immediacy of policy shows how high a priority policy on information society has in Japan.

Apparently this has become the central strategy for projecting its interests into the global arena.

Mapping RealityThe concept of Information Society is an abstract idea.

There are no set boundaries indicating where the status to an information society begins and where it ends. What it implies, though, is that newly emerging characteristics of information are determining aspects of society in such a way that they are having large-scale implications on social interactions in general and man's relationship to the rest of society's components in specific. Which route these interactions and relationships are taking is highly individualistic and often dependent on specific situations.

The leading areas of thought on Information Society (utopian, critical, and synergistic) vary in degree on a number of issues. Utopian theorists believe technology to be deterministic of the overall environment and its related interactions, in a sense, asserting that technology takes on a life of its own and builds a mini environment around itself. This mini environment supposedly allows for full consumer input and results in a perfect technology implementation process. Not as optimistic, but still along the same lines, is the synergistic policy framework established by the Japanese. Carefully weighing of the

cost/benefit aspects of each policy move, it combines governmental needs with commercial trends. Semi-regulated, this system claims to make good on many concerns of both aspects and reaches for the best in both worlds. Policies on technologies occur after an elaborate investigation process of the current system, where need and adaptability are assessed. Critical thought, on the other hand, is concerned with the free market's ability to use communication and information technologies to further its capitalistic purposes to a maximum, while consumer and individual input is at a minimum. The political sphere exercises almost no control over the events, instead a free market situation downplays any of its impacts.

The individual takes on different roles in the various categories. The utopian individual is encouraged to participate fully, only the process of participation has not yet been defined. But as a result of the horizontal and vertical shifts in social relations due to technology, individuals become members of groups -components of subsystems- based on affiliation to specific interests. Synergy implies weighing the possibilities and coming to the best compromise. Japanese consensus-mindedness is clearly appropriate for such an approach, since the dynamics of either are fairly compatible. Nevertheless, this process can lead to an overly homogenous viewpoint in society, not

leaving much room for difference in opinion and diversion from an overall trend. Likewise, the commoditized society also has difficulty diverting from the trend as powerful communication and information technologies impose similar ideas on society as a whole. Not approaching an individual affiliated with a certain social grouping, nor society as a whole, the action here is aimed at specific consumers, recipients of products and their inherent ideals, attitudes and values, in a sense a direct and one-way campaign.

While the different approaches vary in levels of abstraction, there are a number of concerns that unite them. Still it is difficult to characterize any one country as specifically one type of information society, especially since it can have components from any one of the above approaches. With the three extremes in hand (utopia- synergy-commoditization) one could merely identify which general direction any country is heading.

But the question at hand is whether a community in itself acknowledges to be on the way to entering the information society by acting on its consequences or just performing business as usual and not putting much thought to its implications. Some authors on information society argue that the mere implementation of new technologies is an automatic entry into the information era, and that denial of such a status can have deep repercussions for society at

large. New technologies are Indeed a privilege, but this privilege in particular brings with it a large array of responsibilities that cannot be ignored. As social consequences of these technologies are the most critical issues of our times, improper implementation can create disarray and unrest in many areas of our societal structure. Great care must be taken in order to take on the vast duties related to these new developments, considering that the responsibilities are great; but that they can, and will be met once acknowledgement of the new environment in all spheres of society can be realized.

Chapter IITHE CASE OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY:

HISTORY, TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND STRATEGIC PLANNING

The following case study of the European Community attempts to put into perspective some of the main issues evolving around the Information Society. The situation currently faced by the Member States is unprecedented in that not only is it faced with logistical problems of creating one common economic, political, and social unity from originally twelve independently unique cultures and traditions, but moreso, as a whole is faced with the challenges of a changing reality due to the growing significance of information and communication technologies. This first section introduces the European Community and telecommunications as its target sector for achieving Community goals.

EC HistoryThe initial idea of the European Community came from a

war-stricken Europe and the French fear of a further military threat from bordering Germany. In an effort to consolidate post-war steel and coal resources, especially those of France and Germany, so as to subvert a new military

49buildup, it was Europe's initiative to place the authority of these markets into the hands of an independent organization. At the initiative of Jean Monnet, Vice Chair of the Volkerbund, and French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was introduced on May 9, 1950 and verified in the Treaty of Paris on April 18, 1951.

The Steel and Coal Union was a creation of a supranational organization as a consolidation of all member state institutions in the field, to act as a bulwark against any further threats from West European nations. This action initiated further European cooperation among the current members France, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, and Germany. The ECSC went into force on 23 July 1952, after ratification by all member states.

Several months prior, on 27 May 1952, independently thereof, a European Defense Union was established in order to initiate a political union among the states. Not ratified by the French national parliament, this union was cancelled on 30 Aug 1954.

Initiated by the Benelux States in 1955, the first drafts of a true economic union as well as an atomic union came into play at the April 1956 Mesina conference of the members. These drafts built the foundation of the later treaties signed on March 25, 1957 in Rome and took force on

501 January, 1958. From these treaties came the later 1 July, 1968 tax union.

Great Britain, after having initiated another independent union in Europe, EFTA, the European Free Trade Association, as a quasi balance to the earlier treaties, soon applied for membership, followed by Ireland and Denmark. Their applications, initially denied by France in 1963, were accepted following a political change of guard from De Gaulles to Pompidou in France 1969. Effective January 1, 1973, Great Britain, Ireland and Denmark received full membership, making the union nine countries large.Prior considerations among the six full and then three associate members in 1967 had drawn up the paperwork for a consolidation of the legislative branches of the coal and steel, economic, and atomic unions— the so-called fusion treaty— as well as European political cooperation. The first directly voted parliament came into existence in June 1979.

With the decision to implement the European Monetary System (EMS) in 1979, a further step was made towards linking the individual economies. The ECU (European Currency Unit), regulated through a complicated Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) became the common financial means of exchange. But it has taken many years for this effort to gain the recognition it set out to achieve. A common

51agricultural policy, in the process of being implemented at this time, was setting off disputes across borders and internationally.

Effective 1 January 1981, Greece's membership became official, five years later, on 1 January 1986, that of Spain and Portugal.

The 1957 Rome treaties had various goals. The key areas of concern, the elimination of border controls, liberalization of capital movements and services, harmonization of regulations and standards, and the opening of public procurement markets, were set out in the historic 1985 White Paper, which was entitled "Completing the Internal Market," deemed necessary to boost progress in a near threatened consolidation of efforts. Determining 300 legislative proposals necessary for creating the market, the White Paper's main goal was to lay the foundation for all formative actions.

In a significant move to boost the unification process, the Community adopted a piece of legislation that would significantly reduce the time in which policy was implemented. The ratification of the Single European Act (SEA), 28 February, 1986, introduced qualified majority voting as opposed to the former consensus-building practices, and it established a higher profile for Parliamentary input. In short, the Single European Act

revamped the legislative process to include all branches of the government and it committed these very branches to the achievement of large-scale aspects of the desired Union by December 31, 1922 under the motto of Europe 1992.

EC TelecommunicationsAs European integration progresses and December 31,

1992 nears, the world looks on in anticipation of its consequences. In its attempt to complete an internationally competitive economic market, the European Community continues to promote its objectives of removing invisible barriers, creating greater economies of scale, and establishing a competitive position internationally in virtually all sectors.

These objectives, however, must be seen in the proper context. As we make the transition from an industrial age to an information age, integration becomes inherently more sophisticated. Not only do new information technologies increasingly revolutionize business procedures and international communication capabilities, more importantly, they are becoming the driving force behind unprecedented large-scale international ventures. And at the forefront of these developments are telecommunications technologies.

These technologies are becoming increasingly powerful

as they promote more efficient utilization of resources, thereby significantly reducing operation costs and making use of rationalization effects. Telecommunications build the foundation of many key industries including sectors such as banking, finance, retailing and transportation. In fact, recent developments within the telecommunications market itself have created new challenges for these markets as a whole. The traditional telecommunication market (network equipment, terminal equipment, basic services) has been expanding to include enhanced and value-added services (telephone capabilities combined with computer processing and data networking options.) This revolutionizes the mere transfer of data. Information is thus becoming more sophisticated and tailored to specific uses.

This new nature of telecommunications is enabling less technologically-oriented market participants access to increasing amounts of information without having to invest in the necessary hardware technology. Instead, the purchase of leased lines of data services enables even small and medium-sized companies to make their market presence more noticeable and thus viable. Increasingly, the trend towards "Open Systems" allows for direct consumer to producer interface, thereby eliminating the various middlemen and their related commissions, while creating a more stable environment for interoperability of the technology. On the

other hand, the economy is increasingly open to new and related sectors. The entrepreneurs who have followed these trends and are currently implementing this new technology will maintain a significant competitive edge.

But the problematic of these radically changing environments is that the user is caught between economically driven technological advances- with its pressures involved with keeping step internationally- versus the political forces to avoid a negative impact of these technologies on societal and cultural frames.

Nevertheless, this double challenge of economics versus politics greatly contributes to the possible exclusion of the actual user input necessary to obtain a more viable structure. Time constraints, bureaucratic pressure and lack of multiple sector-spanning conferral, brands a policy that appears haphazard at best, reactive to economic constraints rather than proactively seeking a congenial environment.

Within the EC "the growth of transnational service sector companies is one of the most significant business trends of the last decade," and half of the annual flow of foreign direct investment by large companies originates within this sector.1

1 Carpentier, Michael. "Telecommunications and 1992,"DG XIII: Telecommunications. Information Industries and Innovation. Commission of the European Communities. Paper

55Thus, the new form of telecommunication not only

greatly affects business in the areas of hardware and equipment, but it revolutionizes the movement of information and the overall management of this market. As "communications have become the fastest, the cheapest trade route known to business,"2 and information is becoming one of the leading commodities, advanced communications will have to serve as a major integration factor in view of 1992.

According to a recent study by The Economist, the intended European integration venture "could generate ... $240 billion of extra wealth and provide up to 5 million new jobs."3 Furthermore, the Commission expects the telecommunications sector in specific, to increase from the current 3% of Community GNP to 7% by the year 2000.

As Figure 4 shows, European presence in the world's telecommunication sector occupies 25% of the service market and 27% of the hardware market. Current policy is geared towards a significant increase in service sector participation in order to maintain adequate market presence.

presented to the IBM Conference, Monte Carlo: Oct. 3, 1988, p. 3.

2 Lindhorst, W.K. "Telecommunications Sector, Between Integration and Projection," Telecommunications Policy. March 1988, p.3.

3 Thimm, Alfred L. "Europe 1922— Opportunity or Threat for U.S. Business: The Case of Telecommunications," California Management Review. Winter 1989, p.12.

Figure 456

World Market ProvisionsTelecommunications

Europek 2 7 *

Europek 2 5 *

o th e r13*

o th e r15*

J ap a n10* J a p a n

10*Service Sector Hardware Sector

($ 200 billion Market) ($ 40 billion Market)

8ourc«: Telecommunication* Policy, 1088

One of the main ills of the European Integration Process is the lack of individual Member States to concede national policy rights to the overall European concept. Duplication of research, production of incompatible products prevents the individual state products to gain any type of significant acceptance in the Community, not to speak of international recognition and world wide market share. The attempts to consolidate Research and Development projects, marketing strategies, product specifications and financial transactions, just to name a few of the considerations, has lead to significant intra-community as well as crossborder conflicts. The emphasis of Community policy has been focused on the removal of protectionism in public

57procurement and the adoption of common standards.

In the telecommunications sector, policy has great difficulty in going beyond the national PTT monopoly infrastructures of providing individual services and feeding their networks with hardware procured exclusively in domestic markets. This blatant protectionism on the domestic level, however, is proving to be counterproductive for a European Union desiring economies of scale enjoyed by Japan and the US. The economies of scale not only arise in the research stage, but also in the actual production and implementation of both hardware and software.

Pressure from OutsideIn view of the new developments, increasing pressure

from market participants and foreign vendors is necessitating a reassessment of the EC communication situation. The new technology is emerging within a consumer-oriented market, and demands from the ranks of the users are increasingly difficult to meet. National manufacturers are not only hindered by a fragmented market situation but are subject to comprehensive governmental controls.

European telecommunications are traditionally maintained by PTTs (government monopolies for Posts,

Telephone and Telegraph.) But as new dimensions to telephone services become apparent, the government monopolies are unable to accommodate the increasing volumes of information flow. Government budgets cannot match the constant drive to technological advances led by other highly information-oriented countries such as Japan and the U.S. Even if the financial aspect were not an issue, existing infrastructures would in most cases not even be capable of implementing the newest technologies.

While governments have contracted out certain aspects of the existing monopoly, the resulting "national champions" have proven to be fairly inefficient in promoting cost- reductive campaigns.

Some of the setbacks of a fragmented market include the unnecessary duplication of research and the resource capacity lost in the process. Fragmented markets in the past not only have hindered large-scale cooperation among Member States, but they effectively prevented a pooling of funds and resources to launch projects not feasible for individual organizations.

A lack of overall standardization has created a vast array of incompatible products and costly trade procedures, all of which affect mainly the consumer's purchasing power. Likewise, maintaining individual standards widely decreases international marketability of products.

Rigid governmental controls have furthermore limited competitive behavior in the telecommunications market. In the past, PTTs have maintained the sole right to

- certify network equipment used with the system and to limit the use of equipment to the units produced by the PTTs themselves,

- engage in price fixing for value-added services and related duties,

- exclude non-European firms on the basis of public procurement acts.

This often leads to intentional prevention of standardizing network systems and equipment among other Member States and European industries.

