Post on 05-Feb-2023
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EDUCATION AND CREATIVITY: CHALK AND CHEESE?
AN ANALYSIS OF THE KEY DEBATES IN THEORY, POLICY
AND PRACTICE
Joshua Harsant
The dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the regulations for the BA Honours Degree in Education Studies
and Sociology.
Oxford Brookes University, 2014
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first and foremost like to dedicate this dissertation to my friend, housemate and
creative academic, Katrina Rose, who sadly and suddenly passed away in January
2014. Katrina, I miss you… this is for you.
I would also like to dedicate this work to our eminent Secretary of State, Michael Gove,
and the coalition government for their passion for, interest in and commitment to
creative and arts education…!
I would like to thank the staff team at Artswork, a charity of which I am a trustee. Their
expertise, knowledge and signposting have proved invaluable.
More formally, I would like to thank Jon Reid, Barry Gransden and Nick Swarbrick at
Oxford Brookes University for inspiring me to consider, ponder and research this topic.
Finally, I would like to thank Rachel Payne, my supervisor, for her support, help and
guidance in producing this dissertation. Her knowledge, signposting and passion for
arts and creative education were second-to-none.
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ABSTRACT
This paper starts with a discussion of the conceptual difficulties around defining,
understanding and assessing creativity and subsequently refines this discussion within
the context of education. It directly addresses some of the key limitations to the
manifestation of creativity specifically in schools and examines key areas of debate in
educational policy and practice, pointing to increasing and, in some cases, renewed in
the creativity in education agenda. These areas include: the curriculum, the arts and
external (that is, out-of-school) partnerships. This paper ultimately argues – and
concludes – that there is a place for creativity in education and there is evidence of
good creative practice.
Key findings include:
• Creativity can be assessed, though criteria are difficult to determine.
• Creativity is understood in a number of ways, but is cultivatable.
• Creativity exists beyond subject-domains, particularly beyond ‘the arts’.
• Creativity relies on pedagogical practices to enable expression.
Keywords: creativity, education, pedagogy, learning, policy
Front cover image: word cloud for this dissertation – the larger the word, the more often it appears in this paper.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Figures 5
Preface 6
1. Introduction 8
1.1. Influence and position 9
1.2. Narrative themes and research aims 9
2. Approaching creativity as a concept 10
2.1. Defining creativity 10
2.2. Disentangling terminology 13
2.3. Creative learning 14
2.4. Creativity and assessment 17
2.5. Why is creativity important in education? 21
2.6. Limitations of creativity in education 23
2.7. Conclusion 25
3. Approaching creativity in policy and practice 27
3.1. Creative Britain 27
3.2. Introducing creativity in education 28
3.3. Creativity and the curriculum 32
3.4. Creativity and the arts 35
3.5. Documenting creativity in policy and practice 36
3.6. Creativity beyond the classroom 41
3.7. Conclusion 45
4. Conclusion 47
4.1 A word on the post-2010 landscape 49
6. References 51
5. Appendices 61
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Torrance’s (1969) process of creativity 11
Figure 2: Key terms as a process of creativity 13
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PREFACE
In March last year, I attended an interview for a job at a youth education charity. I was
asked one particular interview question, to which I responded fairly confidently. The
reaction I received I was not expecting:
Interviewer: Describe one or two of your strongest skills.
Me: I’m creative.
They looked surprised.
Interviewer: Oh? In what way?
Me: I’m creative in my methodology; I think about fresh and new approaches to
make activities as engaging, fun and personalised as possible.
They looked puzzled.
Interviewer: Oh, so you don’t play an instrument or have any theatre training?
Me: No.
They looked even more perplexed.
Interviewer: Oh right, ok. Can you give us an example of what you mean?
Me: I always bring, for example, art materials, a video camera, an iPad and a
rhyming dictionary to my workshops, giving the participants there a chance to
engage with the topic in a way that isn’t a formal table discussion.
Interviewer: I see. I suppose that is creative.
The interview quickly moved to the next question.
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What I found particularly interesting in this exchange was not the misunderstanding of
creativity; but rather the view that in order to be creative, you need to have learned a
specific, artistic skill through which it can manifest.
Walking back through the labyrinth of office furniture, the culture of this organisation
really became clear. Every member of staff was in suit and tie, there was not one
colourful poster on a wall and every desk was awashed with paperwork. There was no
buzz, no energy. It was the graveyard for creativity.
In the end, I wasn’t offered the job. They felt I wasn’t right for the role. Perhaps I was
too creative for them. I suspect I probably wouldn’t have fitted in to the organisation
anyway. It’s like that old saying; we’d have gone together like chalk and cheese.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Creativity in education is a particularly present issue. Increasing amounts of research
points to an increasing significance and potentially prominent role of creativity in and
across education. Politically, there is increasing discourse and complexity around what
we should understand by creativity and how we should operationalise it in educational
contexts.
On May 21st 2013, an audience member of Question Time (BBC, 2013) asked the
following question to the panel, on which sat Michael Gove, Secretary of State for
Education:
Will the proposed changes to the National Curriculum stifle creativity and hinder
the development of critical thinking?
To which Gove responded that creativity “depends on mastering certain skills and
acquiring a body of knowledge before being able to give expression to what's in you,”
indicating yet another approach to creativity for those in policy-making positions.
There is a clear difference in the rhetoric around creativity and its value between the
previous and current governments; which makes the discussion and analysis of
creativity in policy and practice particularly interesting, as chapter three will
demonstrate. The mere lack of publications directly relating to creativity by the
incumbent government arguably speaks volumes.
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1.1. Influence and position
Two key influences on this paper are the works of Sir Ken Robinson and of Professor
Anna Craft, who have written extensively on creativity and education – which will
become evident from the frequency their respective works have been cited.
This paper maintains a degree of loyalty to the positions both scholars adopt: that
creativity and education should be held in equal status and value; that creativity is
fundamentally a good thing for education; and that there remains some tensions in the
operationalisation of creativity in educational contexts.
1.2. Narrative themes and research aims
The literature that narrates the discourse around creativity in education can be broadly
divided into two thematic areas: theory and practice – a division this paper has
mirrored. Chapter two broadly deals with approaching creativity as a theory and as a
distinctive concept and chapter three contextualises notions and developments of
creativity in educational policy and practice, drawing on historical and current works.
This paper aims to address the debates around theoretical and practical dimensions of
creativity and its role in education. It fundamentally argues that creativity is not subject-
or domain-specific; that creativity can be and is present in all areas in and out of the
taught curriculum; and, that now more than ever creativity should be awarded a more
significant role by both educators and policy makers.
The big question this paper aims to discuss is:
Education and Creativity:
Do they really go together like chalk and cheese?
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2. APPROACHING CREATIVITY AS A CONCEPT
This chapter begins by exploring creativity as a theoretical concept, before
examining the theoretical discourse around ‘creative learning’ and the
assessment of creativity. It then considers theoretical limitations of
operationalising creativity in the context of education.
2.1. DEFINING CREATIVITY
Definitions – and attempts at definitions – of creativity have been offered throughout
history and across literature by scholars, educators, policy makers and creative
professionals. The trouble with defining it is that “the concept is ethereal and elusive”
(Fisher, 2004:7), thereby inhibiting the promotion of a universally accepted definition
(Treffinger, et al, 2002).
Contextual application also provides an additional level of complexity. No single
domain, field or discipline is able to claim a monopoly on creativity; it manifests in
multiple of them, demanding different knowledge and understanding. For example:
“In science and mathematics, the most fundamental outcome of creative
intellectual effort is important new knowledge… In engineering, and in
technology-based industry, creativity yields technological inventions…”
(Mitchell, et al, 2003: 18).
Though multiple and sometimes contradictory definitions of creativity exist, there are
some common themes that emerge:
1. It is a process, a way of functioning – not a single state of being;
2. Originality – not existing before;
3. Creation – something is made, fashioned or developed;
4. Productive – there is an outcome.
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Central to historic debates of creativity was the work of Torrance (1969: 4), who
described creativity as a process:
He posits that this process comprises of the contribution of both original ideas and a
different point of view; as well as “breaking out of the mould”, recombining ideas or
recognising new relationships among them (ibid: 4). In his paper, Simon (2001: 208)
concluded “we judge thought to be creative when it produces something that is both
novel and interesting or valuable”. Similarly, Starko (2004: 6) writes: “to be considered
creative, a product or idea must be original or novel to the individual creator”.
