Post on 08-Feb-2023
Deception and Detection
Kayla Hoffman
3 August 2011
Defining Deception
Lying is universal- we all do it; we all must do it. –Mark Twain.
Lying is a form of deception. “It can be conscious or
unconscious, verbal or nonverbal, stated or unstated” (Smith 14).
“Lying is not exceptional; it is normal and more often
spontaneous and unconscious than cynical and coldly analytical.
Our minds and bodies secrete deceit” (15). Lying is a common
occurrence that can be found amongst humans and nonhumans alike.
Over the years, the study of deception has produced many
explanations. Each definition tries to capture and describe the
complexities of the phenomena of the sociological behavior of
lying. Deception in its simplest form can be described as the act
of not telling the truth. Even simple organisms use deception.
One definition of lying is “any form of behavior the function of
which is to provide others with false information or to deprive
them of true information” (14). Smith uses the phrase “function”
in his definition to include the ideas that organisms such as
plants and animals or nonhumans use deception in nature. Since
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such organisms like plants and animals do not have clear
intentions Smith uses “functions” to describe this behavior found
amongst nonhumans that resembles the deception which can be seen
amid humans as well. Deception is an intricate concept. There are
many ways that deception has been defined. Countless reasons have
been theorized as to why deception is used. The fact is that
deception is used among humans and nonhumans alike.
Evolutionary biologist, Carl Bergstrom stated that
“organisms deceive one another in every imaginable way in order
to attain every conceivable advantage.” Here Bergstrom describes
how deception is advantageous to even the simplest living being
(Harrington 6). Certain species have also found it beneficial to
pretend certain behaviors and emotions and to hide others in
varying circumstances (56). Psychologist Paul Mitchell stated
that deception is “a false communication that tends to benefit
the communicator.” This definition illustrates how nonhumans are
included in the ideology of deception. Psychologists Bond and
Robinson elaborate on this Mitchell’s belief by describing an
occurrence in behavior that is similar to deception found in
orchids. Orchids use an illusion of sexual contact to attract
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male wasps. The orchid emits an odor of sexual pheromones and the
orchid’s center looks similar to a female wasp. This smell and
appearance arouses the male wasp. When the male wasp lands on the
flower pseudocopulation1 takes place, then the wasp moves on to
another orchid. This in turn helps the orchid to cross-pollinate2. The
orchid benefits in survival by deceiving a male wasp. Here the
orchid shows an example of how even simpler organisms use this
perplexing behavior of deception for purposes of gain (Vrij 5).
In the animal kingdom there are many cases that reveal how
deception is used for beneficial gain. Researchers have debated
over whether or not these deceptions among plants and animals can
be considered deliberate lies or can be examples of deception
expressed in simple terms. Since the thoughts and intentions of
plants, animals, and other simple organisms are unattainable, it
is difficult to understand the true intentions for their
behaviors. This is the reason that Smith uses the term ‘function’
in his definition (Harrington 58).
1 Pseudocopulation- Botany pollination of plants, especially orchids, by male insects while attempting to mate with flowers that resemble the female insect 2 Cross pollination is defined as the transfer of pollen from an anther of theflower of one plant to a stigma of the flower of another plant
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It can be gathered from Mitchell’s definition that deception
occurs even when a lie is formed by mistake or unconsciously.
Many researchers find this aspect controversial. Psychologist
Krauss, defined deception as ‘an act that is intended to foster
in another person a belief or understanding which the deceiver
considers to be false.’ This simply states that deception is an
intentional act. Therefore, a lie that is told by mistake is not
considered lying. When a person is not aware that they are lying,
it is not deception. They are not deliberately trying to mislead
another. When displaying sarcasm, typically there is a behavior
that occurs that shows signs of a false statement being
delivered. Therefore, sarcasm is not deception as well. When
being sarcastic usually a facial expression or tone of voice can
give away that an untruth is being told. Sarcasm is often used to
express an irony or some kind of humor (Vrij 6). According to the
definition provided by Professor Krauss, lying can be unspoken or
nonverbal. There are different forms of nonverbal lying. These
types of lies mislead others without the use of words. According
to this definition, breast implants and hair plugs are considered
falsehoods and are therefore tools of deception. Some lies do not
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need to be heard to mislead others. Also, appearance can often be
arranged to present an illusive image of ourselves.