CostsIn terms of today's new telecommunication technology,

the PTT systems of the various EC states have been working completely independent of one another, with little hope for creating full compatibility. This has resulted in vast discrepancies among the Member States in information technology capacity. One can clearly observe the disadvantages of have-not states such as Portugal, Spain, Greece versus the have states such as France, Great Britain

60and West Germany. The acquisition and maintenance of this technology can even widen the gap between rich and poor Member States if not properly implemented.

As many European telecommunication policies are in the process of being liberalized, most European firms still rely highly on information services from foreign suppliers. Any or all of the following services are purchased from non-EC suppliers:

- Data Processing Services- Computer Professional Services- Electronic Database Services- Videotex Services.

Data processing services are showing increased growth and are obtaining valuable market shares in Europe. A recent study done by an information services research firm expects the European Market 1992 to be a potential market of $250 million for non-European vendors.4

Most Western European computer professional services are subsidiaries of non-European corporations. These services fall into the area of Automation, Systems Integration, and Software. Rendered services amounted to $9 billion in 1987. Projected amounts for 1989 and 1992 are

4 "Information Services," U.S. Industrial Outlook 1989. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1989, p. 45- 2 .

61$13.8 billion and $23.2 billion, respectively. The average rate of growth of this sector is approximated at 24 percent. This figure is higher than the fast-growing U.S. market.5

The United Kingdom, Japan, France, and West Germany are the largest markets for U.S. electronic data bases. This necessitates additional funding for research and development in order for EC products to become competitive.

France is the forerunner of videotex systems worldwide. Its favorability within France can be traced to the free or low-cost fees for usage of terminal equipment, while other European countries have provided equipment only on a cost-basis. France plans to implement its system within the EC to promote more usage, and possibly to expand this position internationally.

While more effort must be put into the research of data processing, computer professional and electronic database services in order to achieve competitiveness, the results of a full-scale videotex industry might serve to offset the EC's trade deficit in services.

These are serious issues. But even more serious are some of the figures developed by the Cecchini report. The cost of existing duplicative standards and restricted public procurement would amount to about $6 billion out of a $20

5 Ibid., p. 45-3.

62billion market.6 These costs can and must be lowered withinthe context of a European Integration in order to ensure aviable world market presence.Figure 5 MEMBER STATE EXPENDITURES FOR

TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

10U.S. $ billions

8.6 1986: $20.7 bill J ^ 1990:$30.9b!ll

1995: $34.7 bill

°J?2 ° t 4? ° « 9 nK<B rfS .iB »rfn jfi °,03 N B GR DK IRL P LCountries

Source: European Affairs, 4 /88

Figure 5 shows the yearly expenditures on telecommunications by EC PTTs for the years 1986, 1990 and the projected figures for 1995. Clearly, one notices those countries who have not set telecommunication technologies as their main

6 Paolo Cecchini in Callingaert, Michael. "The 1992Challenge from Europe. Development of the EuropeanCommunity's Internal Market," Washington, D.C.: NationalPlanning Association, 1989, p.114.

priority.Those countries that have managed to acquire this

technology early on, such as Great Britain, France and West Germany, however, are not doing this with ease. The recent deregulation attempt in West Germany did not fare very well with PTT labor unions who faced losing over 500,000 public servant positions as a result of telecommunication privatization measures. But pressures from other economic entities managed to convince higher authorities of more relevant long-term gains.

But the ideal situation is not only to achieve domestic competition, but to maintain an internationally recognized market presence. This venture, however, involves many risks: Should national telecommunication markets be openedto general competition, one runs the risk of having more experienced international firms outbidding national infant industries. Once established, these international firms may create a quasi-monopolistic market system. Thus, the apprehension of national PTTs to privatize is great.

Global Aspirations vs. European FirmCompanies within the Member States have traditionally

been geared towards international markets. They are thus widely unaccustomed to working within an integrated European market. Not only is the framework in which they operated

often counterproductive to EC ambitions, but the failure to assimilate corporate cultures to these ideas can prevent their implementation. In order for economies of scale to work properly, a European identity must be achieved among the participants. European priorities must take precedence over individual global aspirations.

International RegulationInternational regulatory agents such as GATT (General

Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and ITU (International Telecommunications Union) provide guidelines for managing telecommunications issues. Ideally, these international organizations want to find general acceptance such that standardization can be met on a global scale. Currently, GATT is dealing specifically with the issues related to services.

Under the current GATT Uruguay Round, the "Group on the Negotiation of Services" (GNS) discusses issues directly related to telecommunications and information services. One of the main issues is the inclusion of formerly exempt national PTTs in the following agreements:

1) The addition of services to coverage by the principlesof the Government Procurement Code.

2) Protection of intellectual property rights essential for

many forms of services trade.3) Expansion of the Standards (Technical Barriers to Trade)

Code to include many forms of service standards.7

GATT members fear that the EC is likely to engage in managed trade in service and parts sectors not covered by the public procurement code. Similarly, in areas such as these the absence of exact reciprocity agreements further complicates the issue.

Public ProcurementPublic procurement, subject to Article 30 of the Treaty

of Rome, refers to the abolition of discriminatory customs duties that can limit cross-border trade. National governments/ PTTs use public procurement to secure national champion market shares. Exempt from this code are the following sectors: defence, transport, water, energy andtelecommunications. Incidently, approximately 80 percent of public procurement contracts within the EC fall into these sectors.8 Thus, one finds outside pressure helpful in

7 Atkins, Robert. "A Businessperson's Guide to Telecommunications and Information Services within the GATT/GNS Negotiating Process," Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 25 May 1989, p.60.

8 Gleed, Richard, Andrew Baker and Andrew Blacknell. "Deloitte's 1992 Guide," London, Dublin, Edinburgh, Munich: Butterworth's, 1989, p. 60.

changing this situation.In the telecommunications sector, if these national

procurement standards were alleviated, approximately 50 percent savings could be achieved EC-wide alone in the telephone switching equipment.9 Currently, seven different digital switching systems are functional within the EC; five of these are protected by national government procurement regulations. A common standard could bring enormous savings, specifically in the area of new services to counter protectionist tendencies.

While GATT deals mainly with the trade aspects of this issue, ITU is responsible for the technical questions. However, these organizations work closely together to prevent counterproductive legislative and overlapping jurisdiction as much as possible. Furthermore, other organizations such as CEN (European Standards Committee) and CENELEC (European Electro-technical Standards Committee) and the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations combine forces to achieve mutually compatible systems. A new institution, ETSI (European Telecommunication Standards Institute), based in Sophia- Antipolis near Nice is tasked with monitoring common technical standards and enforcing the compliance of generally agreed upon policies.

9 Ibid., p. 61.

67Community Aims

With the emergence of a Common Market, Community officials have greatly considered the implication of the international telecommunications market on Europe. In order to maintain a competitive stance, measures must be taken to accommodate these trends. A European telecommunications policy will not only serve as a vital means of achieving competitive market shares but will also create a foundation of integration from which further Community interests can be implemented.

The 1987 proposal 'Towards a Dynamic European Economy- Green Paper on the Development of the Common Market for Telecommunication Services and Equipment' sets as its main goals:

1) Interoperability among Member States2) Opening of the Market for terminal equipment3) Liberalization of Market for services4) Clear definition of PTT competencies5) Regulation of cost-oriented tariffs and value-added

Interoperability. Interoperability is to be achieved through a common telecommunications standard developed by European research agencies. Likewise, common testing procedures are developed to further alleviate unnecessary costs, such as transportation costs.

Open Market for Terminal Equipment. Free and unrestricted

trade in terminal equipment meeting European standards improve competition, drive down prices and provide for the utilization of the best possible quality. This will break the separately controlled national markets and telecommunications administrations' monopoly of importing and supplying terminals.

Liberalized Services Markets. All services, with the exception of voice telephone services, will be fully liberalized. However, as soon as voice telephony is combined with other technology, such as data processing, to perform more sophisticated duties it will fall under free market competition.

Clear Definition of PTT Competencies. Traditional PTTs, while maintaining certain exclusive or special rights to the network infrastructure, must provide sufficient and fair access capabilities to this network.

In West Germany, for example, the telecommunications branch of the Deutsche Bundespost. TELEKOM, is regulated by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. Only through a legislative act would it be possible to fully liberalize the entire sector. As this legislative act seems highly unlikely to implement, the German system calls for the separation of administrative functions dealt with by the

69Ministry and the operational and commercial activities taken care of by a market-oriented Board of Directors.

Guidelines for public procurement to establish non- discriminatory practice are to be developed within the overall regulation framework. Member States will be required to publish technical specifications for equipment to be used with their networks in order to promote open competition.

Regulation of Cost-oriented Tariffs and VATs. Tariffs are to be based on units of usage, not on the actual service fees, likewise the implementation of fair value added taxes. Thus, users will have the right to connect equipment obtained in the free market without being directly subject to administrative restrictions. Flat unit rates will be abolished and will give way to individual usage volumes.

Strategic PlanningThe Community must think in terms of long-range

benefits. With December 31, 1992 the target date for the Common Market, some time remains to develop a fairly compatible strategy. The ultimate goal is to maximize the benefits of an integrated market and to secure international competitiveness. The system must be capable of not only allowing for industries with outward projection but also for

70industries which can maintain international developments as well as promote innovative capabilities.

R&DNumerous projects have been designed to link university

research with industrial capacity. These "joint ventures" have been created to promote the interests of both the users and the producers and to function as a forum for implementing mutually desirable action.

This advance planning will prove to be beneficial to both parties. However, the problem that may arise is the time factor and whether enough consideration has been given to the treatment of non-European firms desiring market shares, but also capable of undercutting European bids. Likewise, international standards will demand national treatment for foreign firms, to avoid charges of a "Fortress Europe."

The main research projects are RACE (Research and Development in Advanced Communications Technologies in Europe) and ESPRIT (European Strategic Program for Research and Development in Information Technologies.) These as well as other projects have significantly led to increased cooperation between the private sector and academic research organizations and has significantly contributed to a "European Attitude." This is equally a campaign in creating

71a sentiment for long-term gain over the struggle for immediate narrow interests as it is a means to promote innovative creativity beneficial throughout the EC.

Research project Euronet DIANE overseas a transborder European economic and financial information network that provided over 600 databases to banks at flat rates. INSIS and CADDIA, via ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network,) will be connecting Member States to the European standard as soon as the early 90s.

Social DimensionWith these significant efforts to connect all European

Community societies, one cannot forget that as each individual society is a unique development in its own right and that it has specific experiences not shared by any other Member State. Bringing together these twelve highly diverse countries on an economic and political basis will have enormous social consequences. While the issue has been widely discussed in terms of economics and politics, cultural aspects of integration such as the possibility of societal cohesion, cultural adaptability and cross-cultural understanding have been largely neglected.

The question then becomes whether one can use the existing cultural diversity for the benefit of the system as a whole or whether one will resort to practices that might

72lead to a downplaying of individual differences in the attempt to create more unity, in a sense, homogenization. Several policies have been initiated with the intent of breaking down the social diversity and creating a more equal foundation for all Member States in view of a complete unification process.

Social PlanningOne of the main problems of integration will lie in the

management of the richer regions versus the poorer ones. Varying degrees of development emphasize the need for a comprehensive policy that will target the enormous socioeconomic diversity. The introduction of a European Social Charta intends to lay the foundation for the harmonization of the social dimension 1992 as a measure of improving overall economic growth and employment within the member states.

However, there are many concerns related to this move. One of the most crucial is "Social Dumping," namely the "movement of jobs and businesses away from countries of high wages and high standards for labor, social welfare and safety standards to countries with weaker requirements."10 This would mean that economically more prosperous countries

10 McCaffrey, Shellyn G. "Social Dimensions of EC 1992," Before the Council of International Compensation, September 20, 1989, p. 9.

73might be inclined to exploit the weaker countries .in terms of creating cheap markets and taking advantage of insufficient occupational regulations, social security and welfare programs.

Another issue is the "guest worker" phenomenon.Workers of less stable economies take advantage of their added mobility to earn higher wages in prosperous economies and then transfer these earnings to their home country.Many social and cultural problems come into play in this area, such as racial discrimination, miscommunication as a result of language barriers, and increased underutilization of skills and knowledge.

Similarly, the creation of new labor intensive regions in less developed areas cuts into the original job security of other regions. Strong opponents of this are the powerful German labor unions who fear for their job security in light of the opening of cheaper labor markets.

Actual figures demonstrate the current diversity among the Member States. Looking specifically at the issue of labor cost within the individual Community members, Figure 6 indicates the interrelationship between yearly earnings and yearly work time.

The model shows that there exist wide discrepancies among the individual members in terms of compensation of yearly work time. For example, a Portuguese worker barely

74Figure 6 YEARLY EARNINGS IN RELATION TO YEARLY

WORK TIME IN THE MEMBER COUNTRIES

DM in thousands h rs/y ea r36 2487

228725

202087

10 18875- -

1687NL UK DK IRL GR

Countries

- Yearly Earnings Work Time

Source: Qlobus, 1989

receives a fourth of a Luxembourg worker's pay, yet puts in over 300 more hours of work, that is, eight forty-hour work weeks more than the average German. In comparison, the countries at the lower end of the earnings scale end up contributing the most time at the work place, while countries such as Luxembourg and Germany compensate highly for less hours. Detailed scores can be found in the Appendix. In fact, one of the main strategies for the 90s will lie in the attempt to alleviate these problems of economic imbalance.

