Printed in the Philippines

ASIA LIFE SCIENCES 24(2): 647-659, 2015The Asian International Journal of Life Sciences

Received 12 June 2014; Accepted 19 August 2014©Rushing Water Publishers Ltd. 2015

Body image, body mass index and the experience ofHiya in physical education among Filipino femaleuniversity students

ZYRA RUTH T. BREBANTE1,* and JONATHAN Y. CAGAS2

Body image dissatisfaction has been found to be associated with either high or lowbody mass index (BMI) among Filipino women (Aquino et al. 2009). Hiya, a very distinctFilipino characteristic that may be referred to, but not necessarily equivalent to shame,may be experienced by a person who has high body image dissatisfaction which may thenbecome a barrier to physical activity participation. The relationships between body image,BMI, and hiya have not been explored in previous literature. Therefore, the purpose ofthis present study is to examine the relationships between body image, BMI, and hiya inthe context of physical education (PE). Three hundred sixty-two female Filipino university

Questionnaire (BSIQ: Rowe 1999) and a measure of hiyaBMI was computed from one-site measured height and weight. Results of correlation analyses

higher perception of fatness, and had more negative feelings towards their bodies. Resultshiya in PE. Female students

hiya inPE.

Keywords: body image, body mass index, hiya, physical education, female, universitystudents

1Department of Physical Education, College of Human Kinetics, University of the Philippines Diliman,Quezon City 1101, Philippines.

2Department of Sports Science, College of Human Kinetics, University of the Philippines Diliman,Quezon City 1101, Philippines. e-mail: jonathan.cagas@upd.edu.ph

*

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INTRODUCTIONThe global pursuit of thinness as well as the media’s mass influence of the

ideal body (Fallon & Hausenblas 2005) is one of the reasons why women sufferfrom poor body image. For Filipino women, these can be one reason for them toexperience hiya – an indigenous concept which may be referred to as being ashamedabout their bodies and selves. Torres (2012) reported that young Filipino womenwere dissatisfied with their bodies and this may stem from unreasonable weightconcerns and extreme drive for thinness. Body dissatisfaction may then lead tounhealthy eating habits which can develop into eating disorders such as anorexianervosa and bulimia (Torres 2012).Women and body image. Body image is the way individual see their bodies andthe mental representation they have of it. “It relates to an individual’s perception,feelings and thoughts about one’s body and incorporates body size estimation,evaluation of bodily attractiveness, and emotions associated with body shape andsize” (Grogan 1999 as cited in Burgess et al. 2006). Simply put, it is how a personfeels about her appearance. Developing and nurturing a positive body image isconsidered part of a healthy mental attitude and is crucial to a person’s happinessand wellness (Aquino et. al. 2009).

Hudson (2008) explained that dissatisfaction with body image affects qualityof life, as well as the individual’s self esteem, interpersonal confidence and eatingand exercise behaviors. Furthermore, it was said that the negative effects of bodyimage dissatisfaction include elevated anxiety, depression and somatisation as wellas decreased social functioning, peer relationships and self satisfaction (Hudson2008).

Disturbances in body image are prevalent in women than in men. Davis andCowles (1991) stated that women were more dissatisfied with their bodies andplaced greater importance on their appearance as an influence on their feeling ofwell-being. Downs, James and Cowan (2006) reported that “for college women,higher levels of body surveillance and body shame were associated with higherprioritizing of physical attractiveness relative to physical competence”. This isfurther supported by Furnham, Badmin and Snead’s (2002) study that girls associatebody dissatisfaction with the concept of self-esteem while body dissatisfaction inboys on the other hand does not affect their self-esteem.

Hence, because there is a strong relationship between body dissatisfaction andself-esteem among young people (Van den Berg et. al. 2009), it is more likely thatwomen exercise to try to lose weight and consequently increase self esteem andbody image (Ingledew et. al. 2002). One way to improve body image is to engagein regular aerobic activities such as dance. Most women prefer aerobic danceactivities as dancing gives “impressive health benefits compared to gym workouts”(De Mille in “Dance Your Way to Fitness” 2007).Exercise and body image. Physical exercise according to Vocks et al. (2009)has a reinforcing effect on the immediate body image and mood improvementparticularly to those who have higher body image disturbances. Ionescu, Voicu andUlmeano (2010) reported that physical exercise increases self-image. Their studyrevealed that exercise done at least twice a week has an effect especially in the

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minds of the women by improving the physical self and their self-image. Danielsand Niekerk (2011) further affirmed that a moderate aerobic exercise program hasa positive effect in improving body self-image of women in middle adulthood andthat such a programme “has a positive influence on the way middle adult womenthink and feel about their bodies”. Appleton (2012) also reported that there was asignificant change in various aspects of body image following an exercise routinenotwithstanding no changes in body weight and shape. It was conveyed that thesechanges in body image were “mediated by body perceptions as opposed to actualbody indices”.

