Deception and Detection

Kayla Hoffman

3 August 2011

Defining Deception

Lying is universal- we all do it; we all must do it. –Mark Twain.

Lying is a form of deception. “It can be conscious or

unconscious, verbal or nonverbal, stated or unstated” (Smith 14).

“Lying is not exceptional; it is normal and more often

spontaneous and unconscious than cynical and coldly analytical.

Our minds and bodies secrete deceit” (15). Lying is a common

occurrence that can be found amongst humans and nonhumans alike.

Over the years, the study of deception has produced many

explanations. Each definition tries to capture and describe the

complexities of the phenomena of the sociological behavior of

lying. Deception in its simplest form can be described as the act

of not telling the truth. Even simple organisms use deception.

One definition of lying is “any form of behavior the function of

which is to provide others with false information or to deprive

them of true information” (14). Smith uses the phrase “function”

in his definition to include the ideas that organisms such as

plants and animals or nonhumans use deception in nature. Since

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such organisms like plants and animals do not have clear

intentions Smith uses “functions” to describe this behavior found

amongst nonhumans that resembles the deception which can be seen

amid humans as well. Deception is an intricate concept. There are

many ways that deception has been defined. Countless reasons have

been theorized as to why deception is used. The fact is that

deception is used among humans and nonhumans alike.

Evolutionary biologist, Carl Bergstrom stated that

“organisms deceive one another in every imaginable way in order

to attain every conceivable advantage.” Here Bergstrom describes

how deception is advantageous to even the simplest living being

(Harrington 6). Certain species have also found it beneficial to

pretend certain behaviors and emotions and to hide others in

varying circumstances (56). Psychologist Paul Mitchell stated

that deception is “a false communication that tends to benefit

the communicator.” This definition illustrates how nonhumans are

included in the ideology of deception. Psychologists Bond and

Robinson elaborate on this Mitchell’s belief by describing an

occurrence in behavior that is similar to deception found in

orchids. Orchids use an illusion of sexual contact to attract

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male wasps. The orchid emits an odor of sexual pheromones and the

orchid’s center looks similar to a female wasp. This smell and

appearance arouses the male wasp. When the male wasp lands on the

flower pseudocopulation1 takes place, then the wasp moves on to

another orchid. This in turn helps the orchid to cross-pollinate2. The

orchid benefits in survival by deceiving a male wasp. Here the

orchid shows an example of how even simpler organisms use this

perplexing behavior of deception for purposes of gain (Vrij 5).

In the animal kingdom there are many cases that reveal how

deception is used for beneficial gain. Researchers have debated

over whether or not these deceptions among plants and animals can

be considered deliberate lies or can be examples of deception

expressed in simple terms. Since the thoughts and intentions of

plants, animals, and other simple organisms are unattainable, it

is difficult to understand the true intentions for their

behaviors. This is the reason that Smith uses the term ‘function’

in his definition (Harrington 58).

1 Pseudocopulation- Botany pollination of plants, especially orchids, by male insects while attempting to mate with flowers that resemble the female insect 2 Cross pollination is defined as the transfer of pollen from an anther of theflower of one plant to a stigma of the flower of another plant

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It can be gathered from Mitchell’s definition that deception

occurs even when a lie is formed by mistake or unconsciously.

Many researchers find this aspect controversial. Psychologist

Krauss, defined deception as ‘an act that is intended to foster

in another person a belief or understanding which the deceiver

considers to be false.’ This simply states that deception is an

intentional act. Therefore, a lie that is told by mistake is not

considered lying. When a person is not aware that they are lying,

it is not deception. They are not deliberately trying to mislead

another. When displaying sarcasm, typically there is a behavior

that occurs that shows signs of a false statement being

delivered. Therefore, sarcasm is not deception as well. When

being sarcastic usually a facial expression or tone of voice can

give away that an untruth is being told. Sarcasm is often used to

express an irony or some kind of humor (Vrij 6). According to the

definition provided by Professor Krauss, lying can be unspoken or

nonverbal. There are different forms of nonverbal lying. These

types of lies mislead others without the use of words. According

to this definition, breast implants and hair plugs are considered

falsehoods and are therefore tools of deception. Some lies do not

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need to be heard to mislead others. Also, appearance can often be

arranged to present an illusive image of ourselves.