Declaration of European InterestThe importance of a community-wide telecommunications

75infrastructure to assist in integrative measures is increasingly stated. It is not only considered to be a main component of economic cohesion, but also a primary force to integrate economically weaker states into the Community.

Main measures to assist the economically weaker regions are the Agricultural, Social, and Regional Development Funds. These programs were developed to decrease the wide diversity within the Member States.

In cooperation with these Funds, the newly developed telecommunications sector, especially its RACE (Research on Advanced Communication Technologies for Europe) and STAR (Special Telecommunications Action for Regional Development) programs could implement vast developmental measures. By achieving a "Declaration of European Interest"11 status it would be allocated regular financial assistance from EC funds to support projects in the spirit of a People's Europe. Furthermore, cooperation from the European Investment Bank can significantly boost project implementation of new technological advancements and communication improvements.

Telecommunications can thus be used to significantly assist the less advantaged areas through its cost effectiveness and ability to function through socalled "electronic highways," high-speed digital links based on

11 Carpentier, "Telecommunications and 1992," p. 18.

76optical fibre and satellites. This revolutionizesdevelopmental efforts by overcoming vast obstacles of spaceand time. Figure 7 gives one example of how developmentfunds are currently used in an attempt to balance out thediversity among the Member States.

Figure 7 EC 1988 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT ALLOCATION (IN PERCENTAGES)

GREAT BRITAIN BELGIUM

NETHERLANDS 0 .9 /

PORTUGAL/ 11.2 /

SPAIN v 19.2

LUXEMBURGIf °’10 FRANCE ° 9.4DENMARK

GERMANY2.5

GREECE9.4

IRELAND3.8

ITALY25.2

Source: Ueber Europe, p. 17

Just recently, the Commission approved a spending of more than $2.3 billion over the next four years to assist the EC's economically less stable countries. This is only part of a $60 billion package designed to integrate the EC's periphery and less developed regions. More aid is to follow, but it is generally believed that by implementing

77new technology one can achieve even more positive results.

Increasingly, one recognizes that"one of the major objectives of [telecommunication] policy is to guarantee the integrity and long-term convergence of the Community network, integrating the peripheral regions and thus promoting the balanced economic development of the Community in an increasingly information-exchanging era."12

But according to the Wall Street Journal article of February 2, 1990, "Companies Must Wait Until End of '92 to Cash In on EC Telecommunications." Long legislative processes, especially those among the individual Member State governments are increasingly complicating issues. What seemed to be a quick integrative venture is now becoming a long and drawn-out procedure. But when implemented properly, it will have wide-ranging effects.

Telecommunications as a Role Model for Future SectorsAs the telecommunications sector aims at overcoming its

main barriers to integration- technical regulations, standards, and type-testing and certification- it moves towards its dual purpose of promoting internal cohesion and external projection of the European Community.

But the significance of this communication revolution lies therein that it is widely consumer-driven. Economic realities are necessitating a reassessment of current

12 McCaffrey, "Social Dimensions of EC 1992," p. 9.

national telecommunication policies and bringing home the realization that the costs of non-Europe in this area are phenomenal and must be taken seriously. Resulting innovation and creativity in the various telecommunication markets will eventually break monopoly markets throughout the EC. Significant contributions toward this have already been made.

While there exists no blueprint on how to go about this process, certain EC Member States have become forerunners in their adaptative policies. Germany, for instance, is implementing a procedure that is widely recognized as a possible route for other countries.

The German ExampleA special case exemplifying this situation is that of

Germany. German telecommunications were driven by the idea that a state-financed telecommunications infrastructure is the way to go to secure interconnectivity.

Prior to July 1, 1989, German telecommunications were administered by the PTT (Posts, Telegraph, and Telecommunications) branch of the Deutsche Bundespost (DBP). Headed by a Minister of Posts and Telecommunication, a member of the federal cabinet, the section's budget was not linked to the German federal budget but fell under the "special funds." This special status allowed it to enjoy

79overall economic independence.

Policy making and commercial interests exercised by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications were invariably linked and served as mutual fallbacks for legislation legitimacy. With this consolidated structure, general political aims could often be met in a roundabout way, providing quick fixes for various economic and social ills. Haphazard allocation of "special" telecommunications funds to nonrelated issues, bypassing federal funding, made way for misuses in the system, giving precedence to political will over economic necessity.13

In view of rising competitive ambition, this political bureaucratization was heavily criticized, necessitating a reevaluation of its monopoly situation. With the ideas of liberalization of the telecommunications branch of the DBP, came also the fears of a discontinued cross-subsidization of the traditional postal and banking services. The seventy percent of overall revenues from telecommunications services had helped make the deficits of the other two sectors viable.

Decision for Reform:The attempt to bring German telecommunications up to

13 Pfeiffer, Gunther and Bernhard Wieland. Telecommunications in Germany. An Economic Perspective. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1990, p. 7.

international speed through introducing competition and opening the market to private enterprise, was driven by economic pressures and the ideal of securing Germany's position in the international sphere. The proposed reorganization of the German DBP attempted to deal with the seemingly impossible task of coordinating its duties of universal service with those of a more profit-oriented commercial enterprise that it intended to become. Without the proper basis upon which to build such an enterprise, significant structural changes were necessary, providing the organizational unity of the DBP, layed down in the federal constitution and upheld by political pressure, would not be severed.

Organizational changes occurred on the horizontal level. In creating a split in regulatory and commercial functions, the Ministry still maintains its regulatory functions. But the former three subdivisions turn into individual public enterprises. Deutsche TELEKOM (telecommunications), Deutsche Bundespost POSTDIENST (letter and parcel post), Deutsche Bundespost POSTBANK (banking), each holds its own board of directors and supervisory board. Held together through the Deutsche Bundespost board of directors, the unity is maintained and cross-subsidization is still made possible. Legislation regarding the new organization, the POSTSTRUKTURGESETZ, allocates three

81separate "special funds" accounts from which the individual enterprises function. While the telecommunication sector can be regarded as a forerunner in the integrative process, it will nevertheless serve as a valuable model for the integration of sectors to follow.

The case of Germany is a clear example of how the restructuring of traditional telecommunication systems for mainly economic purposes is having clear reverberations in social contexts such as employment schemes and administrative culture but also in the organization and maintenance of technology itself. Faced with a new outlook on the situation, societies entering into the information revolution must be adaptable to its challenges.Uncontrolled technology influx can neither fully serve the purposes of the market nor set the individual citizens' mind at ease.

Communications technology in specific has been recognized for its inherent unifying ability but also brings with it considerable disintegrative features. Balancing the two out will remain a challenge for any society eager to make the move to the latest technologies. While policy makers and specialists are battling out the specifications of these technologies, it would seem only logical to also address the consequences of these innovations.

Society's quest for progress is not limited to

achieving higher economic gain. More than that, the needs of the individual have become central issues as the new developments are modifying his/her relationship to the various components of society. And at the forefront of these changes are the communication and information technologies, incorporating economic, political, and sociocultural integration. It is for these reasons that the telecommunications sector of the EC has been chosen as one of the leading industries in view of 1992.

With these emerging developments one would ask how, if at all, the European Community attempts to deal with its society's leap into the information society and the effects thereof. As the previous section illustrated, there exists no universal concept of the Information Society, nor an exact definition of how this new society should look. There are, however, generally agreed upon characteristics which constitute the transition into a more information/knowledge oriented social environment. Assessing which route the EC will take, namely utopian, synergistic, or over-commoditized track, is premature at this point. But one can start by investigating the situation in terms of its ability to take on these challenges. That is the topic of the next section.

Chapter III EUROPE AS AN INFORMATION SOCIETY

The EC's strategy to not only fully integrate its economic and political spheres, but ultimately also its social structures, poses a myriad of questions as to how this can possibly be achieved by the available institutions in the allotted time and with a minimum of counterproductive actions. The previous section highlighted how critical information and communication technologies have become in promoting overall economic growth and in building a Community infrastructure that can take on global challenges in economic, political and social arenas.

As the completion of this enormous technological feat draws near, the main question to be asked here is how much of an issue have social consequences of an emerging information infrastructure become. Few communication policy specialists in Europe have actually gone beyond studying the technical aspects of creating a single European market for advanced technologies for the simple reason that European policy-making is advancing so slowly and getting hung up on basic standardization and implementation issues. Not only has information evolution not yet become a central issue of

the Community, nor are the considerations related to information society generally addressed, but not even is one attempting to evaluate the EC as a whole in terms of its information society status.

German political scientist Klaus Grewlich as one of the few to approach the issue of Europe as an information society, makes a case for the increased need to bring these issues into general debate. While still rather sketchy, his account of the 'European style' information society at least attempts to identify its relevant components.

Grewlich contends that most research on the aspects of information society in Europe have been mainly geared towards investigating the effects the rationalizing of the information and communication technologies will have on society, specifically its work force. This clearly negative attitude is hindering any type of progress on making good on many of the positive effects felt by their implementation.

Facing the Double ChallengeGrewlich sees a double challenge faced by societies of

an information age: On the one hand a technological- economical challenge, and a socio-cultural on the other hand. The techno-economical challenge finds its balance in the interplay between the market mechanism and legal policy; that is, laws define the environment, but the market still

85determines the success or failure of technology

(technological determinism.)1In analyzing the socio-cultural sphere of Europe,

Grewlich remarks that no matter how accurate the policy mix may be, it alone cannot compensate for the missing market mechanism. Therefore, the socio-cultural sphere is not capable of achieving maximum efficiency as such an interplay of market forces does not exist with which one could better determine the needs of the consumers.

Figure 8

Double Challenge

Techno-econom ica l S o c io -cu ltu ra l

Legal Environm ent Legal Environm ent

♦M arke t M echanism

( t e c h n o l o g i c a ld e t e r m i n i s m )

Lacking a M arket M echanism

L a c k of:

- R u l e s ( Interpl ay)- S y s t e m a l t o g h e t h e r- C o m p o n e n t s (De f i n i t i on )

Such a mechanism could be achieved, however, after a

1 Grewlich, Klaus W. Eurooa im alobalen Technoloaiewettlauf. Per Weltmarkt wird zum Binnenmarkt. Giitersloh: (forthcoming), pp. 157.

86complex interplay of various societal forces. One would have to establish a common ground. This common ground is the necessary basis upon which any further cooperation can be founded. This would include a definition of the market components (players), how these components interact (roles), as well as the options (rules of the game.) With this in hand, the market for information could begin to function.

While such mottos as Modernization, Universalism, or ISDN— New vein for the information society, capture the attention of the consumers, there have been few noteworthy campaigns in the socio-cultural sphere that have achieved such significance. Grewlich notes one example of how such a campaign in Europe could look: The environmental protectioncampaign in Europe. Initiated by small groups persistently agitating the general public, once endorsed by larger groups or even transnational organizations and firms, it had an unstoppable upward thrust and is still gaining popularity. The actual success of such a campaign has proven to be its strength to penetrate into the ranks of society in general to create awareness and furthermore to initiate action. And the environmental campaign achieved this by means of mobilizing a wide range of the population and bringing them together on issues to engage in constructive dialogue from which productive action could follow. More importantly, environment issues enjoyed a wide array of political

87backing.

With obvious negative problems of new technology (data and personal security, informational self-determination) there are significant hurdles to overcome. But if such a campaign were to be achieved, it would benefit all parties involved. One of the main problems to be overcome is the acceptance-problematic. This is the main issue to work on before any further steps can be taken. The campaign would effectively have to be "sold to the public" such as the local public relations campaign. Such an attempt was made with Europe 1992- A campaign to achieve social integration, a European identity that would create a common ground for all European "citizens." In the process of this, technology experts not only has a highly powerful policy thrust, setting the agenda for a variety of questions to include social and cultural considerations.

Public discussion naturally will concentrate primarily on the negative effects. The idea for policy then is to emphasize the positive ones so that in the cost-benefit analysis, pro-technology policy will come out stronger. Instead of having a primarily reactive policy toward technological innovation, it is necessary to think in advance in order to achieve a pro-active, or prophylactic technology attitude, giving more room for user input. In this way, technological acceptance will be greater as well.

Grewlich is not highly optimistic about a future societal participation in Europe, but believes that one of the main setbacks will be that the public will be concerned with immediate and short-term effects rather than long-term gains out of a lack of confidence in existing promises, just as the public will maintain its critical attitude toward present developments, such as rationalizing effects and loss of jobs. A negative image will always be more persistent and have greater effects than will a positive image; positive images need to be prepared well in advance.

Technology implementation is fast-moving and is so absorbent that one would tend to rationalize in the very process of which as well, foregoing possible proactive steps that might not have meant simpler implementation in the beginning but possibly greater long-term advantages. Present-day technology has also made the speed of the implementation process change, oftentimes creating a lag in policy, and possibly a policy void which can quickly be abused by entrepreneurial actors. Thus, the various EC campaigns to ameliorate the situation to create optimism and promote trust in the system. Trust creation here is meant in the sense of the EC institution's projection of the trust in itself through the Single European Act, showing commitment to speed and dedication; trust in the policymaking process; in technologies of the information society;

89as well as in a Social Europe.

Technology is seen as a necessity. The question is how to optimize its uses while attempting to minimize, or downplay its effects, and more importantly, how to insure that the public perceives these effects in the most favorable light.

The EC is greatly affected by changes abroad and within the specific industries. All the while, Japan has evolved as a major driving force of creating and implementing technological advances, acting as a role model for some countries to follow, but compounding to the international pressure of others.