One of the significant distinctions made by postulators of creativity is that between
notions of high creativity and everyday creativity.
2.1.1. High Creativity
High – sometimes extraordinary – creativity is the notion that creativity only exists in
exceptionally talented individuals, that results in a fundamental change in knowledge,
understanding and/or world perspective (Kleiman, 2005); and is paralleled with
Identify problems or
gaps in knowledge
Form ideas or hypotheses
Test and modify said
hypotheses
Communicate the results
Figure 1: Torrance’s (1969) process of creativity
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characteristics such as innovation, excellence and recognition in the respective field
(Craft, 2001a: 46; Craft 2001b).
Creativity researchers Feldman, Cziksentmihalyi and Gardner (1994: 1) understand
‘high creativity’ as:
“…the achievement of something remarkable and new, something which
transforms and changes a field of endeavour in a significant way.”
Einstein, Freud and Picasso, for example, are widely considered as ‘high creators’.
2.1.2. Everyday Creativity
Comparatively, the notion of everyday creativity advocates that creativity and creative
thought is inherent to all human life and in all areas of human activity. This is a
perspective adopted by a number of commentators (Livingston, 2010; Robinson, 2011;
2006; Kleiman, 2005; Runco, 2003; NACCCE, 1999).
The term democratic creativity was first coined in the 1999 National Advisory
Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE) report, arguing that all
people are capable of achieving creativity:
“Creativity is possible in all areas of human activity, including the arts, sciences,
at work at play and in all other areas of daily life. All people have creative
abilities and we all have them differently” (ibid, 1999: 6).
The dominant discourse around creativity in education in the UK – and across Europe
(Ferrari, et al., 2009) – is that creativity is a skill that every student has the ability and
capacity to embody.
Craft (2001a) describes notions of everyday creativity as ‘little c Creativity’ (LCC),
arguing that LCC can be fostered, that children can be initiated into it and that it
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involves a degree of innovation and development. Fundamentally, LCC focuses on the
“resourcefulness and agency of ordinary people, rather than the extraordinary
contributions of the few…” (ibid: 49).
2.2. DISENTANGLING TERMINOLOGY
Debates about creativity often feature two other terms: imagination and innovation.
Commentators have argued that imagination acts as a prerequisite to creativity and
creativity precedes innovation (Robinson, 2011; Samli, 2011; Craft, 2005; NACCCE,
1999). These terms might therefore be understood to be a process:
2.2.1. Imagination
Einstein famously professed, “Imagination is more important than knowledge”,
suggesting the limited nature of knowledge, against the limitless world of imagination.
The term itself finds its roots in the Latin word imaginari meaning picture to oneself.
Robinson (2011: 141) describes it as “the source of our creativity… the ability to bring
to mind things that are not present to our senses… we can step out of the here and
now”.
The NACCCE (1999: 29) describe creativity itself as applied imagination, suggesting
imagination is a pre-requisite for creative thought and activity. Creativity might therefore
be understood as the public expression of imagination (Wheeler-Brownlee, 1985; cited
in Fryer, 1996) or “putting your imagination to work” (Robinson, 2009).
Imagination Creativity Innovation
Figure 2: Key terms as a process of creativity
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2.2.2. Innovation
Robinson (2011: 142) defines innovation as putting creativity into practice, or applied
creativity. Distinct from applied imagination, which essentially acts as a stimulus for
creativity, it might also be understood as “the implementation of new ideas to create
something of value, proven through its uptake in the marketplace” (Craft, 2005: 20),
suggesting that there is a degree of economic or social value involved. Indeed in the
world of business, innovation has become a sexy buzzword – every business aspires
to be innovative. Cox (2005: 381), in his review of creativity in business (discussed
further in part two), defines innovation as “the successful exploitation of new ideas. It is
the process that carries them through to new products, new services, new ways of
running the business or even new ways of doing business”.
2.3. CREATIVE LEARNING
As a child, I was encouraged to use and pursue my imagination. A box could become a
castle, a car, a spaceship. When I arrived at school, the box became only a box. I was
required to consider the measurements of the box, what the box was made from,
where it came from, how it was made. Imagination and creativity are superseded by a
requirement to know ‘real things.’
“I believe this passionately, that we don't grow into creativity, we grow out of it.
Or rather, we get educated out if it” – Robinson (2006)
2.3.1. Understanding creative learning
The NACCCE (1999) report, though accounting for the role of teachers in creativity in
education, does not articulate a definition of creative learning. Distinct from learning,
creative learning specifically is an active process, whereby engagement in a task
results in new knowledge being developed for the individual (Fautley and Savage,
2007: 13).
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Jeffrey (2006: 10) identifies creative learning to mean a combination of “being
innovative, experimental and inventive” and “engage[d] in aspects of knowledge
enquiry”. He articulates that it “enables children to ‘take over’ the subject matter and to
‘take it in’” (Jeffrey, 2001: 8).
Fautley and Savage (2007: 55) adopt a more pragmatic stance on creative learning,
identifying four elements that educators should consider:
1. Divergent thinking – developing imagination;
2. Experiential learning – developing and accumulating experiences;
3. Motivation – fostering an on-task mentality;
4. Enjoying – having fun.
Lucas (2001: 40) also identifies a fairly comprehensive list of the ways in which
educators might encourage creativity in learners, by fashioning a learner-centred
approach. Examples might include: encouraging active learning, engaging multiple
learning styles and stimulating social as well as personal or private learning. By
becoming actively engaged in their learning, students are able to put their creative
ideas and thoughts into practice and see the value of their work: they become
innovative.
2.3.2. The psychology of creative learning
There is much discussion about the psychological role of creativity in relation to the
developing child’s mind, as well as in the ways in which children learn. There are
broadly two theories of learning – constructivist and behaviourist.
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2.3.2.1. Constructivist learning theory
Constructivism posits that learning is an active process, through which individuals
construct meanings for themselves. In this sense, it is probably the closest theory of
learning we can ally with creativity (Craft, 2005: 61).
Vygotsky, a leading proponent of social constructivist theory, claims that all human
beings are creative by nature of being human (Lindqvist, 2003). He suggests – as
others have – that creativity is developed from imagination; and that creativity, though
seen as of equal importance to imagination, is a higher psychological function
(Spencer, et al, 2012: 36-37; Runco & Pritzker, 1999: 695).
Vygotsky argues that children can acquire creative capacities through interaction with
adults, who he sees as being creatively richer than children. He further believes that
creative thinking in children could be enhanced through effective and appropriate
teaching, if it is modelled on his earlier notion of the Zone of Proximal Development
(ibid) - the developmental stage between what a child can achieve without assistance
and what they can achieve with assistance (Fautley and Savage, 2007: 42-43).
Remnants of Vygotsky’s theory can be seen in the underpinnings of discourse today;
that teachers play a crucial role in supporting students to develop their creative
capacities and that every individual has such capacities (NACCCE, 1999; Craft, 2001a;
2005; Boden, 2001).
2.3.2.2. Behaviourist learning theory
Behaviourism, a theoretical approach that suggests we learn through imitation and
changes in behaviour, offers an alternative approach, positioning learning and creativity
as being quite distinct from one another. Craft (2005: 53) articulates this distinction in
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terms of conditioning – that, learning is seen as occurring through conditioning, where
creativity is concerned with “breaking out of conditioned responses”.
Fautley and Savage (2007: 7-8) in their discussion of behaviourism cite an extended
quotation from behaviourist B.F. Skinner, who likens writing a poem – an activity he
sees as creative – to the contribution a mother makes to her baby. He concludes, “the
act of composition is no more an act of creation that having the bits and pieces
composed” (Skinner, 1972: 350-355, quoted in Fautley and Savage, op cit).
2.3.3. Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is about the multi-dimensionality of the process of thought, the
knowing how, as well as the knowing what, and the capacity to generate outcomes,
show imagination and judge the value of a product (Fisher, 2004: 161). Edward De
Bono, famous for his Six Thinking Hats framework for creative thinking, argued in a
2011 interview that creative thinking should be a subject in the curriculum in its own
right (section 3.3 will offer a more comprehensive discussion about creativity in the
curriculum) to enable the successful development and exploration of creative skills
(Creative Innovation Global, 2011).
