197

BAPI-004

Production Technology

of Fruit CropsIndira Gandhi National Open University

School of Agriculture

3Block

TROPICAL FRUITS

UNIT 1

Pineapple 201

UNIT 2

Papaya 222

UNIT 3

Cashew 240

UNIT 4

Coconut 260

198

Programme Coordinator : Dr. S.K. Yadav

Writers

Dr. K. Kumaran (Rtd.), (Unit 1-4)

Dr. Babaylatha, Dr. Prasannakumari,

College of Horticulture, Kerala

Agriculture University, Vellanikara,

Trichur-680656, Kerala

Block Preparation Team

Editor

Dr. Ram Asrey, (Unit 1-4)

Principal Scientist,

Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),

Pusa, New Delhi-110012

Course Coordinator : Dr. S.K. Yadav

March, 2021

© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021

ISBN: 978-93-90496-95-2

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph

or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.

Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be

obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official

website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.

Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by

Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.

Composed & Print by : Hi-Tech Graphics, D-4/3, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-II, New

Delhi-110020

Material ProductionMr. Rajiv Girdhar, Mr. Hemant Parida,

Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)

MPDD, IGNOU MPDD, IGNOU

Programme and Course Design CommitteeDr. K. Prathapan,

Mission Director, State Horticulture Mission-

Kerala (Govt. of Kerala), Sunny Dale, Mead’s

lane, Palayam, Trivandrum-695034 (Kerala)

Dr. Room Singh,

Principal Scientist (Rtd.),HIG-II/110, Swarn

Jayanti Nagar, Ramghat Road, Aligarh-202001

(Uttar Pradesh)

Dr. S.S. Sindhu,

Principal Scientist, Department of Floriculture

and Landscaping, Indian Agricultural Research

Institute, Pusa, New Delhi-110012 (Delhi)

Dr. Prabhat Kumar,

Assistant Professor, Department of

Horticulture, College of Agriculure, G. B. Pant

University of Agriculture and Technology,

Pantnagar, Dist. US Nagar-263145

(Uttarakhand)

Dr. M.K. Sheikh,

Head & Professor, Horticulture College of

Agriculture, University of Agricultural

Sciences, P.B. No.-18, Bijapur-586101

(Karnataka)

Dr. P.K. Jain,

Professor & Head, Department of Horticulture,

Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyala,

Jabalpur-482004 (Madhya Pradesh)

Dr. Harpal Singh,

Principal Scientist (Rtd.), G-20/A, Kiran

Garden, Main Najafgarh Road, Uttam Nagar,

New Delhi-110059 (Delhi)

Dr. S.V.S. Rathore,

B-39, HIG, Near Paschim Crossing, Shastri

Puram, Agra-282007 (Uttar Pradesh)

Dr. R.L. Mishra,

C-04, Brahma Apartment, Plot-7, Sector-7,

Dwarka, New Delhi-110075 (Delhi)

Dr. Neera Kapoor,

Professor, Life Science, School of Science,

IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068

(Delhi)

Faculty from School of Agriculture

Prof. B.S. Hansra, Director

Prof. M.K. Salooja, Professor

Dr. S.K. Yadav, Reader

Dr. P.K. Jain, Lecturer

Dr. P. Vijayakumar, Lecturer

Er. Mukesh Kumar, Lecturer

Dr. Mita Sinhamahapatra, Lecturer

199

BLOCK 3 TROPICAL FRUITS

People residing in dryland areas where rainfall is scanty, grow such fruits.

These fruits are grown under extreme climatic & soil conditions. But these

are important source of income and nutrients for residents of these areas.

Most of these fruits are grown under commercial horticulture as well. This

block has four units. The crops explained under their block varies widely

due to their under adaptability.

The details on each unit is mentioned below:

Unit 1 – Pineapple. Pineapple is an important fruit crop of modern days. Its

enter package of practices are explained in this unit.

Unit 2 – Papaya. This unit describes the cultivation aspect of papaya in

detail.

Unit 3 – Cashew. The production techniques of cashew is explained in this

unit.

Unit 4 – Coconut. It is mostly grown in coastal areas of our country. A

detailed account has been presented in this unit.

