Post on 28-Apr-2023
197
BAPI-004
Production Technology
of Fruit CropsIndira Gandhi National Open University
School of Agriculture
3Block
TROPICAL FRUITS
UNIT 1
Pineapple 201
UNIT 2
Papaya 222
UNIT 3
Cashew 240
UNIT 4
Coconut 260
198
Programme Coordinator : Dr. S.K. Yadav
Writers
Dr. K. Kumaran (Rtd.), (Unit 1-4)
Dr. Babaylatha, Dr. Prasannakumari,
College of Horticulture, Kerala
Agriculture University, Vellanikara,
Trichur-680656, Kerala
Block Preparation Team
Editor
Dr. Ram Asrey, (Unit 1-4)
Principal Scientist,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
Pusa, New Delhi-110012
Course Coordinator : Dr. S.K. Yadav
March, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90496-95-2
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or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official
website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Composed & Print by : Hi-Tech Graphics, D-4/3, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New
Delhi-110020
Material ProductionMr. Rajiv Girdhar, Mr. Hemant Parida,
Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU MPDD, IGNOU
Programme and Course Design CommitteeDr. K. Prathapan,
Mission Director, State Horticulture Mission-
Kerala (Govt. of Kerala), Sunny Dale, Mead’s
lane, Palayam, Trivandrum-695034 (Kerala)
Dr. Room Singh,
Principal Scientist (Rtd.),HIG-II/110, Swarn
Jayanti Nagar, Ramghat Road, Aligarh-202001
(Uttar Pradesh)
Dr. S.S. Sindhu,
Principal Scientist, Department of Floriculture
and Landscaping, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa, New Delhi-110012 (Delhi)
Dr. Prabhat Kumar,
Assistant Professor, Department of
Horticulture, College of Agriculure, G. B. Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, Dist. US Nagar-263145
(Uttarakhand)
Dr. M.K. Sheikh,
Head & Professor, Horticulture College of
Agriculture, University of Agricultural
Sciences, P.B. No.-18, Bijapur-586101
(Karnataka)
Dr. P.K. Jain,
Professor & Head, Department of Horticulture,
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyala,
Jabalpur-482004 (Madhya Pradesh)
Dr. Harpal Singh,
Principal Scientist (Rtd.), G-20/A, Kiran
Garden, Main Najafgarh Road, Uttam Nagar,
New Delhi-110059 (Delhi)
Dr. S.V.S. Rathore,
B-39, HIG, Near Paschim Crossing, Shastri
Puram, Agra-282007 (Uttar Pradesh)
Dr. R.L. Mishra,
C-04, Brahma Apartment, Plot-7, Sector-7,
Dwarka, New Delhi-110075 (Delhi)
Dr. Neera Kapoor,
Professor, Life Science, School of Science,
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068
(Delhi)
Faculty from School of Agriculture
Prof. B.S. Hansra, Director
Prof. M.K. Salooja, Professor
Dr. S.K. Yadav, Reader
Dr. P.K. Jain, Lecturer
Dr. P. Vijayakumar, Lecturer
Er. Mukesh Kumar, Lecturer
Dr. Mita Sinhamahapatra, Lecturer
199
BLOCK 3 TROPICAL FRUITS
People residing in dryland areas where rainfall is scanty, grow such fruits.
These fruits are grown under extreme climatic & soil conditions. But these
are important source of income and nutrients for residents of these areas.
Most of these fruits are grown under commercial horticulture as well. This
block has four units. The crops explained under their block varies widely
due to their under adaptability.
The details on each unit is mentioned below:
Unit 1 – Pineapple. Pineapple is an important fruit crop of modern days. Its
enter package of practices are explained in this unit.
Unit 2 – Papaya. This unit describes the cultivation aspect of papaya in
detail.
Unit 3 – Cashew. The production techniques of cashew is explained in this
unit.
Unit 4 – Coconut. It is mostly grown in coastal areas of our country. A
detailed account has been presented in this unit.
201
PineappleUNIT 1 PINEAPPLE
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Area and Production
1.2.1 Area and Production in India
1.3 Varieties
1.3.1 Commercial Varieties
1.4 Soil and Climate
1.4.1 Soil
1.4.2 Climate
1.5 Propagation and Planting
1.5.1 Propagation
1.5.2 Season of Planting
1.5.3 Different Planting Systems
1.5.3.1 Flat Planting
1.5.3.2 Raised Bed Planting
1.5.3.3 Trench Planting
1.5.3.4 Contour Planting
1.5.4 Planting Kew variety
1.6 Nutritional Requirement
1.7 Cultural Practices
1.7.1 Irrigation and Mulching
1.7.2 Weed Control
1.7.3 Earthing up
1.7.4 Induction of Flowering
1.8 Staggering of Production
1.9 Fruits Set and Fruit Growth
1.10 Ratooning
1.11 Harvesting and Yield
1.12 Storage and Ripening
1.13 Packaging and Transportation
1.14 Pests and Diseases
1.14.1 Heart Rot or stem rot or root rot
1.15 Plant and Fruit Abnormalities
1.15.1 Multiple Crown
1.15.2 Fruit and Crown Fasciation
1.15.3 Collar of Slips
1.15.4 Sun Scald
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Tropical Fruits 1.16 Export Potential
1.17 Processing
1.17.1 Pineapple Juice
1.17.2 Pineapple Squash and Pineapple Syrup
1.17.3 Pineapple beverage (Ready to serve)
1.17.4 Canned Pineapple
1.17.5 Pineapple Jam
1.17.6 Pineapple Pickle
1.18 Let Us Sum Up
1.19 Key Words
1.20 Further References
1.21 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• explain the area and production details of pineapple,
• identify the commercial varieties of pineapple,
• describe the soil and climatic requirement of pineapple,
• explain the details of propagation and planting,
• discuss the manurial and fertilizer requirement,
• explain the detailed cultivation practices of pineapple,
• explain the storage, packaging and transportation,
• identify the important abnormalities, and
• identify the different products from pineapple.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L. Merr)) belongs to Family – Bromeliaceae
and popularly known as ‘Golden Queen’ is one of the most wanted tropical
fruits. Contribute 20 % of world production of tropical fruits. It is very
delicious fruit and used as a table fruit. Very rich source of Vitamin C, fairly
good source of Vitamin A and B and also minerals.
The origin of pineapple is the American continent probably Brazil and
Paraguay. It has spread throughout tropical and subtropical regions as a
commercial fruit crop. The juice has worldwide market. Dried waste after
juice extraction is a valuable cattle feed. Fresh pineapple flesh, juice and
pineapple stem contain a protein digesting enzyme, bromelin. Bromelin is
used like papain enzyme from papaya for tenderizing meat and chill proofing
beer and in the leather tanning process. Leaves yield 2-3 % strong white
silky fibre. This fibre is used for making a fine fabric called pina cloth in the
•
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PineapplePhilippines and Taiwan. But in India this fibre is extracted to a limited extent.
Other by-products are alcohol, calcium citrate, citric acid and vinegar
1.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION
The total area in world is 1.0 million ha and production is 15 million tons.
Distributed in Thailand (maximum area), Philippines (second maximum area),
Brazil, China, India, Cuba, Hawaiian Islands, West Indies, Singapore,
Malaysia, Ghana, Kenya, Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, Australia and Puerto
Rico.
In India, it is grown as commercial crop in few states only. It first reached in
South India in 1548 by Portuguese people.
The important growing states are Assam, Kerala, Meghalaya, West Bengal,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh and
Bihar.
1.2.1 Area and Production in India
India produces about 8% of the total world production of pineapple. The
state wise area and production of pineapple are given below :
Table 1 : State wise area, production and productivity of Pineapple in 2017-18
State Area (000 ha) Production (000tms) Productivity (t/ha)
Andhra Pradesh 4.52 71.33 15.78
Bihar 4.26 115.13 27.02
Assam 16.30 296.52 18.19
Tripura 8.73 127.00 14.55
Kerala 8.22 69.72 8.48
Manipur 14.16 134.11 9.47
Meghalaya 12.37 144.73 11.70
Nagaland 9.53 132.83 13.94
West Bengal 11.41 345.15 25.62
Others 13.47 269.24 19.99
Total 102.96 1705.76 164.74
1.3 VARIETIES
Under this section we shall discuss the important varieties grown in world as
well as in India.
1.3.1 Commercial Varieties
The commercial varieties grown all over the world are Smooth cayenne,
Hilo, Singapore Spanish, Queen, Red Spanish, Abacaxi, Pernambuco and
Cabezona (3n = 75 triploid). All other varieties except Cabezona are diploids
with 2n = 50. Other important varieties grown in India and in some other
countries are Kew, Giant Kew, Mauritius and Queen.
204
Tropical Fruits All the above varieties can be broadly grouped into 4 groups :-
1. Cayenne group - Cayenne, Smooth Cayenne, Giant Kew, Hilo and Kew
2. Queen group - Queen, Mauritius, Alexandra
3. Spanish group - Red Spanish, Singapore Spanish, Masmerah,
Cabezona
4. Pernambuco group - Pernambuco, Abacaxi
The characteristics of important varieties are discussed below:
A) Varieties of Cayenne group
i) Smooth Cayenne : Smooth Cayenne is extensively cultivated in Hawaii,
Philippines, Australia, South Africa, Puerto Rico, Kenya, Mexico, Cuba
and Formosa. It is the most popular canning variety. The plant is robust
with tapering fleshy leaves up to 90 cm in length and about 6 cm in
width. The upper surface of the leaves is dark green having smooth straight
margins, excepting near the tip and the base, where there are a few small
spines. The fruit is cylindrical in shape, weighing 2.0 to 3.0 kg, the fruitlets
or eyes are typically broad and flat. The flesh is firm, juicy and with a
pale yellow colour at maturity. The acidity ranges between 0.5 to 1.0 per
cent. The total soluble solids (TSS) ranges between 12° and 16°Brix.
Slips are on the peduncle ranging from 0 to 10, and suckers are ranging
from 0 to 3.
ii) Hilo : It is a sub variety of Smooth Cayenne selected in Hawaii and it is
cultivated in Hawaii only. The plants are smaller than Smooth Cayenne
and slips are not produced. Suckers are more and develop early. Fruit
shape is more cylindrical, its size is slightly smaller with larger fruitlets.
iii) Giant Kew : This is an important variety grown in India. Best variety for
canning. Very vigorous plant, leaves having straight margins. Leaves have
small marginal spines at the tip. Average fruit weight 2.0 to 3.0 kg and up
to 4.0 kg under best management in some areas. Fruit shape is cylindrical
with slight tapering at the crown. Eyes are broad and shallow. Fruit dark
blackish green when unripe, but orange yellow when ripe. The flesh colour
is light yellow, fibreless and very juicy with pleasant flavour. Shy suckering
variety, 1 – 2 suckers per plant.
Kew Variety
iv) Kew : Another important variety
grown in Kerala and India.
Mutant of Giant Kew. Almost
similar to Giant Kew. But the
plant is less vigorous as compared
to Giant Kew. Fruit size less
bigger compared to Giant Kew.
Leaves are smooth, with small
spines at the tip only. Ripe fruits
are yellow in colour. Fruits
weights 1.5-2.5 kg, cylindrical in
shape and eyes are broad and
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Pineappleshallow. The flesh is firm, juicy and light yellow. Suitable for canning.
Shy suckering habit.
v) Charlotte Rothschild : In Goa, a variety Charlotte Rothschild is under
cultivation, which is similar to Kew in fruit characteristics and taste.
B) Varieties of Queen group :
i) Queen : This is a old cultivar and is grown in Australia, India and
South Africa, where it is favoured for trade of fresh fruit. The plants are
characterized by dwarf, compact habit of growth. The leaves are short,
stiff, spiny along the margins. Not suitable for canning. Fruits are conical
in shape. Fruit size small with average weight 1 - 1.25 kg. Eyes prominent,
irregular and deep. Fruits green when unripe and golden yellow when
ripe. Flesh deep golden yellow, sweet, less juicy than Kew or Giant Kew,
pleasant aroma and flavour.
ii) Mauritius : Leading commercial
variety of Kerala in India. Grown
in some parts of Meghalaya also.
Fruits are of medium size. Average
fruit weight 1.25-1.50 kg. There
are two types, yellow skinned and
red skinned types. Fruits of yellow
variety are green when unripe and
deep yellow when ripe. Flesh
colour is golden yellow. Fruits of
red skinned are green when
unripe, red when ripe, flesh
reddish yellow.
iii) Ripley Queen : It is a selection from Queen and it is grown in Australia.
It has pale green foliage heavily tinged with red and fruit is small in size,
more conical in shape than Queen. Fruits have pale colured skin and
richer flavour. The acidity is low and sugar is high.
iv) Alexandra : This variety is grown in Australia. It is a local selection
made in Queensland from Ripley Queen and it is similar to parent variety,
but produces somewhat larger fruits.
C) Varieties of Spanish group :
i) Red Spanish : This variety is extensively cultivated in West Indies,
Cuba, Puerto Rico and Mexico. Mainly used for trade of fresh fruits.
The plant and fruit size intermediate between Cayenne and Queen. The
leaves are long and spiny. Fruit is rather square in shape and weighs
between 0.9 and 1.8 kg. The eyes are deep. Flesh is pale yellow, fibrous
with pleasant aroma and spicy acid flavour.
ii) Singapore Spanish : It is grown in Malaysia for canning industry. The
leaves are 100 cm long. The leaves are smooth with a few spines near the
tip. The fruit is cylindrical in shape, weighing about 1.6 to 2.3 kg. The
ripe fruit is reddish orange and flesh is golden yellow, fibrous and good
flavour.
Mauritius Variety
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Tropical Fruits iii) Masmerah : Grown mainly in Malaysia. Selection from Singapore
Spanish. The plants resembles a typical Singapore Spanish, excepting
that it is more vigorous. The fruit is cylindrical, weighs 1.5 to 3.0 kg.
D) Other Varieties :
i) Abacaxi : It is widely grown in Brazil for local markets. The plants are
erect. The fruit is pyramidal in shape and weighs about 1.5 kg. The flesh
is pale yellow.
ii) Amritha : Pineapple hybrid
developed by Pineapple Research
Centre, Kerala Agricultural
University, Thrissur, Vellanikkara.
This is a cross between Kew X
Ripley Queen. This is the only one
pineapple hybrid from India. The
average fruit weight 1.5 - 2.0 kg.
High sugar, high TSS and low
acidity compared to Kew.
Cylindrical shape, flesh firm,
yellow and non fibrous. Suitable
for commercial cultivation, for
canning and for export.
E) Indigenous Types of India :
i) Jaldhup and Lakhat : These are local types grown in Assam. Both being
named after the places of their maximum production. Both fall in Queen
group of fruits, being smaller than Queen. Lakhat is markedly sour in
taste, where as jaldhup is sweet, well blended with acidity.
Jaldhup Variety Lakhat Variety
ii) Simhachalam : This is a local variety grown in Vishakhapatnam district
of Andhra Pradesh.
Amritha Variety
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Pineapple
Simhachalam Variety
iii) Baruipur Local : It is largely grown in Baruipur and Joynager areas of
South Bengal. Fruits are small size, conical in shape. Weighing 1 to 2 kg.
Flesh is yellow, fibrous, little stringy and sour in taste.
iv) Haricharanvita : It is grown in some pockets of Darjeeling district in
West Bengal. Plants are vigorous. Leaves are long and slender and leaf
margins are heavily serrated. Fruit weight ranges from 0.75 to 2.0 kg.
Fruit is conical in shape. Flesh is yellow, fibrous sweet taste but a little
stringy.
Table 2 : Comparison of Kew and Mauritius.
A comparison of Kew and Mauritius (two important varieties in Kerala) are
given below:
Kew Mauritius
1. Leaves are spine less Leaves are spiny
2. Fruits are larger (1.5-2.5kg) Fruits are of medium size
cylindrical in shapes with (1.25-1.50 kg), slightly conical in
shallow and broad eyes, shape with deep eyes, not suitable
ideal for canning industry. for canning
3. The unripe fruits are dark The unripe fruits are green in
green in colour colour
4. The flesh colour is light The flesh colour is golden yellow
yellow
5. Shy suckering habit, 0 – 2 2-3 suckers per plant
suckers per plant
6. Quality medium Quality good, high sugar content,
better keeping quality compared to
Kew
7. Duration 20-22 months Duration 12-13 months
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Tropical Fruits1.4 SOIL AND CLIMATE
Under this section, we shall study the soil and climatic requirement of
pineapple.
1.4.1 Soil
Pineapple can be grown in a wide range of soils, but it does not tolerate
water logging. Sandy and loamy soils or laterite soils are ideal. Heavy clay
soil and high water table are not conducive. The optimum pH is between 5.5
to 6.0.
1.4.2 Climate
Pineapple is essentially a tropical plant, but adapt well in subtropical areas
also. Optimum temperature range between 15-30°C. Grows in wide range of
rain fall from 60-250 cm/annum, the optimum being 100 - 150 cm /year.
1.5 PROPAGATION AND PLANTING
Under this section, we shall discuss the different types of planting materials
in pineapple and other planting details.
1.5.1 Propagation
Pineapple is propagated by vegetative methods. The different planting
materials are given below.
1. Sucker : Ground sucker arise from the buds of the stem below ground
region, rarely used, very small.
Shoot suckers arise from the buds in the leaf axils above ground level,
shortest duration, most commonly used planting material.
2. Slips : Arise from the base of fruits or from the top of peduncle i.e., just
below the fruits.
3. Hapas : Arise from the base of the peduncle.
4. Crowns : Top of the fruit, longest duration.
5. Splitted Crown : Splitted into vertical sections.
6. Stumps : Entire plant after harvest of fruit and from which the base of
stem, roots, leaves and peduncle have been removed.
7. Stem bits or Stem disc : After harvest, the plant is uprooted and the stem
is cut longitudinally into 6-8 pieces. Then cut transversely into triangular
slices, each containing 1-2 buds. Planted in beds. Take 2-3 years to reach
flowering and fruiting.
8. Tissue Culture Plantlets : Micropropagation through shoot tip culture
is employed for multiplication of elite clones. 1000’s of plants can be
produced from one shoot tip. Commercially exploited and produced in
several laboratories and private firms like Indo American Hybrid Seeds,
Bangalore.
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PineappleChoice of Planting Material :
Different studies conducted in different states of India have revealed that
suckers and slips are ideal planting material for pineapple. Suckers weighing
500-1000 gm and 500-750 gm were found best for planting in Kerala and
Assam respectively. Under Karnataka conditions, slips weighing 350-450
gm were found best planting material.
1.5.2 Season of Planting
Main season is May - June. Avoid planting during periods of heavy rain and
it should be established before heavy rains. Can be planted through out the
year.
1.5.3 Different Planting Systems
The planting systems vary depending upon the topography of land, climate
and soil conditions, variety etc. In all the systems, prepare the land by
ploughing or digging followed by leveling.
1.5.3.1 Flat Planting
In West Bengal and in some parts of Kerala the system of flat planting i.e.,
ground level planting is followed. Planting is done in small pits of 15-20 cm
depth.
1.5.3.2 Raised Bed Planting
When pineapple is planted in low lying areas, raised beds are prepared and
planting in done. Channels are taken for drainage. Two to Three line planting
is practiced. Followed in some parts of Kerala.
1.5.3.3 Trench planting
Double row trench planting is very widely followed in Kerala, Assam,
Karnataka, Tripura, West Bengal and Goa. Single row trench system is
followed in hill side plantations of Assam and Tripura where soil erosion is a
problem because of the moderately heavy rain. Treble row trenches and four
row trenches are also seen occasionally.
Prepare trenches of convenient length of 90 cm width and 15-30 cm depth.
The trenches are made at a distance of 165 cm from centre to centre. The
distance between two trenches is 75 cm.
1.5.3.4 Contour Planting
This system is commonly seen in hill side plantations of Assam and Tripura.
Planting is done in terraces.