2.4. CREATIVITY AND ASSESSMENT
There is much debate about whether creativity should be assessed. Indeed, decisions
about what is taught comprise of more than just the content; assessment plays a
significant part.
2.4.1. What do we mean by assessment?
Assessment is more than standardised ‘in-silence’ testing in examination halls, where
there is systematic measurement and the outcomes are extensively moderated.
Testing in this sense is ‘done to’ students to demonstrate their knowledge and
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competence in a given field (Spencer, et al, 2012: 15). In the same breath, as I have
argued elsewhere (Harsant, 2010) there is no requirement for a student to demonstrate
creativity; they are simply required to write what will tick the boxes. There is an
emphasis on conformity.
There is, of course, a place for standardised testing, as Ken Robinson (2013)
humorously articulates:
“If I go for a medical examination, I want some standardized tests… I want to
know what my cholesterol level is compared to everybody else's on a standard
scale. I don't want to be told on some scale my doctor invented in the car.”
At its simplest, there are two purposes or forms of assessment – formative and
summative. Where the latter ultimately provides certification of achievement at the end
of a course, the former is designed to support learning to improve understanding and
practice (Boud and Falchikov, 2006: 401). The NACCCE (1999: 108) identify a third
purpose of assessment: diagnostic – to analyse a pupils’ prior capabilities and
aptitudes. In assessing creativity, both formative and summative assessment would
need to be considered; though in practice, national assessment favours the latter.
2.4.2. Assessing Creativity
Assessing creativity enables us to understand the value of it. There has been much
discourse and recognition around the importance of creativity in education, but the
tracking and measuring of creative development is not held in the same regard: there is
no requirement for schools to assess the creativity of its students.
One of the challenges is assessing creative development itself, which is more difficult
than testing knowledge. As the previous section indicated, school assessment is
usually concerned with the outcome or end result. The added complexity in assessing
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creativity is in the judgement of originality and value; and depends on a clear sense of
the criteria that constitute them (NACCCE, 1999: 109).
2.4.2.1. Assessment Criteria
Notions of measuring and assessing creativity according to predetermined criteria –
much like a mark scheme against which an exam is measured – have been difficult;
evident by the little research and literature. Plucker and Makel (2010) identify a number
of categories into which tests for creativity fall, including psychometric, behaviour or
personality, activity or experience checklists and the assessment of creative products.
Historically, in the field of psychometrics, tests of creativity were regularly used.
Torrance (1984; cited in Kim, 2009) developed a five-scale test of individual creative
thinking; these were:
1. Fluency – the total number of ‘useable’ ideas generated;
2. Originality – the generation of ideas that are unusual or statistically rare;
3. Elaboration – the ability to develop and detail an idea;
4. Abstractness of titles – the degree beyond labelling of what already exists;
5. Resistance to premature closure – the degree of open-mindedness.
There have been some attempts, too, to identify specific criteria, against which
creativity can be measured. Fryer (1996: 16) reports that teachers preferred judging the
creativity of students’ work based on how ‘imaginative’ and ‘original’ it is.
One of the challenges here, however, stems from a lack of clarity and operational
understanding of imagination and originality – in what sense and to what extent does a
product have each of these characteristics in order to be deemed creative? Fryer
(1996) questions the appropriateness of applying such assessment criteria to pupils’
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creativity, arguing that the expectation that young people achieve all of the criteria
above would not exist.
In a review of theoretical and research literature, Besemer and Treffinger (1981; cited
in Fryer, 1996) identified over 125 separate criteria for measuring and assessing
creativity. They categorise these criteria into three:
1. Novelty – relating to: the ‘newness’ of the product; the capacity of a product to
inspire the production of additional creative products; and the product’s ability to
transform or radically shift an approach.
2. Resolution – the extent to which a product meets the needs of a situation; it
would be judged for adequacy, appropriateness, usefulness and value.
3. Elaboration and synthesis – the extent to which a product combines dissimilar
elements to create a coherent whole; it would include criteria such as
complexity, expressiveness or completeness.
Jackson and Messick (1965; cited in Taylor, 2009: 18; and in Fryer, 1996) included
‘novelty’ as a criterion in characterising a product as creative. They argue that ‘novelty’
– defined as unusualness – is a necessary prerequisite for any product to be deemed
creative. Jackson and Messick’s (ibid.) four categories – in which we can see remnants
of and similarities to Besemer and Treffinger’s (op cit.) three groups – are:
1. Novelty;
2. Transformation;
3. Condensation; and
4. Appropriateness.
In contrast to the more complex assessment criteria outlined above, Hocevar (1981:
459) merely argues for a simple creative activity checklist to measure creativity is “one
of the most reliable indicators.” Though the significant limitation, again, stems from
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clarity of understanding: that is, what do we understand creative activity to be, in order
to compile a checklist to measure them?
2.4.3. Assessment: what can we conclude?
The nature of creativity makes it particularly difficult to establish a specific way to
assess it according to a given set of criteria. There is however a number of relevant
criteria that we might use to determine creative activity and, more importantly, its value.
Notions of originality or novelty find a central place in the debate. Both the NACCCE
(1999) and others (Spencer, et al, 2012; Fautley and Savage, 2007; Joubert, 2001)
argue for a greater emphasis on formative assessment, which would promote creative
teaching and learning. There is arguably a further set of challenges, such as: who
should assess creativity, how should they assess it, and what are the benefits for the
individual being assessed?
This section sought to provide an introduction to the assessment of creativity in
education, to maintain linearity with the aims of this dissertation. This particular area
could, as Spencer, et al (2012) and Treffinger, et al (2002) demonstrate with their
extensive papers, be interrogated further and explored in depth that this dissertation is
unable to facilitate.
2.5. WHY IS CREATIVITY IN EDUCATION IMPORTANT?
This question can broadly be argued from four angles: political-economic, social,
educational and individual.
Political-economic discourse highlights the exponential rate at which the world is
moving, changing and transforming. Creativity is often described as an essential skill
and asset in an individual’s ability to cope and adapt to this changing world (Robinson,
2011; Banaji, et al, 2006; NACCCE, 1999). The QCA (2004: 9) articulate that:
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“Pupils who are creative will be prepared for a rapidly changing world, where
they may have to adapt to several careers in a lifetime. [Employers] need
creative people”.
According to a global IBM (2010) survey of more than 1,500 Chief Executive Officers
(CEOs) across 33 industries worldwide, CEOs believed that creativity was the most
crucial factor for future success and was identified as the top leadership competency.
The study posits that changes in global economics, accelerated industry transformation
and rapidly evolving customer identities can be overcome by creativity.
With political discourse focussed on the economic value of creativity in preparing for
the future, Banaji, et al, (2006) make a case for creativity and its social value. They
argue that understanding individual creativity as being linked to social structures
emphasises the social inclusion of communities and individuals and invokes
educational and economic concerns to form the foundation for policy. In this sense,
creativity becomes a mechanism for social cohesion and is as a result ultimately good
for society.
Creativity is therefore about people; ergo individual creativity is central the debate.
Creative people are generally seen to be flexible, unorthodox, curious, questioning and
able to draw parities and connections (Fisher, et al, 2008; Cropley, 2001) – often highly
desirable characteristics in individuals. Such people, however, can find it hard to both
describe themselves as creative and explain it, perhaps owing to stereotypical
understandings of creative people and ‘the arts’ (see section 3.4). The same challenge
can also be found in schools.
Turning to education, if we understand creativity as a transferable skill (see section
3.3), creativity would find a central place in the school curriculum. The QCA’s (2004)
Creativity: Find it, Promote it (see section 3.5) – which shares many of the same
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arguments as the NACCCE (1999) report – states three principle reasons as to why
creativity is such an important, transferable skill:
1. Creativity improves pupils’ self esteem, motivation and achievement;
2. Creativity prepares pupils for life; and
3. Creativity enriches pupils’ lives.
Much of the discourse situates creativity in education as fundamentally important – a
view that underpins the premise of this paper. Emphasis tends to be on the benefits in
the future, rather than in ‘the now’. Fisher (2008: 11) writes that:
“The focus of education must be on creating people who are capable of thinking
and doing new things, not simply repeating what past generations have done…”
Craft and Jeffrey (2001: 11) summarise that “creativity is good for the economy, good
for the individual, good for society and good for education.”