Sociobiologist Richard Alexander posed the question:

Why if the truth is our goal and motto, do we begin to deceive

from the moment we arise from out beds in the morning, with

clothes that modify our body shapes flatteringly, makeup and hair

arrangements that improve our eyelashes or face shapes or cover a

bald spot? (Smith 16)

By using clothing, jewelry, and colors and arranging these

resources in such a manner that unattractive features can be

covered or hidden and the flattering features can be accentuated.

This technique allows people to change an undesired appearance to

a more desirable one. Expensive clothing and jewelry can create

the illusion of wealth. Plastic surgery, cosmetics, or clothing

can make a more desirable appeal and a more youthful facade.

These techniques of dressing up the body to appear a certain way

dates back centuries. At least 70,000 years ago, humans and even

animals used appearance to falsely deceive possible mates. These

methods were used to entice and attract the opposite sex for

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mating purposes, or socially to show rank in wealth, power or

class. In Ancient Greece and Rome, women changed their hair color

with dyes and used materials to lighten their skin. They also

removed unwanted body hair by using pumice. This deceiving

appearance was used to entice men and to appear ‘socially

acceptable’. Lying has a part of life whether for centuries

whether or not they were aware it was lying. There are many forms

of lying; by these processes of modifying the body humans are

demonstrating a form of nonverbal lying (Smith 17).

Types of Lies

Lies can be formed in many different ways. There are

several types of lies. Some examples of are outright lies,

exaggerations, and subtle lies. Outright lies are a form of lying

where there is a fabrication of all the information presented.

The lie is completely made up. Exaggerations are lies where

truthful details have been stretched out to form a lie. Some

truth may be present in these types of lies but because details

embellished to have a positive, although deceptive, effect on the

listener. Then there are subtle lies, where truth is contained

within the lies but is presented in such a way that it

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deliberately misleads others. This is also known as paltering.

Also, concealing details, evading or omitting relevant specifics

is categorized as subtle lying (Vrij 10). Inaccurate information

can be provided without the actual intention of misleading.

Although a misconception is expressed, deception has not

occurred. There are many ways in which honest differences in

understandings can occur. In other cases, such as when the

communicator does not have a clear or concise memory of a certain

situation, or has a complete fabrication of a memory leads to

providing misinformation but is not a deliberate attempt at

fallacy (Harrington 57). A liar purposely relates a lie. Three

key elements can clearly distinguish a lie. One such element is

the intentions of a lie, the actual implication of the statement

and the effect in believability it has on the listener. If one or

more of these descriptions are missing, the distinction is

unclear as to whether or not the falsehood is in true form of

deception. When the facts exaggerated to benefit the communicator

or facts are knowingly left out, this is considered a

‘misstatement.’ Even if the communicator is fibbing to benefit

the listener, it is still misleading. Other terms to describe

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these forms of deception are fudging, twisting, exaggerating, and

whitewashing. This is formally known as paltering3. Paltering is

defined as, “acting insincerely or misleading” (Harrington 39).

Paltering uses manipulations of the truth. The truth is used in

such a way that it creates a false impression to the listener.

This type of lie is more often used in sociable settings. It is

considered more socially acceptable and almost expected to twist

the truth around a little than an outright lie. Rearranging

factual details or completely evading other facts intentionally

misleads others (Harrington 58).

Scientist Paul Ekman, distinguished deception as a

“deliberate choice to mislead a target without giving any

notification of the intent to do so.” Therefore, by Ekman’s

definition, when performers in movies, plays and magic shows

display lies to the audience, it is not considered deception. The

audience is aware of the sham before the shows begin. Another

aspect that is expressed, but not included in Ekman’s definition,

is that lies are not always successful. Even if a liar is caught,

3 Paltering came into the English language by way of the Vikings centuries ago. In Modern Danish and Swedish the word pielter or paltor respectively means “rags or worthless shreds.” Paltering is telling worthless shreds of truth to create a false impression.