Selection and Treatment of Suckers :
Suckers of uniform size, weighing 500 – 1000 gm are the best planting material
under Kerala conditions. Keep under shade in a single layer for about 7 days
for drying. Strip off few older leaves. Allow the suckers to dry and cure for
another 7 days. Dip the cured suckers in 1 % Bordeaux mixture at the time of
planting.
210
Tropical Fruits 1.5.4 Planting Kew Variety
Double row trench planting for Kew variety followed in Kerala is discussed
here. Plant the suckers in double rows in the prepared trenches at a spacing
of 60 – 70 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants. Depth of planting 7.5
– 10.0 cm. Adopt triangular method of planting in each trench, so that the
plants in two adjacent rows are not opposite to each other (plant population
40, 404 plants/ha).
For Mauritius variety when level ground planting is practiced after ploughing,
small pits are taken and planting is done. In low lying areas raised beds are
taken and planting is done. Spacing followed is 30 x 45 x 120 – 150 cm and
Plant population is 27000 – 31000 plants/ha.
Spacing - 30 x 70 x 75 cm
No. of plants/ha - Total area ÷ Area occupied by one plant
Area occupied by one plant - 30 x 82.5
= 0.3 x 0.825
Plant population = 10000 0
0.3 x 0.825
= 100000 0
0.2475
= 40, 404 plants /ha
Layout of pineapple plot
This is the high density planting recommended by Kerala Agricultural
University for Kew and Mauritius varieties and also by several other
Agricultural Universities of India. In traditional system only 15000 – 20000
plants per hectare is followed.
Pineapple plantation in Kerala and Uniform Flowering by Ethephon
211
Pineapple
Pineapple plantation in Kerala and Uniform Flowering by Ethephon
Advantages and Disadvantages of High Density Planting :
The advantages of high density planting are :
• Increased yield / unit area
• Reduced cost of cultivation
• Less weed infestation
• Protection of fruits from sun burn
• Increased production of suckers and slips
• Non-lodging of plants
• Provide shade to fruits – results in uniformly coloured lustrous fruits
• Results in overlapping of basal leaves forming a sort of natural covering
over the soil preventing evaporational losses and there by resulting in
moisture conservation.
The disadvantages of high density are :
• Reduction in size of individual fruits
• Incidence of more pests and diseases
• Difficulty in doing intercultural operations especially in case of spiny
varieties like Queen and Mauritius.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Answer the questions in the space provided.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are important pineapple varieties grown in India ? Compare
the characteristic of two important varieties grown in Kerala.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
212
Tropical Fruits 2. Name the different types of planting material used in pineapple. What
is the ideal planting material under Kerala condition ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What type of soil is required for plantation of pineapple ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
1.6 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT
Apply compost / cattle manure @ 25 t/ha as basal dressing. Apply fertilizers
as per following recommended dose :
gm/plant kg/ha
Nitrogen (N) 8g/plant 320
Phosphorous (P) 4 g/plant 160
Potassium (K) 8 g/plant 320
Full dose of P at the time of planting. The N and K may be applied in 4 split
doses. The application should be completed before harvest:
1st dose May - June (at planting)
2nd dose August - September
3rd dose November
4th dose May - June (2nd year)
Applicable for Kew only. For Mauritius variety the application should be
completed within one year. In areas where rains are scanty during November,
N and K may be applied in 3 equal splits i.e., avoid November application.
After application of fertilizers cover with soil by scraping the sides of trenches.
1.7 CULTURAL PRACTICES (CULTIVATION
PRACTICES)
The cultivation practices viz. irrigation, mulching, weeding, earthing up,
induction of flowering etc. are discussed in this section.
1.7.1 Irrigation and Mulching
Generally pineapple can tolerate drought conditions. However 5 - 6 irrigations
during dry months at an interval of 20 - 22 days is helpful. Mulching the crop
with dry leaves @ 6 t/ha will help to conserve soil moisture. However
mulching is not common in India.
213
PineappleHarvesting should be over before summer months if grown rainfed.
1.7.2 Weed Control
Successful weed control is very important in pineapple growing. Hand
weeding is very common in pineapple culture in India. However hand weeding
is very costly. Hence chemical weedicides are recommended. Pre-emergence
spray with Diuron 3 kg or Bromacil 2.5 kg in 600 liters of water per hectare
completely controls all types of weeds in pineapple plantation. If there is
subsequent growth of weeds, herbicide application may be repeated at half
the dose. Spraying should be done when there is adequate moisture in the
soil. Avoid periods of heavy rainfall for spraying.
1.7.3 Earthing Up
Earthing up is done after fertilizer application and after harvesting. It involves
pushing soil into the trench from the sides. Otherwise lodging will occur.
Also serves the purpose of weeding.
1.7.4 Induction of Flowering
Under natural conditions even if there is optimum nutritional and
environmental conditions, less than 40-50 % plants come to flowering. The
irregular flowering behaviour was one of the limiting factors in pineapple
cultivation earlier. Now wide range of chemicals viz., Ethrel, NAA, calcium
carbide etc. are used for induction of flowering in pineapple.
For induction of uniform flowering, application of 25 ppm Ethephon (2 chloro
ethyl phosphonic acid) in aqueous solution containing 2 % urea and 0.04 %
calcium carbonate is widely recommended in Kerala and in a number of
other states in India. The mixture @ 50 ml / plant is to be applied by pouring
into the heart of 15 – 17 months old plants in the case of Kew variety and for
Mauritius 7 - 8 months after planting. Apply to plants at 39 - 42 leaf stage.
For treating 1000 plants, 50 litres of the solution would be required.
For preparing 50 litres of solution, Ethephon (under the trade name/
commercial name – Ethrel) – 1.25 ml, urea – 1 kg and CaCO3 – 20 g are
required. The dosage has to be fixed depending on the availability of
commercial and the active ingredient contents. Flowering will commence
from 40th day after application and completed within 60 to 70 days in Kew
variety and in Mauritius flowering starts by 30 days and completed within 40
days. The main season of application is August – December. However can be
applied at any time of the year.
1.8 STAGGERING OF PRODUCTION
There is immense scope of spreading or staggering of fruit (harvest) throughout
the year. Staggering is possible by:
1. Using different planting materials at same time.
2. By using different sized planting materials at same time.
3. By application of growth regulators at different times.
214
Tropical Fruits 4. By planting suckers at different times.
5. Combination method of 3 and 4 is best.
1.9 FRUIT SET AND FRUIT GROWTH
Parthenocarpic multiple fruit formed by the fusion of fruit lets (100 – 200
berry like fruit lets). Fruit growth is characterized by a sigmoid curve.
Continuous increase in length, diameter and fruit weight upto 120th day. The
rate of increase is less pronounced from 120 – 150 days (Kew).
1.10 RATOONING
One plant crop and two ratoon crops are recommended. Plant crop means
first crop. After the harvest of plant crop, desuckering (removal of suckers)
is done leaving one or two suckers on the mother plant. The sucker plant
should be fertilized and earthed up. This practice of growing suckers on the
mother plant in known as ratooning. Mother plant is not uprooted.
The practice of continuing plantation for 20 - 30 years is seen in hill side
planting of Assam.
1.11 HARVESTING AND YIELD
Pineapple is a non – climacteric fruit and harvested at correct maturity. The
total duration of the crop is about 20-22 months for Kew i.e., harvesting 160-
175 days after ethephon application (about 5 1/2 months). For Mauritius 12-
13 months duration i.e. harvesting 125- 135 days after ethephon application
(about 4 1/2 months).
According to market proximity, purpose and mode of transportation,
harvesting time should be adjusted. Harvesting is possible throughout the
year.
For local market - at full maturity
For distant market - 75-80 % maturity
At maturity lower most eyes show colour change and get flattened
Kew - From dark green to orange yellow
Mauritius - From green to golden yellow
The harvesting in done with the help of a sharp knife along with the fruit
stalk of about 5-6 cm. Peak season of harvest in Kerala is February - May.
Application of growth regulator is during August - December. Adjust the
harvest before rainy season. Quality will be poor in fruits harvested during
rains (sugar will be less, acidity will be more and price will be low).
The yield depends on the plant population. If the population is 35000 - 40000
plants/ha, the yield expected is 40 - 50 t/ha. If the population is 43500 -
50000 plants/ha, the yield expected is 50 - 60 t/ha. There is possibility to get
this much yield. But in India, the productivity is very low, only 15 t/ha.
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Pineapple1.12 STORAGE AND RIPENING
Pineapple can be stored for 4 weeks at temperature of 11-13°C at 85% RH.
Chilling injury is there below this temperature. Treating the fruits with growth
regulator NAA (500 ppm) and GA3 (100 ppm) is also helpful for extending
the storage life. By coating with wax emulsion storage life can be extended.
For enhancing ripening, Ethrel 2000 ppm is found good for uniform ripening.
1.13 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION
In India before packaging fruits are graded on the basis of size, shape, maturity,
freedom from diseases, pests and blemishes. After grading packaging is done.
In Assam packaging is done by wrapping individual fruits with paddy straw.
These are placed in standard size containers made of bamboo. From Kerala
the fruits are transported by lorry loads to Bombay, Calcutta and Bangalore
markets. The fruits are arranged crown side downwards and this crown will
act as a cushion while transportation. According to a study conducted by
CFTRI, Mysore, losses due to spoilage in transit were as high as 48%. It is
reported that when fruits are to be transported for long distance, refrigerated
transport is required to slow down ripening process.
1.14 PESTS AND DISEASES
No serious pests or diseases are noticed in the crop except light incidence of
leaf spot disease, heart rot, fruit rot etc. and also of mealy bug and scale
insects. However the disease heart rot is very serious in recent days. We shall
discuss this disease.
A) Disease
1.14.1 Heart rot or stem rot or root rot
This is a fungal disease caused by phytophthora. This has become serious in
recent days especially when pineapple is grown in low lying areas. The green
leaves turn yellowish green and tips turn brown. The central whorl of leaves
when affected will come out with a gentle pull. The basal portion of leaves
shows signs of rotting and will have foul odour. When uprooted the roots are
seen decayed. Poor physical condition of the soil and inadequate drainage
are responsible for the spread of this disease.
Control Measures :
Include good drainage, proper selection of healthy planting materials, careful
handling and prophylactic treatment of planting materials with copper
fungicides. After the incidence of disease, uproot and destroy the affected
plants and drench the soil with copper fungicides. (i.e. Phytolan @ 3g/litre).
B) Insects
A few insect like mealy bugs & scales, some time attack the crops. These
can be control by spraying any insecticide on the crops.
216
Tropical Fruits1.15 PLANT AND FRUIT ABNORMALITIES
We shall now discuss the abnormalities seen in pineapple. The abnormalities
are more common in the varieties of Cayenne group.
1.15.1 Multiple Crown
Ordinarily fruit bears a single crown. But in some cases fruit bears more than
one, even to the extent of 25. Consequently the top of the fruit will be flat
and broad and fruit will be unfit for canning. The fruit taste is insipid and
corky. It is supposed to be a heritable character. Vigorous growth with abundant
fertilizer or planting in virgin ground encourages multiple crowns.
1.15.2 Fruit and Crown Fasciation
Fruits set flattened and deformed to
such an extent that they are totally
useless. In certain cases proliferation
is so extreme that fruit is highly
flattened and twisted with
innumerable crowns. The exact reason
is not known. May be due to genetical
factors. Fruit and crown fasciation is
associated with high vigour of plants.
Prevalence of favourable climate for
vegetative growth during flower differentiation is supposed to cause this
abnormality.
1.15.3 Collar of Slips
The collar of slips is typified by the presence of a large number of slips
arising from peduncle close to the base of the fruit or even directly from the
fruit itself. High nitrogen fertilization and high rainfall along with relatively
low temperature are supposed to be congenial for such an abnormality.
1.15.4 Sun Scald
Sometimes the peduncle bearing the fruit leans or falls over to one side, thus
exposing one side of the fruit to direct sunrays. The cells under the skin of
exposed surface get damaged. Wrapping of fruit i.e., covering the fruit with
its own leaves or covering with dry leaves is done to control this.
1.16 EXPORT POTENTIAL
Even though India is the fifth largest producer of pineapple, 0.15 % (less
than 1 %) of the total production is exported. Exported as fresh fruit and also
a number of processed forms. Fresh pineapple is exported to Nepal, Saudi
Arabia, Russia and Kuwait. The important processed products are Jam, Jelly,
Dehydrated products, Squash, Juice concentrate, Slices, Canned products
etc. Next to mango, pineapple products are exported to the maximum extent.
However India’s contribution in the export of fruits is very poor, less than
1%. There is good scope of diversification and development of new products
Fruits and crown fascination
217
Pineapplefrom pineapple. The processed products are mainly exported to Russia,
Liberia, Oman and USA.
1.17 PROCESSING
Pineapple is used extensively in the food processing industry to prepare a
wide variety of products. The important processed products are pineapple
Juice, Squash, Juice concentrate, Slices, Pickle, Wine, Jam, Canned products
etc. It is estimated that nearly 50 % of the world production is utilized by
processing industry. However utilization of pineapple products in our country
does not follow world pattern. In India less than 1 % of the production is
processed. Among the products juice concentrates has great demand for export.
In 1988 a processing unit to make pineapple juice concentrates with a crushing
capacity of 2 tones / hour was set up by the NERAMAC (North Eastern
Regional Agricultural Marketing Corporation, Ltd.) at Agartala, Tripura. In
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and North Eastern States processing factories
in private as well as in public sector have been established. The recipe for
different products are discussed below.
1.17.1 Pineapple Juice
Pineapple juice is usually prepared as a by product in the canning industry
and is a delicious beverage. Entire fruits or even scrapings and corers can be
used for the extraction of the juice. The juice can be consumed as such or
after sweetening with sugar.
After washing, remove the crown of the fruits by giving a sharp twist; remove
the peel with a stainless steel knife. Remove the eyes. Cut the sound portions
into small pieces; pass them through a mincer or chop them finely with a
sharp stainless steel knife. Wrap the prepared fruit in thick cloth and press
out the juice in a small basket press or juice extractor. Strain the juice through
coarse muslin cloth. The juice obtained is generally tart and becomes palatable
after adding sugar. Add sugar according to taste (60 g/kg) and strain the juice
again through coarse muslin cloth.
Heat the prepared juice rapidly in an aluminum or stainless steel pan on
direct fire to a temperature of 85 - 90°C. Pour the hot juice into plain cans
leaving 0.6 cm head space; seal the cans immediately. Alternatively pour the
hot juice into previously sterilized, warm bottles and seal air tight with crown
corks.
Process the cans in boiling water for 25 minutes at sea level. At higher altitudes
increase the processing time by 2 minutes for every 300 m rise in altitude.
Cool the cans immediately in running water, allow the bottles to cool gradually.
Store the cooled products in a cool and dry place.
1.17.2 Pineapple Squash and Pineapple Syrup
Extract the juice as in pineapple juice.
Recipe Squash Syrup
Juice 1.0 kg 1.0 kg
Sugar 1.7 kg 2.6 kg
218
Tropical Fruits Citric acid 20 g 25 g
Water 1.3 kg 400 g
Pineapple essence 8 ml 10 ml
Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) 2.4 g 2.4 g
Permitted Yellow colour 0.5 g 0.5 g
Mix the ingredients viz. sugar, citric acid and water and boil. Strain through
thick muslin cloth. After cooling add juice, essence and colour if required
and again stir. Dissolve the preservative (KMS) in a little quantity of water
and add to the filtered product. Mix thoroughly and fill in previously sterilized
bottles leaving a head space of 2.5 cm. Cork and store in a dry, cool place.
When required, for 1 cup add 3 cups of water in the case of squash and 4
cups of water in the case syrup and drink.
1.17.3 Pineapple Beverage (Ready to serve)
Extract the pineapple juice from fully ripe pineapple as described earlier and
prepare the beverage using the following recipe.
Recipe
Pineapple Juice 100 g
Sugar 100-120 g
Citric acid 2.5 g
Water 800 g
Essence 0.25 ml.
Permitted Yellow colour 0.02 g
KMS 1 pinch
Mix Sugar, citric acid and water and heat till all the sugar is dissolved. Filter
the mixture through a fine muslin cloth. To this syrup, add the pineapple
juice, essence and colour and KMS. Mix them well. The beverage is ready
and can be consumed immediately.
If it is required to be preserved for 1-2 months, heat the beverage to 90°C, fill
hot into clean, warm and sterilized narrow mouth bottles leaving about 2.5
cm head space and apply crown corks. Alternatively pasteurize the filled
bottles after sealing for 10 minutes.
1.17.4 Canned Pineapple
In the international market canned pineapple has great demand. Ripe and
juicy fruit with characteristic colour and aroma should be selected and washed
in fresh water.
Remove the crown, peel, eyes and the core of the fruits (cores removed with
a corer) and cut into transverse slices of 1.25 cm thickness with a stainless
steel knife. Prepare the sugar syrup by mixing 1 kg sugar with 1.5 kg water
(40°B) and 6 g citric acid and bring it to boil. Place the pineapple rings (5 - 6)
in butter size plain cans. Fill the interspaces with syrup leaving 1.25 cm head
space.
Exhaust the cans until the temperature at the centre of the can attains 80°C
(time taken is about 7 minutes) and seal. Process the cans in boiling water for
219
Pineapple20 and 25 minutes in the case of butter size and A 2 ½ cans respectively. Cool
the cans quickly and store.
1.17.5 Pineapple Jam
After removing the crown, peel and eyes, cut the sound portions of the fruit
into small pieces. Crush them thoroughly and obtain a uniform mass. Add an
equal quantity of sugar by weight to the prepared pulp. Allow it to stand for
½ - 1 hour. Cook the mixture slowly with vigorous stirring, till the temperature
reaches 105.5°C (at sea level) or till the mass approaches jam consistency.
Fill the jam hot into sterilized dry jars cool them and screw tightly. Store in a
cool and dry place.
1.17.6 Pineapple Pickle
Select immature pineapple and wash them thoroughly. Remove the crown
and peel. Remove the eyes and core. Cut into very small pieces. Add salt to
pineapple pieces and keep for half an hour. Heat mustard or groundnut or
sesamum oil in a pan and add chopped ginger, garlic and green chillies into
the oil. Then add red chilli powder. Add pineapple pieces and mix well.
Finally add a small quantity of fenugreek and asafoetida powder and a pinch
of sodium benzoate. Add vinegar also. After mixing thoroughly allow to
cool. After cooling fill in to sterilized bottles.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the nutritional requirement for pineapple crops ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the different products obtain from pineapple fruits ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What are the abnormalities found in pineapple ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
1.18 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the commercial pineapple varieties grown in
220
Tropical Fruits different countries and also in India, and the detailed cultivation practices of
pineapple. The nutritional requirement of pineapple is discussed. The
induction of flowering in pineapple by ethephon treatment is explained in
detail. The storage, packaging and transportation are described. The pests
and diseases and plant and fruit abnormalities are discussed. The utilization
of pineapple into different products are explained in detail. It is very important
to know all these details when we study about pineapple crop.
1.19 KEY WORDS
Control Planting : It is a plantation method of Pineapple used in
the Hill of Assam and Tripura, planting is done
on terraces.
Slips : If Pineapple slips are arise from the base of
fruits or from the top of peduncle i.e. just below
the fruits. These slips are used for Pineapple
propagation.
TSS : The total soluble solids ranges between 12°B
and 16°B.
Sucker : These are the vegetative growth in Pineapple
and arise from the buds of the stem below
ground region. These are used for vegetative
propagation.
1.20 FURTHER REFERENCES
1. Bal, J.S. (2006). Fruit growing. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
2. Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K. and Sanyal. D.S. (ed.) (2001). Fruits: Tropical
and Subtropical. Naya Udyog, Calcutta.
3. Collins, J.L. (1960). The pineapple – Botany, Cultivation and
Utilization. Leonard Hill LTD, London.
4. Chadha, K.L. Reddy, B.H.C. and Shikhamany, S.D. (1998). Pineapple,
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
5. KAU, (2007). Package of Practices Recommendations - Crops.
Directorate of Extension, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur,
Vellanikara.
6. Radha, T. and Mathew, L. (2007). Fruit Crops, New India Publishing
Agency, New Delhi.