200

Tropical Fruits

201

PineappleUNIT 1 PINEAPPLE

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Area and Production

1.2.1 Area and Production in India

1.3 Varieties

1.3.1 Commercial Varieties

1.4 Soil and Climate

1.4.1 Soil

1.4.2 Climate

1.5 Propagation and Planting

1.5.1 Propagation

1.5.2 Season of Planting

1.5.3 Different Planting Systems

1.5.3.1 Flat Planting

1.5.3.2 Raised Bed Planting

1.5.3.3 Trench Planting

1.5.3.4 Contour Planting

1.5.4 Planting Kew variety

1.6 Nutritional Requirement

1.7 Cultural Practices

1.7.1 Irrigation and Mulching

1.7.2 Weed Control

1.7.3 Earthing up

1.7.4 Induction of Flowering

1.8 Staggering of Production

1.9 Fruits Set and Fruit Growth

1.10 Ratooning

1.11 Harvesting and Yield

1.12 Storage and Ripening

1.13 Packaging and Transportation

1.14 Pests and Diseases

1.14.1 Heart Rot or stem rot or root rot

1.15 Plant and Fruit Abnormalities

1.15.1 Multiple Crown

1.15.2 Fruit and Crown Fasciation

1.15.3 Collar of Slips

1.15.4 Sun Scald

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Tropical Fruits 1.16 Export Potential

1.17 Processing

1.17.1 Pineapple Juice

1.17.2 Pineapple Squash and Pineapple Syrup

1.17.3 Pineapple beverage (Ready to serve)

1.17.4 Canned Pineapple

1.17.5 Pineapple Jam

1.17.6 Pineapple Pickle

1.18 Let Us Sum Up

1.19 Key Words

1.20 Further References

1.21 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:

• explain the area and production details of pineapple,

• identify the commercial varieties of pineapple,

• describe the soil and climatic requirement of pineapple,

• explain the details of propagation and planting,

• discuss the manurial and fertilizer requirement,

• explain the detailed cultivation practices of pineapple,

• explain the storage, packaging and transportation,

• identify the important abnormalities, and

• identify the different products from pineapple.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L. Merr)) belongs to Family – Bromeliaceae

and popularly known as ‘Golden Queen’ is one of the most wanted tropical

fruits. Contribute 20 % of world production of tropical fruits. It is very

delicious fruit and used as a table fruit. Very rich source of Vitamin C, fairly

good source of Vitamin A and B and also minerals.

The origin of pineapple is the American continent probably Brazil and

Paraguay. It has spread throughout tropical and subtropical regions as a

commercial fruit crop. The juice has worldwide market. Dried waste after

juice extraction is a valuable cattle feed. Fresh pineapple flesh, juice and

pineapple stem contain a protein digesting enzyme, bromelin. Bromelin is

used like papain enzyme from papaya for tenderizing meat and chill proofing

beer and in the leather tanning process. Leaves yield 2-3 % strong white

silky fibre. This fibre is used for making a fine fabric called pina cloth in the

•

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PineapplePhilippines and Taiwan. But in India this fibre is extracted to a limited extent.

Other by-products are alcohol, calcium citrate, citric acid and vinegar

1.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

The total area in world is 1.0 million ha and production is 15 million tons.

Distributed in Thailand (maximum area), Philippines (second maximum area),

Brazil, China, India, Cuba, Hawaiian Islands, West Indies, Singapore,

Malaysia, Ghana, Kenya, Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, Australia and Puerto

Rico.

In India, it is grown as commercial crop in few states only. It first reached in

South India in 1548 by Portuguese people.

The important growing states are Assam, Kerala, Meghalaya, West Bengal,

Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh and

Bihar.

1.2.1 Area and Production in India

India produces about 8% of the total world production of pineapple. The

state wise area and production of pineapple are given below :

Table 1 : State wise area, production and productivity of Pineapple in 2017-18

State Area (000 ha) Production (000tms) Productivity (t/ha)

Andhra Pradesh 4.52 71.33 15.78

Bihar 4.26 115.13 27.02

Assam 16.30 296.52 18.19

Tripura 8.73 127.00 14.55

Kerala 8.22 69.72 8.48

Manipur 14.16 134.11 9.47

Meghalaya 12.37 144.73 11.70

Nagaland 9.53 132.83 13.94

West Bengal 11.41 345.15 25.62

Others 13.47 269.24 19.99

Total 102.96 1705.76 164.74

1.3 VARIETIES

Under this section we shall discuss the important varieties grown in world as

well as in India.

1.3.1 Commercial Varieties

The commercial varieties grown all over the world are Smooth cayenne,

Hilo, Singapore Spanish, Queen, Red Spanish, Abacaxi, Pernambuco and

Cabezona (3n = 75 triploid). All other varieties except Cabezona are diploids

with 2n = 50. Other important varieties grown in India and in some other

countries are Kew, Giant Kew, Mauritius and Queen.