Sociobiologist Richard Alexander posed the question:
Why if the truth is our goal and motto, do we begin to deceive
from the moment we arise from out beds in the morning, with
clothes that modify our body shapes flatteringly, makeup and hair
arrangements that improve our eyelashes or face shapes or cover a
bald spot? (Smith 16)
By using clothing, jewelry, and colors and arranging these
resources in such a manner that unattractive features can be
covered or hidden and the flattering features can be accentuated.
This technique allows people to change an undesired appearance to
a more desirable one. Expensive clothing and jewelry can create
the illusion of wealth. Plastic surgery, cosmetics, or clothing
can make a more desirable appeal and a more youthful facade.
These techniques of dressing up the body to appear a certain way
dates back centuries. At least 70,000 years ago, humans and even
animals used appearance to falsely deceive possible mates. These
methods were used to entice and attract the opposite sex for
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mating purposes, or socially to show rank in wealth, power or
class. In Ancient Greece and Rome, women changed their hair color
with dyes and used materials to lighten their skin. They also
removed unwanted body hair by using pumice. This deceiving
appearance was used to entice men and to appear ‘socially
acceptable’. Lying has a part of life whether for centuries
whether or not they were aware it was lying. There are many forms
of lying; by these processes of modifying the body humans are
demonstrating a form of nonverbal lying (Smith 17).
Types of Lies
Lies can be formed in many different ways. There are
several types of lies. Some examples of are outright lies,
exaggerations, and subtle lies. Outright lies are a form of lying
where there is a fabrication of all the information presented.
The lie is completely made up. Exaggerations are lies where
truthful details have been stretched out to form a lie. Some
truth may be present in these types of lies but because details
embellished to have a positive, although deceptive, effect on the
listener. Then there are subtle lies, where truth is contained
within the lies but is presented in such a way that it
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deliberately misleads others. This is also known as paltering.
Also, concealing details, evading or omitting relevant specifics
is categorized as subtle lying (Vrij 10). Inaccurate information
can be provided without the actual intention of misleading.
Although a misconception is expressed, deception has not
occurred. There are many ways in which honest differences in
understandings can occur. In other cases, such as when the
communicator does not have a clear or concise memory of a certain
situation, or has a complete fabrication of a memory leads to
providing misinformation but is not a deliberate attempt at
fallacy (Harrington 57). A liar purposely relates a lie. Three
key elements can clearly distinguish a lie. One such element is
the intentions of a lie, the actual implication of the statement
and the effect in believability it has on the listener. If one or
more of these descriptions are missing, the distinction is
unclear as to whether or not the falsehood is in true form of
deception. When the facts exaggerated to benefit the communicator
or facts are knowingly left out, this is considered a
‘misstatement.’ Even if the communicator is fibbing to benefit
the listener, it is still misleading. Other terms to describe
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these forms of deception are fudging, twisting, exaggerating, and
whitewashing. This is formally known as paltering3. Paltering is
defined as, “acting insincerely or misleading” (Harrington 39).
Paltering uses manipulations of the truth. The truth is used in
such a way that it creates a false impression to the listener.
This type of lie is more often used in sociable settings. It is
considered more socially acceptable and almost expected to twist
the truth around a little than an outright lie. Rearranging
factual details or completely evading other facts intentionally
misleads others (Harrington 58).
Scientist Paul Ekman, distinguished deception as a
“deliberate choice to mislead a target without giving any
notification of the intent to do so.” Therefore, by Ekman’s
definition, when performers in movies, plays and magic shows
display lies to the audience, it is not considered deception. The
audience is aware of the sham before the shows begin. Another
aspect that is expressed, but not included in Ekman’s definition,
is that lies are not always successful. Even if a liar is caught,
3 Paltering came into the English language by way of the Vikings centuries ago. In Modern Danish and Swedish the word pielter or paltor respectively means “rags or worthless shreds.” Paltering is telling worthless shreds of truth to create a false impression.