1.21 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. The important pineapple varieties grown in India are Giant Kew, Kew,
Mauritius and Queen.
221
PineappleThe comparison of Kew and Mauritius are given below :
Kew Mauritius
1. Leaves are spine less Leaves are spiny.
2. Fruits are larger (1.5-2.5kg) Fruits are of medium size
cylindrical in shapes with (1.25-1.50 kg), slightly conical in
shallow and broad eyes, shape with deep eyes, not suitable
ideal for canning industry. for canning.
3. The unripe fruits are dark The unripe fruits are green in
green in colour. colour.
4. The flesh colour is light The flesh colour is golden yellow.
yellow.
5. Shy suckering habit, 0 – 2 2-3 suckers per plant.
suckers per plant.
6. Quality medium. Quality good, high sugar content,
better keeping quality compared to
Kew.
7. Duration 20-22 months. Duration 12-13 months.
2. The different types of planting material in pineapple are suckers, slips,
hapas, crowns, stumps, stem bits and tissue culture plants. Under Kerala
conditions suckers are the ideal planting material.
3. Pineapple can be grown in a wide range of soils, but it does not tolerate
water logging. Sandy and loamy soils or laterite soils are ideal. Heavy
clay soil and high water table are not conducive. The optimum pH is
between 5.5 to 6.0.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Apply compost / cattle manure @ 25 t/ha as basal dressing. Apply
fertilizers as per following recommended dose :
gm/plant kg/ha
Nitrogen (N) 8g/plant 320
Phosphorous (P) 4g/plant 160
Potassium (K) 8g/plant 320
Full dose of P at the time of planting. The N and K may be applied in 4
split doses.
2. The different processed products from pineapple include pineapple juice,
squash, syrup, jam, pickle, juice concentrates and canned pineapple.
3. Multiple crown, fruit and crown fasciation, collar of slips and sunscald
are the abnormalities in pineapple.
222
Tropical FruitsUNIT 2 PAPAYA (CARICA PAPAYA LINN.)
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Area and Production
2.3 Climate and Soil
2.4 Varieties
2.5 Land Preparation and Planting
2.5.1 Planting material
2.5.2 Planting season
2.5.3 Spacing
2.5.4 Planting method
2.6 Nutritional Requirements
2.7 Cultivation Practices
2.7.1 Irrigation
2.7.2 Weeding
2.7.3 Intercropping
2.7.4 Fruit thinning
2.7.5 Earthing up
2.7.6 Removal of male plants
2.8 Flowering, Sex Expression and Fruit Development
2.9 Harvesting
2.10 Storage
2.11 Packaging and Transportation
2.12 Processing
2.12.1 Papaya pickle
2.12.2 Papaya jelly
2.12.3 Papaya preserve
2.12.4 Canned papaya
2.12.5 Papaya nectar
2.12.6 Papaya squash
2.12.7 Tuti-frutti
2.12.8 Papaya petha
2.12.9 Papaya jam
2.12.10 Papain extraction
2.13 Plant protection
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Papaya2.13.1 Pests
2.13.2 Diseases
2.14 Let Us Sum Up
2.15 Key Words
2.16 Further References
2.17 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
• explain the area and production scenario of papaya,
• explain the soil and climatic requirement of papaya,
• state the papaya varieties developed by different institutes in India,
• describe the manuring and fertilizer recommendation of papaya,
• elaborate on the cultivation practices of papaya,
• explain the processing of papaya into different products, and
• identify the important pests and diseases of papaya.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Papaya has long been known as the wonder fruit of the tropics and sub tropics.
It has got great importance due to its highly delicious nutritive value of fruits
and production potentiality. Owing to the increasing demand for fruits and
papain (digestive enzyme) and high returns, the area and production of papaya
have increased during the last few decades. Papaya provides cheap source of
vitamins and minerals in the daily diet of the people. It is an abundant source
of carotene, precursor of vitamin A.
Papaya is originated in Mexico. It was introduced to India during 16th century
by Portuguese people.
2.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION
Total annual world production is estimated at 6 million tonnes of fruits. India
leads the world in papaya production with an annual oputput of about 26
lakh tonnes. Other leading producers are Hawaii, Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria,
Indonesia, China, Peru, Thailand and Philippines.
The area under papaya cultivation in India increased by 63 % from 83 thousand
ha in 2007-08 to 138 thousand ha in 2017-18 and the production increased
from 29 lakh tonnes to 60 lakh tonnes. Papaya is mostly cultivated in the
states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Assam,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra (Vide Table 1).
224
Tropical Fruits Table 1: Statewise area, production and productivity of papaya in different states in 2017-18
State Area Production Productivity
(‘000 ha.) (‘000 MT) (MT/ha)
Andhra Pradesh 18.01 1687.82 93.72
West Bengal 12.38 365.95 29.56
Karnataka 8.75 593.69 67.85
Jharkhand 2.66 116.41 43.76
Gujarat 20.31 1256.51 61.87
Maharashtra 10.28 408.30 39.72
Assam 7.21 147.40 20.44
Chhatisgarh 14.40 381.42 26.49
Madhya Pradesh 10.55 421.55 39.96
Tamil Nadu 1.53 141.58 92.54
Others 32.30 468.21 14.50
Total 138.40 5988.83 530.41
2.3 CLIMATE AND SOIL
Papaya, a tropical plant prefers warm and humid climate. Low temperature
(below 10°C) inhibits growth and affects fruit development. Fruits have less
flavour and sweetness. High temperature during flowering causes sterility,
while dry climate at mature stage increases sweetness. Optimum temperature
range is 22-26°C. It requires an evenly distributed annual rainfall of 150 to
180 cm. Papaya can be cultivated upto an elevation of 1200 m and it requires
protection from wind.
A fertile, deep and organically rich, well drained soil is the most ideal for
papaya cultivation. Alluvial and medium black soils having a pH of 6.5 to
7.0 are preferred. Papaya cannot withstand water stagnation, hence proper
drainage facilities should be provided. Under water logged conditions, the
foliage turns yellow, the lower leaves drop prematurely. Prolonged water
logging results in rotting of stem.
2.4 VARIETIES
A large number of papaya varieties are found in cultivation. Often wide
variability is noticed due to collection of seeds from open pollinated plants.
A number of improved papaya varieties have been developed by Indian
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Regional Station, Pusa, Bihar, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore and Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore, which are suitable for growing in
different states of India.
In papaya, a number of varieties both indigenous and exotic are available.
Descriptions of varieties are given in the following Table-2.
•
225
PapayaTable 2: Papaya Varieties :
Variety Character
Varieties from IARI Regional Station, Pusa, Bihar
Pusa Gynodioecious variety with 100 % productive plants, yield
Delicious high, fruiting starts at 150 cm height, large fruit, pulp deep
orange, very sweet, TSS 13°Brix, flavour good.
Pusa Majesty Gynodioecious, bearing at a height of 45 cm, medium round
fruits, flesh firm, yellow, keeping quality good, tolerant to
root-knot-nematode.
Pusa Giant Dioecious variety, bearing at a height of 1 m, large fruits
suitable as a vegetable, canning (petha) and for tooty-fruity.
Tolerant to strong winds.
Pusa Dwarf Dwarf and dioecious, bearing at 40 cm height, fruit medium,
oval, flesh orange red, sweet, melting, TSS 9°Brix, suitable
for high density planting.
Pusa Nanha Dioecious, dwarf mutant, plant height 100-110 cm, suitable
for kitchen garden, pot planting, high density planting (1.25
x 1.25 m).
Varieties from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
CO1 Selection from the var. Ranchi. Dwarf, dioecious, bearing
at one metre height, fruit medium, spherical, smooth skin,
flesh orange-yellow, firm, sweet, juicy with pleasing
flavour. TSS 13°Brix, keeping quality good. Suitable for
table purpose.
CO2 Selection from inbred local strain, plants dioecious, medium
tall, fruits round to oval, flesh orange coloured, moderately
juicy, mild flavour, TSS 13°Brix, keeping quality good,
good variety for papain production.
CO3 Gynodioecious, hybrid between CO2 x Sunrise Solo, plant
tall, hermaphrodite, fruits medium, flesh reddish, sweet,
good keeping quality, TSS 14.6°Brix.
CO4 Dioecious hybrid between CO1 x Washington. Plants have
purple colouration, fruits medium, round, flesh yellow with
purple tinge, quality good, TSS 13.2°Brix.
CO5 Dioecious selection from Washington. Highest papain
yielder, 15 g dry papain/fruit. Average yield of 1500 kg dry
papain/hectare, TSS 13°Brix.
CO6 Inbred selection from Pusa Majesty. Dioecious, dual
purpose variety.
CO7 Gynodioecious variety with red flesh, uniform size and
shape. TSS 16.5°Brix with low stamen carpellody.
227
PapayaVarieties from IIHR, Bangalore
Coorg Honey Selection from Honey Dew, gynodioecious, excellent
Dew quality. Fruits borne on female plants are seedless, medium
size, oval in shape, very sweet, keeping quality medium.
Pink Flesh Excellent quality fruits with a TSS of 12-14°Brix medium
Sweet size, pink fleshed.
Arka Surya Hybrid of Sunrise Solo x Pink Flesh sweet, medium size,
red flesh, TSS 14°Brix, low cavity, good peeling quality.
Other Important Varieties
Pant Papaya-I Variety from Pant Nagar. Medium sized dioecious variety
recommended for Tarai area of UP.
Ranchi A variety from Bihar. Fruit medium to large, all the three
sex forms - male, hermaphrodite and female present.
Washington Important in Maharashtra. Plants violet coloured, fruits
large, ovate, green with good quality, suitable for papain
production.
Exotic varieties
Solo Gynodioecious, fruits small size with good quality. Female
plants produce round fruits, but hermaphrodite produces
elongated fruits. TSS 14°Brix. Flesh firm, good taste,
keeping quality good. Hawaii variety.
Sunrise Solo Gynodioecious, pink flesh, good taste, from Hawaii. An
inbred between Pink Solo x Yellow Fleshed farmer’s
selection.
Taiwan Gynodioecious, blood red flesh and good taste. Fruit
medium to large, ovate shape on female plant, whereas
elongate in hermaphrodite plant.
Thailand Gynodioecious, deep red flesh and good yield, very sweet.
Eksotica Malaysian variety developed by back crossing local Subang
and Sunrise Solo. High yielding early variety, TSS 13-
15°Brix. Hermaphrodite fruits are pyriform while the
females are round in shape.
Waimanalo A high quality variety, orange yellow flesh, fruits round,
smooth, shining and have a star shaped cavity. An improved
variety of Hawaii (U.S.A.)
Higgins Gynodioecious variety suitable for dry area. Fruit small to
medium, firm, yellow, export papaya variety in Hawaii.
Wilder Gynodioecious variety of Hawaii suitable for export,
uniformity in fruit size, firm and yellow fruits.
228
Tropical Fruits2.5 LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING
A well-drained upland is selected for planting. In open and high lying areas
plants are exposed to strong winds or storm. Therefore, for proper
establishment of papaya plants, suitable wind break should be planted at the
orchard boundary. Jaint (Sesbania aegyptiaca) should be sown around the
field at the onset of monsoon to act as an effective wind break. The planting
material used and planting details are described below.
2.5.1 Planting Material
Papaya is commercially propagated by seeds. The seed rate is 250-300 g/ha.
The seedlings can be raised in nursery beds 3 m long, 1 m wide and 10 cm
high as well as in pots or polythene bags. Fresh seeds after being treated with
0.1 % Monosan (phenyl mercuric acetate), ceresan etc. are sown 1 cm deep
in rows 10 cm apart and covered with fine compost or leaf mould. Light
irrigation is provided during the morning hours. The nursery beds are covered
with polythene sheets or dry paddy straw to protect the seedlings. Seeds will
germinate in 15-20 days. Two month old seedlings are transplanted in the
main field. Tissue culture plantlets produced by shoot tip culture are also
used for planting. Cuttings and mound layers are used to a very limited
scale.
2.5.2 Planting Season
Papaya is planted during spring (February - March), monsoon (June - July)
and autumn (October - November).
2.5.3 Spacing
A spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m to 3.0 x 3.0 m is followed depending on stature of
the variety. However high density cultivation with spacing of 1.5 x 1.5 m
enhances the returns to the farmer and is recommended for dwarf varieties. A
closer spacing of 1.2 x 1.2 m for cv. Pusha Nanha is adopted for high density
planting, accommodating 6,400 plants/ha.
2.5.4 Planting Method
The seedlings are planted in pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm size. In the summer
months the pits are dug about a fortnight before planting. The pits are filled
with top soil along with well decomposed farm yard manure. Tall and vigorous
varieties are planted at greater spacing while medium and dwarf ones at closer
spacing. In the case of dioecious varieties like CO1 or CO2, 3-4 seedlings
are transplanted per pit. It would be sufficient to plant two seedlings per pit
in the case of hermaphrodite types. In dioecious types 50 % of plants may be
male. Male plants are removed as soon as they flower and female and
hermaphrodite plants are retained. One male plant for every 10-20 female
plants is retained for effective pollination. Excess female or hermaphrodite
plants are also to be removed.
2.6 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Papaya is a nutrient loving plant and for quick growth and production of
229
Papayahigh yield, adequate and efficient manuring is essential. Both organic and
inorganic manures are highly beneficial to the papaya plants. Organic manure
may be applied @ 10 to 25 kg/plant/year at the onset of south west monsoon.
Since papaya is continuous in fruiting habit, it removes high quantity of
nutrients from soil i.e., 1770 g N, 200 g P, 2120 g K, 350 g Ca, 180 g Mg, 200
g S, 989 mg B, 3364 mg Fe, 1385 mg Zn and 8 mg Mo per ton of papaya
fruit. Field experiments done at different States with many varieties suggested
that application of N, P2O
5 and K
2O vary from 140-350 g, 70-375 g and 0-
500 g respectively/plant/year. Both organic as well as inorganic fertilizers
are to be given.
Leaf nutrient analysis determines fertilizer needs of papaya plant. It has
been reported that mature petiole (6th leaf from the top) is the diagnostic leaf
and the best time for analysis is at flowering stage. Fertilizer dosages vary
with location, variety and soil type. Experimental results from IIHR, Bangalore
suggested that 240 g N, 500 g P2O
5 and 500 g K
2O/plant/year gave the best
results in Coorg Honey Dew papaya, whereas N, P, K, @ 400 g, 350 g and
600 g respectively per plant/year in three splits at 30, 60 and 120 days after
transplanting gave better yield at West Bengal. In Andhra Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh, the recommended dosage for N, P2O
5 and K
2O are @ 250, 250 and
500 g/plant/year and it is 250, 200, 200 g respectively at Tamil Nadu. In
Kerala the recommended dose of N, P2O
5 and K
2O are @ 200, 200 and 400
g/plant/year.
Apart from major nutrients, micronutrients are also required and experiments
proved that foliar application of boron (0.1 %), Mn (0.25 %) and Cu (0.25
%) applied singly or in combination at 2 and 3 months after transplanting
enhanced growth, flowering, yield and quality in papaya. Deficiency of boron
resulted in the formation of deformed fruits. Papaya plant responds well to
the application of biofertilizers viz., Azotobactor and Azospirillum. It has
been reported that application of 20 kg vermicompost/plant hastened flowering
and increased the yield attributes in papaya.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.
1. Name the papaya varieties developed by TNAU, Coimbatore.
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
2. Name two Hawaiian papaya varieties.
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230
Tropical Fruits 3. What is the Planting season of papaya ?
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4. Give the fertilizer recommendation for papaya in Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.
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2.7 CULTIVATION PRACTICES (CULTURAL
PRACTICES)
Under this section we shall study the cultivation practices. This includes
irrigation, breeding, intercropping, fruit thinning, earthing up etc.
2.7.1 Irrigation
The irrigation schedule is fixed on the basis of soil type and weather conditions
of the region. Protective irrigation is provided in the first year of planting.
During the second year, irrigation is provided at fortnightly interval in winter
and at an interval of 10 days in summer. Basin system of irrigation is mostly
followed. But case is to be taken to avoid water stagnation around the plant.
The ring system of irrigation is found to be better than basin system because
the ring system prevents irrigation water coming into contact with the stem,
thus preventing collar rot. Irrigation increases both the number and size of
marketable papaya fruit. In low rainfall area where water is scarce, sprinkler
or drip system of irrigation can be adopted.
Photo 1 : Ring System of Irrigation in Papaya
231
Papaya
2.7.2 Weeding
The plot should be kept free of weeds. Two hand diggings in a year are
necessary to check weed growth. Weeding should be done on regular basis
especially around the plants. Application of Diuron or Alachlorin or
Butachlorine (2.0 kg/ha) as pre-emergence herbicide two months after
transplanting can effectively control the weeds for a period of four months.
2.7.3 Intercropping
Intercrops such as short duration vegetables can be grown during initial stages.
No intercrops are taken after the onset of flowering stage.
2.7.4 Fruit Thinning
Fruit thinning is an important practice that will regulate production and
improve the percentage of uniform size marketable fruit. The underdeveloped
and small fruitlets are removed in the early stages of development.
2.7.5 Earthing up
Earthing up of papaya plant should be done which will support plants to
remain in position and also protect them from direct contact with rain and
irrigation water. Earthing up is usually done before or after the onset of
monsoon.
2.7.6 Removal of Male Plants
At flowering time, excess male plants should be removed from the plantation.
In a row one male plant can be retained for 10 female plants.
2.8 FLOWERING, SEX EXPRESSION AND
FRUIT DEVELOPMENT
Papaya starts flowering and fruiting in 3-5 months after planting and attains
maturity in 5 months after fruit set depending on variety, age, climate and
232
Tropical Fruits nutrient status of soil. Flowering and fruiting continue throughout life span
of plant but economic life is only for 3-5 years.
Sex expression in papaya is very complicated phenomenon. It has been
reported that there are eight (8) working categories of sex as staminate,
teratological staminate, reduced elongata, elongata, carpelloid elongata,
pentandria, carpelloid pentandria and pistillate. However there are three basic
sex forms viz. Staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite. The pistillate plant is
stable, while staminate and hermaphrodite plants may be either phenotypically
stable or phenotypically ambivalent going through seasonal sex reversals
during which they produce varying proportions of staminate, perfect and
pistillate flowers. Changes in the sex expression is accelerated by
environmental factors such as low temperature to produce perfect flowers on
the male plant. Fertile hermaphrodite types also have some pistillate flowers
which may show male tendency in summer and female tendency in winter. A
large difference between day and night temperature can produce more female
flowers than normal. Long day and high temperature has been reported to
promote the formation of female flower in Coorg Honey Dew.
The application of growth regulators has been found to change sex in papaya
GA3 spray of 50 ppm in CO1 increased the femaleness. It was reported that
SADH treatment proved very effective in CO1 for the control of height,
acceleration of flowering and fruiting at lower node, increase in fruit set and
yield. TIBA 100 ppm spray to papaya seedlings increased the femaleness.
Application of GA3 on Coorg Honey Dew increased the production of
hermaphrodite and staminate flowers, caused a two fold increase in vitamin
C contents but reduced the seed number, fruit size and pectin content. Ethephon
@ 240-960 ppm and chlorflurenol @ 20-80 ppm induced intersexual and
female flowers as well as male flowers on genetically male plants of Honey
Dew cultivar. GA3 at 25 ppm and ethrel at 100 ppm on 100-125 days old
seedlings tended to produce more females. Defoliation has been reported to
induce maleness.
It is difficult to identify the correct sex in papaya varieties until their floral
emergence.
Fruit showed a double sigmoid type growth pattern during development. There
is a progressive increase in total sugars, vitamins (A and C), minerals (Ca, P
and K), tannins, xanthophylls and carotene pigments during later part of fruit
development. Papaya is a climacteric fruit with characteristic respiratory peak
and ethylene production pattern during ripening. At maturity, fruit skin shows
yellow streaks and latex becomes watery.
2.9 HARVESTING
Harvesting is done by picking individual fruit by hand. While harvesting,
fruits are not allowed to fall on ground. Fruits showing streaks of yellow
colour are harvested.
