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Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Collecting Qualitative Data
Chapter 7
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Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-2
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Identify the five process steps in collecting
qualitative data Identify different sampling approaches to
selecting participants and sites Describe the types of permissions required to gain
access to participants and sites Recognize the various types of qualitative data
you can collect Identify the procedures for recording qualitative
data Recognize the field issues and ethical
considerations that need to be anticipated in administering the data collection
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-3
Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection Identify participants and sites Gain access to individuals and sites Identify what types of information will answer your research questions
Design protocols or instruments for collecting and recording information
Administer the data collection
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-4
Who Will Be Studied: Purposeful SamplingRandom “Quantitative” Sampling
Select representative individualsTo generalize from sample to population
To make “claims” about the populationTo build/test “theories” that explain the
population
Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling Select people/sites who can best help us understand our phenomenon
To develop detailed understandingThat might be “useful” informationThat might help people “learn” about the
phenomenonThat might give voice to “silenced” people
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-5
Types of Purposeful Sampling
When Does Sampling Occur?Before Data Collection After Data Collection
Has StartedWhat is the intent?To develop
manyperspectives
ExtremeCase
Sampling
To describeparticularlytroublesomeor enlighteningcases
TypicalSampling
To describe whatis “typical” to those unfamiliarwith the case
What is the intent?To take advantageof whatever caseunfolds
OpportunisticSampling
SnowballSampling
To exploreconfirming ordisconfirmingcases
Confirming/Disconfirming
Sampling
MaximalVariationSampling
To generate a theory or concept
CriticalSampling
To describe somesubgroup in depth
HomogenousSampling
To describe acase that illustrates “dramatically” the situation
Theory or ConceptSampling
To locate people or sites to study
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-6
Sample Size Small for in-depth perspective 1 individual 4 cases 20–30 interviews
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-7
Permissions That Are Needed
Gain permission from Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Gain permission from “gatekeepers” at the research site Gatekeepers are individuals at the site who provide site access, help researcher locate people and identify places to study.
The gatekeeper may require written information about the project.
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-8
Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Permissions Qualitative studies are usually conducted at the research site.
The researcher has personal contact with the participants through in-depth interviewing and prolonged observing.
Qualitative studies are personal in nature and are not centered on variables or measures.
Qualitative researchers use video cameras or audio recorders to record in-depth interviews for transcription.
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-9
Information for the Gatekeeper
Why their site was chosen What time and resources are required What will be accomplished at the site
What potential there is for your presence to be disruptive
What individuals at the site will gain from the study
How you will use and report the results
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-10
The Information You Will Collect Observations Interviews Documents Audiovisual materials
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-11
Observations An observation is the process of gathering first-hand information by observing people and places at a research site.
Observational roles Participant observer: An observational role adopted by researchers when they take part in activities in the setting they observe
Nonparticipant observer: An observer who visits a site and records notes without becoming involved in the activities of the participants
Observational roles can be changed.
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-12
The Process of Observing
Obtain the required permissions needed to gain access to the site
Ease into the site slowly by looking around, getting a general sense of the site, and taking limited notes, at least initially
Identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe
Determine, initially, your role as an observer
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-13
The Process of Observing (cont’d)
Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best understanding of the site and the individuals
Design some means for recording notes during an observation Descriptive field notes describe the events, activities, and people
Reflective field notes record personal reflections that relate to their insights, hunches, or broad themes that emerge
When complete, slowly withdraw from the site
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-14
Interviews Types: One-on-one, phone, e-mail, focus group
General open-ended questions that are asked allow the participant to: Create options for responding Voice their experiences and perspectives
Information is recorded, then transcribed for analysis.
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-15
Interview Procedures Identify the interviewees Determine the type of interview you will use (e.g., focus group, one-on-one)
Take brief notes during the interview
Locate a quiet, suitable place Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-16
Interview Procedures (cont’d)
During the interview, have an interview plan using your interview protocol, but be flexible
Use probes to follow up on areas of interest Include possible probes in your interview protocol
During the interview, design probes as you listen to what the participant is talking about
Be courteous and professional when the interview is over
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-17
Structured, Unstructured
and Semi-Structured Interviews
Approach toData
Collection
Type ofResponse Options toQuestions
Types of Interviews
Leading toData
Quantitative Closed-Ended
Structured/Semi-StructuredInterviews
Scores toAnswers
Qualitative Open-Ended
UnstructuredInterviews
Transcriptionof Words
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-18
Documents Public and private records Good source for text data Obtain permission before using documents
Optically scan documents when possible
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-19
Audiovisual materials Determine the material that can provide evidence to address your research questions
Determine if the material is available and obtain permission to use it
Check the accuracy and authenticity of the material if you do not record it yourself
Collect the data and organize it
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-20
Recording Data Using Protocols Interview protocols: A form designed by the researcher that contains instructions for the process of the interview, the questions to be asked, possible probes associated with each question, and space to take notes on responses from the interviewee
Observation protocols: A form designed by the researcher before data collection that is used for taking fieldnotes during an observation
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-21
Interview Protocols The header: Essential information about the interview
Open-ended questions “Ice-breaker” Questions that address major research questions
Probes that clarify and elaborate Include space between each question for notes
Closing comments thanking the participant
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-22
Observational Protocols In the header, record information about the time, place, setting, and your observational role
Divide the rest of the protocol into two columns: Left column to record descriptive notes about the activities at the site
Right column to record reflective notes about themes, quotes, and personal experiences at the site
Include a sketch of the site
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-23
Field Issues in Data Collection
Sufficient access to the site for data collection Sufficient time for data collection Limit initial collection to one or two observations or interviews
Time is needed to establish a substantial database
Observational role Building rapport with participants Obtaining permission to use documents and audiovisual materials
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4e – CreswellISBN: 0132755912
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.7-24
Ethical Issues Informing participants of purpose Refraining from deceptive practices Sharing your role as researcher Being respectful of the research site
Giving back or reciprocity Using ethical interview practices Maintaining confidentiality Collaborating with participants