2.6. LIMITATIONS OF CREATIVITY IN EDUCATION
Though much discourse advocates creativity in education being a good thing, Anna
Craft (2003; 2005) argues extensively of numerous limitations to educational support
for creativity.
First, the complexity of defining the term creativity and in clearly distinguishing between
it, imagination and innovation is something that proves to be a significant barrier to
adopting creativity in education. She highlights the “slippage” – a lack of rigid or
universal understanding – in language makes creativity difficult to pin down in
educational contexts; and argues there is a lack of clarity around notions of creative
pedagogy (Lin, 2011). Creativity can be misinterpreted as disobedient and disruptive
behaviours, which poses further challenge to pedagogical practice (Lucas, 2001; Scott,
1999).
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An additional limitation is the conflict and tension in policy and practice, owing to the
“tightening of control around both curriculum and pedagogy” (Craft, 2003: 118). Whilst
creativity is encouraged in much of the political rhetoric, the methods, subjects and
techniques through which teachers could achieve such a state are increasingly
constraining. In such an environment, creative working for some teachers has become
a “tool for personal and institutional survival” (Craft, 2003: 118).
Craft (ibid; 2005) further argues that the application of creativity is hindered by the
discontinuities in the curriculum itself. She underlines the differences in conceptions of
creativity in the early years curriculum and in the National Curriculum – that the former
grounds creativity in a specific set of domains (the ‘arts’) and the latter considers
creativity as a cross curricular, transferable skill. As a result, therefore, of a disjointed
set of understandings, support for the development of creativity in children is inevitably
difficult. She argues that policy work around Creative Partnerships (section 3.6) should
be advanced to address these different conceptions of creativity in the curriculum.
A third limitation is the design and organisation the curriculum itself. Though creativity
is often associated with the arts (section 3.2), opportunities for enhancing the creativity
of learners can exist across the curriculum (Craft, 2003; 2005). Craft (ibid) and others
(e.g. Bolden, 2012; Walker and Gleaves, 2012) highlight unique opportunities for
learners to be creative in subjects not traditionally assumed to be so, like Maths and
ICT. Lucas (2001) argues that schools should create the conditions under which
creativity in every subject is encouraged and able to flourish. The QCA (2004) make
the case for exactly this: finding and promoting creativity in a non-subject specific
model across the curriculum.
The final of Craft’s (2003) limitations is the difficulties that come with a centrally
controlled pedagogy; that is, a teaching and learning agenda that is controlled by a
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fundamentally politically driven central government. This centralised control can
prevent more creative methodologies from being employed and implemented in
educational environments. Strategies emerge in a policy climate which “appears to
treat teachers like technicians rather than artists” (Craft, 2003: 120; Craft, 2005: 77).
2.7. CONCLUSION
Chapter two supports the conclusion that creativity is:
§ Difficult to define;
§ Difficult to assess; and,
§ Difficult to operationalize as something concrete;
§ But important.
The theoretical discourse demonstrates the elusive character of creativity and the
challenges in applying it as a concept. There have been a number of notable attempts
to address these challenges; but there has yet to be complete agreement among
scholars about the ways in which we do define, assess and operationalize creativity.
One of the important distinctions in this area of study is between ideas of imagination,
creativity and innovation: that the former is essentially the pre-requisite of the
subsequent latter. Creativity therefore is the product of imaginative activity and is one
of the factors that cultivate innovation.
Though much of the discourse suggests creativity is a positive and important factor,
particularly in education and in preparing young people for the future, there are a
number of challenges that might hinder the adoption of creativity in educational
environments. Craft (2003, 2005) identifies a number of these challenges, including: a
common understanding of the definitions of terminology; a tension between school
autonomy and central control of pedagogy; and the composition and nature of the
curriculum itself.
26
This chapter sought to highlight some of the conceptual and theoretical standpoints
and challenges in the discourse of creativity and in the context of education. The next
chapter will investigate contemporary educational policy and practice around creativity,
using the theoretical ground already covered as a foundation. It will owe particular
focus to the curriculum, policy documents and partnerships for creative education.
27
3. APPROACHING CREATIVITY IN POLICY AND PRACTICE
This chapter explores creativity in UK policy and practice, prior to 2010 General
Election. It briefly explores the political and economic backdrop to creativity in
education, before turning explicitly to how creativity is defined in educational
contexts. It examines key education policy documents that seek to support the
development of creativity and explore how creativity is brought to life across the
education landscape.
3.1. CREATIVE BRITAIN
“Creativity is at the heart of British culture – a defining feature of our national
identity.” - Former Prime Minister Gordon Brown (DCMS, 2008: 1)
Creativity in political discourse has historically found itself in the domain of business,
economics and enterprise. The view is that the future success and prosperity of the
economy will depend on the “economic imperative” (Banaji, et al, 2006) of creativity
and innovation. In 2005, then-Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown
commissioned two reviews of creativity in business: Creativity, Design and Business
Performance (DTI, 2005) and The Cox Review of Creativity in Business (Cox, 2005).
The angle taken in both are not dissimilar – that, fundamentally, creativity is of vital
importance to the economy. In the same year, then-Creative Industries Minister, James
Purnell, made the case for “Making Britain the World’s Creative Hub”. He posed the
question, “what more we can do to nurture young creative talent?” and argued for “a
clear set of assumptions which will help to inform the basis of our future policy on
creativity” (Roberts, 2006).
28
3.1.1. The creative industries
Originally called the culture industries prior to the 1997 Labour government, the
creative industries are widely acknowledged as world leading (Cox, 2005: 10). The
Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS, 2001: 5) describe – and understand
– creative industries as those which “have their origin in individual creativity, skill and
talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation
and exploitation of intellectual property".
Contributing £71.4bn a year in added value to the UK economy and accounting for
5.6% of all UK jobs (DCMS, 2014), the creative industries unquestionably play an
influential role in the development of creativity in education. Creative Britain (DCMS,
2008) set out the government's unparalleled commitment to support the creative
industries, particularly in the role they play in enabling the creative talent of children
and young people to flourish. Section 3.6 will discuss two of the commitments this
document outlines: Creative Partnerships and Find Your Talent.
In recent educational developments, the creative industries have been particularly
vocal and active, for example in their opposition to the English Baccalaureate
(Montgomery, 2013) (see section 4.1).
3.2. INTRODUCING CREATIVITY IN EDUCATION
3.2.1. Defining creativity in education
The fluidity and uncertainty that surrounds creativity is unsurprisingly reflected in
education. Teachers, school leaders and pupils have long faced a dilemma about what
creativity really means and what it might look like in schools (Craft, 2005; House of
Commons, 2007; Zimmerman, 2009; Turner, 2013).
29
The NACCCE (1999) report, All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture and Education, was
one of the first reports to offer the UK government a conceptual definition of creativity:
“…imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both
original and of value” (ibid, 1999: 29).
It characterises creativity as a four stage process: thinking or behaving imaginatively;
ensuring this imaginative activity is purposeful; that processes should generate
something original; and the outcome of the process must be of value in relation to the
intended objective (NACCCE, 1999: 29).
In its definition, the NACCCE foreground the relationship between creativity and
imagination: that imagination is a prerequisite to creativity. Though, it appears to
suggest that the process of exploration and preparation – “imaginative activity” – is only
valuable if it contributes to the final product or outcome. In this respect, the NACCCE
discourse is set apart from those which might be seen to encourage a view of creativity
as simply play or fantasy (Banaji, et al, 2006: 25).
The report positions the foundations of creativity in knowledge and the command of
ideas; an idea that we can see reflected in Gove’s understanding of creativity (see
chapter 1). It states, fairly unambiguously, that:
“Creativity is not simply a matter of letting go. Serious creative achievement
relies on knowledge, control of materials and command of ideas.” (NACCCE
1999: 6).
Furthermore, Banaji, et al (2006) argue:
“While it may appear that the rhetoric used in the NACCCE report supports
‘democratic’ notions of creativity, and encourages an appreciation of cultural
difference, many of its promises about the benefits of creative education betray
30
elements of more elitist and romantic notions of artistic endeavour, and the
traditional artistic practices and forms associated with them” (ibid: 29).