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their intentions were still to deliberately mislead. Therefore,
an unsuccessful lie is still a lie (Vrij 6). Deception does not
always include a communicator and listener. Self-deception occurs
when people fool themselves. When the Homo sapiens 4 developed
spoken language it is believed that self-deception evolved as
well. It is speculated that self-deception evolved to assist in
dealing with one another. Self-deception is a tool that is
believed to help in dealing with personal stresses and also to
assist in lying to one another. By lying to oneself it has enable
us to become better liars to others. Deception occurs almost
naturally in humanity. Deception keeps the peace among humans
socially and helps humans deal with daily life, social
communication and stresses (Smith 3). According to Professor
Aldert Vrij, deception involves at least two people. He further
defines deception as ‘a successful or unsuccessful deliberate
attempt, without forewarning, to create in another a belief which
the communicator considers to be untrue.’ Professor Vrij’s
definition attempts to combine all the elements and aspects
discussed throughout the study of the behavior of deception. All
4 Homo Sapiens- Wise Men, the origin of humans that are present today
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of the intricacies that exist in this behavior are articulated
(Vrij 6).
The Cause of Lying
Over the years the cause of lying has been studied.
Scientists have tried to discover why lying exists. Scientist
Bella DePaulo, conducted an experiment where college students
were asked to keep a diary of all their social interactions for 7
days. The students were asked to honestly include all of the lies
that were told throughout these 7 days. Also, whether the lies
were successful or not and how they felt during the lie telling,
were to be included in this diary. The duration of the social
interaction was to last at least 10 minutes. The study revealed
that lying occurs daily. It was discovered that 34% of the
conversations that took place, the students lied. In situations
where the student felt more emotionally closer with the listener,
fewer lies occurred. In most cases the student described not
feeling uncomfortable when expressing a lie. Most of the lies
were successful as well. But, in the cases where the student was
emotionally closer to the listener, such as a family member, the
students felt more uncomfortable when lying. More lies were
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unsuccessful in the cases where the listener was more familiar
with the student (Vrij 7). Speculation leads to many reasons why
lying occurs. Lies are used to receive some type of beneficial
gain which is determinant on the individual. Some of these gains
have been described as avoiding social embarrassment or gaining
social approval such as making a good impression on people. Other
reasons are to avoid punishment for a wrongdoing. In this case
the gain is to lie instead of getting in trouble for an
unapproved behavior. These types of lies are called self-oriented
lies and are for personal gain. On the opposite hand, there are
other-oriented lies, this form of a lie can be used to flatter or
boost the listener’s confidence. This enables the communicator to
lie in the benefit of another. It has been found that
approximately 25% of lies are commonly other-oriented lies and
are often expressed to an emotionally familiar listener.
Deception is used in social settings to maintain the peace. These
are known as ‘social lies.’ By using lies instead of speaking a
rude or awkward truth the sake of the social relationship is
saved. People can lie by making compliments the do not actually
believe, or by making positive statements that are false in the
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liar’s actual opinion. By making flattering remarks they do not
believe, avoids truthful statements that can be hurtful to the
listener. Therefore, an awkward or humiliating and possibly
relationship damaging situation is avoided. Even though the
communicator is being deceptive the main goal is usually to
benefit the mutual relationships between people. Social lies are
both self-interest and other-oriented lies because the
communicator eludes the truth and is avoiding a possibly
uncomfortable situation and makes the other person happy and the
listener benefits by not being hurt by the possibly rude truths
and are usually more content after a social lie such as a
compliment (8, 9).