In the Shadows of the Japanese Success StoryPost-war Japan, in many respects, is still quite new to

many parts of the world. A major economic player, Japan never ceases to amaze the rest of the world through its capacity to adjust to economic pressures. Japan's keen sense of direction has enabled it to become a major international figure. In the area of science and technology, its role is irrefutable; likewise its ability to achieve economic gain. But there is clearly a vital underlying framework which has been the foundation for its past progress in the industrialized era.

By means of telecommunications, information flows arebecoming increasingly popular, but more difficult tomonitor. While one can establish trade agreements on thetransfer of computer hardware and other necessarytechnology, actual information is crossing national borderson a daily basis, having apparent effects on value systemsand national identity. Japan's former isolationist policyhas enabled it to maintain a strong cultural entitynecessary for withstanding changing realities. Eventhroughout the opening of Japan during the pre-Meiji era,Japan has managed to balance foreign values with its own,its main goal being to remain as self-sufficient aspossible. However, according to Amaya Naohiro, ExecutiveDirector at the Dentsu Institute for Human Studies,

"the main reason Japan was able to achieve miraculous economic development during the Meiji era and after World War II lies in the fact that the system, ethics, and lifestyle of Japan's society were changed substantially and appropriately at the time Western technology was introduced."2

Extending his theory to the future, he claims "we will haveto further change the system, ethics, and lifestyle ofsociety when entering the electronics-informationcivilization as well."3

2 Amaya, Naohiro, "The Dawning of A New Era, Toward theCivilization of Electronics and Information," Speaking of Japan. May 1988, p. 19.

3 Ibid., p. 19.

91Mr. Amaya introduces an important issue. He argues

that gradual changes in society are inevitable in view of the progress in information technology. Afterall, more intercultural communication is bound to introduce different values and attitudes.

George R. Packard, Dean of SAIS, the Johns Hopkins University, adds to the discussion. He considers the following trends as the major changes in Japan in relation to new high technology.

Firstly, he states, Japan has realized that high technology is the field which has the most promise for the future. Japan is heading towards a major leadership role in this area, as it leaves behind former complications such as lack of resources, leading to a virtual "utopian information society." Secondly, an education reform is increasingly enabling openness, creativity, freedom and independence in the learning process. Innovative thinking is being encouraged. New efforts are found in the area of software development, which had formerly been overshadowed by the efforts in the hardware industry. Thirdly, Japan's growing enterprise mentality is necessitating a shift from just work and technology to a combination of the two, enhanced by capital and management skills. Fourthly, a new consumerism is developing. More regard to the quality of life is becoming a part of daily concern.

Having achieved an internationally competitive hardware capability, the Japanese seem to be moving toward more information independence. But whether this independence will be shared on a global scale or possibly within the Pacific Rim countries, ASEAN, or not at all, is still too soon to predict. Japan will no longer be a predominately "receiving country;" soon it will also be exporting its values and attitudes, by means of technology and information, such as Japanese views, its consensus- mindedness and its idea of group relations within an organized social structure (exemplified in the phenomenon called nihoniin ron- the study of Japanese people and culture, originating in the late 60s).

Many argue that a specific Western-oriented technology culture will evolve. Whether an overall global Japanese departure from traditional, Western ideas in technology will occur, is also one interesting question. But many questions such as these will be left to future policy makers. With respect to the deregulation of its telecommunications system, gradual changes, such as redefining the government/business relationship, can be observed but do not justify a major reorientation.

Yet demand for telecommunication services is high. Not only do the private and governmental sectors profit

93enormously through these new technological advancements, the private person accepts these Innovations as well. In fact, "the field of telecommunications is the infrastructure for a 'sophisticated information-oriented society.7"4 The MPT- Ministry of Post and Telecommunications, the Telecommunications Bureau, as well as the Communications Policy bureau determine the control and guidance of the telecommunications industry of Japan.

Obviously, we are observing a shift in priorities in Japanese from quantity to quality and from nationalism to internationalism, the effects of which need to be more carefully assessed. Telecommunications policy is a good indicator on how the governing structure sets its priorities with respect to new technology.

The Japanese success story not only puts pressure on the EC in that it serves as a role model for achieving the goal of rebuilding itself from a war-stricken community, but even moreso that by capitalizing on the latest technological innovations, it has turned itself into one of the most powerful economic giants of our time. While it will certainly be a hard act to follow, it nevertheless will be a major incentive for the EC to continue its strategy. But in view of US and Japanese dominance in the field, the difficult route must be taken in order to achieve the global

4 Ibid, p.15.

94power it has set out to become.

Evaluating Structural Change in Europes' SocietiesWith these international changes in mind, the European

Community is definitely not operating in a vacuum. Instead, it has to balance outside pressures with internal challenges, a task which had never been anticipated to be so difficult. Changing global realities are pressuring EC policies while individual Member States are fighting for their national sovereignty and self-determination.

Information and communication technology is considered to be the main thread of this development, but as economic and political aspects of it are staying in the foreground of the discussion, one is not properly taking into consideration some of the effects it will have on societies themselves. We do not know exactly how societies will change as a result of implementing advanced technologies into their spheres, although there are theories as to how it might look, as discussed in Chapter 1 of this paper. But aside from all these abstract theoretical assumptions there exist several methods of research that quantitatively apply the concepts of Information Society and attempt to present matters in a more concrete way. Their intent is to evaluate structural changes in society and to relate them to aspects of information society such that would give insight into the

matter beyond theoretical and assumptive thought.95

Existing MethodologiesThe following section introduces three major

quantitative methods that have emerged as a response to increased research on the changing information environments. Initiated in Japan, quantitative studies on Information Society have largely supplemented theoretical work on understanding changes faced through technology implementation. From Japan, this tradition moved to the U.S. academic environment, where it is still the focus of much criticism and debate. While these methods might not be generally accepted and scientifically not as specific as other quantitative methods, they can be used to show significant trends. But then again, qualitative methods in general receive criticism from all camps.

Nevertheless, the methods introduced here stem from an important research tradition of studying structural change in an information society, namely the topic of this inquiry on the European Community.

The Johoka Shakai StudiesThe first in a series of three Johoka Shakai studies

was undertaken by the Research Institute of Telecommunications and Research (RITE) in Tokyo. The

criteria measured by the Johoka Shakai Approach include: a) stock and flow, b) distribution and c) access to information within a particular society. By studying these criteria as a process through time, one attempts to gain an understanding of trends in the past with which to more adequately assess the current society. These assessments can then lead to policies in almost all levels of society, whether one looks at issues of information flow, developmental frameworks, impact of communication on other sectors, or concepts introduced by social engineering debates. Similarly, these concepts were designed to be utilized on an international and comparative level as well as on a national level. For by comparing one's own country against others one can logically determine the degree of informationalization of each of those countries surveyed.

From this study, two information indices were developed: 1) The "Joho Keisu" (Information Ratio), the ratio between expenditure for communication activities and household expenditure, and 2) The Johoka Index, the mean value of the following four information categories:

A. Amount of Information1. Telephone Calls per person per year2. Newspaper circulation per 100 people3. Books published per 1,000 people4. Population density (a measure of interpersonal

communication)B. Distribution of Communication Media

1. Telephone Receivers per 100 people2. Radio Sets per 100 households

973. Television Sets per 100 households

C. Quality of Information Activities1. Proportion of Service Workers in Total Labor

Population2. Proportion of Students in Total Appropriate

Age GroupD. Information Ratio

1. Information expenditures as a proportion oftotal expenditures

With the help of these indices, the Japanese assessed their information capacity relative to other post industrialized countries. Data based on a time scale of successive years indicated overall trends. Using this data, a linear regression could be calculated to show future estimates.

In addition, one could evaluate individual information categories as to their viability in providing information capacity. Detailed analyses were made of Japan's standing relative to other post industrial countries, introducing a range of comparative communication research.

A later study was undertaken by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Japan, 1975. Led by Tetsuro Tomita, the resulting study "Information Census Flow" was concerned with the actual information flow within a johoka shakai.The emerging importance of information within a society and its implications on social and economic development became the focus of this research.

98The framework under which this research was developed

included information as "any symbol, signal or image having meaning either to the sender or to the receiver."5 And the flow of this information is narrowed to the following three criteria:

1) Transfer of information from one point toanother

2) Flow initiated at sender's will3) Sender and receiver are humans or work at

human's willFrom this detailed data analysis on the relationships

between information supply and consumption were made. The units of measurement used for this purpose became quantitative assessments of "the word." Sophisticated conversion methods of pictures, film, and music enabled incorporation of non-verbal messages.

By multiplying these achieved flow volumes by distance, one determined

"relative social importance, or 'share' in a sense, of various different transportation media ... usually expressed by the index gained by multiplying the total number of passengers, or the total weight of cargoes, by the distances of their travels."6

Thus one could more narrowly define relative importance ofindividual media based on their volumes of output versusconsumption. Including a third dimension, output cost,

5 Ito, Youichi, "The Johoka Shakai Approach to theStudy of Communication in Japan," Mass Communication Review Yearbook. Volume 2, Sage: 1981, p. 680.

6 Ibid., p. 687/8.

99further demonstrated the cost effectiveness relative to utilization.

The findings that came out of this study were revolutionary in a sense that factual data could be presented to accompany initial assumptions about a changing information society. Information capacity characteristics could be pinpointed to the very medium, thus providing policy makers with an unprecedented tool of analysis.

Specific findings that were achieved gave insight to valuable policy information overload: increasing volumes of supply countered by minimal increase in consumption. Considering developments in information processing, this information overload could present significant difficulties in society. The yearly increase in volumes were necessitating specific regulation of this information explosion.

Secondly, mass media information flow has been giving way to individualized, two-way flow of information. Personalized media channels are thus becoming the trend of the future, according to johoka shakai figures, becoming by far more popular than traditional print media.

These realizations, no doubt, were influential in promoting new policy formulation. These resulting policies evolved into a unique combination of information production,

quality of life studies and governmental/university/industry cooperation. One analyzed economic forces with respect to new telecommunications structures, improvement of current media, and creation of new information services such as interactive media.

The US/Japan CensusDuring the early 80s a debate arose among leading

Western scholars, predominantly in the US, on the applicability of such an approach. Visiting Professor Ithiel de Sola Pool at the RITE institute constructed yet a third version of Johoka Shakai in 1982. This approach was designed to conduct simultaneous research in both the US andin Japan. However, some modifications in methodology weremade. The indices now being studied were:

a) volume of words consumed in millions per annumb) volume of words produced in millions per annumc) cost of production per annumd) cost of transmission per annume) cost of consumption per annum

The major change from the previous approach was the exclusion of image data. The researchers regarded the conversion rates too unscientific. Instead, more sophisticated means were established to narrowly define the cost aspects. Eighteen forms of media were surveyed, ranging from all types of mass media to point-to-point media (telephone calls, first class mail, facsimile, etc.)

Conclusions following both the US and Japanese studies led to inferences on new information societies. The postindustrial/informational societies are highly characteristic of: information explosion, a growing overload of messages for humans to absorb, and an evolution of traffic largely shaped by costs.7

Amidst the explosion of information produced, the volume of information consumed is behaving more stagnant. Thus, one observes the emergence of growing selectivity in information as well as information management as exemplified through computer databases and other information services; and from this evolves increased reliance on electronic mail. The main reasons for its popularity, speed and cost- effectiveness, are only a few of the trends for the future.

Data communication in general is having enormous effects on combining various qualities of mass and point-to- point communication. Additionally, one must consider the attributes of computer communication to include value-added processing.

By adding the qualitative aspect of "value" into the framework of consideration of the US/Japan census, more judgement in terms of societal effects can be made. Some of these judgments include Information Explosion, Information Overload, or Selective Information Consumption.

7 Pool, p. 16.

A clear refining process, in the definition of methodology can be observed. This redefinition, coming through interaction with other scholars, predominantly from the US, shows the value in truly collaborative studies, as called for during a conference at the University of Washington, 1980. The progression of the nature of the study, in addition to the actual results of the various studies, can be essential for the understanding of the transition phase from industrial society to informational study as introduced by Tadao Umesao. This framework not only includes a method of evaluating individual media, but also how communication media can interact within society in general. When observed as a progression of communication developments, necessary adjustments need to be made to accommodate changing realities.

This method of study allows a sequenced investigation of information flow and includes an adjustment variable comparable to an economic inflation index. But nevertheless, it proves to be a valuable tool for measuring comparative communication characteristics as a progression in a maturing society. It emphasizes information volume and flow and compares this to the information infrastructure and its capabilities. It studies society's overall communicative ability with the actual communication habits by gathering quantitative data on the production and

103consumption in the relative communication areas. In a sense, this structural approach enables not only the monitoring of the overall system dynamics, but also lets one easily pin-point potential problem areas and to regulate them accordingly.

While this is a good way to influence the various economic indicators of the system, the individual person's input and his/her evaluation of the environment still remains disregarded. Out of particularly these Johoka Shakai studies evolves a trend of more individual-oriented studies, notably those by James Dyer and his colleagues, who take a more pragmatic view of how the communication structure of a society changes and how it is perceived by those affected by it.

The following section introduces another major model attempting to evaluate society's situation in view of a changing technological environment. As opposed to the Johoka Shakai studies, the resulting analysis of this new model emphasizes structural change in the actual living environment of the population of a country as well as investigates interaction among the people as a result of this changing environment. In a sense, it is the closest means of analysis of the communications participant rather than the infrastructure leading to participation.