3.2.2. Making the case
Notions of creativity in education date back to ‘The Arts in Schools: Principles, Practice
and Provision’ (Robinson, 1982). The report argued that unprecedented challenges in
society were built on patterns of employment, the relationship between education and
society, and the nature of cultural change in the UK. Its premise was that the arts
fundamentally have a place in the curriculum, at which creativity should be at its centre.
It argued, “the development of creativity needs a sound base in knowledge and skill,
but also teaching methods with are flexible and open ended, so that it can emerge and
flourish” (Robinson, 1982: 35). The report also stresses the need to cultivate
relationships between education and the world of creative arts – a core principle we
can see in the later developed Creative Partnerships programme (see section 3.6)
3.2.3. Looking to the Future
All Our Futures (NACCCE, 1999) was asked to make recommendations on
“… the creative and cultural development of young people through formal and
informal education: to take stock of current provision and to make proposals for
principles, policies and practice” (NACCCE, 1999:4).
Led by Ken Robinson, one of the UK’s “home-grown creativity gurus” (Schlesinger,
2006: 382), the report sought to “identify the obstacles that were preventing the
flourishing of creativity in education and to propose action to the government to remedy
the situation” (Joubert, 2001: 17). It highlighted the importance of creativity in
education, but also in the context of the economic, technological and social challenges
facing education today, as Robinson (1982) has argued previously.
31
Craft and Jeffrey (2001: 4) suggest that the commissioning of the NACCCE report may
merely have been an attempt by government to publicise its support of creativity at a
time when teaching and learning approaches in schools were focussed on technical
implementation, rather than creative methodologies. Indeed the report emerged
following the publication of Excellence in Schools (DfEE, 1997), which emphasised the
urgent need to unlock young people’s potential, upon which the economy and social
cohesion depended.
The authors of the report place a large emphasis on the role of teachers in supporting
students to develop creative capacities. They distinguish between the notions of
teaching creatively and teaching for creativity. The former is characterised by the
imaginative approaches employed by teachers to make learning both more interesting
and more effective; the latter is defined as “forms of teaching that are intended to
develop young people's own creative thinking or behaviour” (NACCCE, 1999: 89).
Where teaching creatively situates focus on teachers’ practice, the idea of teaching for
creativity posits a major consequence for teachers and learners: a sense of learner
agency and empowerment (Craft and Jeffrey, 2001: 5; Craft 2005: 42; Lin, 2011).
These two notions proposed by the NACCCE (1999), coupled with ‘creative learning’
(section 2.3) form the creative pedagogy (Lin, 2011).
Under the premise of teaching for creativity, teachers are seen to be facilitators of
learning, creating a space for learners to develop their creative abilities; a notion
fiercely opposed by the highly controversial The Three Wise Men Report, which
advocates quite the opposite: direct teaching (Alexander, et al, 1992). The idea of
teachers as facilitators is something Fryer (1996) also discusses. The 2004 National
Curriculum teachers’ handbook, it states that the secondary curriculum “should enable
pupils to think creatively and critically” and that teachers should “give [pupils] the
opportunity to become creative” (DfEE and QCA, 2004: 11).
32
The discourse of All Our Futures (NACCCE, 1999) positions creativity as an essential
capacity for overcoming the complexities and challenges in 21st century living, as well
as a range of employment opportunities beyond those in ‘creative industries’. It has
been considered to be a highly influential report and is used as a primary point of
reference in many of the government’s succeeding guidance on creativity in education
including setting the context for Creative Partnerships, Creativity: Find it, Promote it,
and Nurturing Creativity in Young People (see section 3.5).
3.3. CREATIVITY AND THE CURRICULUM
In England and Wales, the Plowden Report (1960) was the first government-
commissioned review to consider creativity in education. The report identifies the
“multi-dimensional character [of creativity] and [its ability to] operate in many different
spheres” (Plowden, 1967, 2: 439). It considered creativity in relation to child-centered
pedagogy and the arts, which as Fleming (2008: 26-27) discusses, is also the centre of
much criticism. The report highlights an increasing interest in the assessment of
creativity (section 2.4), leading to claims that it is possible to measure and distinguish
creative thought processes from conventional tests of intelligence (Plowden, 1967, 2:
439).
The report suggested that a child’s creativity lies at the heart of teaching and learning
in early school (primary) education. Ideas about supporting children’s imaginations is a
thread that runs throughout Plowden’s’ narrative. In discussing the diversity of physical
environments for learning, for example, the report suggests that a child’s “imagination
seizes on particular facets of objects and leads them to invent as well as to create”
(Plowden, 1967, 1: 193).
33
3.3.1. Creativity and the National Curriculum
In 1989, the first National Curriculum in the UK was established and the Plowden report
and its conception of creativity were left behind. The new statutory curriculum
comprised of three core subjects – mathematics, English and science and seven
foundation subjects – history, geography, technology, music, art and physical
education (HM government, 1988: 2).
In its first publication, the curriculum neither mentioned nor recognised creativity or
provision for creative education in schools: an issue to which the NACCCE (1999)
dedicate a whole chapter of their report. Focus was on the acquisition of knowledge
and retention of fact and how these are assessed. Subsequent revisions to the
curriculum in 1990, 1994, 1996 and 1997, which saw the introduction of Standard
Assessment Tests (SATs), attainment targets and the A* grade (House of Commons,
2009), reinforced this.
In the 2004 National Curriculum Handbook for Teachers (DfES and QCA, 2004),
creativity becomes explicit (see Appendix A for a breakdown across the curriculum).
History, Geography, Modern Foreign Languages and Citizenship however lack explicit
mention of creativity; though, the QCA assert:
“Creative thinking and behaviour can be promoted in all National Curriculum
subjects…” (QCA, 2004: 9).
It is important in this discussion to acknowledge this subject-dominated nature of
schools, perpetuated by the curriculum – as Craft (2003; 2005) has argued. The
emphasis is on the subjects that comprise it, rather than on the development of skills
for thinking and learning (Spencer, et al, 2012: 69). This becomes most apparent in
nationally measured summative assessment – usually examinations – that is taken in
specific subjects.
34
Cachia and Ferrari (2010: 11) report that though teachers felt creativity could be
applied to all subjects, they appeared “less convinced about the applicability of
creativity, as may be noted from the lower percentage agreement to the statement that
creativity is not restricted to visual arts, music, drama and artistic performance.”
3.3.2. Creativity as a cross-curricular skill
Understanding creativity as a cross-curricular skill would arguably begin to overcome
some of the challenges in operationalizing creativity in schools and through the subject-
oriented curriculum.
In 2008, a new statutory secondary curriculum was introduced, placing “greater
emphasis on pupils’ understanding of the concepts, ideas and processes of subjects,
on cross-curricular themes and on pupils’ development of life skills” (House of
Commons, 2009: 13). This increased emphasis demonstrates considerable potential to
support the development of students’ creativity and creative ability. Creativity and
critical thinking found a place in the non-statutory cross-curricular dimensions (see
Appendix B).
Craft (2005: 35) suggests that identifying creativity as a skill may be oversimplifying
what is actually a fairly complex notion; for in order to be creative, we “must necessarily
presuppose an understanding of the domain”. From this standpoint, to manifest as a
skill, creativity must necessarily be routed in subject domains.
Notions of creativity as a cross-curricular skill are coupled with the idea of it being
transferable. It has been argued (Craft, 2003; 2005; Lucas, 2001) that all subjects in
the curriculum are inherently conducive to supporting the creative development of
students; allowing for creative skill to be cultivated as one that is transferable. The
expression of creativity however would be different across domains: musical creativity
35
would be expressed in different ways from mathematical creativity (Craft, 2005: 36),
though the fundamentals of creativity would remain the same.
We might also interrogate the relationship between creativity as a skill and the ability in
particular subjects; that is, whether or not ‘being creative’ makes a difference. Baran, et
al (2011), for example, in their study, reported there to be no relationship between
creativity and the mathematical ability in six-year old children; suggesting creativity was
not a determiner of mathematical ability.
3.4. CREATIVITY AND THE ARTS
There is a wide misconception that creativity is confined to ‘the arts’ (music, art, dance
and drama) – as the preface to this paper exemplifies. Though, this is not necessarily
unfounded. Banaji, et al, (2006:26) contend that the NACCCE report demonstrates an
“overwhelming visual emphasis on drama, dance and art projects”. Whilst addressing
the dynamic relationships between creativity and all curricular subjects, the report
views the arts as “essential elements of creative…education” (NACCCE, 1999:41).