About 20-50 fruits are obtained from a plant and on an average yield varies
from 40-50 tonnes ha-1 during first year and it reduces to 20-25 tonnes ha-1
in second year. Although papaya trees bear fruits continuously for many years,
233
Papayait is not economical to retain the trees after 3 years.
2.10 STORAGE
Mature papaya fruits ripe within 2-4 days after harvest. Fruits can be stored
at 20°C, if temperature is above 20°C, fruit will be affected by fungal diseases
like Colletotrichum sp. and when the temperature is below 20°C, it will lead
to chilling injuries. Low temperature (10-15°C) and controlled atmospheric
(2 % O2, 5 % CO
2 and 16°C) storage can extend shelf life by 2 weeks.
Dipping fruits in mycostatin or aureofungin (1000 ppm) effectively control
post harvest decay of papaya fruits. Ripening was delayed when fruits were
vapor-heat treated, wrapped and stored. Ripening of papaya can be controlled
by low temperature storage (13-15°C) with an ethylene absorbent (7 g/kg).
Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP) in heat shrinkable film and low
temperature (15°C) storage delayed and retarded firmness loss.
2.11 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION
The harvested fruits should be collected in single layers in shallow baskets
padded with straw or similar soft material and taken to the packing shed.
Before packing, suitable grading of fruits should be done to get higher price.
Damaged and diseased fruits should be rejected which can be utilized in
local consumption only. Fruits are graded on the basis of skin colour, weight,
size and shape. They should be uniform in colour and shape.
Packing of papaya fruits differ from place to place and marketing distances
in our country. If the fruits are to be sent to a distant market, they should
immediately be packed in single layers after harvesting, one above the other
and separated by paddy straw and should be sent to the market as soon as
possible. For local markets the fruits are generally heaped in ground with or
without wrapping with newspaper. For semi-distant markets the fruits are
individually wrapped with newspaper and packed in shallow bamboo baskets
with straw or shredded paper around the fruit layer, each packing, weighing
20-25 kg in weight. For fairly long distance transportation wooden crates or
plastic containers are used in which fruits are arranged in single layer wrapped
in newspaper, each packing weighing about 15 kg, sawdust, straw or plastic
foam are used as cushion.
2.12 PROCESSING
The raw fruit is used in South India for making curries, soups, either alone or
combined with other vegetables. The cooked papaya tastes like the cooked
product of cucumber. The mature and ripe papaya fruit can be suitably
processed to give different products like pickle, jelly, candy, petha, squash,
etc. Another important product from papaya is papain. The different products
are discussed below.
2.12.1 Papaya Pickle
Peel and slice the green papaya. Cover it with boiling water for three minutes.
Strain the water and sprinkle common salt on the blanched slices. Allow the
234
Tropical Fruits fruit slices to dry up to some extent. Place the prepared papaya slices in the
jar. Cover with vinegar. Add two teaspoons of husked mustard for every kg
of fruit slices. Add turmeric in suitable quantities and close the jar air-tight.
The slices cure in 2-3 weeks and give good pickle.
In another method, after drying the slices, different types of spices (chilli,
fenugreek, asafoetida and garlic) with mustard or groundnut or sesamum oil
is mixed in it. This can be used soon after preparation.
2.12.2 Papaya Jelly
Select fully mature but somewhat raw fruits. Thoroughly clean in water and
remove the peel and seeds and cut into pieces. Add water at the rate of 2.5 kg
for every kg of fruit and about two teaspoons of citric acid. Heat the mixture
for 30 minutes to extract pectin. Cool the extract and allow to settle for about
2 hours. Carefully decant the clear extract or filter it through thick cloth. Test
the extract for pectin content with a few drops of ethyl alcohol. The formation
of a single clot indicates high pectin. The presence of a number of clots
shows moderate pectin content. If a gelatinous precipitate forms, then it has
low pectin content. Concentrate extract by heating till it gives test for high
pectin content.
Mix the extract with equal quantity of sugar by volume, if it is rich in pectin.
The ¾th quantity of sugar is sufficient if it has moderate pectin content. Cook
the material till it falls in the form of sheets or flakes when let down from a
spoon. Alternatively, cooking may be done up to 105.5°C. Pour the product
into sterilized and dry glass jars and cool. Cover with a layer of molten wax
and close the lid air-tight.
2.12.3 Papaya Preserve
Use fully mature and unripe fruits. Peel and remove the seeds. Cut the flesh
into pieces of 7.5 cm x 7.5 cm and prick them with stainless steel fork. Immerse
the fruit pieces in dilute lime water (15 g of lime in one litre of water) for
about 3-4 hours. Wash the pieces 3-4 times with fresh lots of water and boil
in sugar syrup of 40°Brix. Keep overnight. Next day, drain out the syrup and
add enough sugar to raise its Brix to 50°. Repeat the process every day till the
Brix of residual syrup reaches 70-75°. Drain off the syrup. Cut the fruit pieces
further to the desired shape.
2.12.4 Canned Papaya
Select fully developed, ripe but firm fruits with good aroma. Wash them in
cold water and cut length-wise into slices of 2.5-4 cm width. Remove the
peel and seeds. Cut the flesh cross-wise into pieces of 2.5-4 cm length or into
cubes. Pack the fruit pieces in standard cans. Add sugar syrup of 33°Brix
(prepared by mixing one cup of sugar with 2 cups of water and half a
teaspoonful of citric acid) leaving a head space of 6 mm. Exhaust the cans in
boiling water at 88°C for 5 minutes. Close the cans immediately and process
at 100°C for 12 minutes. Cool the product in running water and store at room
temperature.
235
Papaya2.12.5 Papaya Nectar
Nectar is a thin pulp of the fruit suitably blended with sugar and citric acid to
obtain a product of 15-20°Brix and mild acid taste.
Cut the fully ripe fruit into slices and peel with a stainless steel knife and
crush the pieces into pulp and pass through a fine sieve to remove the fibrous
materials. The yield of pulp from ripe fruit is about 50 per cent.
Gradually mix the pulp with double quantity of water. Add sugar (half the
quantity of pulp) and citric acid. Mix thoroughly. Strain the product through
muslin cloth. Heat the prepared nectar to 85-88°C and fill into previously
sterilized plain cans. Seal the cans, invert them for a minute and cool them in
running cold water to about 38°C. Cool the product subsequently under
atmospheric conditions. Equipment used should be of non-corrosive metal.
2.12.6 Papaya Squash
It has been reported that papaya squash can be prepared from ripe papaya.
Juice is extracted from the pulp. Sugar syrup is prepared and juice is mixed.
Finally desired colour, preservative and essence is added and bottled before
marketing.
2.12.7 Tuti-frutti
This product is made after peeling the raw matured fruit and making into
small pieces. Dip the pieces in dilute lime water for 4 hours. Wash thoroughly
with 3-4 change of water. After washing it is boiled in sugar solution till it
becomes soft. In the process citric acid and desired colour is added. Potassium
meta bisulphite is added after cooling. The process is repeated for 7 days.
After 7 days the pieces are kept in sugar solution continuously for another
one week. The pieces are taken out, cut into smaller pieces, dried and packed
in polythene covers.
2.12.8 Papaya Petha
The unripe matured fruits are used for making petha. The skin of fruit is
peeled off and the fruit is cut into pieces of 8 x 8 cm. Keep these pieces in
dilute lime water for 3-4 hours. Wash thoroughly with 3-4 changes of water.
Boil in 40 % solution of sugar. More sugar is added in order to make it 72 %
concentration. Sodium benzoate (0.02 %) is added which act as a preservative.
The product is then put into sterilized bottle or can. Suitably labelled and
sealed.
2.12.9 Papaya Jam
The matured ripe fruit is used for making papaya jam. The fruit is peeled off.
Remove the seeds and cut into small pieces. Mixed with equal quantity of
sugar and a small quantity of citric acid and cooked with small quantity of
water, till the consistency of jam is obtained. Fill the jam into sterilized bottles.
2.12.10 Papain Extraction
Papaya is cultivated on a commercial scale mainly for papain production.
236
Tropical Fruits Papain is a proteolytic digestive enzyme present in the latex or milky secretion
of papaya plants and immature fruits. Papain is extracted from 90-100 days
old fruits. During morning hours (before 9.00 am), fruits are longitudinally
incised about 0.3 cm deep on four sides, from the stalk end to tip. Latex is
collected in arecanut spathes, aluminium trays or glass vessels. Same fruit
can be incised repeatedly thrice (total 16 incisions) at an interval of 3-4 days
for extraction of papain. It is also reported that for getting maximum papain
yield lancing (cutting) has to be done at 7 days interval. The scarred fruits
can be utilized for tuti-frutti production. For increasing storage life, potassium
metabisulphite (0.05 %) is added to the latex. Latex is then dried either under
sun or at a temperature of 50-55°C. Dried flakes are powdered and light
brown in colour known as Semi Refined, is sieved in a 10 mesh and stored in
polythene bags or airtight glass containers. This can be stored for six months
without any deterioration in its quality. Spray dried crude powder known as
refined papain is of higher activity. Yield of papain is influenced by variety,
fruit size, maturity, management practices and environmental factors. Papain
yield can be increased by spraying growth regulators viz., Ethrel (200 ppm),
IBA (25 or 50 ppm) or GA3 (100 or 200 ppm). Tapped fruits are equally tasty
as untapped fruits, although their appearance is spoiled. Biochemical analysis
of fruits have also revealed that latex extraction has no effect on the quality
of the fruit.
The average yield of papain varies from 200-300 g per tree with a maximum
of 450 g in two years. When papaya is commercially grown for papain
production, the trees are retained only for 2 years. Papain is highly valued as
an industrial product in preparing various digestive enzymes, clarification of
beer and in meat tenderising. Besides it is also used in pharmaceutical industry,
textile, garment cleaning, paper and adhesive manufacture, dental and face
cream.
2.13 PLANT PROTECTION
Papaya is affected by a number of pests and diseases. The important pests
and diseases are discussed in this section.
2.13.1 Pests
The important pests are red spider mite, fruit fly and nematodes.
i) Red spider mite (Tetranychus spp.) : It affects leaves and fruits resulting
yellowing of leaves, rough brown fruit skin colouration and scarring.
Mites are controlled by spraying kelthane 18.5 EC or lime sulphur (0.05
%).
ii) Oriental Fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis) : They affect ripe papaya fruits
before harvest. Fruit flies are controlled by spraying sevin 5 % or
Dimethoate (0.1 %).
iii) Nematodes : Papaya orchards are severely affected by root knot nematode
and reniform nematode. In affected plants, roots form galls which lead to
stunted growth, yellowing and drying of leaves. Growing tolerant varieties
like Pusa Majesty, application of carbofuran (2 kg ha-1) or neem cake
(1 kg ha-1) are effective control measures.
237
Papaya2.13.2 Diseases
Papaya plant is affected by fungal and viral diseases and the important diseases
are the following.
A) Fungal Diseases :
i) Damping off (Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. and Rhizoctonia solani)
: It is very common in nursery plants during rainy season. High
atmospheric humidity, water stagnation and a temperature range of 20-
25°C are favourable factors for spread of the disease. Control measures
include sterilization of nursery soil with formaldehyde (2 %), treating
seeds with ceresan (2 g/kg of seed), drenching nursery beds with captan
or Bordeaux mixture (1 %) and avoiding excess irrigation.
ii) Collar rot (Pythium aphanidermatum) : Soil borne pathogens become
severe during rainy season. Swelling at collar region is the typical
symptom. Disease can be controlled by drenching soil with Bordeaux
mixture and pasting Bordeaux mixture at collar region. Proper drainage
should be provided and affected plants are to be removed from the field.
iii) Root rot (Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium sp.) : Seedling and grown
up plants get affected. Treating seeds with captan or ceresan (3 g/kg of
seed), nursery bed sterilization and drenching soil with Bordeaux mixture
solution are the control measures.
Other diseases are fruit rot (Phytophthora palmivora), Black spot
(Cercospora papayae) and leaf blight. The former disease is controlled
by spraying Bordeaux mixture (1 %) and dipping fruits in hot water (115-
120°F) for 5 minutes. The later diseases are controlled by spraying
Mancozeb (0.2 %).
B) Viral diseases :
i) Papaya Mosaic Virus (PMV) : A very serious disease transmitted through
sap and aphids. Symptoms are yellowing of leaves, bending of petioles
and stunted growth of plant. Uprooting and destruction of affected plants
and controlling vectors are done for checking the disease.
ii) Papaya Leaf Curl : The virus is transmitted through whitefly, graft
transmissible but not through sap. Leaf size gets reduced, they show
crinkling, distortion and curling. Affected plants should be destroyed.
Vectors can be controlled by spraying Rogor (0.03 %).
iii) Distortion Ring Spot Virus : The virus is transmitted through sap and
aphids. The younger leaves are distorted. Destruction of affected plants
and controlling vectors are done for checking the disease.
C) Disorders :
Important disorders seen in papaya are skin freckles and die back. In the
former one freckle like blemishes occurred on ripe papaya fruits. Wrapping
young fruits in white paper bags reduce this incidence.
Papaya dieback is a severe problem in Queensland. Affected plants show a
238
Tropical Fruits brown discolouration in the vascular tissue, later developed into the stem
and leaves. Low calcium content favours this type of discolouration in papaya.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.
1. What are different processed products of papaya ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What are the viral diseases of papaya ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. How ripening of papaya can be controlled by temperature ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. What is the temperature to store fruits of papaya ?
............................................................................................................
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2.14 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied about papaya crop, details of area and production,
soil and climatic requirement, different varieties, nutritional requirement,
cultivation practices, harvesting, processing, storage, packaging,
transportation, pests and diseases. Papaya is an important fruit crops of tropics
and subtropics. This fruit crop is considered to be a wonder fruit crop and
grown primarily for its delicious fruits and for extraction of its digestive
constituent, papain. Papaya gives one of the highest production of fruits per
hectare.
2.15 KEY WORDS
PMV : It is a viral disease of Papaya, known as papaya
mosaic virus.
Papain : Papain is a proteolytic digestive enzyme
239
Papayapresent in the Latex or milky secretion of
papaya immature fruit and papaya plant.
CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4
etc. : These are the identification number or name
of papaya varieties developed by Tamil Nadu
Agriculture University, Coimbatore.
2.16 FURTHER REFERENCES
1. Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K. and Sanyal, D.S. (ed.) (2001). Fruits : Tropical
and Subtropical. Naya Udyog, Calcutta.
2. KAU. (2007). Package of Practices Recommendations – Crops.
Directorate of Extension, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur,
Vellanikkara.
3. Mansha Ram (2005). Papaya. Directorate of Information and Publications
of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
4. Radha, T. and Mathew, L. (2007). Fruit Crops. New India Publishing
Agency, New Delhi.
2.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. The papaya varieties developed by TNAU, Coimbatore are CO-1, CO-2,
CO-3, CO-4, CO-5, CO-6 and CO-7.
2. Solo and Sunrise Solo are two Hawaiian papaya varieties.
3. Papaya is planted during spring (February - March), Monsoon (Jun - July)
and autumn (October - November).
4. State N P2O
5K
2O
Tamil Nadu 250 200 200 (g/plant/year)
Kerala 200 200 400 (g/plant/year)
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. The different processed products of papaya are papaya pickle, papaya
jelly, papaya preserve, canned papaya, papaya nectar, papaya jam, papaya
petha, papaya squash and tuti-frutti.
2. The viral diseases of Papaya are – Papaya mosaic virus (PMV); Papaya
leaf curl and distortion ring spot virus of papaya.
3. Ripening of Papaya fruit can be controlled by low temperature storage at
13 to 15°C with an ethylene absorbent (7g/Kg).
4. Ideal temperature to store papaya fruit is 20°C, if temperature is above
20°C, fruit will be affected by fungal diseases like Colletotrichum sp.
and when temperature is below 20°C, it will lead to chilling injuries.
240
Tropical FruitsUNIT 3 CASHEW (ANACARDIUM
OCCIDENTALE L.)
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Area and production
3.3 Soil
3.4 Climate
3.5 Varieties
3.6 Establishment of Plantations
3.6.1 Propagation
3.6.1.1 Seed Propagation
3.6.1.2 Propagation by Air Layering
3.6.1.3 Propagation by Soft Wood Grafting
3.6.2 Planting
3.7 Nutritional Requirement
3.8 Cultural Practices
3.8.1 Weeding
3.8.2 Mulching
3.8.3 Training and Pruning
3.8.4 Irrigation
3.8.5 Intercropping
3.8.6 Plant protection
3.8.6.1 Tea Mosquito
3.8.6.2 Stem and Root Borer
3.8.6.3 Die Back or Pink Disease
3.9 Harvesting and Yield
3.10 Post-harvest Handling of Cashew
3.10.1 Processing of Raw Cashewnuts
3.10.1.1 Roasting
3.10.1.2 Shelling
3.10.1.3 Drying
3.10.1.4 Peeling
3.10.1.5 Grading
3.10.1.6 Packing
3.10.1.7 Storage
3.10.2 Processing of Cashew Apple
3.10.2.1 Cashew Apple Juice
241
Cashew3.10.2.2 Cashew Apple Syrup
3.10.2.3 Cashew Apple Jam
3.10.2.4 Cashew Apple Candy
3.11 Marketing of Raw Cashewnuts
3.12 Let Us Sum Up
3.13 Key Words
3.14 Further Reference
3.15 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be in a position to know:
• the importance of cashew, its scope and potentials in the agricultural sector,
• traditional cashew growing areas with varieties suited to the region,
• production of good quality planting materials in cashew,
• cultural operations for maximizing productivity,
• pest and disease problems and methods to manage them effectively, and
• post harvest handling of cashew.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is indigenous to Central and South
America, notably northeastern Brazil, where it is called by its Portuguese
name Caju (the fruit) or Cajueiro (the tree). Portuguese and Spanish explorers
who reached the New World, spread the tree to the tropical countries of the
world. The crop was introduced in India from Brazil by the Portuguese during
the later half of the 16th century mainly for afforestation and soil conservation.
It is now widely grown in tropical climates, including parts of Africa and
Asia, for its cashew “nuts” and “cashew apples”.
The seeds are the source of cashew nuts, produced by shelling the roasted
fruits. Among various nuts, cashew nut enjoys an unenviable position and it
is an unavoidable snack in all important social functions. The nuts are used
in confectionery and dessert. The nuts yield an edible oil, but due to high
price of kernels, oil is not usually extracted. The nuts contain water 5 %,
protein 20 %, fat 45 %, carbohydrate 26 %, fibre 1.5 % and mineral matter
2.5 %. The pericarp or shell contains 50 % Cashewnut shell liquid, a vesicant
composed of 90 % Anacardic acid and 10 % cardol. The shells yield cashew
shell oil and used as water proofing agent and as a preservative. The cashew
apple is juicy, astringent and edible and it is used for making wine, jam,
pickle, and ready to serve beverages. Cashew apple is distilled to produce
alcoholic drink (Fenny). The sap from the bark provides an indelible ink.
The cashew apple contains water 88 %, proteins 0.2 %, fat 0.1 %, carbohydrate
11.6 % and rich in vitamin C.
242
Tropical Fruits3.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION
Cashew is produced in around 32 countries of the world. The world production
figures published by FAO, is around 2.7 million tons per annum. The major
raw cashew producing countries with their production figures in 2005 (as
per the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization) are Vietnam (960,800 tons),
Nigeria (594,000 tons), India (460,000 tons), Brazil (147,629 tons) and
Indonesia (122,000 tons). World’s total area under the cultivation of cashew
is around 35,100 km². India ranks first in area utilized for cashew production,
though its yields are relatively low. The world’s average yield is 780 kg/
hectare.
Collectively, Vietnam, India and Brazil account for more than 90 % of all
cashew kernel exports. The first introduction of cashew in India was made in
Goa from where it spread to other parts of the country. Though its commercial
exploitation began from the early 60’s, marginal lands and denuded forests
were the areas set apart for the plantation development. Because of its
adaptability to a wide range of agro climatic conditions, the crop has emerged
as one of the most remunerative crops in marginal and poor soils and gained
the status of an export oriented commodity bringing considerable foreign
exchange to the country.