Who Lies
Everybody partakes in the act of deception in one form or
another. In another study conducted by Psychologist Bella
DePaulo, men and women were used as subjects. This study revealed
that there are differences among genders in lie-telling. The
frequency of lies utilized was found to be similar among the men
and women but many differences were found in the types of lies
expressed by both genders. Men referred to self-oriented lies
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most often, while women expressed more other-oriented lies in
communication. Women especially utilized other-oriented lies when
communication with other women. In DePaulo’s studies, the lies
told from the women, almost half were other-oriented lies. The
study also suggested that women felt more uncomfortable than men
when lying. When the students discussed lies they were told and
detected, it had a more detrimental effect on women than men.
Therefore, it can be assumed that women most often lie in social
setting and are more uncomfortable when lying than men and it has
a more serious effect on women when they detect a lie told to
them (Vrij 12). Small children also use deception and often lie.
Researchers have speculated that this behavior is learned from
adults and then imitated by the children. Children also used
lying to avoid punishment. It was found that the older children
were less likely to admit the truth about a wrongdoing.
Throughout their life they learned through experience that
misconduct resulted in punishment. So to avoid the punishment
they would conceal the truth (13). How often lies are told and
the types of lies expressed depend on personality types. Lies are
told with the intention of not getting caught. When attempting to
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fabricate a statement the intent is to successfully accomplish a
lie. Sometimes setting-up a lie is not always successful. The
communicator can be unsuccessful in telling the lie and can be
caught. There are many ways in which the deceiver can be
unsuccessful in telling a lie. There are certain indicators in
behavior and by other means in which to detect deception (14).
Detecting Deception
He who has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret.
If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips: betrayal oozes out of him at every pore. –
Freud
(qtd. Ford 197)
Scientists have distinguished four general methods of
communication that are used. These forms are body language, which
is nonverbal behavior, the quality of tone of voice, the content
of speech, and micro signals deemed ‘micro expressions.’ Sixty-
five percent of our output of communication consists of body
language. Nonverbal behavior is formally known as, kinesic behavior5.
The remaining 35% of output conveyed from the other three methods
5 Kinesic Behavior- The study of nonlinguistic bodily movements, such as gestures and facial expressions, as a systematic mode of communication
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listed. (Walters 32). Spotting deception requires close
attention within each interaction. Most cases even when a person
catches a lie, it remains unmentioned to avoid any awkward
situations. One of La Rochefoucauld’s6 best known maxims is, “Social
life would not last long if men were not taken in by each other.”
Therefore, by allowing a ruse to go unmentioned, it keeps the
peace in social relationships (Harrington 7). Deception is not
always so easy to detect. Professor Vrij, concluded that “There
is no such thing as a typical deceptive behavior, that is, there
is no behavior or set of behaviors that all liars exhibit.” The
behavior of a communicator attempting to lie typically depends on
the individual. A person’s personality and the circumstances
under which the lie is told has a large effect on the detection
of lying. However, there are a few behaviors that are associated
with deception. When the pitch of voice is soft or there is a
delay in speech, allowing more time for the liar to formulate a
fabrication, and the number of errors or hesitations are usually
higher, are all associated as behaviors unconsciously performed 6 The Duc de La Rochefoucauld- François VI, Duc de La Rochefoucauld, Prince deMarcillac- (1613-1680) -he was considered an exemplar of the accomplished 17th-Century nobleman.