Turner (2013:32) found there to be “general agreement” among students in years 5
through 11 of subjects identified as being creative. These were: Art, Music, Design and
Technology (DT) and Information and Communications Technology (ICT). Science and
maths were not considered to be creative.
Interestingly, in contrast, Adobe (2012) found that among their sample of college
graduates and full time employees, science and maths were regarded as relatively high
in terms of the contribution they make to the development of creative thinking skills.
Though the government articulate an understanding of creativity to be something
everyone has the capacity to develop – there remains a clear hierarchy of subjects in
schools (Robinson, 2006). The arts subjects, compulsory to the end of Key Stage 3,
are positioned at the bottom of the curriculum, whilst maths, English and science,
36
compulsory to the end of Key Stage 4, are positioned at the top. Despite the ambition
of the revised statutory curriculum (QCA, 2007) to raise the status of the arts subjects
and ergo position them equally (see Appendix C for a diagrammatic representation),
schools continue to position subjects hierarchically, owing perhaps to a perceived idea
of their importance in relation to league tables.
Creativity’s alignment with the arts however is historical, as Fleming (2008) discusses
at length. Indeed, high achievement in the arts – typically judged on an end product – is
often understood to be the result of creativity. Arts subjects by definition “give children
the scope to express themselves with freedom originality, often without words” (Liptai,
2004: 133). The 2008 Art and Design curriculum (QCA, 2007: 18) defines creativity –
and is the only subject curriculum to do so. The document also addresses Fryer’s
(1996) critique of the measurement of originality (section 2.4 / see Appendix D).
The relationship between the arts and creativity has changed since its inception. There
is an increasing departure from the view that creative activity only exists within the arts;
to a view that creativity exists across the curriculum. Fleming (2008: 55) writes in his
conclusion that there have been – and are “changing approaches, differences of
opinion and often conflicting views of aims and priorities [about arts in education and
creativity]. That is exactly how it should be.”
3.5. DOCUMENTING CREATIVITY IN POLICY AND PRACTICE
As creativity crept up the educational agenda, policy-makers published a number of
guidance documents and reports for developing creative practices in schools. Appendix
E presents a table summarising some of the key publications and policy areas on
creativity in education policy and practice in England.
With such an impossibly vast area to cover, this section will look at three of these
publications: Creativity: Find It, Promote It, a government-coordinate publication;
37
Nurturing Creativity, an independent review; and Learning: Creative Approaches
that Raise Standards, a report on a survey by the school inspectorate. These
publications, in directly relating to the aims of this paper, highlight the practical role of
creativity in education, drawing on the theoretical foundations of the NACCCE (1999)
and argue for a cross-curricular understanding of it.
3.5.1. Creativity: Find it, Promote it - 2004
Following the review of the National Curriculum in 2000 and a three-year research
project, Creativity: find it, promote it (QCA, 2004) was published. The document
explicitly addresses key stages one through three, providing an example of how
creativity could be made functional in schools, inside the parameters set by the
National Curriculum. In many ways, it seeks to promote creativity as being at the centre
of the curriculum itself.
The document identifies a number of broad, observable behaviours that are deemed
‘creative’ and can be found across the curriculum, clearly built upon the democratic
definition described in All Our Futures (NACCCE, 1999) and on Craft’s (2001a) notion
of ‘little c creativity’:
§ Questioning and challenging;
§ Making inventive connections and identifying relationships;
§ Envisaging what might be;
§ Exploring ideas and fresh approaches, keeping options open;
§ Reflecting critically on ideas, actions and outcomes.
Aimed at teaching professionals, the document directs focus at teaching creatively and
how teachers can promote an environment in which creativity can flourish. In a number
of ways, the report neglects to seriously consider the contribution and significance of
the pupils’ talents and creative abilities – evident in frequency of the pronoun ‘you’, that
38
the role of the teacher is imperative in spotting and cultivating the conditions under
which creativity can thrive.
This is particularly obvious in chapters three and four, which outline a number of
operational actions that schools can do to harness, support and promote creativity in
their students.
What is particularly obvious in the QCA (2004) document, illustrating the aims and
underpinning principles of this paper, is the statement that creativity is both good and
accessible to all students; that it can find a place in every curricular area; and that it
relies on the teacher for it to flourish. In these ways, too, we can see remnants of a
number of theories and debates discussed in chapter two, particularly discussions
around creativity, the curriculum and pedagogy.
3.5.2. Nurturing Creativity - 2006
Nurturing Creativity is an independent review of creativity in schools, authored by Paul
Roberts, with a particular focus on career pathways into creative industries. It develops
a broad framework for considering how to “provide catalysts for creativity across the
range of young people’s experiences” (Roberts, 2006: 12).
The report builds on the QCA’s (2004) work on creativity and similarly employs the
NACCCE (1999) definition. Furthermore, it builds on and advances some of the
discussions initiated in All Our Futures (ibid.); developing teachers as creative
practitioners, the development of partnerships between creative and teaching
professionals, for instance.
The review – the fundamentality of which is a proposal that a child’s creative journey
should start in early years education and develop alongside the child, with the support
of creative practitioners – proposes an eight-element framework, which brings together
39
areas across education, children’s services and industry to create a comprehensive
offer to young people (see Appendix F).
This review is markedly different to the QCA (2004) document: it was written to “inform
future policy” (Roberts, 2006: 1), ergo demonstrating its potential for influencing real
change in legislation and policy. Furthermore, focus is afforded to the multiple
stakeholders in creativity in education, rather than just specifically teachers – including
policy-makers, creative practitioners and, importantly, children and young people – and
the roles they play in bringing the creativity in education agenda into fruition. In this
respect, it highlights the capacity of creativity to extend beyond the curriculum as well
as the benefits this can bring to learners – a premise underpropping this paper.
3.5.2.1. The government’s response
The government response to Roberts’ (2006) review reaffirms the NACCCE (1999)
definition of creativity, arguing, as others have, that being clear on what the term
means is significant in understanding how creativity works and how it should be
supported. It highlights what more the government can do in supporting children and
young people’s creative development; making some clear commitments to developing
the eight areas Roberts (2006) proposes. The response explicitly contextualises
creativity in the government’s flagship framework for children and young people, Every
Child Matters, highlighting creativity can be a “powerful contributing factor to achieving
each of the five outcomes” (DCMS and DfES, 2006: 5).
One of the notable missing elements of the government response is the surprising lack
of emphasis placed on cultural experiences, the role of museums and galleries, for
example. Though they are recognised in terms of the contributions they are making to
wider government programme; Creative Partnerships, for example (see section 3.6).
40
3.5.3. Learning: creative approaches that raise standards - 2010
Following Roberts’ (2006) review and recommendations, creativity became
incorporated into the Ofsted subject surveys from 2007-8. In 2010, Ofsted published
‘Learning: creative approaches that raise standards’. The survey – first to be published
with the included creativity measure – evaluates how 44 schools across England used
creative approaches to teaching and learning to encourage pupils to question, be
imaginative and reflect on the effect of ideas and actions (Ofsted, 2010: 4).
This document arguably exemplifies ways in which creativity is operationalized in
schools; which has been markedly absent from preceding publications, where
discussion has been largely conceptual and idealistic of creativity in educational
environments. The report boldly states that:
“In schools with good teaching, there is not a conflict between the National
Curriculum, national standards in core subjects and creative approaches to
learning” (Ofsted, 2010: 5).
This particular document carries some additional authority and influence because of its
author: Ofsted, the school inspectorate and regulator. It might therefore be interpreted
as a document of best practice or a checklist of activities that Ofsted attribute to
schools performing well in terms of the creative development of their pupils. The report
highlights that:
“All the schools selected for the survey had been judged good or outstanding in
their most recent inspection…” (ibid, 2010: 1).
Interestingly, despite the increasingly widespread view that creativity exists well beyond
the arts (section 3.4), the Ofsted (2010) report draws on a significant number of
creative activities that find there foundations in arts-based environments and scenarios:
41
for example, it describes a number of performances (ibid: 10, 11, 13) and drama
activities (ibid: 17, 18, 19). It further makes a series of recommendations for all schools,
including: a more balanced approach to curriculum planning to include creative
learning; providing continuing professional development (CPD) to staff to develop
creative pedagogical practice; and to develop partnerships to develop pupils’ creative
capacities.