The area under cashew in India is the highest in the world and is mainly
confined to Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra along the west coast
and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal along the east
coast. To a limited extent it is being cultivated in Chattisgarh, North Eastern
States (Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya and Nagaland) and Andaman
& Nicobar Islands. Now cashew occupies an area of 10.62 lakh hectares in
the country as on 2017-18 with a production of 8.17 lakh MT. It generates
employment for over 3 lakh persons, out of which 95 % are women. The
area, production and productivity of cashew in India are provided below:
Table 1: Statewise area, production & productivity of Cashewnut in India.
STATE 2017-18
Area Production Productivity
(‘000 ha) (‘000 MT) (Kg/ ha)
Kerala 92.81 88.18 950.00
Karnataka 129.07 89.45 693.00
Chattisgarh 13.70 9.83 700.00
Maharashtra 191.45 269.44 1400.00
Tamil Nadu 142.28 71.03 500.00
Andhra Pradesh 186.78 116.92 630.00
Odisha 193.99 98.59 500.00
West Bengal 11.36 12.96 1140.00
Gujarat 7.25 6.50 900.00
NE States 15.28 11.56 750.00
Others 78.08 42.55 550.00
TOTAL 1062.04 817.00 8713.00Source: Horticulture Statistics Division, Department of Agriculture, Coopn & Farmers Welfare.
243
CashewDuring 2017-18, India exported 73,810 MT of cashew kernels valued at
Rs. 5131.73 crores. USA, Netherlands, UK, Japan, UAE, France, Canada,
Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Italy, German Fed. Republic, Austria, Israel and
Spain are the major international buyers of Indian Cashews. During the year
the export figures in respect of Cashewnut Shell Liquid (CSNL) and raw
nuts were 7,326 MT and 5,86,663 MT worth Rs. 27.94 crores and Rs. 7931.29
crores respectively. The number of cashew processing units as per 2016-17
statistics is 3940 with a total capacity of 1,64,3000 MT and the utilization is
worked out as 75 %.
3.3 SOIL
The cashew is hardy and drought resistant, but is damaged by frost. It can be
grown on a wide range of soils except heavy clay, water logged and saline
soils. Cashew is very modest in its soil requirements and can adapt itself to
varying soil conditions without impairing productivity. But it performs much
better on good soils than on poor soils. Well drained red, sandy and laterite
soils are ideal for good growth and yield of cashew.
3.4 CLIMATE
Cashew grows best in the warm, moist and typically tropical climate. It is
grown in areas upto an altitude of 600-700 m where the temperature does not
fall below 20°C for prolonged periods. Though the plant can be grown up to
1200 m above MSL, it is best adopted to the coastal regions. It comes up well
in areas receiving a rainfall ranging from 600-4500 mm per annum.
Cashew is typically a sun plant and the performance reduces proportionately
with increasing degree of shade. The optimum temperature lies between 24-
28°C, though it tolerates a temperature above 36°C for a shorter period.
The climatic factors which affect the performance of cashew are:
1. Cloudy weather during flowering enhances damage of flowers by tea
mosquito.
2. Heavy rains during flowering and fruit set impairs production.
3. High temperature (39-42°C) during fruit set and development causes fruit
drop.
In general, dry spell during flowering and fruit set ensures better harvest in
cashew.
3.5 VARIETIES
Being a perennial crop, selection of varieties suited to the region plays a very
important role in success of cultivation. A number of high yielding varieties
with export quality kernels have been released from different research
institutes in India and details are furnished In Table 2 and the varieties suited
to different states are provided in Table 3.
244
Tropical Fruits Table 2 : Cashew varieties released from different research stations in India.
Name of Institutions Yield Nut Kernel Shelling Export
Varieties (Kg/tree) Wt.(gm.) Wt.(gm.) (%) grade
Kanaka KAU, 12.80 6.80 2.08 30.58 W 280
(H-1598) Madakkathara
Dhana KAU, 10.66 8.20 2.44 29.80 W 210
(H-1608) Madakkathra
Amrutha KAU, 18.35 7.18 2.24 31.58 W 210
(H-1597) Madakkathara
Priyanka KAU, 17.03 10.80 2.87 26.57 W 180
(H-1591) Madakkathara
Madakka- KAU, 17.00 7.25 1.88 26.20 W 210
thara-2 Madakkathara
(NDR-2-1)
Vengurla1 KKV, 19.00 6.20 1.39 31.00 W 240
Vengurla
Vengurla 4 KKV, 17.20 7.70 1.91 31.00 W 210
Vengurla
Vengurla 6 KKV, 13.80 8.00 1.91 28.00 W 210
Vengurla
Vengurla 7 KKV, 18.50 10.00 2.90 30.50 W 180
Vengurla
BPP 4 ANGRAU 10.50 6.00 1.15 23.00 W 400
BPP 6 ANGRAU 10.50 5.20 1.44 24.00 W 400
BPP 8 ANGRAU 14.50 8.20 1.89 29.00 W 210
(H2/16)
Vridha- TNAU, 7.40 5.10 1.45 28.30 W 320
chalam 2 Vridhachalam
(M- 44/3)
Vridha- TNAU, 11.68 7.18 2.16 29.10 W 210
chalam 3 Vridhachalam
(M- 26/2)
Ullal 1 UAS, Ullal 16.00 6.70 2.05 30.70 W 210
Ullal 3 UAS, Ullal 14.70 7.00 2.10 30.00 W 210
Ullal 4 UAS, Ullal 9.50 7.20 2.15 31.00 W 210
Chintamani UAS, 7.20 6.90 2.10 31.00 W 210
Chintamani
UN 50 UAS, Ullal 10.50 9.00 2.24 32.80 W 180
NRCC 2 NRCC, 9.00 9.20 2.15 28.60 W 210
PUttur
Jhargram-1 BCKVV, 8.50 5.00 1.50 30.00 W 320
Jhargram
Bhubanesh- OUAT, 10.50 4.60 1.47 32.00 W 320
war -1 Bhubaneshwar
Goa-1 ICAR Res. 7.00 7.60 2.20 30.00 W 210
Centre, Goa
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CashewTable 3 : Varieties recommended for different states of India.
State Name of Varieties
Kerala Madakathara -2, Amritha, Dhana (H-1608), Priyanka
(H-1591), Kanaka (H -1598), Selection-2 ,V4, V6, V7,
VRI-3 ,VRI-2, Ullal-1, Ullal-3, Ullal-4
Karnataka Ullal-1, Ullal-2, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, UN-50, Selection-
2, Chintamani1, VRI- 2, VRI-3, V4
Goa V4, V6, V7, VRI-2, VR1-3, Goa-1
Maharashtra Maharashtra V1, V4, V6, V7, VR1-2, VRI-3, Ullal-1,
Ullal-3, Ullal-4, BPP-8
Tamil Nadu VRI-2, VRI-3
Andhra Pradesh BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8, VR1-2, Selection-2, Ullal-1,
Chintamani-1
Odisha BHB-1, VR1-2, V4, BPP-8, Dhana
West Bengal Jhargram-1, Madakathara-1, BPP-8
Madhya Pradesh VR1-2, V1, V4,V7, BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8
Manipur V1, V4, V7, Ullal-3, Ullal-4
Tripura Ullal-3, Ullal-4, V1, V4, V7, VRI-2
Meghalaya V1, V4, V7, Ullal-3, Ulla-4, VRI-2
Nagaland VR1-2, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, V1, V4, V7
Assam Ullal-3, Ullal-4, V1, V4, V7, VR1-2
Pondicherry VRI-2, VRI-3
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the importance of cashew cultivation.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Which are the climatic factors influencing the yield of cashew ?
............................................................................................................
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3. List out the cashew varieties suited for South Indian states.
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246
Tropical Fruits3.6 ESTABLISHMENT OF PLANTATIONS
3.6.1 Propagation
Cashew can be propagated by seed and vegetatively by air layering and soft
wood grafting. Since it is a highly cross pollinated crop, vegetative propagation
is recommended to obtain true to type progeny. Field establishment of air
layers is poor. Softwood grafting is better as it gives high rate of field survival
and records early flowering.
3.6.1.1 Seed Propagation
The mother trees of 15-23 years having good health and intensive branching
habit with panicles having high percentage of hermaphrodite flowers, bearing
7-8 nuts per panicle with nuts of medium size and weight (5-8 g/nut) with an
average yield of 15 kg nuts per annum are selected as mother plants. Mother
trees are selected during February and seed nuts are collected during March
- April. Mature, medium sized nuts, which sink in water, are dried in the sun
for 2-3 days. The seedlings are raised in polythene bags of size 20 cm x 15
cm and filled with garden soil, leaving a gap of 1-1.5 cm above. Sow the
presoaked nuts at a depth of 2-3 cm with the stalk end up. Seeds germinate in
7-10 days.
3.6.1.2 Propagation by Air Layering
The air layers are prepared during February to March so that successful air
layers could be planted to the main field in the ensuing South West monsoon
season. Select 9-12 month - old pencil thick terminal shoots, remove carefully
a ring of bark 0.6-1.2 cm thick by using a sharp knife. Wind a string around
the cut area and cover it with moist moss or wood shavings or sand and saw
dust mixture or ordinary potting mixture and cover with polythene film of
size 23 x 15 cm and tied with jute fibre. When roots emerge from the ringed
portion in 40-60 days, give a V cut at the lower end of the layered portion.
Deepen the cut after 15 days and the successful layers could be separated
after 7 days. The layers can be defoliated two weeks prior to separation from
the mother plant. The layers are potted in coconut husk containers 15 x 15
cm after carefully removing the polythene sheet and kept in shade. Avoid
over watering. The layers are planted along with the container with the onset
of rains. The plants are protected from strong sun using dry leaves. It is
necessary to take up mulching also.
3.6.1.3 Propagation by soft wood grafting
Cashew can be successfully established through different methods of grafting
like epicotyle grafting, soft wood grafting, veneer grafting and side grafting
and by patch budding. Among these, soft wood grafting is the best for
commercial production of grafts, a description of the same is provided
hereunder.
Rootstock are raised by collecting nuts (7-9 g) during February-April and
sun dried for 2-3 days. Prepare the potting mixture in the proportion of one
part red soil, one part sand and one part compost. Fill the bags (25 x 15 cm
size with 30-40 holes) properly up to the brim with the potting mixture. Sow
247
Cashewthe pre soaked seeds with stalk-end upwards at a depth of not more than 2.5
cm and irrigate. The seednuts usually germinate within 15-20 days after
sowing. 45-60 days old seedlings are selected as rootstock for grafting.
The rootstock is prepared by removing the leaves leaving two pairs bottom
leaves and a transverse cut is made on the rootstock at a height of 15-20 cm
from ground level and the terminal shoot is removed. A cleft of 6-7 cm deep
is made in the middle of the decapitated stem by giving a longitudinal cut. A
little portion of wood is removed from the inner sides of the cleft at the top,
so that after grafting the joint will be perfect.
Select a matching scion stick of the same thickness as that of the rootstock of
10-12 cm long by cutting off the excess portion at the bottom. Shape the cut
end of the scion in to a wedge of 6-7 cm long by chopping off the bark and
little portion of wood from two opposite sides.
The wedge of the scion is inserted into the cleft of the rootstock to see that
the cambial layers of both the rootstock and the scion come in perfect contact
with each other. The graft joint is secured firmly with 2.5 cm wide and 30 cm
long polythene strip of 100 gauge thickness. A long and narrow HD polythene
bag of 15 x 12.5 cm size and 100 gauge thickness is inserted on the grafted
plant, tied at the bottom with a single knot in order to protect the scion stick
from drying up. The freshly grafted plants are left in the nursery shed for
about two weeks to encourage sprouting of the terminal buds. After two weeks
the polythene caps are removed gently and the grafts are shifted to open
condition in the nursery. Within 3-4 weeks, 70-80 % of the grafts will
sprout. The grafts are ready for planting within 5-6 months. The rate of success
varies with season, the highest being in June - November.
3.6.2 Planting
The optimum recommended spacing is 7.5 x 7.5 m to 8 x 8 m with population
density ranging from 156-177. High density planting, a technique aimed at
increasing productivity from cashew plantations, involves planting at closer
spacing of 4 x 4 m with 625 plants per/ha and thinning at later stages
depending upon the canopy development to minimize competition. This can
also be adopted for better utilization of space during early years.
The square system of planting can be followed. The ideal time for planting is
usually during monsoon season (June - August) both in the west coast and
east coast. If irrigation facilities are available, planting can be done throughout
the year except winter months. Normally cashew grafts are planted in the
pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm. It is preferable to dig the pits at least 15-20 days
before planting and expose to sunlight so that termites and ants, if any, which
damage the roots of the grafts will migrate elsewhere. The pits should be
completely filled with a mixture of top soil and organic manure to ¾ of the
pit capacity. The grafts are planted after carefully removing the polythene
bag. Care should be taken to see that the graft joint remains at least 5 cm
above the ground level at the time of planting. The polythene tape around the
graft union is to be removed carefully. Staking should be done immediately
after planting to protect the grafts from wind damage. Mulch the basins of
plants with organic waste materials during early years.
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Tropical Fruits3.7 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT
Manures and fertilizers promote growth of the plants and advance the onset
of flowering in young trees. Application of 10-15 kg of farm yard manure or
compost per plant is beneficial. The current fertilizer recommendations for
cashew is 500 g N (1.1 kg urea), 125 g P2O
5 (625 g rock phosphate) and 125
g K2O (208 g Muriate of potash) per plant per year. The ideal period for
fertilizer application is immediately after the cessation of heavy rains and
with available soil moisture. During the 1st, 2nd and 3rd year of planting 1/3rd,
2/3rd and full doze of fertilizers should be applied and 3rd year onwards full
quantity is to be applied.
3.8 CULTURAL PRACTICES
3.8.1 Weeding
Clean weeding is done within 2 m radius of the trunk and slash weeding the
interspaces is essential until the trees spread out their canopies. Weeding can
be done chemically by using Glyphosate (post emergent) 6 to 7 ml/l (0.8 kg
a.i./ha) during June - July.
3.8.2 Mulching
Mulching the tree basins will help in conservation of soil moisture and
prevents soil erosion. Mulching with organic matter or residues inhibits weed
growth and reduces surface evaporation during summer and also regulates
the soil temperature. In sloppy areas, soil and water conservation practices
can be done by making trenches of 30 cm width, 60 cm depth. And convenient
length may be taken in between rows along the contour. This will not only
conserve soil and moisture but will also enable to enhance the growth of
cashew.
3.8.3 Training and Pruning
Training and pruning are aimed at making a better frame work of cashew
plant so that cultural practices are easy. The sprouts arising from the root
stock portion of the cashew graft should be removed frequently during the
first year of planting. Removal of water shoots, lower branches, crisscross
branches and dry branches are found to be beneficial to enhance flowering
and the yield.
3.8.4 Irrigation
In India cashew is grown mainly under rain fed condition. However protective
irrigation during January - March at fortnightly intervals @ 200 l/plant
improves fruit set, fruit retention, thereby increasing nut yield.
3.8.5 Intercropping
Intercropping received little attention in the cashew. However, depending on
soil, climatic conditions, local situations, pineapple, annual vegetables,
tapioca, pulses, turmeric, ginger etc, can be grown as inter crops during early
249
Cashewyears. Pineapple can be grown between two rows of cashew in trenches opened
across the slope. Paired row of pineapple suckers can be planted in each
trench at 60 cm between rows and 40 cm between two suckers within the
row. The trenches can be opened at 1 m between two rows of cashew.
3.8.6 Plant Protection
Tea mosquito bug, stem borer, thrips, leaf minor and leaf blossom webber
are important pests of cashew. Of these, tea mosquito and stem borer causes
economical damage in cashew.
3.8.6.1 Tea Mosquito
Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) can cause yield reduction to the tune
of 30-40 per cent damaging tender shoots, inflorescence and immature nuts
at various stages of development. It attacks the tree in all the seasons during
flushing, flowering and fruit setting period but the peak period of infestation
is from October - March.
Control : To control the pest, spray schedule involving three sprays
synchronizing new flushing (October - November), flowering (November -
December) and fruit setting (January - February) may be given with
Quinalphos (25 % EC) - 0.05 %, or Carbaryl (50 % WP) - 0.01 % or
Phosphamidon (85 % WSC) - 0.03 %. A rational rotation of insecticides
would be desirable to counteract the tendency of the pest to develop field
resistance. The number of sprays should be limited to three and the same
insecticide should be used for the subsequent sprays.
3.8.6.2 Stem and Root Borer
Stem and root borer (Plocaederus ferrugineus L.) is also a dangerous pest
and kill the entire plant. It is mostly seen in neglected gardens. The larvae of
a beetle tunnel into the tree trunk and eats the bark all around the trunk.
Control : Manual removing of grubs and pasting the damaged portion with
mixture of Carbaryl 50 gm (50 %) and copper oxychloride (25 gm) in one
liter of water give effective control.
3.8.6.3 Die Back or Pink Disease
The disease is prevalent during the rainy season. Appearance of white patches
on branches as a film of silky thread or mycelium is the first symptom followed
by die back of twigs from the tip.
Control : The affected parts are to be chiseled out and applied with Bordeaux
paste. Prophylactic spray of bordeaux mixture 1 % during May - June and
October will be useful.
3.9 HARVESTING AND YIELD
The flower panicles emerging from the graft during 1st and 2nd year should be
removed in order to allow the plant to put good vegetative growth and better
framework. Economic bearing in cashew commences after 3rd year of planting.
The ripened fruits fall down and nuts from fallen fruits have to be collected.
250
Tropical Fruits Nuts can be dried in sun for 2 to 3 days on cement floor and can be stored in
gunny bags. The yield starting from 1 kg in 3rd - 4th year, yield goes on
increasing as the canopy develops and one can expect more that 10 kgs of
nuts in 8 to 10 years old plant depending on management.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the commercial method of propagation of cashew.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. Give an account of the cultural practices of cashew for enhancement
of productivity.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. What do you know about the pest and disease problems in cashew ?
How can you control these ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3.10 POST HARVEST HANDLING OF CASHEW
The processing units are mainly concentrated in the states of Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha. The process
is highly labour intensive and the work force consists mainly of women. The
nuts are dried for 1-2 days to reduce the moisture level to 7-8 per cent. The
processing of raw nuts involves roasting, shelling, drying, peeling, grading
and packing. The steps involved in commercial processing of cashew nuts
are detailed below :
3.10.1 Processing of Raw Cashewnuts
3.10.1.1 Roasting
Roasting of raw nuts is done to separate adhering shell from the kernel. There
are three types of roasting viz, drum roasting, oil bath roasting and steam
roasting.
i) Drum Roasting : This is one of the oldest and more widely used methods.
The nuts are fed into a rotating red hot drum which will ignite the shell.
251
CashewThe drum is kept in rotation for 3-4 minutes and the roasted nuts are
discharged from the lower end of the drum and immediately covered by
ash after sprinkling water, so as to absorb the oil on the surface. This
facilitates the removal of the remaining oil on the shell.
ii) Oil Bath Roasting : In this method conditioned nuts are passed through
CNSL bath heated to 170-200°C by conveyor buckets for 1-2 minutes
during this period the shell gets heated rupturing the wall and releasing
the oil into the bath. The oil is recovered by continuous over flow
arrangement. The roasted nuts are centrifuged to remove adhering oil,
cooled and shelled by hand and leg operated shelling machines. The kernel
with the adhering testa is scooped out using a sharp needle.
iii) Steam roasting : The raw nuts are steam cooked at about 120-140 lbs/sq
inch pressure. Shell oil can be extracted in later stages by crushing. The
nuts are shelled by hand and leg operated shelling machines.
A general comparison of the above three methods would show that the
oil bath method and steam roasting systems require more initial investment
and higher maintenance costs: the drum roasting method being the
cheapest. From the point of view of environmental pollution the safest is
the steam roasting method. Steam roasting is the commonly used method
by most of the processing units.