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Tropical Fruits All the above varieties can be broadly grouped into 4 groups :-

1. Cayenne group - Cayenne, Smooth Cayenne, Giant Kew, Hilo and Kew

2. Queen group - Queen, Mauritius, Alexandra

3. Spanish group - Red Spanish, Singapore Spanish, Masmerah,

Cabezona

4. Pernambuco group - Pernambuco, Abacaxi

The characteristics of important varieties are discussed below:

A) Varieties of Cayenne group

i) Smooth Cayenne : Smooth Cayenne is extensively cultivated in Hawaii,

Philippines, Australia, South Africa, Puerto Rico, Kenya, Mexico, Cuba

and Formosa. It is the most popular canning variety. The plant is robust

with tapering fleshy leaves up to 90 cm in length and about 6 cm in

width. The upper surface of the leaves is dark green having smooth straight

margins, excepting near the tip and the base, where there are a few small

spines. The fruit is cylindrical in shape, weighing 2.0 to 3.0 kg, the fruitlets

or eyes are typically broad and flat. The flesh is firm, juicy and with a

pale yellow colour at maturity. The acidity ranges between 0.5 to 1.0 per

cent. The total soluble solids (TSS) ranges between 12° and 16°Brix.

Slips are on the peduncle ranging from 0 to 10, and suckers are ranging

from 0 to 3.

ii) Hilo : It is a sub variety of Smooth Cayenne selected in Hawaii and it is

cultivated in Hawaii only. The plants are smaller than Smooth Cayenne

and slips are not produced. Suckers are more and develop early. Fruit

shape is more cylindrical, its size is slightly smaller with larger fruitlets.

iii) Giant Kew : This is an important variety grown in India. Best variety for

canning. Very vigorous plant, leaves having straight margins. Leaves have

small marginal spines at the tip. Average fruit weight 2.0 to 3.0 kg and up

to 4.0 kg under best management in some areas. Fruit shape is cylindrical

with slight tapering at the crown. Eyes are broad and shallow. Fruit dark

blackish green when unripe, but orange yellow when ripe. The flesh colour

is light yellow, fibreless and very juicy with pleasant flavour. Shy suckering

variety, 1 – 2 suckers per plant.

Kew Variety

iv) Kew : Another important variety

grown in Kerala and India.

Mutant of Giant Kew. Almost

similar to Giant Kew. But the

plant is less vigorous as compared

to Giant Kew. Fruit size less

bigger compared to Giant Kew.

Leaves are smooth, with small

spines at the tip only. Ripe fruits

are yellow in colour. Fruits

weights 1.5-2.5 kg, cylindrical in

shape and eyes are broad and

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Pineappleshallow. The flesh is firm, juicy and light yellow. Suitable for canning.

Shy suckering habit.

v) Charlotte Rothschild : In Goa, a variety Charlotte Rothschild is under

cultivation, which is similar to Kew in fruit characteristics and taste.

B) Varieties of Queen group :

i) Queen : This is a old cultivar and is grown in Australia, India and

South Africa, where it is favoured for trade of fresh fruit. The plants are

characterized by dwarf, compact habit of growth. The leaves are short,

stiff, spiny along the margins. Not suitable for canning. Fruits are conical

in shape. Fruit size small with average weight 1 - 1.25 kg. Eyes prominent,

irregular and deep. Fruits green when unripe and golden yellow when

ripe. Flesh deep golden yellow, sweet, less juicy than Kew or Giant Kew,

pleasant aroma and flavour.

ii) Mauritius : Leading commercial

variety of Kerala in India. Grown

in some parts of Meghalaya also.

Fruits are of medium size. Average

fruit weight 1.25-1.50 kg. There

are two types, yellow skinned and

red skinned types. Fruits of yellow

variety are green when unripe and

deep yellow when ripe. Flesh

colour is golden yellow. Fruits of

red skinned are green when

unripe, red when ripe, flesh

reddish yellow.

iii) Ripley Queen : It is a selection from Queen and it is grown in Australia.

It has pale green foliage heavily tinged with red and fruit is small in size,

more conical in shape than Queen. Fruits have pale colured skin and

richer flavour. The acidity is low and sugar is high.

iv) Alexandra : This variety is grown in Australia. It is a local selection

made in Queensland from Ripley Queen and it is similar to parent variety,

but produces somewhat larger fruits.

C) Varieties of Spanish group :

i) Red Spanish : This variety is extensively cultivated in West Indies,

Cuba, Puerto Rico and Mexico. Mainly used for trade of fresh fruits.