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their intentions were still to deliberately mislead. Therefore,

an unsuccessful lie is still a lie (Vrij 6). Deception does not

always include a communicator and listener. Self-deception occurs

when people fool themselves. When the Homo sapiens 4 developed

spoken language it is believed that self-deception evolved as

well. It is speculated that self-deception evolved to assist in

dealing with one another. Self-deception is a tool that is

believed to help in dealing with personal stresses and also to

assist in lying to one another. By lying to oneself it has enable

us to become better liars to others. Deception occurs almost

naturally in humanity. Deception keeps the peace among humans

socially and helps humans deal with daily life, social

communication and stresses (Smith 3). According to Professor

Aldert Vrij, deception involves at least two people. He further

defines deception as ‘a successful or unsuccessful deliberate

attempt, without forewarning, to create in another a belief which

the communicator considers to be untrue.’ Professor Vrij’s

definition attempts to combine all the elements and aspects

discussed throughout the study of the behavior of deception. All

4 Homo Sapiens- Wise Men, the origin of humans that are present today

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of the intricacies that exist in this behavior are articulated

(Vrij 6).

The Cause of Lying

Over the years the cause of lying has been studied.

Scientists have tried to discover why lying exists. Scientist

Bella DePaulo, conducted an experiment where college students

were asked to keep a diary of all their social interactions for 7

days. The students were asked to honestly include all of the lies

that were told throughout these 7 days. Also, whether the lies

were successful or not and how they felt during the lie telling,

were to be included in this diary. The duration of the social

interaction was to last at least 10 minutes. The study revealed

that lying occurs daily. It was discovered that 34% of the

conversations that took place, the students lied. In situations

where the student felt more emotionally closer with the listener,

fewer lies occurred. In most cases the student described not

feeling uncomfortable when expressing a lie. Most of the lies

were successful as well. But, in the cases where the student was

emotionally closer to the listener, such as a family member, the

students felt more uncomfortable when lying. More lies were

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unsuccessful in the cases where the listener was more familiar

with the student (Vrij 7). Speculation leads to many reasons why

lying occurs. Lies are used to receive some type of beneficial

gain which is determinant on the individual. Some of these gains

have been described as avoiding social embarrassment or gaining

social approval such as making a good impression on people. Other

reasons are to avoid punishment for a wrongdoing. In this case

the gain is to lie instead of getting in trouble for an

unapproved behavior. These types of lies are called self-oriented

lies and are for personal gain. On the opposite hand, there are

other-oriented lies, this form of a lie can be used to flatter or

boost the listener’s confidence. This enables the communicator to

lie in the benefit of another. It has been found that

approximately 25% of lies are commonly other-oriented lies and

are often expressed to an emotionally familiar listener.

Deception is used in social settings to maintain the peace. These

are known as ‘social lies.’ By using lies instead of speaking a

rude or awkward truth the sake of the social relationship is

saved. People can lie by making compliments the do not actually

believe, or by making positive statements that are false in the

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liar’s actual opinion. By making flattering remarks they do not

believe, avoids truthful statements that can be hurtful to the

listener. Therefore, an awkward or humiliating and possibly

relationship damaging situation is avoided. Even though the

communicator is being deceptive the main goal is usually to

benefit the mutual relationships between people. Social lies are

both self-interest and other-oriented lies because the

communicator eludes the truth and is avoiding a possibly

uncomfortable situation and makes the other person happy and the

listener benefits by not being hurt by the possibly rude truths

and are usually more content after a social lie such as a

compliment (8, 9).