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during the act of deception (Hargie and Dickson 235). Other
nonverbal behaviors that occur in deception to the speaker are
increased heart rate, perspiration, and suspicious behavior in
trying to control speech like speaking really slowly. Signs of a
guilty conscience or anxiousness, using more concentration than
usual, and a noticeable falsification of emotions are also
included as some nonverbal changes that can be applied to the
detection of deception. Scientists Buller and Burgoon suggested
that, ‘deceiving successfully is a cognitively demanding task’
(Hargie and Dickson 52). Other ways in which nonverbal behaviors
can spot deception are specific expressions displayed on the face
that can identify that a lie is being told. Some of these facial
movements that have been considered in detection are particular
movements of the eye such as an indirect gaze, less usage of
limbs and almost a ‘stiff’ posture. Some verbal indicators are
tone of voice, verbiage selection, and the subject matter or
content of the statements that are made. Even factors within a
lie can betray that they are being deceptive. Although verbal
cues can be helpful in detecting deception in some cases
nonverbal behaviors are all a person has to observe when seeking
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suspicious behaviors and deception (Harrington 59). There are two
clues that can betray a lie. Detection can be found in speech and
behavior. These clues can often be detected from the face and
voice. When a person is listening and comprehending, the body
mixes clues in the feelings and thinking taking place amongst the
people in communication. In this short span of time when the
thought process is occurring, there is a short time frame where
emotions can be displayed on the face and read by those that are
aware of what they mean. In this, deception can be detected in
analyzing the expressions that registered on the face. When
recalling a true memory, normally people can spontaneously reproduce
7these memories. Often the words selected by the communicator are
simple and are easily recalled if needed. The communicator will
usually not be so specific in details and words. A sure sign of
lying is when the speaker contradicts themselves. The
inconsistency in the statement will therefore make apparent that
the speaker has both implied truthful and false information
within their statement (Harrington 60).
Paul Ekman stated that:
7 Spontaneously reproducing memories is a method where a person can move back and forward when relating the details of a truthful memory.
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Words are representations of emotions, not the emotions
themselves. Emotion is a process, a particular kind of automatic
appraisal influenced by our evolutionary and personal past, in
which we sense that something important to our welfare is
occurring, and a set of physiological changes and emotional
behaviors begins to deal with the situation (Ekman 13)
Emotions are often represented amidst communication. Emotions
cannot fully be expressed in words. The words that exist to
describe these emotions are merely a word used to manifest the
emotions. Words are considered an outlet for emotions but are not
the emotions themselves. There is no true way to define what is
occurring in the brain and body when emotions occur (13).
Most of the researchers that began the study of deception were
physiologists and social psychologists it can be seen why there
are a lot of nonverbal behaviors that have been included in the
detection of emotions rather than focusing on the language
portion of emotional identification. Roger Shuy discusses that
most research conducted in this study have come up inconclusive
in some aspects and offers conflicting theories. He states that
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the most consistent behaviors associated to lying are giving
shorter responses, being less specific and using more general
terms such as ‘every, none, all, and always’ (Shuy 74). There
are two ways that emotions can enter a lie process; either the
person is lying about their feelings or emotions, or the act of
lying produces feelings or emotions within the liar (qtd in
Harrington 61). Many scientists believe that facial expressions
are learned just like language. They suggest that emotions are
produced voluntarily and that people have control of these
emotions. Therefore, they determined that the same facial
expressions will have similar meanings among a specific culture.
Other scientists believe that there are “a limited number of
distinct facial expressions of emotion that appear to be
biologically wired, produced involuntarily, and similar in
meaning across all cultures.” There is substantial evidence from
various experiments conducted that provide support for this idea.
Charles Darwin 8 proposed that the existence of emotions, in
general, are to drive an individual to an appropriate social
behavior. The sole purpose that Darwin proposed was to 8 Charles Darwin- (1809-1882) An English naturalist that proposed the theory of evolution, natural selection and other scientific explorations throughout the study of humans and nonhumans.
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‘reorganize the body’s physiological priorities to allow escape
or attack’ (qtd in Harrington 62). In these occurrences it allows
social beings, such as humans, to react appropriately. Darwin
suggested that facial expressions are universal and a product of
our evolution. The purpose of these emotions and the expressions
are to provide a clearer message among the social interactions
that take place (Harrington 62). Some studies have shown that a
facial expression to exhibit happiness is similar all over the
world by the corners of the mouth raising. Studies have shown
that a genuine smile touches the muscle around the eyes where a
smile that is not genuine does not produce the same affect around
the eyes (63). Another instance that supports the idea that
facial expressions are universal is the expressions made by blind
persons. With no sight to see how an expression is made they
cannot learn the behavior of these facial movements. But studies
have shown that visionless people make the same facial
expressions as is universally considered for each emotion. Blind
people smile by raising the same corners of the mouth and eyes
when displaying happiness just like the rest of the world (Ekman
14).