The report demonstrates some concrete examples of creativity in practice across the
curriculum, highlighting that Craft’s (2003; 2005) limitations can be overcome in
practice, resulting in positive outcomes for learners. In this respect, Ofsted’s (2010)
report aligns clearly with the aims and premises advanced by this paper.
3.6. CREATIVITY BEYOND THE CLASSROOM
3.6.1. Creative Partnerships
In 2002, the Labour government launched Creative Partnerships. The programme
sought to facilitate and broker relationships between creative practitioners, such as
artists, musicians and architects, and schools to
“…unlock the creativity and raise the aspirations and achievements of children
and young people” (Creative Partnerships, 2013).
Creative Partnerships were established to transform teaching and learning in schools,
support Initial Teacher Training (ITT) and provide training for staff already working in
schools, focusing on the cultivation of creative teaching methods and enabling teaching
staff to work with creative professionals (House of Commons, 2007: 9). The discourse
of Creative Partnerships positions creative practitioners as being particularly adroit at
stimulating creativity skills in others, by being creative themselves (Pringle, 2008).
42
Though the programme is reported to have worked with over 1 million children, through
more than 8000 projects in 36 of England’s most deprived communities during its 9-
year existence (Creative Partnerships, 2013), its implementation has come with
difficulties.
Pringle (2008) argues that consideration should be given to how creative practitioners
are embedded into the broader curriculum, rather than the one-off intervention the
Creative Partnerships programme facilitates. She posits that creative practitioners are
perceived as “limited outsider interventions” (Pringle, 2008: 47, quoting Addison and
Burgess, 2006: 92). Indeed, in an early evaluation of the programme, challenges in
establishing and sustaining these broader, cross-curricular arrangements – particularly
in secondary schools – were reported (Doherty and Harland, 2002; McLellan, et al,
2012).
Research by the National Foundation for Education Research (NFER) has repeatedly
indicated that Creative Partnerships have had a significant impact on both students and
teaching staff, showing a positive correlation between participation in Creative
Partnerships activities and improvements in attainment at Key Stages 3 and 4 (Sharp,
et al, 2006; Eames, et al, 2006; Kendall, et al, 2008a; Cooper, et al, 2011). The
programme had arguably achieved what it was designed to achieve: the most common
outcomes of the Creative Partnerships for young people were creativity, personal
development and communication (Sharp, et al, 2006). Research has also pointed to
significantly better attendance at schools that delivered Creative Partnership activities;
improving the longer the school is part of the programme (Kendall, et al, 2008b).
Safford and O’Sullivan (2007) found that the programme facilitated greater discussion
at home between parent and child, enabling parents to gauge a greater understanding
of both what their child is doing and why it is enjoyable. Indeed, parental involvement in
43
children’s education has a significant effect on educational engagement and
achievement (Department of Children, Schools and Families, 2008).
Ofsted (2006) commended the programme for its effectiveness in schools. It reported
that pupils benefitted from the experience of working alongside creative practitioners,
helping them to develop personal and social skills, encourage risk-taking and had a
positive effect on their literacy, numeracy and ICT aptitudes (Ofsted, 2006; House of
Commons, 2007: 11). In his review, Roberts (2006) he concluded that there was a
diverse array of creativity work, with strong support by creative programmes, projects
and the creative industry.
Ofsted (2006) noted that skills and aptitudes developed in Creative Partnerships’
activities were not necessarily being transferred across into other curriculum areas,
indicating that students were “often unclear” about how to apply these creative skills
independently.
Despite the successes of the Creative Partnerships programme, which for every £1
invested delivers £15.30 worth of benefits (PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, 2010: 3), the
government announced the withdrawal of its funding in the 2010 Spending Review.
Culture Minister, Ed Vaizey has defended the decision, arguing,
“…headteachers have to use what is available to them creatively in a period of
reduced finances. It will also be up to local cultural organisations to get
involved” (Thorpe, 2011).
44
3.6.2. Find Your Talent
In 2008, the government rolled out a new initiative: Find Your Talent. The scheme,
managed by Creativity, Culture and Education – who also coordinated the Creative
Partnerships programme – was established to “find out what it would take to provide
high quality cultural experiences for all children and young people, regardless of age or
ability” (Find Your Talent, 2014).
The 10 pilot projects sought to offer children and young people regular involvement
with arts and culture, which included the opportunity to undertake work experience in
creative industries, both in and out of school time. Though, like the Creative
Partnerships programme, Find Your Talent was curtailed in 2010 as a result of
government spending cuts.
The projects, however, were seen to be a real success, enabling thousands of children
and young people to access cultural and creative experiences. Like Creative
Partnerships, the projects also bought educational and creative professionals together
(Find Your Talent, 2014).
Though post-programme evaluations did not take place, early evaluative research
(DCMS and DfE, 2011: 28) suggested the programme was proving beneficial to the
children and young people who took part:
§ [Children and young people] reported that [the activities] offered something new
and more focused for them
§ They produced creative outputs that involved effective team working
§ There was evidence of improved confidence among participants
§ There were also examples of practical skills and knowledge development
45
3.6.3. Building on the legacy
In 2012, Arts Council England (ACE) commissioned a network of ten ‘bridge
organisations’ to facilitate the connection of children, young people and schools to arts
and culture, tasked with building on the legacy built by Creative Partnerships and Find
Your Talent (Arts Council England, 2014).
Evidence suggests creative and cultural opportunities are still valued by schools. In an
intelligence report commissioned by Artswork, the national youth arts development
agency and ACE Bridge organisation for South East England, schools reported that
they felt arts and cultural activities
“…empower children and young people, to build self-esteem, to foster
creativity… and to help recognise individual talents” (Artswork, 2013:15).
The creativity projects discussed here foreground the role of creative industries in
supporting schools to develop the way in which they understand and operationalise
creativity beyond the parameters of subjects in the curriculum. They highlight some of
the benefits to adopting creative practices in education and what effects these have on
the children and young people in educational contexts.
3.8. CONCLUSION
This chapter sought to explore the policy and practice that consumes creativity and
bring to light some of the evidence that it does exist in our education system. It is clear
that much of contemporary discourse finds its foundations in the NACCCE (1999)
report. So, we come full circle.
There have been clear attempts to adopt creative practices in education and
particularly in pedagogical approaches; as well as a noticeable change in discourse
around creativity in schools. From the 1989 curriculum in which creativity was largely
46
marginalised and rejected child-centered pedagogy, to the 2007 curriculum where
creativity is foregrounded as a skill across all subjects.
We, too, have advanced from the notion that creativity is confined to ‘the arts’, to the
broader conception of creativity being something we can see in all areas of education
and the curriculum, and indeed partnerships outside of schools altogether;
government-published documents and independent reviews have evidenced such
understandings.
Furthermore, with schools becoming considerably more ‘e-enabled’ (Becta, 2009: 18)
and with new technologies being introduced into the classroom, technology is exposing
new ways to express creativity in educational contexts, demonstrating vast creative
potential (Loveless, 2002: 2). In recent years, blogs, wikis, YouTube and photo sharing
have begun to facilitate opportunities for students to creatively engage with
technologies and media (Davis and Merchant, 2009). Marsh and Bearne (2008), for
example, found that levels of engagement from students, as well as their capacity and
motivation to engage in creative activities with technologies, can positively impact
attainment. On creativity and technology, Tillander (2011: 40) writes:
“Technology processes, tools, and interfaces rekindle an interest in creativity
and its expression, as exemplified by the many online activities that are
engaging creative innovation”
Creativity is evidently still evolving, is picking up momentum and is arguably far more
prominent in and across the educational landscape; though challenges still remain, as
Craft (2003; 2005) identifies.
47
4. CONCLUSION
“It is perhaps unlikely that the term creativity will be ‘erased’ any time soon.”
– Nelson (2010: 70).
Concluding a debate about creativity in education is much like playing darts with
spaghetti – no matter how hard you try, you’ll never get a full and confident grasp of it,
nor a bullseye conclusion. Indeed, one of the fundamental limitations of this paper is
simply: that there is a vast amount of literature that could have discussed. This paper
sought to journey through theory into the practice of creativity in education, highlighting
some of the key debates and challenges.