104Public Acceptability Study

In their attempt to measure a leading aspect of the success of the information society -the public acceptability of the new information-based economy- James Dyer and his colleagues investigate the relationships of various attitudes held by the public on a changing environment.Their overall assertion that a "positive attitude about science and technology is a necessary value in the cultural and political milieu of a nation undergoing modernization," is measured by means of inquiring into the public's basic attitudes of science and technology, and the related change taking place in society.8 Dyer et al. conducted a poll in Texas in 1986 as part of a study to determine trends of acceptability of new technology.

For the analysis, four variables were created:- Attitude- Involvement- Knowledge- Evaluation.

The attitude, involvement and knowledge components are closely related, speculate the authors. A positive attitude toward technology will create more interest in the conduct of technology changes and will subsequently contribute to the acquiring of more knowledge on the subject. More involvement in technology not only increases familiarity

8 Williams, Frederick. Measuring the Information Society. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage Publications, 1988, p. 192.

105with it but can lead to a better understanding, an understanding that is capable of rendering a more positive attitude towards it. The three issues, no matter how one chooses to look at them, are in a greater way so interrelated that any one of them can be a significant factor for the integration of new technology.

The fourth factor, evaluation of the technology, can be a determinant of the others as well. Just as evaluation is a result of the overall atmosphere of the first three factors, it can impinge on the relationships between them.

On the individual level, each person's evaluation of technological change will be based on his/her experience with prior technology. Held attitudes, as well as involvement and knowledge are representative of the level of technology to which the individual is accustomed. Dyer et al. introduce the social criteria of income and education as well as occupation, as the main influences of how the individual perceives his/her place in the technology environment. Based on the individual's placement, he/she is then classified as a "user" or a "used" person, a "user" being one profiting from technological advancement and "used" referring to a person not acquiring any gain, rather, losing more in the process.

Pelto Perrti discusses a similar scenario, using technology "winners" and "losers," the result of increased

social stratification.9 According to Perrti, this stratification comes from the increased dominance of new technology in society. On the one hand, technology raises the costs of the individual's participation in a changed environment, while at the same time, resources become delocalized as a result of modified component structures and distribution processes.

In his study of the snowmobiles in Finland, the resource was energy, and the distribution of this energy played a main factor on the acceptance of snowmobiles into society as a means of modernization. In an information- society, the resource becomes information. This information resource, when de-localized, has a similar effect on the power-play among involved actors as did the snowmobiles, a prime contributor of modifying relationships.

Based on varying financial, personal, and physical capabilities, each individual faces the challenges in different ways. The more affluent are able to invest, while the poorer are left behind. This leads to a widening of the social gap rather than evening out the stratification.

But Pertti rightly argues that there is more to assessing individual differences than just looking at physical preparedness:

9 Pelto, Pertti J. The Snowmobile Revolution: Technology and Social Change in the Arctic. Menlo Park, California: Cummings Publishing Company, 1973, p. 178.

107If we direct our theoretical and practical

concerns to the prediction and explanation of different successes and failures in a changing social scene, we should look closely at data about individuals, their information-processing capabilities, and their different decision-making styles.10

Thus, adaptation of technology is based on environmental factors, but also upon the cultural patterns inherent in society. Each environment is highly specific and must be examined individually. It is difficult to formulate a generic operational procedure on how best to implement new technology. But unless prior research is done, the winners will be sure to overpower the losers by monopolizing the decision making.

Dyer et al., in a series of public opinion polls in 1986 attempted to evaluate Texan responses to technology and its evolving effects on society for determining some specific relationships between the individual evaluation criteria cited above. Their main findings included a strong relationship between income and increased involvement in the technological sphere. Involvement, in turn, showed high correlation with positive attitudes towards technology, suggesting that a positive bearing on the resulting changes stemmed from the individual's ability to participate

10 Ibid., p. 179.

108financially in the new environment.

Knowledge about technology was highly dependant on the criteria of education, attitudes, and involvement, in that order of significance, as well as a slight preference of males over females towards increased knowledge.

Judging from the close correlations between involvement-attitude and attitude-knowledge, as well as involvement-knowledge, the authors suggest an overall interrelation between the three criteria, outruling any major causal relationships among them.11

Figure 9

Involvement Income

Attitude

Knowledge Education

Evaluation

prim ary criteria secondary criteria

The main causal relationships, however, seem to exist from

11 Williams, Measuring the Information Society, p. 200.

109the component of income to involvement as well as education to knowledge, which interestingly integrates their secondary criteria (income and education) with their four main factors. The strong link from income to involvement would suggest that income plays a major role in how technology is accepted in general terms, that is within the involvement- attitude-knowledge environment. It is in this environment that the greatest distinction between the "users" and the "used," those more willing to adapt versus those not so inclined, becomes apparent.

The educational link, on the other hand, is highly determinant in that it directly affects knowledge about technology and subsequently the held attitudes. As opposed to the adaptability factor of the first main environment, the second environment is the general indicator of the participant's status in the technology sphere. Higher education, better knowledge, and a positive attitude will determine the prime actors in the overall field.

Following the paths of either high adaptability or high status constitutes a significant amount of participatory ability. Perrti points out that while income may be highly dependent on education, status is not necessarily a result of high involvement but rather of achievements elsewhere.

Interestingly enough, the knowledge factor seems to be a pivotal factor in both environments, in clear support of

Daniel Bell's assertions on the knowledge-based society.For the purpose of this study, I have chosen to

investigate whether the above mentioned interrelations have any major bearings on the conduct of European Community policy.

Quantitative Analysis on Structure in EuropeIn the year 1977 the European Community consisted of

nine official Member States: Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Initiated in the early 70s, a series of public opinion polls, under the name of Euro-Barometer, were taken in the various Member States intended to measure such issues as awareness of and attitudes toward the European Community and its institutions, perception of quality of life and satisfaction with life, among other topics. Euro- Barometer 7 deals specifically with issues of science and technology in the European Community. The survey was conducted in April 1977 with 9,056 respondents from the nine Member States and Northern Ireland. Respondents were chosen on the basis of representative samples from the individual country populations of all citizens fifteen years of age and over.

Using the data collected by the European Commission, I have reconstructed the research design by Dyer and his

colleagues in order to determine how relevant the stated issues were in the Community States in the year 1977.

The responses from the 1977 public opinion poll wereutilized to construct the four variables of Attitude, Involvement, Knowledge, and Evaluation. For each of the variables, relevant data was used to determine theindividual country strengths in that particular field. Arank order among the countries in terms of numerical strength values established relative relationships which could then be plotted on a scale. In the following, first a general definition of the constructed variables:

Attitude- This index determines the respondents' attitudes towards technology and the European Community's conduct of policy. In order to determine the degree of attitude, this category consists of positive responses on the issues of the Community's political efficacy, negative responses on the role of the respondents' national governments, the respondent's positive replies toward science as well as its representations.

Involvement- Involvement in the technological sphere consists of comments on the respondents' political interests, evaluations of EEC affairs, as well as personal political practice as an indicator of the respondents'

112active interest and participation in the political and scientific environment.

Knowledge- The knowledge index measures the amount of information available to the respondent on technological and scientific issues. It inquires on access to information from the media, the respondents' ability to engage in discussions on certain issues, and whether the respondent has an opinion on several others, as an indicator of the respondent's competency to form valid opinions.

Evaluation- This index attempts to gauge the respondents' evaluations of the technological and scientific sphere in terms of its contribution toward positive societal change. Issues covered include a positive attitude toward EEC membership, changes in quality of life, growing importance of science and positive results of scientific endeavors.

For each of the variables a rank order among the countries was created to show the relative significance of the individual issues to each country. The original data consisted of nominal values of the responses, whereby different values of n were operationalized in each of the countries. In order to engage in any type of comparison, I applied the weight values constructed by Rabier and

113Inglehardt for attaining values consistent with their respective country's contribution to the total population of the European Community.12

To account for the difference in sampling numbers, the researchers developed weight values which are applied to the nominal values when desiring comparative data. The nominal data is useful for making inferences on individual countries, but when applying the data for cross-national investigations, it is necessary to adjust the values by indices expressing the countries' sample in terms of its population contribution to the overall Community. In each of the Euro-Barometer studies, the weight values vary as the sample size of each country varies. The weight values for Euro-Barometer 7: Science and Technology in the European Community are as follows:

France 1.45Belgium 0.35Netherlands 0.45Germany 2.21Italy 1.89Luxembourg 0.04Denmark 0.18Ireland 0.10United Kingdom 1.72 North Ireland 0.18 13

Multiplied by their respective weight values, the results

12 Rabier, Jacques-Rene, and Ronald Inglehardt. Euro- barometer 7: Science and Technology in the European Community. April 1977. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, 1980, p.V.

13 Rabier and Inglehardt, p. V.

114could be used for a rank-order of the countries in relation to one another in terms of positive commitment to each of the indicators.14

The next step consists of determining the secondary criteria of Income and Education. Statements of the five highest income brackets of each of the countries were taken as indicators of medium to high income. Higher education was determined by statements on completion of full-time education at the ages of 22 and older. Again, for these two criteria, weighing factors determined the values for comparison, with which rank orders for the countries were established.

EC Structure 1977:In a series of graphs, I will plot the structure of the

Member States' positions within the scientific environment and determine the differences, if any, to the newer environment 1990.

The following graphs measure the amount of relative contribution to individual criteria governing the societal

14 See Appendix for printouts of exact values. Appendix1 lists all relevant criteria that were used to construct the four main variables of Attitude, Involvement, Knowledge,and Evaluation; Appendix 2 includes the conversion charts that change the nominal data into weighted values; Appendix3 shows the Lightyear (Decision Support Software) modelsthat rank the countries according to their strength on theindividual variables. Based on the values gained fromLightyear, the strengths could then be plotted.

115environment in relation to technology. 'Relative' is used in the sense of one country's strength on the issues as compared to the other countries. A high ranking of one country on a specific issue will not necessarily mean that it has the greatest strength in that area, but rather that in comparison with the other countries, based on population size and capability, it enjoys the highest amount of representation in that area as compared to the other countries' situations.

As the sample data has been filtered through a number of statistical programs, the end values that are arrived at have no significant meaning. The numbers are used merely to enable a rank order of the countries according to their strength on an issue and to plot their relationships. These models are designed to show structure and structural change rather than provide high level statistical correlation coefficients, as did Dyer and his colleagues, who could merely show relations between two factors at one time.

The final model shows that there are relative differences among the Member States in terms of the four variables. The countries were plotted in terms of ranking are determined by positive attitude towards technology and the European Community's conduct of policy.

Countries with a high relative attitude include Ireland, Luxembourg, Denmark and Belgium. Italy, Germany,

116France and Great Britain have established themselves on the low end of the attitude scale. But more importantly than this is the observation that there is a relative decline in Attitude and that the Involvement factor - initiative to participate in the decision sphere, as well as financial ability to take part- runs fairly parallel to this development. The variables of Knowledge about technology and the overall Evaluation of whether society has benefitted, both show a similar trend, although not as strongly. All variables depict a gradual downward trend.

Figure 10 OVERALL EVALUATION: ATTITUDE ABOUT INTEGRATION

Common MarketEvaluation

Ranking Attitude4000 20003600 -m

3000 4

2500 ■'/. /.2000

1500 ■ /, '/ \ 7 '/1000

'/■.-% 7. : %500 ^o500

Ire L DK B NL NIL GB F GCountries

Attitude Y//X Involvement H+H Knowledge KSN3 Evaluation

Based on the 1977 data, the countries show similar relationships among the factors of Involvement, Knowledge,

117and Evaluation when plotted against overall Attitude. The downward trend suggests that certain countries are more motivated to accept technology than others and that based on the differences, varied levels of adaptation are bound to occur. While the data does not take into consideration the ability to participate in the technology arena, it merely tries to depict social acceptability of new technological advances.

Figure 11

I User/Non-User

Involvement Income

Attitude

Knowledge Education

Evaluation

prim ary criteria secondary criteria

In their attempt to explain the relationship among the four variables, Dyer et al. assert that two main tracks can distinguish high acceptability from low acceptability.

These two tracks are I: User/Non-User classification, categorized through Income versus

Involvement/Attitude/Knowledge and track II: Status, determined by Education versus Attitude/Knowledge.

Figure 12

User/Non-UserComparison

Others Income4000 120

3500 1003000

802500 £/2000 i 60

1500 401000

20500M s i7T~i M - f R f - g t n .

GIre Lux DK NL NIL F GBBCountries

—— Income SZ! Involvement S 3 Attitude ES3 Knowledge

Track I sets up the relationship between available income and respective participation in the technology field and technology decision making. The assertion is that higher levels of income will provide more means of engaging in technology-oriented tasks, resulting in more experience with alternative methods. Knowledge of new technology will promote clearer opinions of its implementation and subsequently will encourage users of voicing their needs more frequently.

Figure 12 shows clear distinctions between those

119countries with higher levels of involvement and attitude as plotted against income. There are no drastic differences in the knowledge factor, although higher values seem to follow suit with higher levels of income. The overall trend depicts a relative decrease in involvement, attitude and knowledge with decreasing values of income, in support of Dyer's assertion that the four factors are closely related.

Figure 13

StatusOthers Education2000

isoo -y>

IRE F I B DK NL G GB NIL LCountries

Education I'//A Attitude ttHii Knowledge

Track II, on the other hand, as plotted in Figure 13, dealing with the status issue, is not so clear. Higher education, in the most cases, at least as early as 1977, does not seem to have as large an impact on knowledge of technology and attitudes towards it as suggested by Dyer.