3.10.1.2 Shelling
Cashewnuts after roasting and cooling are to be shelled by hand or foot
operated shell cutters (mechanical device). After shelling the kernels and
shell pieces are separated manually.
3.10.1.3 Drying
The kernels after shelling are dried to a moisture content of about 4-5 % in
hot chambers at 70-80°C in perforated trays for about 6-8 hours. In order to
ensure uniform drying, the position of the trays has to be changed frequently.
After drying, the kernels are kept in the moist chamber for 24 hours which
facilitates easy removal of testa (peeling) and minimizes broken kernels.
3.10.1.4 Peeling
This process involves the removal of testa (seed coat) from the kernel and is
done using a sharp knife or bamboo piece.
3.10.1.5 Grading
Kernels are graded according to the size manually. In the International Market
bold whole kernels fetch premium price. The grading standards developed in
India refer to white whole (undamaged) kernels and indicate the number of
kernels per lb of weight. The largest kernels come in the grade W 180 (170-
180/lb) and the smallest of the seven grades is W 500 (450-500/kg).
3.10.1.6 Packing
The export grade requires packaging of kernels in 11.3 kg capacity tins, in
which kernels are put, the air is replaced by CO2 and then sealed. In domestic
252
Tropical Fruits market, packing is done in smaller tins or polythene bags and sealed. By
processing 100 kg nuts, about 22-24 kg of whole kernels can be obtained and
the broken kernels will be 3-4 %. In India, manual processing gives a
comparatively higher yield of wholes (90-95 %) when compared to
mechanised processing in other countries (65-75 %).
3.10.1.7 Storage
Dried nuts are stored in clean jute bags with a capacity of 80 kg nuts. Storage
in HDPE bags is not recommended for raw nuts. The store should be well
ventilated, fly proof with low humidity, free of stored product pests and well
insulated to prevent water seepage during rains. Bags are placed over wooden
planks so that contact with warehouse floor is avoided. Processed nuts can
be stored in packages in containers as mentioned above.
3.10.2 Processing of Cashew Apple
Cashew apple refers to the swollen peduncle to which the nut is attached.
Cashew apple, though very juicy and sweet, is not normally eaten because of
its astringent and acrid principles. It is very rich in vitamin C and contains
four to five times as much vitamin C as citrus. Sound cashew apple can be
used for the juice extraction. Juice is extracted either by using screw press or
basket press.
3.10.2.1 Cashew Apple Juice
The juice can be extracted with screw press, basket press or simple hand
pressing. The extracted juice is strained through muslin cloth which is clarified
by adding 1.4 gm of PVP (Poly Vinyl Pyrrolidone) per litre of juice and the
mixture is stirred for two minutes after which it is strained again through
muslin cloth. Sugar is added according to the taste and boil the juice. The
finished product may be chemically preserved by using sodium benzoate at
the rate of 0.8 g/100 ml. The mixture is poured into well sterilized bottles,
cork air tight with crown cork and stored in a cool dry place.
3.10.2.2 Cashew Syrup
Extraction of juice and removal of astringency are done in the same way in
the pretreatment of juice. Sugar is added at the rate of 1 to 1.25 kg/l of juice.
20 - 22 g. citric acid /l and 0.08 % as sodium benzoate are added to the juice.
All ingredients are mixed thoroughly and kept it as such for 3-5 hours so that
clear syrup forms a separate layer which can be easily shiphoned. Bottling
can be done as described for juice.
3.10.2.3 Cashew Apple Jam
Cashew apple must be thoroughly cleaned by washing with water. Immerse
the apple in 3 % salt solution for three days to reduce the tannin content, after
which the fruits are steamed for 15 to 20 minutes at 0.7 to 1.05 kg steam
pressure. Then the apples are crushed and mixed with 750 g sugar per kg of
apple and boil it. A pinch of citric acid is added towards the end of cooling
process to improve the taste. Store it in well sterilized jam bottles.
253
Cashew3.10.2.4 Cashew Apple Candy
Just as in the case with Jam, cleaned apples are first immersed in a 3 % salt
solution. Next day drain out the salt water and steep the fruits in fresh salt
solution and repeat the process for a third time. Drain away salt water and
add potassium metabisulphite (625 mg/kg) and keep in this solution for
another two to three days. The apples are then thoroughly washed in water.
Keep them in a perforated crate made of aluminium or stainless steel and
blanched in boiling water for five minutes, followed by a steaming in a
pressure cooker for five minutes, at 0.35 kg pressure. The apple should not
be very soft.
Prepare 300°Brix syrup containing 0.1 % citric acid and 500 mg. potassium
metabisulphite/kg of apple. Soak apples in the syrup in a stainless steel vessel,
wooden or glass disc and covered. Next day the syrup is taken out and sugar
is added to the same syrup for raising the concentration upto 350°Brix. Syrup
is again boiled for about ten minutes and pour back over the apples. Repeat
the process daily, raising the sugar content by 50°Brix each time for the next
three days and then raise the sugar content by 100°Brix each time for the 6th
and 7th day so that the final strength of the syrup is 700°Brix. Keep the apple
for eight to ten days in the syrup for complete absorption of sugar. Remove
the syrup and dry up the apple which can be stored in screw capped glass jars
in a cool dry place.
3.11 MARKETING OF RAW CASHEWNUTS
Marketing of raw cashewnut in India has not yet been organized except in
Goa where co-operative marketing society is procuring raw nuts to some
extent. There are a number of intermediaries between the primary producer
and the processing unit, who exploit the growers. Wholesale merchants and
the processing factories own collecting centres in important cashew producing
areas during the harvesting period. In certain areas, some processors contact
the producers directly and enjoy good bargaining power by providing credit
facilities to the producers. As marketing system is not well organized, the
price received by the grower is small.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.
b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.
1. Discuss the steps involved in processing of cashewnuts.
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2. List out major cashew apple products and describe briefly the methods
of preparation.
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254
Tropical Fruits ............................................................................................................
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3. What are the problems in marketing of cashew ?
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3.12 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied the importance of cashew, its soil and climatic
requirements and varieties suited to different cashew states. The methods of
large scale production of planting materials, planting methods, cultural
operations and harvesting practices have been studied in detail. The post
harvest handling methods of cashew nuts and cashew apple to prevent post
harvest losses have been covered under this unit. The prospects for taking up
cultivation of this crop in the country is immense, as it grows in very poor
environments as well.
3.13 KEY WORDS
Cashewnut Shell Liquid (CNSL): CNSL is a valuable raw material
obtained as a by-product during the
processing of cashew kernel. The nut
has a shell of about 1/8 inch thickness
inside which is a soft honeycomb
structure containing a dark reddish
brown viscous liquid called Cashew
nut Shell Liquid. This raw material is
used for a number of polymer based
industries like paints and varnishes,
resins, industrial and decorative
laminates, break lining and rubber
compounding resins.
High Density planting (HDP) : A technique aimed at increasing
productivity from cashew plantations
and it involves planting at closer
spacing of 4m x 4m with 625 plants
per/ ha and thinning at later stages
depending upon the canopy
development to minimize competition.
This can also be adopted for better
utilization of space during early years.
This provides additional income
during the initial years.
255
Cashew3.14 FURTHER REFERENCES
1. Alice Kurien and Peter, K.V. (2007). Commercial Crops Technology.
New India Publishing Agency, Pitampura, New Delhi-110088, pp-63-
99.
2. Bhaskar Rao, E.V.V. and Swamy, K.R.M. (1994). Cashew In: Advances
in Horticulture Vol-9 Plantation and Spice Crops - Part I (Eds: Chadha
K.L and Rethinam, P.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, pp-79-
97.
3. Ohler, J.G.(1979). Cashew. Communication 71. Department of
Agricultural Research, Koninklijk Institute voor de Tropen, Amsterdam,
pp-260.
3.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Among various nuts, cashewnut enjoys an unenviable position and it is
an unavoidable snack in all important social functions. The nuts are used
in confectionery and dessert. The nuts contain water 5 %, protein 20 %,
fat 45 %, carbohydrate 26 %, fibre 1.5 % and mineral matter 2.5 %. The
pericarp or shell contains 50 % Cashewnut shell liquid and is used as
water proofing agent and as a preservative. The cashew apple is juicy,
astringent and edible and it is used for making wine, jam, pickle, and
ready to serve beverages. Cashew apple is distilled to produce alcoholic
drink (Fenny). The sap from the bark provides an indelible ink. The cashew
apple contains water 88 %, proteins 0.2 %, fat 0.1 %, carbohydrate 11.6
% and rich in vitamin C.
2. The climatic factors which affect the performance of cashew are
i) Cloudy weather during flowering enhances damage of flowers by tea
mosquito bug.
ii) Heavy rains during flowering and fruit set impairs production.
iii) High temperature (39-42°C) during fruit set and development causes
fruit drop.
In general, dry spell during flowering and fruit set ensures better harvest
in cashew.
3. The varieties suited to South Indian states are :
Kerala Madakathara-2, Amritha, Dhana (H-1608),
Priyanka (H-1591), Kanaka (H-1598),
Selection-2, V4, V6, V7, VRI-3, VRI-2, Ullal-
1, Ullal-3, Ullal-4
Karnataka Ullal-1, Ullal-2, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, UN-50,
Selection-2, Chintamani-1, VRI-2, VRI-3, V4
256
Tropical FruitsTamil Nadu VRI-2, VRI-3
Goa V4, V6, V7, VRI-2, VR1-3, Goa-1
Andhra Pradesh BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8, VR1-2, Selection-2,
Ullal-1, Chintamani -1
Puducherry VRI-2, VRI-3
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Though cashew can be successfully established through different methods
of grafting like epicotyle grafting, soft wood grafting, veneer grafting
and side grafting and by patch budding/soft wood grafting is the best for
commercial production of grafts.
Rootstock are raised by collecting nuts (7-9 g) during February-April
and sun dried for 2-3 days. Fill the bags (25 x 15 cm size with 30-40
holes) with potting mixture consisting of one part red soil, one part sand
and one part compost. Sow the pre soaked seeds with stalk-end upwards
at a depth of not more than 2.5 cm and irrigate. Germination starts in 15-
20 days after sowing. 45-60 days old seedlings are selected as rootstock
for grafting.
The rootstock is prepared by removing the leaves leaving two pairs bottom
leaves and a transverse cut is made on the rootstock at a height of 15-20
cm from ground level and the terminal shoot is removed. A cleft of 6-7
cm deep is made in the middle of the decapitated stem by giving a
longitudinal cut. Select a matching scion stick of the same thickness as
that of the rootstock of 10-12 cm long by cutting off the excess portion at
the bottom. Shape the cut end of the scion in to a wedge of 6-7 cm long
by chopping off the bark and little portion of wood from two opposite
sides.
The wedge of the scion is inserted into the cleft of the rootstock to see
that the cambial layers of both the rootstock and the scion come in perfect
contact with each other. The graft joint is secured firmly with 2.5 cm
wide and 30 cm long polythene strip of 100 gauge thickness. A long and
narrow HD polythene bag of 15 x 12.5 cm size and 100 gauge thickness
is inserted on the grafted plant, tied at the bottom with a single knot in
order to protect the scion stick from drying up. The freshly grafted plants
are left in the nursery shed for about two weeks to encourage sprouting
of the terminal buds. After two weeks the polythene caps are removed
gently and the grafts are shifted to open condition in the nursery. Within
3-4 weeks, 70-80 % of the grafts will sprout. The grafts are ready for
planting within 5-6 months. The rate of success varies with season, the
highest being in June - November.
2. The important cultural practices are:
Manuring : Application of 10-15 kg of farm yard manure or compost
per plant is beneficial. The fertilizer recommendations for cashew is 500
g N (1.1 kg urea), 125 g P20
5 (625 g rock phosphate) and 125 g K
2O (208
g Muriate of potash) per plant per year. The ideal period for fertilizer
257
Cashewapplication is immediately after the cessation of heavy rains and with
available soil moisture. During the 1st, 2nd and 3rd year of planting 1/3rd, 2/
3rd and full doze of fertilizers should be applied and 3rd year onwards full
quantity is to be applied.
Weeding : Clean weeding is done within 2 m radius of the trunk and in
slash weeding the interspaces is essential until the trees spread out their
canopies. Weeding can be done by chemically by using Glyphosate (post
emergent) 6 to 7 ml / l (0.8 kg a.i./ha) during June–July.
Mulching : Mulching the tree basins will help in conservation of soil
moisture and prevents soil erosion. Mulching with organic matter or
residues inhibits weed growth and reduces surface evaporation during
summer and also regulates the soil temperature.
Training and pruning : The sprouts arising from the rootstock portion
of the cashew graft should be removed frequently during the first year of
planting. Removal of water shoots, lower branches, crisscross branches
and dry branches are found to be beneficial to enhance flowering and the
yield.
Irrigation : In India cashew is grown mainly under rain fed condition.
However protective irrigation especially summer months during January-
march at fortnightly intervals @ 200 l/plant improves fruit set, fruit
retention, thereby increasing nut yield.
3. Tea mosquito bug, stem borer, thrips, leaf minor and leaf blossom webber
are important pests of cashew. Of these, tea mosquito bug and stem borer
causes economical damage in cashew.
Tea mosquito : Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) can cause yield
reduction to the tune of 30-40 per cent damaging tender shoots,
inflorescence and immature nuts at various stages of development. It
attacks the tree in all the seasons during flushing, flowering and fruit
setting period but the peak period of infestation is from October to March.
To control the pest, spray schedule involving three sprays synchronizing
new flushing (October - November), flowering (November - December)
and fruit setting (January - February) may be given with Quinalphos (25
% EC) - 0.05 %, or Carbaryl (50 % WP) - 0.01% or Phosphamidon (85
% WSC) - 0.03 %. A rational rotation of insecticides would be desirable
to counteract the tendency of the pest to develop field resistance. The
number of sprays should be limited to three and the same insecticide
should be used for the subsequent sprays.
Stem and root borer : Stem and root borer (Plocaederus ferrugineus L.)
is also a dangerous pest and kill the entire plant. It is mostly seen in
neglected gardens. The larvae of a beetle tunnel into the tree trunk and
eats the bark all around the trunk. Manual removing of grubs and pasting
the damaged portion with mixture of Carbaryl 50 gm (50 %) and copper
oxychloride (25 gm) in one liter of water give effective control.
Die back or pink disease : The disease is prevalent during the rainy
season. Appearance of white patches on branches is the first symptom
258
Tropical Fruits followed by die back of twigs from the tip. The affected parts are to be
chiseled out and applied with Bordeaux paste.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. The first step is cleaning and roasting. Roasting of raw nuts is done to
separate adhering shell from the kernel. There are three types of roasting
viz, drum roasting, oil bath roasting and steam roasting. A general
comparison of the above three methods would show that the oil bath
method and steam roasting systems require more initial investment and
higher maintenance costs: the drum roasting method being the cheapest.
From the point of view of environmental pollution the safest is the steam
roasting method. Steam roasting is the commonly used method by most
of the processing units. Cashew nuts after roasting and cooling are to be
shelled by hand or foot operated shell cutters (mechanical device). After
shelling the kernels and shell pieces are separated manually. The kernels
after shelling are dried to a moisture content of about 4 - 5 % in hot
chambers at 70 - 80°C in perforated trays for about 6 - 8 hours. In order
to ensure uniform drying, the position of the trays has to be changed
frequently. After drying, the kernels are kept in the moist chamber for 24
hours which facilitates easy removal of testa (peeling) and minimizes
broken kernels. The next step is peeling which involves the removal of
testa (seed coat) from the kernel and is done using a sharp knife or bamboo
piece. The kernels are then graded according to the size manually. In the
International Market bold whole kernels fetch premium price. The grading
standards developed in India refer to white whole (undamaged) kernels
and indicate the number of kernels per lb of weight. The largest kernels
come in the grade W 180 (170-180/lb) and the smallest of the seven
grades is W 500 (450-500/kg). The graded cashew kernels are then packed.
The export grade requires packaging of kernels in 11.3 kg capacity tins,
in which kernels are put, the air is replaced by CO2 and then sealed.
2. Cashew apple is very juicy and sweet, is not normally eaten because of
its astringent and acrid principles. In India, much of the cashew apple is
lost and in many places, it is never used. A number of products with
commercial value can be prepared using cashew apple.
Cashew apple juice: The juice can be extracted and strained through
muslin cloth which is clarified by adding 1.4 gm of PVP (Poly Vinyl
Pyrrolidone) per litre of juice. The mixture is stirred for two minutes
after which it is strained again through muslin cloth. Sugar is added
according to the taste and boil the juice. The finished product may be
chemically preserved by using sodium benzoate at the rate of 0.8 g/100
ml. The mixture is poured into well sterilized bottles, cork air tight with
crown cork and stored in a cool dry place.
Cashew Syrup: Extraction of juice and removal of astringency are done
in the same way in the pretreatment of juice. Sugar is added at the rate of
1 to 1.25 kg/l of juice. 20-22 g citric acid/l and 0.08 % as sodium benzoate
are added to the juice. All ingredients are mixed thoroughly and kept it as
such for 3-5 hours so that clear syrup forms a separate layer which can be
259
Casheweasily siphoned. Bottling can be done as described for juice.
Cashew Apple Jam: Cashew apple must be thoroughly cleaned by
washing with water. Immerse the apple in 3 % salt solution for three days
to reduce the tannin content, after which the fruits are steamed for 15 to
20 minutes at 0.7 to 1.05 kg steam pressure. Then the apples are crushed
and mixed with 750 g sugar per kg of apple and boil it. A pinch of citric
acid is added towards the end of the cooling process to improve the taste.
Store it in well sterilized jam bottles.
Cashew Apple Candy: Cleaned apples are first immersed in a 3 % salt
solution. Next day drain out the salt water and steep the fruits in fresh
salt solution and repeat the process for a third time. Drain away salt water
and add potassium metabisulphite (625 mg/kg) and keep in this solution
for another two to three days. The apples are then thoroughly washed in
water. Keep them in a perforated crate made of aluminium or stainless
steel and blanched in boiling water for five minutes, followed by a
steaming in a pressure cooker for five minutes, at 0.35 kg pressure. The
apple should not be very soft. Prepare a 300°Brix syrup containing 0.1 %
citric acid and 500 mg. potassium metabisulphite/kg of apple. Soak apples
in the syrup in a stainless steel vessel, wooden or glass disc and covered.
Next day the syrup is taken out and sugar is added to the same syrup for
raising the concentration upto 350°Brix. Syrup is again boiled for about
ten minutes and pour back over the apples. Repeat the process daily,
raising the sugar content by 50°Brix each time for the next three days and
then raise the sugar content by 100°Brix each time for the 6th and 7th day
so that the final strength of the syrup is 700°Brix. Keep the apple for
eight to ten days in the syrup for complete absorption of sugar. Remove
the syrup and dry up the apple which can be stored in screw capped glass
jars in a cool dry place.
3. Marketing System of raw cashewnut in India is not organized except in
Goa. There are a number of intermediaries between the primary producer
and the processing unit, who exploit the growers. Wholesale merchants
and the processing factories own collecting centres in important cashew
producing areas during the harvesting period. In certain areas, some
processors contact the producers directly and enjoy good bargaining power
by providing credit facilities to the producers. As marketing system is
not well organized, the price received by the grower is small.
260
Tropical FruitsUNIT 4 COCONUT
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Area and Production
4.3 Soil and Climatic Requirements
4.4 Botany and Varieties
4.4.1 Characteristic Features of Coconut Palm
4.4.2 Flowering and Fruit Development
4.5 Propagation
4.5.1 Nursery and Seedling Selection
4.6 Field Planting and Management
4.6.1 Shading, Weeding and Interculture
4.6.2 Drought Management
4.7 Nutritional Requirement
4.8 Irrigation
4.9 Intercropping and Mixed Cropping
4.10 Plant Protection
4.10.1 Pests
4.10.2 Diseases
4.11 Harvesting and Storage
4.12 Marketing
4.13 Processing
4.13.1 Traditional methods
4.13.2 Product Diversification and Value Addition
4.13.3 Byproducts from Coconut Tree
4.14 Let Us Sum Up
4.15 Key Words
4.16 Further Reference
4.17 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• understand the importance of coconut, varieties, soil and climaticrequirements,
• explain propagation, field planting and management of young and yieldingcoconut gardens,
• describe pest and disease management strategies for coconut, and
• discuss post harvest handling and product diversification of coconut.