Who Lies

Everybody partakes in the act of deception in one form or

another. In another study conducted by Psychologist Bella

DePaulo, men and women were used as subjects. This study revealed

that there are differences among genders in lie-telling. The

frequency of lies utilized was found to be similar among the men

and women but many differences were found in the types of lies

expressed by both genders. Men referred to self-oriented lies

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most often, while women expressed more other-oriented lies in

communication. Women especially utilized other-oriented lies when

communication with other women. In DePaulo’s studies, the lies

told from the women, almost half were other-oriented lies. The

study also suggested that women felt more uncomfortable than men

when lying. When the students discussed lies they were told and

detected, it had a more detrimental effect on women than men.

Therefore, it can be assumed that women most often lie in social

setting and are more uncomfortable when lying than men and it has

a more serious effect on women when they detect a lie told to

them (Vrij 12). Small children also use deception and often lie.

Researchers have speculated that this behavior is learned from

adults and then imitated by the children. Children also used

lying to avoid punishment. It was found that the older children

were less likely to admit the truth about a wrongdoing.

Throughout their life they learned through experience that

misconduct resulted in punishment. So to avoid the punishment

they would conceal the truth (13). How often lies are told and

the types of lies expressed depend on personality types. Lies are

told with the intention of not getting caught. When attempting to

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fabricate a statement the intent is to successfully accomplish a

lie. Sometimes setting-up a lie is not always successful. The

communicator can be unsuccessful in telling the lie and can be

caught. There are many ways in which the deceiver can be

unsuccessful in telling a lie. There are certain indicators in

behavior and by other means in which to detect deception (14).

Detecting Deception

He who has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret.

If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips: betrayal oozes out of him at every pore. –

Freud

(qtd. Ford 197)

Scientists have distinguished four general methods of

communication that are used. These forms are body language, which

is nonverbal behavior, the quality of tone of voice, the content

of speech, and micro signals deemed ‘micro expressions.’ Sixty-

five percent of our output of communication consists of body

language. Nonverbal behavior is formally known as, kinesic behavior5.

The remaining 35% of output conveyed from the other three methods

5 Kinesic Behavior- The study of nonlinguistic bodily movements, such as gestures and facial expressions, as a systematic mode of communication

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listed. (Walters 32). Spotting deception requires close

attention within each interaction. Most cases even when a person

catches a lie, it remains unmentioned to avoid any awkward

situations. One of La Rochefoucauld’s6 best known maxims is, “Social

life would not last long if men were not taken in by each other.”

Therefore, by allowing a ruse to go unmentioned, it keeps the

peace in social relationships (Harrington 7). Deception is not

always so easy to detect. Professor Vrij, concluded that “There

is no such thing as a typical deceptive behavior, that is, there

is no behavior or set of behaviors that all liars exhibit.” The

behavior of a communicator attempting to lie typically depends on

the individual. A person’s personality and the circumstances

under which the lie is told has a large effect on the detection

of lying. However, there are a few behaviors that are associated

with deception. When the pitch of voice is soft or there is a

delay in speech, allowing more time for the liar to formulate a

fabrication, and the number of errors or hesitations are usually

higher, are all associated as behaviors unconsciously performed 6 The Duc de La Rochefoucauld- François VI, Duc de La Rochefoucauld, Prince deMarcillac- (1613-1680) -he was considered an exemplar of the accomplished 17th-Century nobleman.

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during the act of deception (Hargie and Dickson 235). Other

nonverbal behaviors that occur in deception to the speaker are

increased heart rate, perspiration, and suspicious behavior in

trying to control speech like speaking really slowly. Signs of a

guilty conscience or anxiousness, using more concentration than

usual, and a noticeable falsification of emotions are also

included as some nonverbal changes that can be applied to the

detection of deception. Scientists Buller and Burgoon suggested

that, ‘deceiving successfully is a cognitively demanding task’