KEY FINDINGS
1. Creativity is understood in a number of ways, but is cultivatable.
We can define creativity in two distinct ways – high and everyday; where the former is
found only in exceptionally gifted individuals, and the latter is found in everyone. It is
this latter definition that underpins prevailing discourse in creativity in education. There
are evident further challenges in exploring creativity in terms of imagination and
innovation.
By harnessing and encouraging creative learning, students become fully engaged in
multiple learning styles and become active learners. In supporting creative learning
through specific creative pedagogical approaches, creativity can be nurtured. Equally,
creativity is something everyone as the capacity to develop.
2. Creativity can be assessed, though criteria are difficult to determine.
Though assessing and recording creativity is particularly difficult – especially in
determining criteria against which it is measure –, it can be done and can be useful,
48
particularly formative assessment as a way of harnessing and supporting the creative
process, as well as the product or outcome. For the assessment of creativity to be
successful, it needs to be considered in situ. Originality and novelty are widely
understood to be the principle factors in creative activity.
3. Creativity exists beyond subject-domains, particularly beyond ‘the arts’.
After a significant number of advances, the curriculum now embodies creativity across
all subjects. Notions of confinement to the arts still exist in everyday discourse, but in
education and schools these ideas are marginalised. Creativity is promoted as a cross-
curricular skill that all students should have the opportunity to develop in all subjects
they study, perhaps through the increasing use of educational technologies.
Outside the classroom, Creative Partnerships have demonstrated how significant an
impact external partnerships with the creative and cultural industries have on the
development of creative and creative thinking skills in children and young people.
4. Creativity relies on pedagogical practices to enable expression.
Policy and practice highlights the role of pedagogy in the expression of creativity: that
teachers are pivotal in facilitating it. Furthermore, there is wide understanding that for
individuals to be creative, they need to find a foundation in subject knowledge on which
to build. This subject knowledge fundamentally is developed through pedagogical
practice; demonstrably a large influence on creativity.
-
This paper has presented the theoretical and practical dimensions to creativity in
education, arguing that it is not subject- or domain-specific; that it is present in all areas
of the curriculum; and, that it should be afforded a more significant understanding,
appreciation and recognition by both educators and policy makers.
49
Indeed whilst the relationship between education and creativity still is arguably
strained, there is a great deal of potential and evidence to suggest they are compatible
and equally that they aren’t as dissimilar as chalk and cheese.
4.1. A WORD ON THE POST-2010 LANDSCAPE
In May 2010, the UK government changed hands. Michael Gove, the new Secretary of
State for Education, wasted no time in announcing his intentions for the department.
Indeed the role and nature of creativity in education today has demonstrated potential
to change given the reforms in education we have already seen from the coalition to
date.
In September 2010, the new Department for Education introduced the English
Baccalaureate (the ‘EBacc’), which measured the percentage of students in a school
who achieved grades A*-C in six core GCSE subjects: English, mathematics, science,
a language and history or geography (DfE, 2013a).
Even in its infancy, the qualification received much criticism from those in the creative
industry and arts sector for its exclusion of cultural and arts subjects – music, art and
drama, for example – from the qualification (Higgins, 2012). Truss (2012) reported that
since the introduction of the EBacc, entries in design and technology, art and design
music and drama saw a decline compared to the previous year.
4.1.1. Another curriculum review: a renewed opportunity for creativity?
On 20 January 2011, Gove announced a review of the National Curriculum in England
(DfE, 2011). This new slimmed-down curriculum promised to create space for teachers
to plan what they want to do, foregrounding the opportunity for creative learning and
activities to ignite pupils’ interest. With provision for teachers to take greater control
over what is taught and how it is taught, some commentators argue that creativity will
50
not suffer (Dunford, 2010). The revised aims of the National Curriculum now explicitly
include the term ‘creativity’ (DfE, 2013b).
The new National Curriculum has great potential to pave the way for a highly creative
approach to teaching and learning; particularly given the new freedoms schools have.
As yet, no discussion, reports or evidence has surfaced as to the current state of
creativity in education; and, looking at the government’s priorities in education, it would
be safe to assume there may not be any. It may be the simple case of: only time will
tell.
Total word count: 10,905
51
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APPENDICES
Appendix A – Creativity in subject descriptions of the National Curriculum
Appendix B – Creativity as a cross-curricular dimension
Appendix C – The QCA’s big picture diagram of the National Curriculum
Appendix D – Snippets from the 2008 Art and Design Curriculum
Appendix E – Summary of policy and documentation that look at creativity in education
Appendix F – Roberts’ (2006) eight-element framework
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APPENDIX A
National Curriculum (DfES and QCA, 2004) subject descriptions, explicitly highlighting creativity:
English “enables them to express themselves creatively and imaginatively…” (p.45).
“Mathematics is a creative discipline. It can stimulate moments of pleasure and wonder when a pupil solves a problem for the first time, discovers a more elegant solution to that problem, or suddenly sees hidden connections…” (p.151).
Science “spurs…critical and creative thought” (p.182).
Design and Technology “calls for pupils to become autonomous and creative problem solvers, as individuals and members of a team.” (p.83).
“Pupils use ICT tools to find, explore, analyse, exchange and present information responsibly, creatively and with discrimination” (p.143).
“Art and Design stimulates creativity and imagination” (p.166).
Music “increases self-discipline and creativity” (p.171).
“Physical Education provides opportunities for pupils to be creative…” (p.174).
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APPENDIX B
Creativity in the cross-curricular dimensions, outlined by the QCA (2011):
“[Creativity and critical thinking] enables young people to engage with the world around them in critical and creative ways and to take part in imaginative and purposeful activity across the entire curriculum. Creativity and critical thinking can unlock young people’s potential, leading to personal fulfilment, as well as contributing to the artistic, scientific or technological achievements that help shape and influence wider society” (QCA, 2011: 20).
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APPENDIX D
Definitions of creativity in the 2008 Art and Design curriculum (QCA, 2007):
“Creativity:
§ Producing imaginative images, artefacts and other outcomes that are both original and of value;
§ Exploring and experimenting with ideas, materials, tools and techniques; § Taking risks and learning from mistakes.”
“Creativity: Pupils show creativity when they play with ideas and generate different approaches, responding to purposeful tasks in imaginative and personal ways to produce original images and artefacts. Originality can be defined in relation to pupils’ own previous work, the work of their peer group, or what others have produced in a range of historical contexts.”
“Originality can be defined in relation to pupils’ own previous work, the work of their peer group, or what others have produced in a range of historical contexts.”
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APPENDIX E
Table summarising publications and policy areas relating to creativity in education:
Creativity, business and the economy
Creativity, Design and Business Performance (DTI, 2005) Cox Review of Creativity in Business (Cox, 2005) Creative Britain (DCMS, 2008)
Creativity as a framework Nurturing Creativity (Roberts, 2006) government Response to Paul Roberts’ Report on Nurturing Creativity in Young People (DCMS and DfES, 2006)
Creative and culture/cultural education
All Our Futures (NACCCE, 1999) Creative Partnerships (2002) Find Your Talent (2008) Cultural Education in England (Henley, 2012)
Creativity and the arts/arts education
The Arts in Schools: Principles, Practice and Provision (Robinson, 1982) Music Education in England (Henley, 2011)
Creativity and pedagogy Creativity: Find It, Promote It (QCA, 2004)
Creativity in educational practice
Expecting the Unexpected (Ofsted, 2003) Learning: Creative Approaches that Raise Standards (Ofsted, 2010)
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APPENDIX F
Summary of Roberts’ (2006) eight-element framework:
§ Creative Portfolios – a personal portfolio to incorporate formal and informal learning, enabling personalised learning and progression routes into creative industries;
§ The Early Years – foregrounding creativity as an aptitude in early years education;
§ Extended Schools – establishing strong connections between Extended Schools, setting explicitly expectations for creative activities that would fall within their remit;
§ Building Schools for the Future – creating spaces that support creativity and to take the school into the community;
§ Leading creative learning – establishing a new connection between sectors and preparing trainee teachers to be creatively adept;
§ Practitioner partnerships – developing capacities between schools and creative practitioners for training and accreditation;
§ Pathways to Creative Industries – improving pathways to the creative industries through careers advice, training and education partnerships; and
§ Frameworks of regulation and support – heightening the attention given to creativity in school assessment, including in Ofsted inspections.