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Using the Face to Detect Deception
As previously stated emotions are discovered on displays of
the face. The answer as to what exactly occurs in the brain when
an emotion transpires is still being speculated and has not
formed many conclusions as of yet. It has been surmised that in
the body and organs a physiological change can produce certain
aspects of an emotion. A system has been produced by scientists,
including a lot of studies conducted by Paul Ekman, that examined
these expressions all over the world. By using thousands of
photographs, films, and studies using actual people in different
settings, Ekman measured different muscular movements in each
facial expressions displayed and why it occurred. He discovered
that there are more than ten thousand expressions that can appear
on a face and he has attempted to discover the expressions that
are more common to emotions. This coding system has been designed
to help determine how different emotions are displayed on the
face. Not only has it been useful in helping detect deception but
it has provided more support that many facial expressions are
universal. This system is called the Facial Action Coding System
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(FACS). Scientist Paul Ekman designed this tool for measuring the
face. By measuring facial movements, the signs that betray a lie
have been identified among many other portrayals of emotions and
behaviors. These expressions have been deemed ‘micro expressions’
as discussed previously and last for less than one fifth of a
second. They are a very important source for the ‘leakage’ of
revealing an emotion which a person can be trying to conceal from
a listener (Ekman 15).
Image 1: This image represents emotions displayedon the face. Emotions that are expressed using words andfacial expressions frequentlychange. There is a description of some
>>>> Big FatLiar. Are youpaying attenti
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The Importance of Deception Detection
There is no way to avoid a lie that someone has decided to
convey. There are only ways to assess whether the validity of a
statement is true or false. By learning the methods described by
researchers in the behavior of deception, such as recognizing and
understanding the emotions that occur throughout communication,
deception can be determined. By listening to speech, paying
attention to details in facial expressions, using kinesic
behavior like the posture and gestures, identifying pitches in
the voice and the tone that is chosen, a listener can isolate
truths from fabrications. Also, preconceptions can get in the way
of determining emotions that are being expressed. When trying to
determine what a person is saying unconsciously, such as body
Image 2: This image depicts an expressionwhere the communicator is taking their time in delaying their speech so that they may generate a plausible response (typically formulating a fabrication) to something they would rather not discuss..
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language and verbal clues, let go of all the preconceived ideas
that have been formulated in minds, such as stereotypes. It is
extremely difficult to detect all of the lies that are told on a
daily basis but in some circumstances these methods can help
anyone (Walters 4). Being aware that people lie can assist in
listening to the news or reading newspapers or magazines, or
advertisements. Not only can detecting lies help with the media
but it can help in daily activities such as purchasing goods or
services. It has often been a rumor that car mechanics try to
overcharge for their services. When discussing the issues and
prices of repairing an automobile with the car mechanic, using
these clues such as, verbal and nonverbal indicators, a person
will be able to see it the mechanic is trying to cheat them out
of their money. The awareness of deception is not to inspire
paranoid feelings towards others but mainly to recognize
distrustfulness and have control to impact your life positively
(5).
Professionals use these methods in detecting deception on
the job in daily activities. Most professionals in law
enforcement use these techniques in interrogations or interviews
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with suspects or witnesses, typically about a crime committed.
These behavioral clues have been very helpful in this field. By
recognizing the behaviors associated with lying, the officers can
take action and decide where to take the investigation next. To
become a human lie detector could be a very supportive skill in
this field. Other fields that can use these techniques in lie
detecting are loss prevention, intelligence such as the CIA, and
others trying to gather information. Stan Walters has studied
interviewing and interrogation techniques and said that’ ‘The
success of the investigator is directly related to their ability
to conduct effective interviews and interrogations’ (Walters 1).
Walters has proven that these lie detecting techniques are not
talent- based but are skills that can be taught to anyone who
studies them (2).