Dance-oriented activity provides not only physical but also psychologicalhealth benefits. Gondoh et al. (2009) studied the effects of aerobic exercise on brainstructure and psychological well-being. Their findings suggest that ‘insula gray-matter volume (region involved in multimodal sensory integration and plays a greatrole in the generation of affective states in response to emotional stimulation) maypossibly be maintained with aerobic exercise’ (Gondoh et al 2009). They also foundout that those who engaged in aerobic dance exhibited a decrease in depressivesymptoms and an increase in identity. Bartholomew and Miller (2002) furtheraffirmed that there is an overall improvement in affect following an aerobic danceexercise. Furthermore, they reported that those who have performed highly gainedgreater increase in affect than of low-performance participants. Ravelin et al.(2006) attributed dance as a medium for ‘developing one’s body image’. Burgess’et al. (2006) also studied the effects of a 6-week aerobic dance intervention onbody image and physical self-perceptions in adolescent girls. Their results showedthat participation in 6 weeks of aerobic dance significantly reduced body imagedissatisfaction.

Henry, Anshel and Timothy (2006) on the other hand, suggested that it is morebeneficial to improve body image with an interval program of aerobic, anaerobicand strength training program than with aerobic exercise alone or no exercise atall. The finding that aerobic self-efficacy was a stronger predictor of body imagethan strength self-efficacy likely reflects women placing greater value on aerobicexercise than strength training as a means for losing weight and managing bodyimage concerns (Prichard & Tiggemmann 2008). Increased confidence in doingaerobic exercise could create a sense that the exerciser is getting closer to the bodyideal, thus enhancing body image (Martin Ginis et al. 2012).Body composition and body image. Body mass index (BMI), a measure of bodycomposition, influences the development of body image. Several studies havereported that BMI is significantly associated with body dissatisfaction (Ingledew& Sullivan 2002). According to Chung (2005), “the degrees of body dissatisfactionand social physique anxiety are influenced by the level of BMI of individuals”.Fallon and Hausenblas (2005) also reported that “BMI was the positive predictor ofbody dissatisfaction and social physique anxiety for females.”

There is a positive relationship between BMI and body image (Olds 2010).According to a study done by Aquino et al. (2009) ‘body image satisfaction amongurban Filipino women were associated with BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio’. However, their result indicated that only waist-to-hip ratio was

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a significant variable affecting image satisfaction. According to the authors, fatdeposition that results to changes in body shape affects body image satisfactionamong Filipino women. Sira (2003) stated that the best predictor of satisfactionwith physical appearance among women was BMI. According to Sira, “womenwho have higher BMI were associated with lower scores on perceptions of physicalappearance, and higher BMI was negatively related to satisfaction with physicalappearance as well as global self-worth”. On the other hand, an elevated BMI hasnegative effects towards the individual’s quality of life. These include “physicalillness, psychological illness, such as eating disorders, and social stigma” (Hudson2008).

Branch, Adair and Agustin (2010) demonstrated the widespread prevalenceof body image dissatisfaction among Filipino women, as well as the importanceof changing social and economic influences in this population undergoing thenutrition transition. Aquino et al. (2009) reported that Filipino women satisfied withtheir body image had a lower BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio.Their findings revealed that body image dissatisfaction exists in seven out of tenFilipino women in depressed urban community. They also suggested that furtherstudies should be done on the causes of body image dissatisfaction to identify otherfactors not included in their study and consider these in planning health programs.The effect of body image dissatisfaction on various psychological, biological andother conditions can be studied in our local situation.Hiya as a possible outcome to poor body image. Hiya is a very distinct Filipinotrait or characteristic. There are several definitions of Hiya according to differentauthors. Hiya, although not equivalent to, may be associated as shame or the lossof Amor Propio (Philippine Culture 2008). This is similar to Guthrie’s (1971 ascited in Tabbada 2005) definition of Hiya, a “feeling of inferiority, embarrassment,shyness and alienation which is experienced as acutely distressing.” Enriquez(1999 as cited in Tabbada 2005) defined Hiya as being ashamed and is a temporarystate-of-being or mode-of-being. According to him, “it is temporal aspect-nosuch thing as permanent. It is transcendent experience of Hiya; something that istemporal and transient”.