261
Coconut4.1 INTRODUCTION
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is the most beautiful and useful of all cultivated
palms in the world. It is popularly known as ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ or ‘Tree of
Heaven’ as the palm yields more products of use to the mankind than any
other tree and every part of it is useful in one way or another. It provides
livelihood for millions of people around the globe. The dried kernel (copra)
contains 60 to 70 per cent oil which is one of the richest sources of vegetable
oil and is widely used for cooking and also for various industrial purposes.
The coconut milk, tender coconut and toddy tapped from unopened
inflorescence also are some valuable products from coconut. Wood from
mature coconut trunk is used for furniture. Coconut husk provides fibre which
finds various uses due to its elasticity and resistance to mechanical wear and
dampness. Coir and a number of Coir products are made this fibre. Coir pith
and fibre dust, byproducts of coir industry, are used as mulch for conserving
soil. The shell is an important source of charcoal and activated carbon. The
leaf is used for thatching. Newer products like virgin coconut oil, biodiesel
and geo-textiles have greater demands in both domestic and foreign markets.
4.2 AREAS OF PRODUCTION
Coconut is considered to have originated in South-East Asia or the Pacific
Islands from where it spread to other regions either by man or naturally by
sea currents. At present, this crop is cultivated in over 90 countries of the
tropical belt in the latitude range of 23°N and 23°S. The major countries
cultivating coconut are India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Thailand, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. India, Indonesia, Philippines and Sri
Lanka together account for 81 per cent of the area and production. The other
major coconut producing are Brazil, Thailand, Mexico, Vietnam, Malaysia,
Papua New Guinea etc. India presently is the largest producer of coconut in
the world accounting for 15.5 per cent of the area and 27 per cent of the
world production. India is also ahead of other countries in productivity.
In India, the area under coconut is 2.01 million hectares and the annual
production is 16.41 billion nuts in 2017-18, with an average productivity of
8165 nuts/ha/year. It is cultivated in 18 states and three Union Territories. Of
these, 90 per cent of the area and 89 per cent of the production of the country
are from the peninsular region covering Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, nuts/ha./year. Though Kerala leads in area (43 per cent) and
production (38.26 per cent), its productivity is only 6,889 nuts per hectare in
2005-06 as compared to 13,133 ,12,992 and 8577 per hectare respectively in
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
4.3 SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
Coconut grows best in relatively coarse textured soils like sandy loams, sandy
coastal alluviums and sandy river valleys. The ideal soil conditions for better
growth and performance of the palm are proper drainage, good water-holding
capacity, presence of water table within 3 m and absence of rock or any hard
substratum within 2 m of the surface. Grown up trees can withstand short
periods of drought as well as water logging.
262
Tropical Fruits Coconut tree requires equitable climate, bright sunshine, fairly high humidity
and a well distributed rainfall of 100 cm. It grows up to an elevation of 1000
m above MSL. Cold and frosty climates are not suitable for the crop.
4.4 BOTANY AND VARIETIES
Coconut is a perennial monocot belonging to Family Arecaceae (formerly,
Palmae). It has a tall, slender and uniformly thick unbranched stem and a
massive crown bearing many long feathery leaves and heavy bunches at
various stages of development. Coconut types in all countries are broadly
grouped into two based on stature, ‘Tall’ and ‘Dwarf’, Tall types are widely
grown and are economically important due to their superior meat (kernel)
qualities West Coast Tal and East Coast Tall respectively, are two traditional
varieties available from ancient times along the West Coast and East Coast
of the Peninsular India. Other promising varieties developed through
Introduction/Selection are: Andaman Ordinary, Lakshadweep Ordinary,
Cochin China, Philippines, Java, Andaman Giant, San Ramon, Kappadam,
Komadan etc. Wide variation in all plant characters exists in tall populations
due to cross pollination. However, Dwarf types are almost true breeding and
only three subtypes with colour shades of Green, Orange and Yellow are
generally present.
Fig. 1a : Orange Dwarf and West Fig. 1b: Green Dwarf
Coast Tall Palms Palm
The popular dwarf varieties in India include Chawghat Dwarf Green and
Chawghat Dwarf Chowghat Orange Dwarf and Malayan Yellow types and
these are mostly self-pollinated. During the last four decades, a few hybrid
varieties using selected trees of Tall and Dwarf types were evolved in India
and released for cultivation. eg., T x D/D x T and TxT combinations, Some
Fig. 2 : Coconut as a major component
crop in a typical homestead set up in
Kerala.
of the promising hybrids from Kerala
are: Chandra Sankara, Chandra
Laksha, Kera Sankara. Laksha Ganga,
Ananda Ganga, Kera Ganga, Kera
Sree etc., Figure 1a shows Orange
Dwarf and Tall types of coconut trees
while Fig.1b gives a Green Dwarf
palm.
Tall varieties are sturdy, take 8-10
263
Coconutyears for bearing and steady bearing is attained by 13-15 years and are 30-35
m tall. Average life span is about 60-70 years or more while Dwarf palms
flower early, yield for about 25-40 years and grow up to 15-20 m. Figure 2
represents a typical homestead farm with coconut as a major component in
Kerala.
4.4.1 Characteristic Features of Coconut Palm
The coconut stem called ’trunk’ originate from a swollen base of the young
seedling 2-3 years of planting. The stem grows fast during early years and
under good management, start flowering by 3-5 years in Dwarf trees and 5-8
year onwards in Talls. The stem bears at its top, when in steady yielding
stage, 25-35 leaves and 12-14 bunches. The massive terminal part is called
crown consisting of long stout pinnate leaves and bunches at various stages
of development. Each leaf produces in its axil, an inflorescence called spadix.
Production of leaves and spadices is in succession. One leaf and with it, a
spadix will be produced in a month but usually one or two numbers more are
noticed in healthy regular bearing palms.
4.4.2 Flowering and Fruit Development
Fig.3 : Coconut crown showing
‘Pleonanthy’ and monoecious condition
with small male and button shaped
female flowers from a newly burst
spadix.
Coconut as stated above is a perennial
tall tree and thus has a long gestation
period. It exhibits called ‘pleonanthy’
a phenomenon of continuing
vegetative growth along with
flowering which lasts up to the death
of the palm. The inflorescence, spadix
enclosed in a spathe, emerges in the
axil of each leaf in every 25-30 days
and this indicates the commencement
of flowering in coconut. The long
spadix opens longitudinally and spike
with male flowers emerges out.
Coconut palm is monoecious ie., the
inflorescence called bears both male
and female flowers, (see figure-3)
males opening first followed by
female flowers with a gap of about 2-
3 weeks in tall palms permitting cross
pollination. In dwarf palms there is overlapping of male and female phases,
hence more self pollination. The spike is 1.2 m to 1.8 m long and is branched
in to 30-35 spikelets bearing at the base of one or more or nil number of
female flowers called ‘buttons’ which later become nuts. The number of
buttons ranges from a few to about 50 out of which 25-60 per cent matures to
nuts. Each spikelet also bears numerous small male flowers which shed of
after dehiscence, the total number will be 8-10 thousands. Pollination is
assisted by insects and wind. In coconut, the duration from flower primordia
initiation to spadix opening is 36-38 months and then 11-12 months for nut
maturity.
264
Tropical Fruits Fruit Development :
The fruit of coconut is a drupe and the spike with the developing nuts is
called a ’bunch’. Each nut is attached to the spikelet by a persistent perianth.
Growth of fruit starts immediately after fertilization. From 3rd month water is
formed inside the button followed by appearance of coconut shell which
grows till full maturity of the nut. The kernel begins to form from 7th month
and continues up to 11th month.
The coconut fruit a drupe, has an outer thick leathery layer, the pericarp, a
fibrous mesocarp with a hard shell, and a solid endosperm, the kernel or
meat. Both pericarp and mesocarp together represent the coconut husk and
the water in the vacuole of the thick kernel is the liquid endosperm of the
fruit.
Activity 1 : Visit coconut gardens, identify Tall and Dwarf types of palms,
note their characteristic features and examine planting material production
procedures.
4.5 PROPAGATION
Coconut is propagated only through seed. Vegetative propagation has not
been successful in coconut. Tall coconut varieties which are widely cultivated
in all countries, show high variability in all plant characters due cross
pollination. Thus, being a perennial crop utmost care should be taken for
selection of mother plants for collection of seed nuts. The following selection
criteria are used as guideline for mother palm selection.
• Regular yielding palms of 15 years or more with an average yield not less
than 80 nuts/year/palm.
• More than 30 fully opened leaves with short, strong petioles and wide
leaf base firmly attached to the stem.
• At least 12 bunches with strong bunch stalks.
• Bearing nuts of medium size and of oval or oblong shape, with husked
nuts weighing not less than 600 g.
• Mean copra content of more than 150 g/nut.
4.5.1 Nursery and Seedling Selection
Seed nuts collected from selected mother palms are stored under shade
arranging the nuts with the stalk end up. Up to three layers of nuts can thus
be stored arranging them one over the other with sand filling the interspaces.
In Kerala, seed nuts are collected during January to April and sowing is done
in May-June. Well-drained area with 50% shade is selected for nursery. Beds
of 1.5 m width and of convenient length with a space of 75 cm between beds
are made. Sowing of seed nuts is to be done in 30 cm deep trenches formed
in the beds, at 30 x 30 cm spacing. Give temporary shade with palm leaves
during summer months if shade is inadequate. Irrigate the nursery once in
two days during the rain-free period and keep nursery free of weeds. Remove
265
Coconutungerminated nuts from six months of sowing. For field planting 9-12 month
old seedlings with high vigour are selected based on early germination, rapid
growth having collar girth of 10-12 cm and seedling vigour as indicated by
early splitting of Figure-4 has 8-9 months old seedlings. The recovery of
quality seedlings will be about 60-65 %. The seedlings are lifted from nursery
using spade and the roots are removed. Keep seedlings in shade and use
them for planting as soon as possible.
Fig. 4 : Vigourous young coconut seedlings ready for
transplanting in the main field.
4.6 FIELD PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT
The land for planting coconut should be prepared well in advance which in
turn depends upon topography of land, soil type and other factors. Contour
terracing or bund formation will be required on sloppy and undulating terrains.
In low lying areas, form mounds to a height of 1m above water level.
Interspaces of these mounds can be filled to form bunds.
The spacing between trees and between rows will depend on the planting
system, soil type, etc. Under normal conditions, a spacing of 7.5 x 7.5 m with
a population of 170 plants per hectare in the square system or 198 plants in
the triangular system, is given. Under single hedge with a spacing of 5 m in
the rows and 9 m between rows, 220 plants can be planted per hectare. In the
double hedge system, with a spacing of 5 x 5 m in rows and 9 m between
pairs of rows, 280 plants can be accommodated per hectare.
Pit sizes recommended are 1.0 m3 in loamy soils with low water table, 1.2 m3
in laterite soils with laterite rock below and 0.75 m3 in sandy soils. The pits
are refilled with top soil to a height of 60 cm below the ground level and
seedlings are planted. But in low level areas seedlings are planted in shallow
pits and as the trees grow up ground level will be raised so as to cover the
bole portion of the plants.
266
Tropical Fruits If there is assured supply of water for irrigation, coconut can be planted at
any time of the year. The best time of planting in Kerala is by the onset of
south west Monsoon in May - June.
4.6.1 Shading, Weeding and Interculture
Coconut requires full sunlight for good growth and yield. However, during
the first 2-3 years of its establishment, young palms require shade, especially
in summer months and when irrigation is not done. Shading with palm leaves
around the plant is the usual practice. Planting crops like banana, cassava
etc., also can provide temporary shade and protect the seedlings from hot
sun.
The traditional practice of weed control consists of slash weeding twice a
year and the organic matter is used as mulch. This will improve soil fertility,
soil porosity and microbial growth.
4.6.2 Drought Management
Continuous periods of drought leads to stunted growth, drooping of leaves,
immature nut fall and decreased yield. Some methods of drought management
are:
• Bury coconut husk in layers around the palm either in linear trenches
(0.5 m wide and deep) taken 3 m away from the base between rows of
palms or in circular trenches taken around the palm at a distance of 2 m
from the base with the concave surface up and covered with soil. The
beneficial effect of husk burial lasts for three to seven years.
• Mulching the basins with green/dry leaves including coconut leaves at
the close of north-east Monsoon (October - November).
• On level field, excess water of rainy season may be conserved by taking
small trenches in the field.
• On sloppy areas, the land may be terraced and trenches dug across the
slope.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Which are the major coconut producing countries ?
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2. What is the recommended spacing for coconut ?
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Coconut............................................................................................................
3. Write any three criteria for mother palm selection in coconut.
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4. Describe botanical features of the fruit of coconut.
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4.7 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT
Coconut like any other perennial crops, requires nutrients in adequate
quantities in the form of NPK and minor elements for better growth and
yields. However, the need for different nutrients varies with different soils
The fertilizer recommendation for different soils, varieties and other
management conditions of Kerala are given in Table 1.
Table 1 : Fertilizer recommendation for coconut in Kerala.
Quantity (Kg/palm/year)
N P2O
5K
2O
1. General recommendation
a) Average management, 0.34 0.17 0.68
mostly rainfedb)
b) Good management 0.50 0.32 1.20
2. For reclaimed clayey soils 0.25 0.35 0.90
(as in Kuttanad)
3. Red loam soils (Southern Kerala) 0.68 0.23 0.90
4. Hybrids and high-yielding palms
a) For irrigated areas 1.00 0.50 2.00
b) For rain fed conditions 0.50 0.32 1.20
Organic manures :
@ 25 kg/palm may be applied along with fertilizers by the onset of south-
west monsoon. Fertilisers may best be applied in two split doses for rain fed
coconut, one third in May - June and two-third by September - October. For
irrigated crop, the entire quantity required for a year may be given in four
equal splits in May - June, September - October, December and February.
Basins are taken at a radius of 1.8 m and may have a depth of 25 cm towards
the periphery. Apply fertilisers in the basin in May-June and rake in. Close
the basin after application of the second dose of fertilisers in September -
October for rainfed crop.
268
Tropical Fruits The quantity of fertilisers recommended for young coconut during the first
year is one-third of the full dose for adult palms and for the second year, two-
third. Full recommended adult dose is to be given from fourth year onwards.
Green manure :
Crops suitable for coconut are cow pea, crotalaria, Sunhemp and Daincha
and cover crops such as Peuraria, Mimosa invisa etc. The seeds of these
crops are sown towards the periphery of basins taken at a radius of 2 m from
the base of the palm for green manuring during April - May with the onset of
pre-monsoon showers. When the plants start flowering, the plants are uprooted
or ploughed in and incorporated into the soil during August - September and
the basins are covered with soil.
Recycling of palm waste and residues of all intercrops is a good practice of
maintaining the organic matter content of soil. Palm wastes like coconut
leaves, crown waste, dried spathes, husk etc. may be deposited in small
trenches of convenient length, 0.5 m - 0.75 m wide and 0.3 m - 0.5 m deep
at a distance of 2-2.5 m away from the base of palm. Fill up the trenches with
wastes along one side, say north, during one year, opposite side in the next
year, eastern side in the third year and western side in the fourth year.
4.8 IRRIGATION
Water needs of coconut is determined by different climatic and soil factors.
The frequency of irrigation will depend on the water holding capacity of the
soil and the rate at which water is lost. Therefore, for proper growth and
production, it is advised to irrigate the palms during summer months in basins
around the palm, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 : Irrigation schedule for coconut under Kerala conditions.
Soil types
Parameters Sandy Sandy Loam Silty
loam clay
Quantity of water / irrigation / 600 800 1300 1600
palm in litres in a basin of 1.8 m
radius
Frequency of Irrigation (days)
All areas in Kerala except north 3-4 5 7-8 9
– eastern portion of Thrissur and
Palakkat districts
North-eastern portion of Trissur 2-3 3-4 5-6 6-7
and Palakkat districts
For a better water use efficiency, drip irrigation is now being widely used.
Four drips per palm will supply 32 litres of water per hour and irrigating
daily for two hours gives a steady supply of water to palm.
4.9 INTERCROPPING AND MIXED CROPPING
In coconut, intercropping refers to the cultivation of short duration crops
along with coconut. Examples are banana, pineapple, yams, ginger etc. When
269
Coconutlong duration crops like cocoa, nutmeg, clove etc. are grown along with
coconut, it is mixed cropping eg., cocoa, nutmeg, clove etc. While taking up
inter and mixed cropping, the following factors must be considered and
managed.
1. Light infiltration through coconut canopy varies with age. In plantations
of above 20 years, it ranges from 30-80 per cent. In the early years,
interspace light availability is close to 100 per cent and it reduces gradually
to about 20 per cent in 9 to 10 years after planting. Hence, in the early
years, almost any annual/biennial crop can be raised depending on
availability of light.
2. Long duration crops can be planted only after about 20 years.
3. Avoid competition by intercrops with coconut for water and nutrient.
Provide additional watering and manuring to each and every crop. The
spacing of these crops should be in such a way that it should be minimum
2 m away from the base of the palm.
The following crops are recommended as intercrops.
• Cereals: Rice, maize, millets etc.
• Legumes and pulses: Ground nut, horse gram and cow pea.
• Tubers: Tapioca, sweet potato, yams, colocasia.
• Fruit Crops: Banana, pineapple, papaya.
• Fodder grasses: Hybrid napier, guinea grass.
• Mixed crops: Cocoa, black pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove.
4.10 PLANT PROTECTION
In the traditional coconut areas like Kerala, the trees are attacked by various
insect pests and diseases which damage the palms and reduce production.
We will now examine the nature of damage and control measures of these
separately.
4.10.1 Pests
The most important ones are rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, cockchafer
beetles, leaf-eating caterpillar, mites, coreid bugs and mealy bugs.
i) Red palm weevil (Rhyncophorus ferrugeneus) : This is the most
dangerous of all pests attacking coconut in the state and difficult to control
as the grubs bore in to interior tender portions of the growing young
palms The diagnostic symptoms are appearance of holes on the stem,
oozing out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibrous
matter through the hole, longitudinal splitting of leaf base and wilting of
central shoot.
Control : Provide field sanitation and avoid injury to stem.
The topmost three leaf axils may be filled with 250 g neem cake or marotti
270
Tropical Fruits cake with equal volume of sand
twice during April / May and Sept
/ October. Apply Sevidol 8 g 25 g
along with fine sand thrice during
April - May and Sept - October
and December - January.
Naphthalene balls 12.0 g with fine
sand once in 45 days.
Boreholes are sealed except the
top most one and pour 1.0 %
carbaryl @ 1.00 litre per palm
using a funnel.
Coconut log traps with fermenting
toddy or pineapple or sugarcane
activated with yeast or molasses,
can be set in the coconut
plantation to attract and trap the
free floating population of red
Fig. 5 : Young WCT palms showing
symptoms of attack by Red palm weevil
and Rhinoceros beetle.
palm weevils. Incorporate any of the insecticide to each trap and kill the
weevils trapped. Figure-5 presents two WC Tall young palms damaged
from a combined attack by Red palm weevil and Rhinoceros beetle.
ii) Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) : The adult rhinoceros beetle
bores into the unopened fronds and spathes and the attacked portions
show characteristic triangular cuts. The chewed up leaves when open,
show scissor-cuts on the leaves. Due to this, considerable leaf lamina is
lost and this leads to low productivity.
Management :
• Provide field sanitation
• Hook out beetles from attacked palm using beetle hooks
• Leaf axil filling as recommended for red palm beetle.
• Incorporate cuttings of Clerodendron infortunatum in the cowdung/
compost pits where the grubs multiply or treat these pits with 0.01 %
carbaryl every three months
• Release Bacculovirus oryctes infected adults @ 10-15/ ha
iii) Leaf - eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) : The caterpillars eat the
chlorophyll of older leaves of coconut and remains within the galleries
of silk and frass. The attack is severe during summer months.