Instead, large gaps are apparent, such as in the cases of France, Italy, Belgium and Germany, for example, or an overly knowledgeable and positively opinionated population as in the case of Luxembourg. This comparison would suggest that in 1977, technology issues were not central to the educational process, nor an everyday priority of discussion and that higher status in society was not dependant on ones affiliation with technology.

Figure 14

Overall Opinion vs. Occup/Educ500

Together Occup/Educ1000*

400 800

+* + + ^ __

U -l —Ire Lux Den B NL Fr GB G 1 NIRE

Countries

Together —1— Education Occupation

A last graph plots the individual factors of education and occupation against the compiled evaluation of the four main factors, a cumulative rank order of the countries based on strength in the areas of Attitude, Involvement, Knowledge

121and Evaluation. Education and occupation trends run parallel to one another, as overall evaluation shows strong differences. As slight as the relationship may be, however, higher education and more important positions correlate with higher levels of involvement with technology.

Early 90sHaving evaluated the situation of the European

Community in 1977 as one not primarily determined by technology, it would be valuable to know to what extent technological advances after 1977 have changed the societal environment. From 1977 to the early 90s there have been significant innovations in the technology sphere which must have had some impact on society's relationship to technology as well as society's status in general.

The exact replica of the previous model could not be constructed due to a lack of a follow-up study of the 1977 science and technology survey. Instead, comparable data was taken from current Euro-Barometer surveys on more general issues as well as from other studies contracted out by the European Community or UNESCO.

The variables of Attitude, Involvement, Knowledge and Evaluation were constructed using the same guidelines as in the previous model, merely substituting certain individual criteria with comparable data. The 1977 public opinion poll

122provided much more specific data on held attitudes towards science and technology, but the second set of variables is similarly capable of expressing the same aspects of society as did its counterpart in the first model.

In the following, a general description of the second set of the 1990 variables.

Attitude- The attitude index portrays the respondents' overall satisfaction with their lives, their societies, and their nations' relationship with the EC. It is an indicator of the EC's promotion of democracy, its influence on the individual's life as a European citizen and its support of Unification for Western Europe.

Involvement- Involvement is considered as the respondents' active interest in the affairs of the European Commission and the European Parliament as well as their respective support of these actions. Other main factors are the respondents' intentions to vote at the next main parliamentary election and their opinions on the roles held by various institutions.

Knowledge- The knowledge indicator determines the extent to which the respondents are familiar with important EC issues, including the topic of expenditure for scientific and technology research. An inquiry on media usage determines to what extent respondents receive their information from the media, such as television, daily

123papers, and radio.

Evaluation- Evaluation measures the respondents' assessment of the developments of the European Community, its role in the completion of the Common Market, and whether this has meant an overall improvement of the quality of life. Other components gauge the respondents' feelings about changes in social, economic, and political realities as indicators of improvement.

The data from the early 90s enables one to see significant structural changes when compared to the 1977 situations. The overall comparison shows a much more evenly distributed representation of compared factors. No longer are there large gaps between those on the high end of the attitude scale versus those on the lower end. While there is a slight downward trend, the difference is not as significant as in the 1977 data. Here again, as in the 1977 model, the three variables of involvement, knowledge, and evaluation coincide at similar levels which would suggest that there exists a fair amount of interrelation among the aspects of interest for technology and how the respondents evaluate the environment.

It is interesting that economically stronger countries, such as Germany, France, and the UK are located at the far end of the scale depicting a relatively weaker positive

Figure 15124

Comparison IICommon Market Evaluation

Others Attitude1000 800

800600

600400

200200

DK UKNLCountries

Knowledge [S 3 Evaluation- '— Attitude V/A Involvement

attitude, while the smaller and economically weaker countries such as Spain, Greece, Ireland, and Luxembourg are found at a much higher level of acceptance. This would suggest the economically weaker countries are more eager to implement the technology, possibly as a means of gaining more presence in the overall community.

In terms of the other factors there are no such clearly distinguishable differences. Interestingly enough, involvement does not play as important a role in the 90s model as it did in the earlier comparison. While in the first model involvement clearly dominated as the strongest factor when compared to attitude, in the 90s involvement plays just as important a role as any other factor. The

125knowledge factor varies among the countries but its values are right on par with the overall trend.

Figure 16

User/ Non-User Test1990 Data Set

IncomeOthers1601000

140800 120

100-60 0

80400 60

40200 20NL

Countries—~ Income Y//.I Involvement Attitude G S Knowledge

When testing the second set of data for User/Non-User distinction, the comparison of income to involvement, attitude, and knowledge, plotted in Figure 16, seems inconclusive. The downward income trend is not maintained by the other factors, rather the trend seems to reverse itself in the representation of the factors as there is a large gap towards the high end of the income trend and a significant amount of overlapping towards the low end of the income trend. This would mean that income is not a main determinant of whether the individual country is positively

126attuned to technological advances.

Figure 17

Status ComparisonSecond Data Set

EducationOthers 200800

150600

100400

Gr DKCountries

UK NLIre

Attitude Knowledge— Education

Checking for relations of education to attitude and knowledge, Dyer's second track of comparison, one can see a general correlation between the factors except for towards the lower end of the education trend. Here, one finds a large amount of overlapping specifically for the countries of the Netherlands and Luxembourg. This overlap would suggest that while attitude and knowledge are found to be at comparable levels to the other countries, education lags behind. But when compared to income levels, this fact does not seem to be a major detriment as the Netherlands are found at the very high end of the income scale and

127Luxembourg has almost equal levels of Income to involvement, attitude and knowledge.

Overall Comparison: 1977 vs. 1990With these outliers, or deviations in trends, in mind,

one can nevertheless observe that there are significant structural changes as compared to the 1977 data.

The two overall comparisons of attitude, involvement, knowledge and evaluation show a drastic change in the prioritization of the factors. Both showing downward trends, the 1990 data, however, shows a flatter curve which could indicated an improvement in the drastic inequalities of technological implementation.

General PictureDyer et al. maintain that "an individual's evaluation

of science and technology are a product of both his or her place in the techno-economic system and the levels of involvement and perceived knowledge about the system."15 So, in this sense, the second graph would suggest that as the levels of knowledge and involvement have reached higher values altogether, and technology has provided more opportunities for improvements in the work environment, a

15 Williams, Measuring the Information Society, p. 198.

128subsequent higher attitude towards technology and overall evaluation of the policy geared towards it, becomes apparent. Reasons for this greater amount of positive attitude could be a result of any of the following:

— economically: a decrease in the amount of the costof participating

— politically: relaxing of policy to promote moreaccess to new technology

— socially: more active interest in the developmentsrelated to technology and its advantages forsociety as a whole.

Dyer et al. claim that as the forces related to positive attitude and involvement in technology are sointerrelated, the incurred overall rise is most likely acombination of all of the above, yet with different emphases on the various factors. It would be interesting to know which factors contributed most in the individual countries, but its evaluation is beyond the scope of this paper.

Suffice it to say that technology is becoming more of an interest of concern as it begins to permeate all threads of society.

User/Non-User EvaluationDyer's User/ Non-User distinction, defined as the level

of income as related to knowledge of and involvement and attitude towards technology, determines a significant change in 1990 when in comparison to 1977. Levels of income have

129become more stable, no longer stressing the great diversity of rich and poor countries. Moreover, the second set of data seems to suggest that income is no longer a determining factor in distinguishing strong user countries versus apparent non-user countries, as the factors of involvement, attitude and knowledge do not follow suit as distinctly as in 1977. Instead, income levels will not determine how attuned countries are towards technological implementations.

Status FactorsStatus played no distinct role in the attitude towards

technology in the 1977 sample, it might have even discounted that such a relationship existed at all. The new data, however, with the exception of the two outliers at the low end of the status scale, seem to suggest that status in society is to an extent connected to how one is involved in the technology sphere. It might even be considered a responsibility of the person to take on a certain attitude towards technology at a certain societal status, as well as technology illiteracy could greatly inhibit one's progression into a higher status position.

While inequalities in overall relative attitude have subsided, user/non-user distinctions are no longer a main result of income levels, and status in society being clearly

130determined by technological participation, a last comparison combines all factors into one representation.

The factor 'together' is the cumulative evaluation of all four variables of attitude, involvement, knowledge, and evaluation, a rank order of which determining the overall positive position of the individual countries. Plotted against the cumulative factor, levels of occupation and education show how they relate to overall opinion on technology.16 In both cases, levels of occupation and education show a parallel relationship, while in the first case it is a slightly downward trend and in the second case an upward trend.

The 1977 data relates that higher levels of positive opinion on technology correspond to a certain extent with higher levels of occupational status and achieved education. The 1990 data, on the other hand, seems to suggest that, irrespective of actual educational and occupational shortcomings, those countries at the lower end of that scale show more relative initiative towards becoming more involved in technology-related issues. In a sense, there is an indirect relationship between positive attitude and higher levels of educational and occupational success. Whether this is a result of improved participation opportunities, more integrative policies, or a more matured and

16 Note: The evaluations are shown as trends.

131Figure 18

Together vs. Occup/Educ.Together Occup/Educ.

400 200350

300 150

200 100

;50100;60

I Ire L Gr S NL P G F DK UKBCountries

- — Together “ t- Education Occupation

participatory society, would have to be investigated in detail in individual country case studies. But it is important here, to remark that there have been significant changes in the societies' relationships towards technology and the bodies governing it.17

Comparison to Communication ExpenditureHaving looked at the situation from the aspect of the

attitudes of the Member States' populations toward technology and the institutions governing its regulation, a

17 See Appendix for direct comparison of 1977 versus 1990 relationships.

132second inquiry will test the individual Member States on actual changes in involvement with technology, communications technology in specific.

With the rapid development of communication technology comes also the diffusion of its inherent progressive ideals and sensitivities. Thus, it is the case in many countries to attribute their 'backwardness' to opportunities lost from not having adequate technology, whereby the definition process of 'adequate' is often left uncleared. Such countries feel that their ability to have equal say in pertinent technological issues is dependent upon whether they can show relative market presence not only in communications technology hardware, but also in the enormously growing software and services sectors. And it is clear that economically weaker countries have relatively few resources to manipulate and a lesser chance of becoming recognized as a fully active member in the market. But with the advent of advanced communications technology and its ability to overcome factors of time and space, access to networks can already be determinant factors of increased acceptance and a viable market presence. Information technology, while in a number of ways developing into a more significant sector in its own right, is more than ever changing the conduct of virtually all economic sectors through the implementation of increased communication.

133Like so many countries fearing that they will be left

behind unless they adhere to eminent market pressures to implement the newest communication capabilities, the European Community Member States have felt the pressure as well and have acted accordingly.

Figure 19

Communications 1977-1989Percentage Growth

021.32 Expenditure

711.27629.57

504.09414.07

292.77

.16.0.7.9(64^493.82 85.86

Gr Ire I P 3 Fr UK DK B G NLCountries

8ouroe: European Marketing Data, 1981

Noteworthy here, is that economically weaker states such as Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain are among the countries with the highest percentage growth in communication expenditure, enormously increasing their arsenal of communication capability by 600 to 1000 percent. Among these countries is also Italy with an over 700 percent increase.

But in terms of communication as a percentage share of overall expenditures as well as overall volume of

134expenditure on communication, the economically stronger countries outnumber the newly innovative countries by far, that is with the exception of Italy which is apparently seeking to become one of the countries most affluent in communication ability.

With these figures in mind, the next step includes merging the actual expenditure data with certain criteria of the previous inquiry to possibly determine any direct relationships between the individual's involvement in technology.

As a comparison, the individual country scores for the various levels of involvement in technology, earned income, achieved education and occupational success are plotted against those countries' expenditures on communications.The findings are as follows:

a) High levels of desired and actual involvement intechnical and political decision making do not necessarily coincide with high levels of percapita expenditure on communications.

b) Income plays a determining role on the ability to spend on communication. But a relative deficit in communications expenditure can be observed for the countries of Portugal, Ireland, Greece, and Spain showing levels of income in support of more communication ability than actually taken advantage of, an occurrence which could be related to a lack of a capable infrastructure.

c) Education also plays a major role and whenunderutilized, as notably in the cases of Spain, Greece,Ireland, and Portugal, higher levels of available resources cannot be expected too easily.

d) Occupation seems to be the most likely factor of

135coinciding with actual communications expenditure.18

Percentage Growth ChartThe most important indicator of the percentage changes

in communication expenditure is that economically weaker countries such as Greece, Ireland, Portugal and Spain are found to have increased overall communication consumption more significant than others. With attitude trends more equal among the Member States, the rise in communication expenditure among specifically the more deprived countries might be considered a valuable factor in the overall assimilation process.19

In those graphs, you will see sets of diagrams of the overall expenditures in the communications market where clearly the economically stronger countries show their presence.

Based on the norm of percapita expenditure on communications, as set by the stronger countries of Germany, Denmark, the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands, the rest of the countries respond to communication expenditure as the following:

a) Portugal, Ireland, Greece and Spain show more potential for involvement than actually utilized.

18 See Appendix for exact relationships.19 See graphs 1-6 on this issue in the Appendix

b) The same countries have levels of income suitable to more communication implementation.

c) Again, these countries, along with Belgium, show higher levels of education than would be attributed to their respective levels of per capita expenditure on communications.

d) Occupation-wise, in a heavy mid section formed by the Netherlands, Italy and Belgium, there is a large discrepancy in the level of job placement as compared to expenditure. Ireland also shows an exceptionally high occupational status.