Lynch and Hollsteiner (as cited in Bobis 1997), on the other hand, viewedHiya as a social context. According to them, Hiya is defined as an “uncomfortablefeeling that accompanies awareness of being in a socially unacceptable position,or performing a socially unacceptable action”. Furthermore, Lynch asserts thatFilipinos have three aspirations, namely: social acceptance, economic securityand social mobility. In the second study of Hollsteiner (as cited in Bobis 1997), hefurther defined Hiya as “a universal social sanction that regulates the give and takeof reciprocity and, in general, all social behavior. It may be translated as ‘a senseof social propriety’, as a preventive; it makes for a sense of shame, a realization ofhaving failed to live up to the standard of the society”.

Quito (1988 as cited in Tabbada 2005) said Hiya is “an ambivalent valuecontaining positive and negative aspects. It is negative as it arrests or inhibits one’saction while it is also positive as it contributes to peace of mind and lack of stress innot even trying to achieve”. The Hiya phenomenon, according to Tabbada (2005),

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consists of objective and subjective aspect. Objective aspect means “being ashamedof something” and the subjective aspect means “being ashamed for something”.Hence, it is possible that poor body image may result to feelings of Hiya which maythen hinder an individual to participate fully in physical activities.The Present Study. The relationship between body image and BMI had beensupported in the literature. However, there is a need for more information withregards to what causes having body image dissatisfaction, how physical activitymay influence the development of positive body image, and how media and healthpractices affect body image (Torres 2012). Furthermore, some evidence suggeststhat cultural values may have some influence on body image (McCabe et al. 2013).Exploring the relationship of Hiya to body image and BMI in the context of physicalactivity may be a worthwhile endeavor. This study, therefore, aimed to explore therelationship between body image, body mass index (BMI), and Hiya in the contextof dance-based physical education.

MATERIALS AND METHODSParticipants. A total of 362 female students from a large public university enrolledin various dance-based PE courses during the first semester of the academicyear 2012-2013 participated in this study. Average age of the participants was17.70 ± 1.64 and ranging from 15-25 years old.Instruments of the study. Body Image. Modified Body Self-Image Questionnaire(BSIQ, Rowe 1999) was used to measure body image. The modified BSIQ is a31-item Likert-type scale with items pertaining to feelings and attitudes about one’sbody. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all true of myself) to 5 (completely true ofmyself). It consists of nine subscales, three of which are evaluative. The followingare the nine subscales of the modified BSIQ: (1) Overall appearance evaluation(OAE) of overall estimation of one’s appearance; A sample item is “My body looksgood.” (2) Fatness evaluation (FE) -estimation of overall fatness of one’s body;A sample item is “My body is fat overall.” (3) Health/fitness evaluation (HFE)-estimation of one’s overall physical fitness/health status; A sample item is “Mybody is healthy.” (4) Health/fitness influence (HFI)-the degree to which one’s healthand fitness influences the way one feels about his or her body; A sample item is“My body image is influenced by the state of my health.” (5) Attention to grooming(AG) -the amount of time and effort spent in manipulating one’s appearance; Asample item is “I’m usually well dressed.” (6) Social dependence (SD) -effect ofsocial situations or social acceptance on one’s body image; a sample item is “I’mmore aware of my body when I’m in social situations.” (7) Height dissatisfaction(HD) -desire to be taller or shorter; A sample item is “I’ve often wanted to be taller.”(8) Negative affect (NA) -the negative thoughts and feelings associated with one’sbody; A sample item is “My naked body makes me feel sad.” and (9) Investment inideals (II) -importance of and aspirations to achieve a perfect body; A sample itemis “Muscle definition is important to me.”Body mass index (BMI). Height and weight were based on self-report. BMI isthe ratio between the individual’s weight in kilograms and the square of height inmeters. World Health Organization’s (2004) data classification for BMI indicated

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values less than 18.5 kg/m2 as underweight, 18.5-25.0 kg/m2 as normal, 25.1-30.0kg/m2 as overweight and 30.1 above as obese.Hiya. An instrument measuring hiya was developed specifically for this study.An 11-item inventory resulted from an elicitation study and an exploratory factoranalysis of the pilot instrument. During the elicitation study, a small numberof participants (n = 21) were asked to indicate situations, states or reasons theyexperience hiya in physical education. Based from their responses, a 12-item pilotinventory was developed. The same participants were then asked to rate how muchthey experience hiya based on each item. They were asked to rate each statementusing a Likert-type scale ranging from 1, “Hindi Nahihiya” (Not at all feelingashamed)* to 10 “Labis na Nahihiya”(Strongly feeling ashamed)*.