Technology in Lie Detecting
Another method of lie detecting, aside from studying
nonverbal and verbal behaviors, is observing the bodily changes
and reactions. To measure such physiological changes the
polygraph9 machine is used (Vrij 169). This machine measures heart
9 ‘Poly’ (Greek) many and ‘grapho’ (greek) to write- an accurate scientific measuring device which can display, via ink pens, a direct or valid representation of various types of bodily activity (qtd. Vrij 170)
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rate, perspiration, brain activities, respiration and blood
pressure. Sensors on different parts of the body, amplify signals
that the polygraph can detect. This machine is not a ‘lie
detector,’ it cannot actually detect lies; it primarily detects
the physiological reactions that occur in the body. Heightened
sense of arousal typically causes changes in the body. These
physiological changes are speculated to be caused by an extreme
emotion such as guilt, fear, anxiety and are more often
associated with someone that is lying. The machine picks up on
the bodily changes that are thought to be caused by the
variations of stimulation. This is the reason that a polygraph is
simply a tool in interviewing and interrogation. It cannot be
used as the only device in determining whether or not someone is
lying because there are no patterns of physiological changes that
occur during deception (170). This device is mainly used in
criminal investigations and can no longer be used to screen
personnel due to the Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (171).
Typically, when screening a person hooked on to the polygraph
relevant and irrelevant questions are asked to determine how that
person will respond to both types of questions. The readings from
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the polygraph will show the comparison of both answers and how
the subject responded verbally and physically (173). There are
many other technological advances that are in the process of
being developed, to read verbal and nonverbal behaviors and the
changes that occur throughout communication. Ekman’s Facial
Action Coding System, is used to describe the movements on a face
and how they relate to emotions and communication. Computer
scientists are attempting to measure such facial movements
automatically and in a more rapid manner (Ekman 14).
Deception and Detecting the Lies
In summation, deception is the act of deliberately
falsifying information or behaviors in order to obtain an
advantage. Humans and nonhumans alike partake in this behavior.
Humans may use deception in order to gain an advantage in social
settings or to avoid punishment and many other ways. Nonhumans
such as the orchid, uses the deception of its appearance for
survival, by attracting male wasps to its center where the wasp
will carry the flower’s seed to the next. The male wasp most
likely is not aware of its assistance in the cross-pollination of
the orchid’s seeds; it was attracted to the flower believing that
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a female wasp was there to mate. Even humans use appearance and
smell to falsely attract others. Many key factors occur in
behavior and expressions when a lie is being told. There are
indicators in nonverbal and verbal behaviors and also
physiological changes occur when an emotion transpires. Awareness
of the factors that can determine lying benefits criminal
investigations, as well as, everyday life in deciphering
truthfulness in the media and in purchasing goods or services.
Technological advances are approaching in this science every day
and have already produced the polygraph that can measure the
physiological changes when being examined. The fact is everybody
lies, how we detect it and control this function can impact lives
on a positive scale.
Works Cited
DePaulo, B.M., Kashy, D.A., Kirkendol, S.E., Wyer, M.M., and Epstein, J.A. Lying in
Everyday Life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1996
Deweese-Boyd, Ian, Self-Deception, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Fall
2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
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plato.stanford.edu.
Ekman, Paul. Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feeling to Improve
Communication and Emotional Life. New York: Times Books, 2003.
Ekman, Paul. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Market Place, Politics, and
Marriage.
New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.
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Hoffman 30
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Figures Cited
Hoffman 31
Cover page: Google image search: Image of Pinocchio, infamous for
his nose growing when
lying. www.Keenetrial.com.
Google image search: Image of a face that is
distorted.
http://kelceytowell.com/micro.html
Figure 1: Sentient Insight website. www.sentientinsight.com.
Aaron K. The Business of
Behavior Insight Blog. Displaying Ekman’s FAC
system by representing facial
expressions.
Figure 2: Google image search for ‘micro expressions.’
www.morepics.com. Image represents
micro expressions associated with lying.
This image depicts Bill Clinton,
George Bush, Anna Nicole and a sports athlete.