The fact is that as the pressures from outside hit the individual countries, several dimensions are changed. The creation of new broadcast and communicative capability has rendered former state monopolies irrelevant, giving rise to more common transborder communication technologies. In Italy, France, the United Kingdom, and Germany, private investment in Commercial television had existed prior to its actual legalization.

European deregulation had the task of breaking national state-owned broadcast monopolies and creating an environment for healthy competition, production, and distribution of communication material. Along with this comes naturally the dissemination of values, ethics, and cultural ideals,

possibly attributable to these researched structural changes.

Conclusion

The exact effects of change in the relationships of the components of society warrant a study of their own. But it is nevertheless valuable to see that there exists a significant difference in these very relationships in the years 1977 and 1990 among the Member States of the European Community. What the differences basically show is that there have been structural changes in society with respect to the public's opinions on involvement, attitude, knowledge, and evaluation. Plotted against Income and Educational Structures, one can observe the differences in User/Non-User distinctions and Status results. The differences have been significant; and by ordering them in the previous method one can possibly draw conclusions as to how societal structure has specifically changed and as well as on the reasons for this change.

Structure wise, the differences of the individual states have narrowed out. Discrepancies between the countries in evaluating the common market and its relationship to technology have nearly subsided, there are less indications of typically "have" states versus "have nots," and social status aspects are becoming more similar.

139Whether these increased similarities are a result of the technological advances or the stringent campaign to unify is hard to determine through this analysis. More than likely it is a combination of the two factors working simultaneously.

With the above results in mind one would conclude that the European Community is approaching Information Society status. As there exist no similar studies on this particular issue, one is led to question the EC's interest in dealing with the issue as a vital policy matter. But unless these relationships are realized, policy making can remain haphazard and categorized, overlooking the big picture. Trying to evaluate the big picture has been the purpose of this investigation.

Information Society is a complex issue and cannot be properly dealt with in a strictly departmentalized fashion. And exactly this is what is occurring in the EC institution, namely that certain departments (for example: Competition, Telecommunications, or Culture and Society) are working separately and not even seeing the links to the other aspects. The concept of the information and communication revolution is a complicated one and is difficult to pinpoint exactly. But it has become clear that unless a country participates in it, it can be left far behind.

The EC has taken on the challenges related to the

140information and communication revolutions and must now act on its consequences. Entering into this new environment requires adaptability to its system, namely even altering policy traditions to incorporate the ideas stemming from its new status. In a sense, reassessment in view of this status should be made. And with this understanding it will become easier to overlook the system as a whole and its individual components.

The changes of our days are technological, but they are having enormous effects on our societies and on how they function. It has all become a social issue, camouflaged in a technological apparatus. But alone by focusing on the individual trees, overlooking the forest, will not provide us with the answers to find our way through undiscovered territory. First the territory must be acknowledged and subsequently defined and analyzed before any decisions can be made.

It is therefore a challenge to the European Community to realize this new environment and then to act accordingly. Policy not considering the effects of the Information Society on countries will merely lead to further outdated and counterproductive actions in an environment that cannot afford to make mistakes.

Appendix

Appendix 1: 1977 Variable ConstructionAttitude: Compiled from 19 Criteria from the following

questions8- Satisfaction with life

11- Satisfaction with society12- Satisfaction with democracy13- Attitude vis-a-vis society14- Importance of national parliament15- Less role for national parliament16- Most important job for of Parliament17- Second most important job for Parliament18- Most important job for members of Parliament52- Science helps developing countries82- Scientist was impressive83- Scientist was interesting

Involvement: 35 Criteria from the following questions9- Most important goal of country10- Second most important goal of country19- Respondent seen/heard about European Parliament20- What has been seen/heard about EP21- EP influence on Common Market affairs22- Respondent for/against 1978 EEC Parliamentary

election23- Importance of voting in 1978 election24- More democratic control25- Kind of Europe desired26- Need EEC elections27- Too many problems, even without EEC elections28- Expected attitude from EEC Parliament29- Political party involvement30- Party is pro EEC31- Party considers EEC enough32- EEC elections important33- Respondent will vote in 1978 election34- Joint campaign from political parties42- Subjects of interest to respondents43- Second subject of interest97- Ability to persuade others of own opinion98- Frequent discussion of political issues

Knowledge: 11 Criteria from the following questions19- Respondent seen/heard about European Parliament44- Enough media exposure on EEC election48- Respondent interested in scientific discoveries49- Respondent discusses scientific discoveries

Sources:Eurobarometer. Public Opinion in the European

community. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, No. 27, June 1987.

Eurobarometer. Public Opinion in the Europeangommun-itv. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, No. 33, June 1990.

Eurobarometer. Public Opinion in the Europeancommunity. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, No. 35, June 1991.

1990 Evaluation of the Common MarketAttitude: Compiled from 16 Criteria from the following

questions from opinion polls taken in 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991

1990 B2- Overall life satisfactionB3- Basic attitude towards society B5- Attitude towards membership in the European

Community1991 1- Importance of EC matters

2- Influence of EC on own life3- Support for Unification6- Attitude if the EC were scrapped

14- The single European Market in 1992: Hope or Fear?15- Single European Market: "A Good Thing?"20- Frequency of Thinking of oneself as a European21- European citizenship- A Good Thing

Involvement: 17 Criteria from the following questions1987 A17- Options for the European Community

(Intensification)A27- Declared intention to participate in new election

1990 B 8- Familiarity with European Parliament B 9- Impression people have of EPB10- Importance of EP's role in life of Community Bll— Preference of more important of EP

1991 9- Awareness of European Commission11- Impression of the European Commission30- Awareness of European Parliament31- Impression of the European Parliament32- The European Parliament in EC life43- Desired role for the European Parliament

Knowledge: 16 Criteria from the following questions1987 p.65- Public expenditure for scientific and technology

research1991 19- Joint Community Decision-Making

43- Opinion on the importance of various current problems

46- Media consumption: television47- News in daily papers48- News on the radio49- Index of media use for news

50- Government should subsidize scientific research 54- Respondent's thoughts on science81- Frequency respondents sees scientists on television 93- More scientists on television

Evaluation: 16 Criteria from the following questions38- Membership in EEC is good39- Unification of EEC should be speeded40- EEC topics of interest: Countries act together41- Second EEC topic of interest45- Change in peoples' lives over 25 years47- Changes connected to science52- Science aid to developing countries53- Positive effects of scientific discoveries

Source: Rabier, Jacques-Rene and Ronald Inglehardt.Eurobarometer 7: Science and Technology in the European Community. April 1977. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, 1980.

8 8.2 11 11.2 12 12.2 13 13.3 14 14. 2 15 16 16.2

France 143 721 72 547 84 478 174 241 163 572 628 240 277Belgium 373 511 85 605 58 495 59 182 169 440 468 237 151Neth 391 559 77 617 102 587 55 330 278 564 371 238 253Germ 192 624 118 710 111 675 23 476 222 541 352 115 309Italy 95 507 13 165 6 118 112 293 166 414 768 291 112Lux 118 156 76 169 47 169 10 98 46 178 126 61 60Den 546 420 158 635 102 531 26 397 424 438 355 205 96Ire 383 499 145 528 100 528 48 258 420 360 661 100 117GB 322 594 73 637 109 549 86 294 506 347 593 222 148NIL 69 173 4 88 1 52 12 88 138 79 173 77 37

Conversion Chart

8 8.2 11 11.2 12 12.2 13 13 . 3 14 14.2 15 16 16.2

France 98.6 497. 49.6 377. 57.9 329. 120 166. 112. 394. 433. 165. 191.Belgium 1065 1460 242. 1728 165. 1414 168. 520 482. 1257 1337 677. 431.Neth 868. 1242 171. 1371 226. 1304 122. 733 . 617. 1253 824. 528. 562.Germ 86.8 282. 53.3 321. 50.2 305. 10.4 215. 100. 244. 159. 52.0 139.Italy 50.2 268. 6.87 87.3 3.17 62.4 59.2 155. 87.8 219. 406. 153. 59.2Lux 2950 3900 1900 4225 1175 4225 250 2450 1150 4450 3150 1525 1500Den 3033 2333 877. 3527 566. 2950 144. 2205 2355 2433 1972 1138 533.Ire 3830 4990 1450 5280 1000 5280 480 2580 4200 3600 6610 1000 1170GB 187. 345. 42.4 370. 63.3 319. 50 170. 294. 201. 344. 129. 86.0NIL 383. 961. 22.2 488. 5.55 288. 66.6 488. 766. 438. 961. 427. 205.

17 17.2 18 55.2 55.5 82 83 Sum x Value197 199 599 894 109 470 745 7553 1.45 5209123 138 477 703 34 385 474 6167 0.35 17620129 141 355 754 60 442 620 6923 0.45 1538479 168 503 591 57 316 374 6556 2.21 2967

131 91 386 804 27 485 535 5519 1.89 292031 36 182 246 7 144 155 2115 0.04 52875

129 67 591 681 71 133 357 6362 0.18 35344196 124 590 617 120 289 324 6407 0.1 64070235 150 392 753 93 348 512 6963 1.72 404855 46 112 179 28 83 93 1587 0.18 8817

17 17.2 18 55.2 55.5 82 83 Sum135. 137. 413. 616. 75.1 324. 513. 5209 5209351. 394. 1362 2008 97.1 1100 1354 17620 17620286. 313. 788. 1675 133. 982. 1377 15384 1538435.7 76.0 227. 267. 25.7 142. 169. 2967 296769.3 48.1 204. 425. 14.2 256. 283 . 2920 2920775 900 4550 6150 175 3600 3875 52875 52875

716. 372. 3283 3783 394. 738. 1983 35344 353441960 1240 5900 6170 1200 2890 3240 64070 64070136. 87.2 227. 437. 54.0 202. 297. 4048 4048305. 255. 622. 994. 155. 461. 516. 8817 8817

France 174Belgium 122Neth 201Germ 147Italy 200Lux 42Den 98Ire 182GB 160NIL 26

9.4 10.2 10.4

182 219 294155 208 257168 219 23777 182 19763 141 20440 55 5877 114 30574 234 152127 208 18114 56 46

19 20 21725 472 60451 192 52417 131 93335 181 28530 270 167190 112 33514 256 59470 167 187648 218 220118 50 27

21.2 22 22.2

348 348 581250 323 311416 532 315152 235 455346 439 385140 133 126175 227 221348 468 297332 466 282104 98 117

23 24 24.2

866 235 513539 240 335843 308 374523 254 435776 194 409221 94 116498 305 244735 418 405812 397 458208 113 127

Conversion Chart9.2 9.4 10.2 10.4 19 20

France 120 125. 151. 202. 500 325.Belgium 348. 442. 594. 734. 1288 548.Neth 446. 373. 486. 526. 926. 291.Germ 66.5 34.8 82.3 89.1 151. 81.9Italy 105. 33.3 74.6 107. 280. 142.Lux 1050 1000 1375 1450 4750 2800Den 544. 427. 633. 1694 2855 1422Ire 1820 740 2340 1520 4700 1670GB 93.0 73.8 120. 105. 376. 126.NIL 144. 77.7 311. 255. 655. 277.

21 21.2 22 22.2 23 24 24.2

41.3 240 240 400. 597. 162. 353.148. 714. 922. 888. 1540 685. 957.206. 924. 1182 700 1873 684. 831.12.6 68.7 106. 205. 236. 114. 196.88.3 183. 232. 203 . 410. 102. 216.825 3500 3325 3150 5525 2350 2900

327. 972. 1261 1227 2766 1694 13551870 3480 4680 2970 7350 4180 4050127. 193. 270. 163 . 472. 230. 266.150 577. 544. 650 1155 627. 705.

25 25.2 26 26.2 27 27.2 28 29 29.2 30 30.2 31.2 32 33 33.2462 542 131 246 162 207 612 177 275 118 456 199 728 643 330391 320 102 264 166 202 386 157 208 156 208 101 540 369 206422 442 119 244 151 149 636 190 225 251 349 146 595 617 227362 400 116 208 136 137 409 77 173 189 260 114 416 281 359360 433 60 193 145 175 465 158 240 161 361 145 634 652 202158 90 35 63 51 59 149 49 58 74 98 71 195 133 108294 255 178 196 188 180 321 177 181 250 190 102 409 427 184489 384 127 297 185 241 389 31 156 312 138 197 505 521 264453 439 179 347 203 273 455 39 149 285 236 199 570 523 290135 137 38 96 84 76 123 6 23 38 61 52 128 100 13625 25.2 26 26.2 27 27.2 28 29 29.2 30 30.2 31.2 32 33 33.2

318. 373. 90.3 169. 111. 142. 422. 122. 189. 81 314 . 137. 502. 443 . 227.1117 914. 291. 754. 474. 577. 1102 448. 594. 446 594 . 288. 1542 1054 588.937. 982. 264. 542. 335. 331. 1413 422. 500 558 775. 324. 1322 1371 504.163. 180. 52.4 94.1 61.5 61.9 185. 34.8 78.2 86 117 . 51.5 188. 127. 162.190. 229. 31.7 102. 76.7 92.5 246. 83.5 126. 85 191. 76.7 335. 344. 106.3950 2250 875 1575 1275 1475 3725 1225 1450 1850 2450 1775 4875 3325 27001633 1416 988. 1088 1044 1000 1783 983. 1005 1389 1055 566. 2272 2372 1C4890 3840 1270 2970 1850 2410 3890 310 1560 3120 1380 1970 5050 5210 2 (263. 255. 104. 201. 118. 158. 264. 22.6 86. 6 166 137. 115. 331. 304. 1'750 761. 211. 533. 466. 422. 683. 33.3 127. 211 338. 288. 711. 555. 7

34660567555476679150237447425122

455.16201233215.359.375013164470247.677.