Item and factor analysis were then conducted to establish the instrument’sreliability and validity. Two factors emerged from factor analysis and weresubsequently named hiya hiya-competence (8 items;

hiya as discussed by Lynchand Hollsteiner (as cited in Bobis 1997) and Quito (1988). Internal consistencyreliability coefficients of the two factors were highly acceptable.Procedure. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the Graduate StudiesProgram of the academic institution where the first author completed her master’sdegree. Female university students enrolled in different dance-based PE classes wereinvited to participate in the study. Each participant was provided with a copy of thequestionnaire with a cover letter stating the purpose of the study and participant’sconsent. The cover letter indicated that participation was purely voluntary and thosewho did not want to participate may simply return the questionnaire unmarked.They were further informed that data collected from each participant shall bepooled together for analysis and shall only be used for research purposes. Thosewho agreed to participate were asked to answer each item as honestly as they can astheir answers will not in any way affect their grades in PE. It took the participantsan average of 5 minutes to complete the survey.Data analysis. Data were encoded and analyzed using a standard statistical package(IBM SPSS 20.0). Preliminary data screening was conducted to identify missingdata and possible outliers. After which, descriptive statistics were generated.Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficients were computed to explore therelationships between variables.

RESULTSDescriptive statistics of all study variables are reported in Table 1. Body image

scores ranged from 1 to 5 hence scores above 3 were interpreted as high, and scoresbelow 3 were interpreted as low. Filipino female students reported to have highlevels of investment in ideals, social dependence, attention to grooming, overallappearance evaluation, health and fitness influence and height dissatisfaction.Theyalso reported to have low levels of health/fitness evaluation, negative affect andfatness evaluation. Scores for hiya ranged from 1 to 10. Mean scores indicated that

*not a direct translation

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics of body image subscales, hiya Subscales and bodymass index.

Mean SD Skewness KurtosisBody ImageInvestment in Ideals (II) 3.40 0.81 .78 -0.22 -0.51

Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE) 2.79 0.74 .84 0.22 -0.13

Social Dependence (SD) 3.19 0.88 .64 -0.15 -0.56Negative Affect (NA) 2.00 0.80 .84 1.10 1.02Attention to Grooming (AG) 3.23 0.81 .71 -0.19 -0.24Fatness Evaluation (FE) 2.55 0.97 .88 0.31 -0.71 Overall Appearance Evaluation(OAE) 3.12 0.72 .77 -0.15 -0.30

Health/Fitness Influence (HFI) 3.57 0.75 .62 -0.18 -0.12

Height Dissatisfaction (HD) 3.63 1.19 .86 -0.66 -0.56Hiya – Social 4.35 2.18 .84 0.17 -0.57Hiya – Competence 5.39 1.88 .91 -0.06 -0.42BMI 20.51 2.91 0.82 1.37

the respondents reported low level of hiya-social but a slightly high level of hiya-competence.Body image and BMI. There is a moderate and positive correlation between FatnessEvaluation (FE) and Body Mass Index (BMI) (r =0.60, p =0.000). BMI is negativelycorrelated with Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) (r = -0.34, p = 0.000) andHealth Fitness Evaluation (HFE) (r =-0.14, p=0.007). Negative Affect (NA) ispositively correlated with BMI (r = 0.29, p = 0.000). Attention to Grooming (AG),Health Fitness Influence (HFI), Social 0 (SD), Height Dissatisfaction (HD) andInvestment in Ideals (II) are not significantly correlated with BMI.Body image and Hiya. Hiya-Social and Hiya-Competence had negative and weakcorrelation with Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) (r = -0.30, p = 0.000 andr = -0.26, p=0.000, respectively), and Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE) (r = -0.23,p = 0.000; and r = -0.17, p= 0.001, respectively). Additionally, both dimensions hadpositive and weak correlation with Fatness Evaluation (FE) (r = 0.14, p= 0.01 andr = 0.17, p = 0.001, respectively).

Hiya-Social is positively correlated with Height Dissatisfaction (HD) (r = 0.13,p = 0.014) and Negative Affect (NA) (r = 0.22, p = 0.000). However, it is negativelycorrelated with Health/Fitness Influence (HFI) (r = -0.11, p=0.04). On the otherhand, Hiya-Competence is positively correlated with Social Dependence (SD)(r = 0.20, p=0.000), Negative Affect (NA) (r = 0.32, p = 0.000), Investment inIdeals (II) (r = 0.11, p = 0.030) and is positively highly correlated with HeightDissatisfaction (HD) (r = 0.18, p= 0.001). There is no significant correlation betweenHiya-Social, Attention to Grooming (AG), Social Dependence (SD), and Investmentin Ideals (II). The correlation between Hiya-Competence, Attention to Grooming(AG) and Health/Fitness Influence (HFI) is also not significant.