(Hargie and Dickson 52). Other ways in which nonverbal behaviors

can spot deception are specific expressions displayed on the face

that can identify that a lie is being told. Some of these facial

movements that have been considered in detection are particular

movements of the eye such as an indirect gaze, less usage of

limbs and almost a ‘stiff’ posture. Some verbal indicators are

tone of voice, verbiage selection, and the subject matter or

content of the statements that are made. Even factors within a

lie can betray that they are being deceptive. Although verbal

cues can be helpful in detecting deception in some cases

nonverbal behaviors are all a person has to observe when seeking

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suspicious behaviors and deception (Harrington 59). There are two

clues that can betray a lie. Detection can be found in speech and

behavior. These clues can often be detected from the face and

voice. When a person is listening and comprehending, the body

mixes clues in the feelings and thinking taking place amongst the

people in communication. In this short span of time when the

thought process is occurring, there is a short time frame where

emotions can be displayed on the face and read by those that are

aware of what they mean. In this, deception can be detected in

analyzing the expressions that registered on the face. When

recalling a true memory, normally people can spontaneously reproduce

7these memories. Often the words selected by the communicator are

simple and are easily recalled if needed. The communicator will

usually not be so specific in details and words. A sure sign of

lying is when the speaker contradicts themselves. The

inconsistency in the statement will therefore make apparent that

the speaker has both implied truthful and false information

within their statement (Harrington 60).

Paul Ekman stated that:

7 Spontaneously reproducing memories is a method where a person can move back and forward when relating the details of a truthful memory.

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Words are representations of emotions, not the emotions

themselves. Emotion is a process, a particular kind of automatic

appraisal influenced by our evolutionary and personal past, in

which we sense that something important to our welfare is

occurring, and a set of physiological changes and emotional

behaviors begins to deal with the situation (Ekman 13)

Emotions are often represented amidst communication. Emotions

cannot fully be expressed in words. The words that exist to

describe these emotions are merely a word used to manifest the

emotions. Words are considered an outlet for emotions but are not

the emotions themselves. There is no true way to define what is

occurring in the brain and body when emotions occur (13).

Most of the researchers that began the study of deception were

physiologists and social psychologists it can be seen why there

are a lot of nonverbal behaviors that have been included in the

detection of emotions rather than focusing on the language

portion of emotional identification. Roger Shuy discusses that

most research conducted in this study have come up inconclusive

in some aspects and offers conflicting theories. He states that

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the most consistent behaviors associated to lying are giving

shorter responses, being less specific and using more general

terms such as ‘every, none, all, and always’ (Shuy 74). There

are two ways that emotions can enter a lie process; either the

person is lying about their feelings or emotions, or the act of

lying produces feelings or emotions within the liar (qtd in

Harrington 61). Many scientists believe that facial expressions

are learned just like language. They suggest that emotions are

produced voluntarily and that people have control of these

emotions. Therefore, they determined that the same facial

expressions will have similar meanings among a specific culture.

Other scientists believe that there are “a limited number of

distinct facial expressions of emotion that appear to be

biologically wired, produced involuntarily, and similar in

meaning across all cultures.” There is substantial evidence from

various experiments conducted that provide support for this idea.

Charles Darwin 8 proposed that the existence of emotions, in

general, are to drive an individual to an appropriate social

behavior. The sole purpose that Darwin proposed was to 8 Charles Darwin- (1809-1882) An English naturalist that proposed the theory of evolution, natural selection and other scientific explorations throughout the study of humans and nonhumans.

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‘reorganize the body’s physiological priorities to allow escape

or attack’ (qtd in Harrington 62). In these occurrences it allows

social beings, such as humans, to react appropriately. Darwin

suggested that facial expressions are universal and a product of

our evolution. The purpose of these emotions and the expressions

are to provide a clearer message among the social interactions

that take place (Harrington 62). Some studies have shown that a

facial expression to exhibit happiness is similar all over the

world by the corners of the mouth raising. Studies have shown

that a genuine smile touches the muscle around the eyes where a

smile that is not genuine does not produce the same affect around

the eyes (63). Another instance that supports the idea that

facial expressions are universal is the expressions made by blind

persons. With no sight to see how an expression is made they

cannot learn the behavior of these facial movements. But studies

have shown that visionless people make the same facial

expressions as is universally considered for each emotion. Blind

people smile by raising the same corners of the mouth and eyes

when displaying happiness just like the rest of the world (Ekman

14).