Control :
• Cut and burn affected leaves.
• Release larval/pupal parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus
nephantidis and Brachymeria nosatoi.
• Spray Dichlorvos 0.02 % on the undersurface of leaves.
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Coconutiv) Cockchafer beetle (Leucopholis coneophora) : The grubs damage the
coconut palm roots. The leaves of the palm become yellow and do not
grow to their full size. Management of this pest involves catching the
adults and killing them to the extent possible or treating the soil application
with insecticides like Chlorpyriphos (0.04 %) and phorate 10G @10 g/
palm.
v) Eriyophid Mite (Aceria guerreronis) : The mites suck the sap from
young buttons. Symptoms appear as white triangular patches on 2-3
months old young nuts. These patches dry turn dark and nuts get deformed.
The husk is made unsuitable for coconut fiber industry. Reduction in
husk yield is about 40 % and that of copra 20 %.
Management : Collect and destroy all fallen buttons. Apply 2 % neem
oil + garlic emulsion or 0.004 % azadirachtin or wettable suplher 0.4 %
in the crown on young bunches. In large coconut plantations, dicofol 0.1
% is applies, but never on homesteads using rocker sprayer @ 1.0 - 1.5l
/ palm. Three rounds of sprays are required and are given during April -
May, September - October and January - February months.
vi) Coried bug : This bug attacked buttons become deformed with
characteristic crevices and scars on the husk below the perianth with gum
exudations and the tender nuts become barren. To control this pest, apply
0.1 per cent Carbaryl on the newly opened inflorescence, the entire crown
excluding the leaves and older bunches.
vii) Mealy bugs : Mealy bugs infest the unopened spindle leaf and
inflorescence. As a result, the leaves become highly stunted, suppressed,
deformed and present a crinkled appearance. Button mealy bugs colonize
under the perianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts harbouring mealy
bugs remain on the spadix, which serve as inoculum for further spread.
Remove and destroy all dried up inflorescence and unproductive buttons.
Application of dimethoate 0.1 per cent, quinalphos 0.05 per cent, and
fenthion 0.1 per cent at the infested bunches, checks button mealy bugs.
viii) Mammalian Pests-Rats and Squirrels : These mammals, mainly field
rats, stay in nests on the coconut crown, bore in to tender nuts and feed
on the contents. Their attack is severe during summer months. Their
control is rather difficult as they can move from tree to tree.
Crown cleaning at least once in a year can reduce damage. Placing baits
containing Warfarin, Zinc sulphide etc., at short intervals, also will help
controlling the pest population.
4.10.2 Diseases
i) Bud Rot : This disease caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora
affects the growing bud. The wet monsoons and the ensuing cool post-
monsoon periods are the most conducive seasons for its incidence and
development. The base of the spindle becomes rotten and emits a foul
smell. This disease can be checked by prophylactic spraying with
Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent at the start of the monsoon and after the
rains.
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Tropical Fruits ii) Stem Bleeding : This disease is characterised by the oozing of a dark
liquid which often dries up leaving a black streak on the trunk. This is
found caused by the fungus Thielaviopsis paradoxa but some stress factors
like drought make the palms susceptible to the disorder. The disease can
be managed to some extend by chiseling away the affected portions and
spraying systemic fungicide Tridemorph (Calixin) at 5 per cent.
iii) Basal Stem rot / Ganoderma wilt : This disease infects the roots first
and then spreads to the bole region, blocking the conducting vessels. The
disease spreads from plant to plant through root to root contact and the
spread is faster in light soils compared to clayey soils. Leaves of the
outer whorl start drying in quick succession much faster than the usual
rate. These leaves, however, do not fall off and hang around the crown to
look like a leafy skirt. The drying continues and soon the entire crown
dries up. The infected plants are to be isolated by deep trenches (1m deep
and 0.5 m wide) taken around the infected palms. The entire root-zone is
drenched with 1 per cent copperoxychloride solution or 1 per cent Calixin.
iv) Root - wilt disease : In Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu, coconut palms
are affected by the serious ‘root wilt’ disease. Affected palms present an
emaciated look with the green colour drained from leaves, which are
bent inward to like the rib cage of animals, and often the leaflets showing
dead patches at the tips and along margins (Fig. 6 gives picture of root
wilt affected palms in the background along with a high yielding one in
the foreground. The loss by reduction in yield is considerable depending
on the severity of damage inflicted by the malady. This disease is the
most dreaded disorder of coconut reported to be caused by ‘Phytoplasma’.
Fig. 6 : Heavy yielding WCT in a home stead with Root-wilt disease affected
coconut palms. Right: Root-wilt affected Tall palm
There is no cure known so far for this malady. However, the disease can be
managed, and productivity of the palm restored to a considerable extent. The
following measures may be adopted.
(a) Nutrition and irrigation are very important in restoring the health of the
palm. In addition to the normal dose of fertilizers, an additional dose of
0.5 kg Magnesium sulphate may be given to restore the green colour of
the leaves.
(b) Control leaf rot by removing infected portions of the spear leaf by treating
with systemic fungicides like Hexaconazole is needed.
(c) Plants which give less than10 nuts a year, those which are very severely
affected by the disease and those which are very old and senile, may be
removed from the garden.
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Coconut4.11 HARVESTING AND STORAGE
Tall varieties of coconut come to bearing after about the 5-8 years under
good management and reaches steady bearing by 8-10 years. Poor management
may delay first bearing to eighth year and steady bearing to 15th year.
A coconut tree produces a bunch every month and harvesting is usually done
at intervals 45 days with 6-8 harvests in a year. Under good management, the
average yield will be about 60 to 80 nuts per palm under unirrigated condition
and about 100 to 120 with irrigation. The average yields are pretty higher in
the non traditional areas.
Nuts for copra making, culinary edible purposes and other social and religious
purposes, are harvested after 10-11 months of pollination and for tender
coconut, 6-8 months old nuts are harvested. The correct stage of maturity
can be judged only by experience.
Coconut is harvested manually by professional climbers. Bunches of required
maturity are cut with a sharp knife specially made for the purpose and the
bunches are allowed to fall. Nuts are separated from bunches and barren and
undersized nuts are discarded. In some states like Karnataka, mature nuts are
harvested from ground using bamboo poles fitted with a sharp knife. Some
climbing devices have been devised by Research Institutions, but they have
not become popular with the majority of coconut farmers.
Tender nuts are normally used fresh and or can be stored for a few days
before they are utilised. Harvested nuts for domestic purposes can be used
right from harvest. Nuts for copra making are either used immediately after
harvest or stored for 2-3 weeks. In big holdings, nuts are stored in godowns
till they are taken for processing. For ball copra making, fully mature nuts
are stored separately. In Kerala where coconuts are mainly converted in to
copra, small processors collect the harvested nuts dehusked and dried in the
drying yards or smoked if sun drying is not possible and the final produce is
packed in gunny bags. The copra thus prepared are transported and sold to
merchants/milling units.
4.12 MARKETING
On the marketing side, although the supply of coconut has been fairly stable
over the years, its prices have been subjected to seasonal and annual
fluctuations mainly on account of variations in demand as well as due to the
interference of middlemen in the processing chain. In Kerala, the price of
coconut is heavily dependent on the price of coconut oil. Although it provides
numerous products which are commercially significant, the demand for
coconut and the prospects of coconut cultivation are governed the coconut
oil and copra sectors.
4.13 PROCESSING
The coconut industry in India is centred mostly around coconut oil and its
products. Value addition and product diversification are being attempted only
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Tropical Fruits on a limited scale unlike countries like The Philippines, Sri Lanka etc, though
by product utilization is in the increase. New technologies are available for
post harvest processing of coconuts. Since more than 50 per cent of the nuts
produced in India are utilized for edible, religious and industrial purposes,
there is good scope for manufacturing and marketing of many products. Details
relating to above said aspects are presented in the following paragraphs.
4.13.1 Traditional methods
Coconut is an important source of vegetable oil used for edible and industrial
applications. Many products are processed from coconut meat or kernel.
Among these, copra, coconut oil and cake are the most important traditional
coconut products.
i) Copra : The dried coconut endosperm (meat) is called copra. For the
preparation of copra, nuts are dehusked, opened and dried either in the
field or at a separate site where facilities for drying are available The
former system is practiced more by small farmers while the latter by the
larger farms and estates where shells and husks are also utilized. In India,
two forms of copra are made viz; milling copra (cup copra) and ball copra.
The former is used for extraction of coconut oil while ball copra is mostly
used in the form of a dry fruit.
ii) Milling copra: The steps involved in the production of milling copra
from which coconut oil is extracted, are seasoning of the mature harvested
nuts by heaping them and covering with coconut fronds for 2-4 weeks,
followed by dehusking, splitting and drying. Three methods of drying
are:
1) Sun drying : Split nuts are kept in the sun After 2 or 3 days of drying,
the meat is scooped out from the shell and dried again for another 4-
5 days.
2) Smoke drying : This is done when sun drying becomes difficult. The
wet kernel is dried in a kiln like structure and the product obtained is
smoked copra. There are several types of kilns in use.
3) Mechanical drying : In this method, copra is dried by clean hot air in
driers at 90°C in the initial stage followed by 60°C after 2 hours or
70°C for initial 8 hrs and 60°C for the remaining period.
4) Packing and storage : Dried copra should be properly packed and
stored in the least humid conditions. The safe moisture level is 5-6
per cent. Copra can be packed in polythene lined gunny bags. However,
storing for longer periods would cause deterioration due to absorption
of moisture and result in mouldy and insect attacked copra. Early
utilization of dried copra is always desirable
iii) Extraction of coconut oil : Traditionally, coconut oil was extracted by
country “chakku” where pieces of copra were fed into the bullock driven
extraction units. Oil recovery is poor in this type of country expellers,
Subsequently, this system was replaced by rotary method of extraction.
Majority of the traditional oil mills were equipped with this method.
275
CoconutHowever, the most efficient system of extraction of oil from copra is by
the use of expellers. The oil recovery in this method is comparatively
higher than that of rotary mills and is about 65 per cent by weight of
copra.
Coconut oil is utilized as an edible as well as an industrial oil and generally
grouped as a Lauric oil in the international market. This oil is immensely
used in the food industry by virtue of its characteristics such as easy
melting behaviour, digestibility resistance to oxidative rancidity pleasing
flavour etc. It contains Vitamin E and act as an ideal energy source in
baby food.
iv) Coconut oil cake : Coconut cake is the residue left after the extraction of
oil from copra. The yield of coconut cake varies from 30-35 per cent of
the copra depending upon the method employed for extraction. It is mainly
used as cattle feed.
v) Ball copra : Conversion of mature coconut into edible ball copra is a
traditional method followed in the states of Karnataka and northern parts
of Kerala. It is made by storing 12-14 months old nuts (with husk) for
10-12 months. The coconut water insidegradually dries up when copra
gets detached from the shell. After dehusking and splitting the shell, the
copra in the form of a ball is removed and stored. This copra can be
stored for a longer period Figure 7 shows cup copra and ball copra made
by traditional method.
Fig.7 : Traditional coconut products- Cup copra and Ball copra
(Courtesy-Coconut Development Board, Cochin)
4.13.2 Product Diversification and Value Addition
A large number of food products can be prepared from coconut meat, milk,
mature coconut water, tender coconut water, coconut toddy etc. (Fig.8) They
include:
• Virgin coconut oil: The coconut oil extracted from raw and matured
coconut through wet processing method is known as Virgin Coconut Oil.
VCO is a premium grade oil with very low Free Fatty Acids (FFAs) and
curative properties.
• Desiccated coconut: This is an important commercial product used in
confectionery and has worldwide demand. After dehusking and shelling
of fully matured coconut, the outer brown testa is removed by thin shaving
(paring) and the meat is disintegrated into gratings. This is dried to a
moisture level of 3 per cent, sieved and packed.
276
Tropical Fruits • Coconut milk/ cream: ‘Coconut milk’ is the commercial term for the
processed and packed milk extracted from fresh matured coconuts. This
is an instant product which can either be used directly or diluted with
water to make various preparations such as curries, sweets, desserts,
pudding, etc.
• Spray dried coconut milk powder: This is prepared from the milk taken
from fresh meat of mature nuts. The process consists of deshelling, paring,
disintegrating, squeezing, pasteurizing and spray drying.
• Coconut jam: Coconut jam is prepared from coconut skim milk, sugar
and glucose.
• Coconut vinegar: This is a product obtained fermenting sugar fortified
coconut water with yeast Sacharomycess cervisea and acetobacter bacteria.
The process is elaborate. A quick generation process for producing quality
vinegar from matured coconut water using vinegar generators is now
available.
• Coconut water concentrate: For the production of coconut water
concentrate, fully matured coconut water is used. Coconut water is
concentrated by spray evaporation technique developed in Germany.
• Nata-de-coco: In India, a large quantity of matured coconut water is
wasted at the premises of the processing units causing environmental
problems. Nata-de-coco is a gelatinous product prepared by the action of
cellulose forming bacteria namely Acetobacte raceti subspecies xylinium.
Generally 100 litres of coconut water can yield about 30 kg of raw nata.
• Tender coconut water: Nuts at 6-8 months age is used for tender coconut
water. Tender coconut water is now available in pouches and aluminium
cans. The technology for packing of tender coconut water is developed
by the Defence Food Research Laboratory, Mysore.
• Snowball tender coconut: Eight months old nuts are used for this
purpose. In India, the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute,
Kasargode, Kerala, has developed this technology. The important steps
involved in the process are dehusking to give a round/oval shape, making
a groove in the shell and scooping out the tender kernel in ball shape.
• Coconut toddy and neera: Coconut toddy is obtained by tapping mature
unopened spadix of coconut. Tapping is the process of beating the spadix
with a mallet a few minutes daily for about a month so as to facilitate
exudation of the inflorescence sap which is usually collected in mud pots.
Before tapping every day, a thin shaving from the tip of the spadix is
removed for easy flow of sap. The fresh toddy is an invigorating drink
and is great demand. Fermented toddy on distillation yields arrack.
• Coconut jaggery: Coconut jaggery is produced from fresh toddy and
contains high sugar content of 88 per cent. Fresh toddy when boiled to
118-120°C and allowed to cool, solidifies and the solid mass is known as
coconut jaggery.
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Coconut
Fig. 8 : Different value added products and byproducts
from coconut tree (Courtesy-CDB,Cochin)
4.13.3 Byproducts from Coconut Tree
Besides various edible products from meat, tender nut, neera/toddy etc,
coconut tree gives a number of byproducts out of different parts of the tree,
mainly the husk which is the outer cover of the nut, its shell, timber, leaf etc.
Husk is the source of the coir and products from which are of commercial
importance. We may examine the salient features and uses of the by products.
Figure 9 gives pictures of coconut by products from shell and coir.
Fig. 9 : Handicrafts from coconut shell and coir geo-textile
(Courtesy-GDB.Cochin)
• Coir and Coir Products from Husk: Husk of mature coconut is
composed of many fibres embedded in a soft spongy tissue called pith.
The fibres are 20-30 cm long and have high tensile strength and are used
to make coir. Manufacture of coir and coir products is an important agro-
based cottage industry providing livelihood to millions and contributes a
significant share to the Country’s export earnings. India is the premier
coir producing country in the world.
• Coir Pith: It is the byproduct from husk obtained during extraction of
coconut fibre and has good demand in various horticultural activities as
it an excellent soil conditioner, rooting medium and mulching material.
It also finds uses as moisture conservative, organic manure, and for
manufacture of coir pith briquettes used as fuel etc. Coir pith can be
converted into coir pith compost employing Pleurotes (mushroom).
278
Tropical Fruits • Coconut shell products: Activated carbon, shell powder and shell
charcoal are the major products manufactured from coconut shell obtained
after separation of copra. These products are used for many industrial
and purification purposes. Handicrafts prepared from mature shell also
are in good demand in all markets.
• Other byproducts: Coconut wood is very strong and mature trees make
good building materials, furniture wall panels etc. Coconut leaf is mainly
used thatching, and for use as shading material, feed for elephants, as
fuel and preparation of brooms baskets etc.
• Coir geo-textiles: Coir nettings of various mesh prepared by weaving
coir yarn. This is a recently developed approach which can provide
protection to sloppy surfaces against soil erosion and grass turfs. These
can be used for growing vegetables on slopes up to 60°.
Activity 2: Visit coconut processing units and note harvesting and copra
making. Familiarise with the different edible products and verify their uses.
Also visit a super market and get acquainted with the value added products
and byproducts from coconut.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Give the fertilizer recommendation for hybrids and high yielding
palms grown under irrigated conditions.
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2. What is the quantity of water for irrigating coconut using drip method ?
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3. Name two spice crops suited for intercropping in coconut gardens.
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4. What are the symptoms of root wilt disease ?
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279
Coconut5. What is virgin coconut oil ?
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6. What is Nata-de-coco ?
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4.14 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied the uses of coconut, major coconut producers in
the world and in India, soil and climatic requirements, varieties, cultivation
practices, pests and diseases and processing aspects of coconut. Coconut tree
is considered farmer friendly as it provides food and fuel while staying within
ambience of the homesteads of the medium and small farmers in the tropics.
In spite of various problems in marketing, low productivity, pest and disease
problems, the crop still continues to be the mainstay for millions of people in
the tropics particularly in India. Sustainability can be achieved by effective
utilization of technologies evolved from the different research stations by
gainful/utilization through product promotion and value addition.
4.15 KEY WORDS
Copra : Dried meat/kernel of coconut.
Intercropping : Cultivation of short duration crops along
with coconut like banana, pineapple, yams,
ginger etc.
Mixed cropping : Cultivation of long duration crops like
cocoa, nutmeg, clove and cocoa.
Spadix : Inflorescence of coconut enclosed in a boat
shaped spathe.
4.16 FURTHER REFERENCE
1. Alice, K and Peter, K.V. (2007). Commercial Crops Technology. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 500 p.
2. Child, R. (1994). Coconuts (II Edn.), Longman, London.
3. Menon, K.P.V. and Pandalai, K.M. (1960). The Coconut Palm-A
Monograph. Indian Central Coconut Committee, Kochi, Kerala.
4. Nampoothiri, K.U.K. and Singh, H.P. (2000). Trends in Coconut
Research and Development in India. Coconut Development Board,
Kochi, Kerala.
280
Tropical Fruits 5. Ohler J.G. (1984). Coconut, Tree of Life. FAO Plant Production and
Protection Paper 57, Food and Agriculture organization of the United
Nations, Rome.
6. Rethinam, P. Poduval, S. and Nandakumar T.B. (Eds). Coconut Products.
Coconut Development Board, Min. Agriculture, G.O.I., Kochi, Kerala,
India.
7. Thampan, P.K. (1996). Coconut for Prosperity. Peekay Tree Crops
Development Foundation, Kochi, Kerala.
4.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Papua New
Guinea and Fiji.
2. 7.5 m x 7.5 m.
3. Regular yielding palms of 20 years or more with an average yield of not
less than 80 nuts/year/palm.
More than 30 fully opened leaves with short, strong petioles and wide
leaf base firmly attached to the stem.
Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong shape with the husked nuts
weighing not less than 600 g.
4. The coconut fruit is a drupe with an outer thick layer pericarp, a fibrous
mesocarp with a hard shell), and a solid endosperm, kernel or meat. Both
pericarp and mesocarp together represent the coconut husk and the water
in the vacuole of the thick kernel is the liquid endosperm of the fruit.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. 1.00, 0.50, 2.00 kg N, P2O
5 and K
2O/palm/year.
2. 32 litres/day.
3. Ginger, turmeric.
4. Affected palms present an emaciated look with the green colour drained
from leaves, which are bent inward to like the rib cage of animals, and
often the leaflets showing dead patches at the tips and along margins.
5. The coconut oil extracted from raw and matured coconut kernel through
wet processing method.
6. Nata-de-coco is a gelatinous product prepared by the action of cellulose
forming bacteria namely Acetobacter aceti subspecies xylinium.