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DISCUSSIONThe present study explored the relationships between body image, BMI and

Hiya among Filipino female university students. While the literature has supportedthe relationship between body image and BMI, their influence on Filipino value ofHiya has not been studied.Body image and BMI. Moderate to high relationships were found betweendimensions of body image and BMI. These results support the findings that BMIinfluences the degree of body dissatisfaction of individuals (Olds 2010, Chung 2005,Fallon & Hausenblas 2005, Ingledew & Sullivan 2002, Aquino et al. 2009) and thatincreased adiposity is a strong predictor of body dissatisfaction, particularly amonggirls (Olive et al. 2012, Sira 2003). The positive relationship found between BMIand body image, specifically, Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE) was consistent withthe findings of the studies of Olds (2010) and Aquino et al. (2009).

Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) and Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE)are both negatively correlated with BMI, indicating that the higher the OAE andHFE are, the lower the BMI or vice versa. This is congruent with the findings ofSira (2003) that women who have higher BMI were associated with lower scoreson perceptions of physical appearance, and higher BMI was negatively related tosatisfaction with physical appearance.

Furthermore, Fatness Evaluation (FE) and Negative Affect (NA) have positivecorrelation with BMI. This is consistent with the fact that women with elevatedBMI were more likely to perceive their bodies negatively as a consequence ofweighing more (Olive et al. 2012, Sira 2003). It is therefore recommended thatphysical educators and/or dance instructors should take into great considerationstrategies for weight management as well as integrating ways to obtain certain levelsof physical fitness in class in order to inhibit body image concerns. Castonguayand Sabiston (2011) further suggested that “higher levels of cardiovascular fitnessmay act as a protective buffer to body image concerns, regardless of a child’sbody composition” and that “strategies aimed at helping individuals with elevatedBMIs effectively cope with body- related self-conscious emotions may need to betargeted. Lastly, future interventions may benefit from targeting change in schoolculture (Castonguay & Sabiston 2011).Body image and Hiya. Significant correlations were found in most of the factors ofbody image and both factors of Hiya. The negative correlation found between bothHiya-Social and Hiya-Competence with Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) andHealth/ Fitness Evaluation (HFE) suggests that having high perceptions of one’soverall appearance and health/fitness decreases Hiya in PE. This simply means thatan individual may be able to perform better in a dance-based PE class when shehas a high estimation of one’s appearance and overall physical fitness/health status.On the contrary, those with low perceptions of OAE and HFE may not be able toperform well in PE or even possibly in front of a crowd. With such, it is recommendedthat strategies in improving the students OAE and HFE be incorporated in danced-based physical education classes. Teachers and physical educators alike should

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target these specific factors of body image and Hiya in PE in order to encouragestudents to perform better and consequently, attract more students to enrol in dance-based physical activities.

Limitations and recommendations for future researchWhile this study contributes to the body of knowledge supporting the

relationship between cultural values and body image, and may be the first toinvestigate the role of body image in the experience in Hiya in a physical activitycontext, it is not without limitations. First, the respondents in this study do notnecessarily represent young Filipino women in general as they all come from onelarge public university. Second, external factors such as levels of physical activity,cultural and family background, and socio-economic status of the respondents aswell as extraneous factors such as the level of training, teaching style and method,dance background of the dance instructors and the location of the class beingheld were not considered. And third, because of the correlation design, causal-relationships cannot be established.

It is therefore recommended to validate these findings in other Filipino studentpopulation, and explore if other factors such as level of training and physicalactivity experience may influence these relationships. Studies using experimentaldesigns may be needed in order to establish causal-relationships between variables.Interventions aiming at minimizing students’ experience of Hiya in PE mighthelp them develop a more positive body image and therefore encourage them toparticipate more in physical activities.

CONCLUSIONThis study sought to understand how body image and BMI may influence

the experience of Hiya in PE. Significant relationships between body image andbody mass index, specifically in objective appearance evaluation, perceptions offatness, and negative feelings about the body were found. Furthermore, significantrelationships were found between body image and Hiya, specifically betweenoverall appearance evaluation and both Hiya-Social and Hiya-Competence. As thisstudy is exploratory in nature, further validation of the results is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors would like to extend their utmost gratitude to the dance faculty of the

University of the Philippines-Diliman for their full cooperation. Also, they would like tothank Professor Gilda L. Uy for her incessant guidance and sound advice.

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