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Using the Face to Detect Deception

As previously stated emotions are discovered on displays of

the face. The answer as to what exactly occurs in the brain when

an emotion transpires is still being speculated and has not

formed many conclusions as of yet. It has been surmised that in

the body and organs a physiological change can produce certain

aspects of an emotion. A system has been produced by scientists,

including a lot of studies conducted by Paul Ekman, that examined

these expressions all over the world. By using thousands of

photographs, films, and studies using actual people in different

settings, Ekman measured different muscular movements in each

facial expressions displayed and why it occurred. He discovered

that there are more than ten thousand expressions that can appear

on a face and he has attempted to discover the expressions that

are more common to emotions. This coding system has been designed

to help determine how different emotions are displayed on the

face. Not only has it been useful in helping detect deception but

it has provided more support that many facial expressions are

universal. This system is called the Facial Action Coding System

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(FACS). Scientist Paul Ekman designed this tool for measuring the

face. By measuring facial movements, the signs that betray a lie

have been identified among many other portrayals of emotions and

behaviors. These expressions have been deemed ‘micro expressions’

as discussed previously and last for less than one fifth of a

second. They are a very important source for the ‘leakage’ of

revealing an emotion which a person can be trying to conceal from

a listener (Ekman 15).

Image 1: This image represents emotions displayedon the face. Emotions that are expressed using words andfacial expressions frequentlychange. There is a description of some

>>>> Big FatLiar. Are youpaying attenti

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The Importance of Deception Detection

There is no way to avoid a lie that someone has decided to

convey. There are only ways to assess whether the validity of a

statement is true or false. By learning the methods described by

researchers in the behavior of deception, such as recognizing and

understanding the emotions that occur throughout communication,

deception can be determined. By listening to speech, paying

attention to details in facial expressions, using kinesic

behavior like the posture and gestures, identifying pitches in

the voice and the tone that is chosen, a listener can isolate

truths from fabrications. Also, preconceptions can get in the way

of determining emotions that are being expressed. When trying to

determine what a person is saying unconsciously, such as body

Image 2: This image depicts an expressionwhere the communicator is taking their time in delaying their speech so that they may generate a plausible response (typically formulating a fabrication) to something they would rather not discuss..

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language and verbal clues, let go of all the preconceived ideas

that have been formulated in minds, such as stereotypes. It is

extremely difficult to detect all of the lies that are told on a

daily basis but in some circumstances these methods can help

anyone (Walters 4). Being aware that people lie can assist in

listening to the news or reading newspapers or magazines, or

advertisements. Not only can detecting lies help with the media

but it can help in daily activities such as purchasing goods or

services. It has often been a rumor that car mechanics try to

overcharge for their services. When discussing the issues and

prices of repairing an automobile with the car mechanic, using

these clues such as, verbal and nonverbal indicators, a person

will be able to see it the mechanic is trying to cheat them out

of their money. The awareness of deception is not to inspire

paranoid feelings towards others but mainly to recognize

distrustfulness and have control to impact your life positively

(5).

Professionals use these methods in detecting deception on

the job in daily activities. Most professionals in law

enforcement use these techniques in interrogations or interviews

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with suspects or witnesses, typically about a crime committed.

These behavioral clues have been very helpful in this field. By

recognizing the behaviors associated with lying, the officers can

take action and decide where to take the investigation next. To

become a human lie detector could be a very supportive skill in

this field. Other fields that can use these techniques in lie

detecting are loss prevention, intelligence such as the CIA, and

others trying to gather information. Stan Walters has studied

interviewing and interrogation techniques and said that’ ‘The

success of the investigator is directly related to their ability

to conduct effective interviews and interrogations’ (Walters 1).

Walters has proven that these lie detecting techniques are not

talent- based but are skills that can be taught to anyone who

studies them (2).