42 42.2 43 43.2 97 97.2 98 98.2 98 Sum

438 143 184 230 143 478 266 666 13513207 237 103 175 100 372 101 394 9467209 323 124 188 114 529 221 564 11844183 155 127 136 59 369 129 623 9095221 376 119 191 188 368 225 463 1133850 103 22 65 40 133 41 177 3532

432 157 107 233 114 277 197 545 8924220 321 163 224 115 366 157 480 10866431 101 241 191 141 339 202 584 1180466 66 52 75 12 97 65 151 3043

x Value1.45 0.35 0.45 2.21 1.89 0.04 0.18 0.1

1.72 0.18

42 42.2 43 43.2 97 97.2 98 98.2 Sum

302. 98.6 126. 158. 98.6 329. 183 . 459. 9319 1.45591. 677. 294. 500 285. 1062 288. 1125 27049 0.35464. 717. 275. 417. 253. 1175 491. 1253 26320 0.4582.8 70.1 57.4 61.5 26.6 166. 58.3 281. 4115 2.21116. 198. 62.9 101. 99.4 194. 119. 244. 5999 1.891250 2575 550 1625 1000 3325 1025 4425 88300 0.042400 872. 594. 1294 633. 1538 1094 3027 49578 0.182200 3210 1630 2240 1150 3660 1570 4800 108660 0.1250. 58.7 140. 111. 81.9 197. 117. 339. 6863 1.72366. 366. 288. 416. 66.6 538. 361. 838. 16906 0.18

343108

19 44 48 49 49.2 50 51.2 54 81 81.2 93France 725 465 833 290 526 1097 527 1148 138 541 606Belgium 451 427 603 188 310 700 295 849 108 378 339Neth 417 419 782 176 451 770 329 914 124 403 421Germ 335 343 597 109 390 737 341 838 81 281 202Italy 530 220 665 189 372 899 332 953 49 326 625Lux 190 164 213 65 159 237 111 277 42 166 102Den 514 332 698 233 354 844 500 806 104 436 328Ire 470 481 560 134 320 804 439 896 58 235 415GB 648 324 815 179 403 898 457 1032 118 374 491NIL 118 98 162 32 101 226 111 268 13 93 100Conversion Chart

19 44 48 49 49.2 50 51.2 54 81 81.2 93France 500 320. 574. 200 362. 756. 363. 791. 95.1 373. 417.Belgium 1288 1220 1722 537. 885. 2000 842. 2425 308. 1080 968.Neth 926. 931. 1737 391. 1002 1711 731. 2031 275. 895. 935.Germ 151. 155. 270. 49. 3 176. 333. 154. 379. 36.6 127. 91.4Italy 280. 116. 351. 100 196. 475. 175. 504. 25.9 172. 330.Lux 4750 4100 5325 1625 3975 5925 2775 6925 1050 4150 2550Den 2855 1844 3877 1294 1966 4688 2777 4477 577. 2422 1822Ire 4700 4810 5600 1340 3200 8040 4390 8960 580 2350 4150GB 376. 188. 473. 104. 234. 522. 265. 600 68.6 217. 285.NIL 655. 544. 900 177. 561. 1255 616. 1488 72.2 516. 555.

sum x value Equals6896 1.45 47564648 0.35 132805206 0.45 115694254 2.21 19255160 1.89 27301726 0.04 431505149 0.18 286064812 0.1 481205739 1.72 33371322 0.18 7344

44912 164816

Totals value4756 1.45

13280 0.3511569 0.451925 2.212730 1.89

43150 0.0428606 0.1848120 0.13337 1.727344 0.18

164816

Nominal38 39 40 40.3 40.5 41 41.3 41.5 45 45.2 46 47 47.2

France 811 561 446 289 94 252 262 189 883 310 556 633 474Belgium 676 376 373 126 73 120 130 194 748 160 456 514 275Neth - 831 385 480 132 64 169 161 197 781 184 426 571 330Germ 541 386 357 208 37 143 171 121 466 349 535 317 416Italy 732 678 520 120 68 158 205 182 633 343 457 426 404Lux 256 184 110 52 16 43 55 40 222 64 198 195 66Den 301 118 344 48 81 125 663 228 791 155 542 530 239Ire 576 335 471 120 123 165 166 219 849 117 719 477 273GB 391 265 552 113 100 194 210 170 872 171 504 545 330NIL 105 64 165 33 15 41 58 44 208 55 67 96 88

Conversion Chart

France 559. 386. 307. 199. 64.8 173 . 180. 130. 608. 213 . 383. 436. 326.Belgium 1931 1074 1065 360 208. 342. 371. 554. 2137 457. 1302 1468 785.Neth 1846 855. 1066 293. 142. 375. 357. 437. 1735 408. 946. 1268 733 .Germ 244. 174. 161. 94.1 16.7 64.7 77.3 54.7 210. 157. 242. 143. 188.Italy 387. 358. 275. 63.4 35.9 83.5 108. 96.2 334. 181. 241. 225. 213 .Lux 6400 4600 2750 1300 400 1075 1375 1000 5550 1600 4950 4875 1650Den 1672 655. 1911 266. 450 694 . 3683 1266 4394 861. 3011 2944 1327Ire 5760 3350 4710 1200 1230 1650 1660 2190 8490 1170 7190 4770 2730GB 227. 154. 320. 65.6 58.1 112. 122. 98.8 506. 99.4 293 . 316. 191.NIL 583. 355. 916. 183. 83.3 227. 322. 244. 1155 305. 372 . 533. 488 .

52 52.2 53 .2 Sum X Values Equals

661 415 271 7107 1.45 4901519 263 90 5093 0.35 14551502 337 121 5671 0.45 12602264 442 136 4889 2.21 2212538 346 292 6102 1.89 3229144 112 39 1796 0.04 44900389 368 150 5072 0.18 28178559 268 255 5692 0.1 56920603 302 190 5512 1.72 3205146 100 49 1334 0.18 7411

178109

455. 286. 186. 4901 1.451482 751. 257. 14551 0.351115 748. 268. 12602 0.45119. 200 61.5 2212 2.21284. 183. 154. 3229 1.893600 2800 975 44900 0.042161 2044 833. 28178 0.185590 2680 2550 56920 0.1350. 175. 110. 3205 1.72811. 555. 272. 7411 0.18

178109

Income Conversions

AB C D Grand Total

B 623.2 75.2 701.2 3519.1DK 603 99.7 500.1 2778.1F 3359.1 58.3 4062.5 21206.9G 4014 1001 5173 26626Gr 420.4 62.7 348.5 3740Ire 194.6 35 173.2 1266.9I 2600.8 3609.7 2164.6 20246.5L 18.3 1.6 31.1 150NL 1344.9 240.1 1026.4 5836.6P 316.5 60.4 547.4 4381.1S 1164.3 195.2 1407.5 13109.2UK 4137.8 2311.7 3945.3 23440.4

17.71% 2.14% 19.93% B21.71% 3.59% 18.00% DK15.84% 0.27% 19.16% F15.08% 3.76% 19.43% G11.24% 1.68% 9.32% Gr15.36% 2.76% 13.67% Ire12.85% 17.83% 10.69% I12.20% 1.07% 20.73% L23.04% 4.11% 17.59% NL7.22% 1.38% 12.49% P8.88% 1.49% 10.74% S17.65% 9.86% 16.83% UK

Income ValuesTot. x value

1 2 3 4 5France 32 63 55 130 137 417 1.45Belgium 51 84 74 90 85 384 0.35Neth 17 31 60 100 111 319 0.45Germ 32 49 52 71 81 285 2.21Italy 45 72 182 230 158 687 1.89Lux 8 9 25 22 29 93 0.04Den 2 35 127 90 63 317 0.18Ire 9 55 73 71 79 287 0.1GB 3 37 78 75 79 272 1.72NIR 1 9 13 24 18 65 0.18

287.1097708.128.363.232517612870158.361.

Totals

Lightyear SUBJECT:New VersionVERSION:Attitude

RANK SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES SCORE+....1 1 1

Ireland |000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 1745|i i t11 2 1

Luxemburg110000000000000000000000000000000000000000001

1 1 | 14791 1 1i

1 3IDenmark

1|00000000000000000000000000 1

1 1 1 9151 1 1I

1 4 1Belgium

1|000000000000 1

1 1 1 9341

I1 5 1 Netherlands

1|00000000000 1

1 1 1 3941

11 6 1 North Ireland

1|00000 1

1 1 | 2021

1| 7 1 Great Britain 10001

1 1 1 H31

11 8 i France

1 1 1 92|

11 91 Germany

! 1 1 88| I |

1 io1r

Italy111

1 1 1 2211 1 I I1

1 1 1 1

POSSIBLE - 1900

Lightyear SUBJECT:New VersionVERSION:Involvement

RANK SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES SCORE

1 Ireland |00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000| i 1

2 Luxemburg1 ' |0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

3 Denmark1 1 100000000000000000000000 1 1 1

4 Belgium1 1 looooooooooo 1 1 1

5 Netherlands1 1 |0000000000 1 1 1

6 North Ireland1 > |000000 1 1 1

7 France1 1 |000 1 1 1

8 Great Britain1 1 |00 1 1 1

9 Italy1 I 10 1 I 1

10 Germany1 11 11 1 . 1

POSSIBLE - 3700

Lightyear SUBJECT:New VersionVERSION:Knowledge

1 Ireland

2 Luxemburg

3 Denmark

4 Belgium

5 Netherlands

6 France

7 North Ireland

8 Great Britain

9 Italy

10 Germany

SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

0000000000000000000000000000000 0000000000000 00000000000 00000000 00000 0

SCORE+ +

952 II

609 II

2601 I2201 I

1121 I

191I21 I I-- +

POSSIBLE - 1100

Lightyear SUBJECT:New Version VERSION:Evaluation

1 Ireland

2 Luxemburg

3 Denmark

4 Belgium

5 Netherlands

6 North Ireland

7 France

8 Italy

9 Great Britain

10 Germany

SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000000000000 000000000000000000000000 00000000000 000000000 00000 00 0

SCORE + +

14621I

11231I

706 II

326 |I

28 | I9 I

POSSIBLE - 1600

Lightyear SUBJECT:1990 VERSION:Attitude

RANK-f - - - - - SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES SCORE

| 1 1 Spain |00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000| l I 723 1 111 2 1 Italy 1 1

|0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1 717 1 111 3I Greece 1 1

|000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1 7001 111 4 I

Ireland 1 1 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1

1700 1 11

| 5 Luxemburg 1 1 |00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 t 1

1685 1

I1[ 6 i Portugal1 1 |0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 I

1| 7 ■ Belgium 1 1 |0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

668 1 11

1 8 Netherlands 1 1 |000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1 658 111 9 i Germany

1 1 |0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1 631111 1° France 1 1 |00000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1 601111 11 | Denmark

1 1 |0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1 590 1 111 12 14- ..... .

United Kingdom1 1 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000 11 1

1587 1

1TPOSSIBLE - 1600

Lightyear SUBJECT:1990VERSION:Involvement

1 Italy

2 Greece3 Portugal

4 Ireland

5 Spain

6 France

7 Luxemburg

8 Netherlands

9 Germany

10 Belgium

11 United Kingdom

12 Denmark

SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULESOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000000000000000000000

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000000000000000000000000000

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000000000000000000000000

00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000000000000000000000000000

00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000000000000000000000000

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000000000000000000000

SCORE + +

POSSIBLE 1600

Lightyear SUBJECT:1990VERSION:Knowledge

1 Luxemburg

2 Germany3 Netherlands

4 Ireland

5 Denmark

6 Greece

7 United Kingdom

8 Italy

9 Belgium10 France

11 Spain

12 Portugal

SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES - + ............................................................................

10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000I100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000I100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I|0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 I1000000000000000000000000000000000000 I I I

- + ...................................................................................................................................................................................

SCORE +

6941I6781I6651I6231I

6221 I

608 II

607 I I

605 II

602 II593 II

5111 I I I

+POSSIBLE - 1600

Lightyear SUBJECT:1990VERSION:Evaluation

RANK SUMMARY EVALUATION: CRITERIA AND RULES SCORE

1 Ireland 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 1 1 729 1

2 Italy 1 I 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

17261 1

3 Luxemburg 1 1 |00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 11

4 Netherlands1 1 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

j6631 1

5 Portugal1 1 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

6 Spain1 1 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

1642 1

7 Greece 1 1 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 11

6291 18 Belgium

1 1 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 11

9 Germany 1 1 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

1615 1

10 Denmark 1 1 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

1576 1

11 France 1 1 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000 1 1 1

12 United Kingdom1 1 10000000000000000000000000000000000000 1

1542 1

POSSIBLE = 1700

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Comparison to Comm. Expenditur1000

Involvement Percap. Expenditure 200

Countries

Percaplta Expend. Involvement

Comparison to Comm. ExpenditureIncome Percap. Expenditure

//.///•-/////V/V^//////

DK UK Fr NL I BCountries

91H —

H —9H8HHM̂B99Gr s

Percaplta Expend Income

Comparison to Comm. ExpenditurePercap. ExpenditureEducation 200200

160160

100100

Ire GrDK UK NL I BCountries

■— Percaplta Expend, tllililli Education

Comparison to Comm. ExpenditurePercap. ExpenditureOccupation 20050

40 150

Ire GrDK UK NL I BCountries

— Percapita Expend 111 Occupation

Bibliography

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