Technology in Lie Detecting

Another method of lie detecting, aside from studying

nonverbal and verbal behaviors, is observing the bodily changes

and reactions. To measure such physiological changes the

polygraph9 machine is used (Vrij 169). This machine measures heart

9 ‘Poly’ (Greek) many and ‘grapho’ (greek) to write- an accurate scientific measuring device which can display, via ink pens, a direct or valid representation of various types of bodily activity (qtd. Vrij 170)

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rate, perspiration, brain activities, respiration and blood

pressure. Sensors on different parts of the body, amplify signals

that the polygraph can detect. This machine is not a ‘lie

detector,’ it cannot actually detect lies; it primarily detects

the physiological reactions that occur in the body. Heightened

sense of arousal typically causes changes in the body. These

physiological changes are speculated to be caused by an extreme

emotion such as guilt, fear, anxiety and are more often

associated with someone that is lying. The machine picks up on

the bodily changes that are thought to be caused by the

variations of stimulation. This is the reason that a polygraph is

simply a tool in interviewing and interrogation. It cannot be

used as the only device in determining whether or not someone is

lying because there are no patterns of physiological changes that

occur during deception (170). This device is mainly used in

criminal investigations and can no longer be used to screen

personnel due to the Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (171).

Typically, when screening a person hooked on to the polygraph

relevant and irrelevant questions are asked to determine how that

person will respond to both types of questions. The readings from

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the polygraph will show the comparison of both answers and how

the subject responded verbally and physically (173). There are

many other technological advances that are in the process of

being developed, to read verbal and nonverbal behaviors and the

changes that occur throughout communication. Ekman’s Facial

Action Coding System, is used to describe the movements on a face

and how they relate to emotions and communication. Computer

scientists are attempting to measure such facial movements

automatically and in a more rapid manner (Ekman 14).

Deception and Detecting the Lies

In summation, deception is the act of deliberately

falsifying information or behaviors in order to obtain an

advantage. Humans and nonhumans alike partake in this behavior.

Humans may use deception in order to gain an advantage in social

settings or to avoid punishment and many other ways. Nonhumans

such as the orchid, uses the deception of its appearance for

survival, by attracting male wasps to its center where the wasp

will carry the flower’s seed to the next. The male wasp most

likely is not aware of its assistance in the cross-pollination of

the orchid’s seeds; it was attracted to the flower believing that

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a female wasp was there to mate. Even humans use appearance and

smell to falsely attract others. Many key factors occur in

behavior and expressions when a lie is being told. There are

indicators in nonverbal and verbal behaviors and also

physiological changes occur when an emotion transpires. Awareness

of the factors that can determine lying benefits criminal

investigations, as well as, everyday life in deciphering

truthfulness in the media and in purchasing goods or services.

Technological advances are approaching in this science every day

and have already produced the polygraph that can measure the

physiological changes when being examined. The fact is everybody

lies, how we detect it and control this function can impact lives

on a positive scale.

Works Cited

DePaulo, B.M., Kashy, D.A., Kirkendol, S.E., Wyer, M.M., and Epstein, J.A. Lying in

Everyday Life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1996

Deweese-Boyd, Ian, Self-Deception, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Fall

2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),

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plato.stanford.edu.

Ekman, Paul. Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feeling to Improve

Communication and Emotional Life. New York: Times Books, 2003.

Ekman, Paul. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Market Place, Politics, and

Marriage.

New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.

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Hoffman 30

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Figures Cited

Hoffman 31

Cover page: Google image search: Image of Pinocchio, infamous for

his nose growing when

lying. www.Keenetrial.com.

Google image search: Image of a face that is

distorted.

http://kelceytowell.com/micro.html

Figure 1: Sentient Insight website. www.sentientinsight.com.

Aaron K. The Business of

Behavior Insight Blog. Displaying Ekman’s FAC

system by representing facial

expressions.

Figure 2: Google image search for ‘micro expressions.’

www.morepics.com. Image represents

micro expressions associated with lying.

This image depicts Bill Clinton,

George Bush, Anna Nicole and a sports athlete.