The plant and fruit size intermediate between Cayenne and Queen. The

leaves are long and spiny. Fruit is rather square in shape and weighs

between 0.9 and 1.8 kg. The eyes are deep. Flesh is pale yellow, fibrous

with pleasant aroma and spicy acid flavour.

ii) Singapore Spanish : It is grown in Malaysia for canning industry. The

leaves are 100 cm long. The leaves are smooth with a few spines near the

tip. The fruit is cylindrical in shape, weighing about 1.6 to 2.3 kg. The

ripe fruit is reddish orange and flesh is golden yellow, fibrous and good

flavour.

Mauritius Variety

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Tropical Fruits iii) Masmerah : Grown mainly in Malaysia. Selection from Singapore

Spanish. The plants resembles a typical Singapore Spanish, excepting

that it is more vigorous. The fruit is cylindrical, weighs 1.5 to 3.0 kg.

D) Other Varieties :

i) Abacaxi : It is widely grown in Brazil for local markets. The plants are

erect. The fruit is pyramidal in shape and weighs about 1.5 kg. The flesh

is pale yellow.

ii) Amritha : Pineapple hybrid

developed by Pineapple Research

Centre, Kerala Agricultural

University, Thrissur, Vellanikkara.

This is a cross between Kew X

Ripley Queen. This is the only one

pineapple hybrid from India. The

average fruit weight 1.5 - 2.0 kg.

High sugar, high TSS and low

acidity compared to Kew.

Cylindrical shape, flesh firm,

yellow and non fibrous. Suitable

for commercial cultivation, for

canning and for export.

E) Indigenous Types of India :

i) Jaldhup and Lakhat : These are local types grown in Assam. Both being

named after the places of their maximum production. Both fall in Queen

group of fruits, being smaller than Queen. Lakhat is markedly sour in

taste, where as jaldhup is sweet, well blended with acidity.

Jaldhup Variety Lakhat Variety

ii) Simhachalam : This is a local variety grown in Vishakhapatnam district

of Andhra Pradesh.

Amritha Variety

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Pineapple

Simhachalam Variety

iii) Baruipur Local : It is largely grown in Baruipur and Joynager areas of

South Bengal. Fruits are small size, conical in shape. Weighing 1 to 2 kg.

Flesh is yellow, fibrous, little stringy and sour in taste.

iv) Haricharanvita : It is grown in some pockets of Darjeeling district in

West Bengal. Plants are vigorous. Leaves are long and slender and leaf

margins are heavily serrated. Fruit weight ranges from 0.75 to 2.0 kg.

Fruit is conical in shape. Flesh is yellow, fibrous sweet taste but a little

stringy.

Table 2 : Comparison of Kew and Mauritius.

A comparison of Kew and Mauritius (two important varieties in Kerala) are

given below:

Kew Mauritius

1. Leaves are spine less Leaves are spiny

2. Fruits are larger (1.5-2.5kg) Fruits are of medium size

cylindrical in shapes with (1.25-1.50 kg), slightly conical in

shallow and broad eyes, shape with deep eyes, not suitable

ideal for canning industry. for canning

3. The unripe fruits are dark The unripe fruits are green in

green in colour colour

4. The flesh colour is light The flesh colour is golden yellow

yellow

5. Shy suckering habit, 0 – 2 2-3 suckers per plant

suckers per plant

6. Quality medium Quality good, high sugar content,

better keeping quality compared to

Kew

7. Duration 20-22 months Duration 12-13 months

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Tropical Fruits1.4 SOIL AND CLIMATE

Under this section, we shall study the soil and climatic requirement of

pineapple.

1.4.1 Soil

Pineapple can be grown in a wide range of soils, but it does not tolerate

water logging. Sandy and loamy soils or laterite soils are ideal. Heavy clay

soil and high water table are not conducive. The optimum pH is between 5.5

to 6.0.

1.4.2 Climate

Pineapple is essentially a tropical plant, but adapt well in subtropical areas

also. Optimum temperature range between 15-30°C. Grows in wide range of

rain fall from 60-250 cm/annum, the optimum being 100 - 150 cm /year.

1.5 PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

Under this section, we shall discuss the different types of planting materials

in pineapple and other planting details.

1.5.1 Propagation

Pineapple is propagated by vegetative methods. The different planting

materials are given below.

1. Sucker : Ground sucker arise from the buds of the stem below ground

region, rarely used, very small.

Shoot suckers arise from the buds in the leaf axils above ground level,

shortest duration, most commonly used planting material.

2. Slips : Arise from the base of fruits or from the top of peduncle i.e., just

below the fruits.

3. Hapas : Arise from the base of the peduncle.

4. Crowns : Top of the fruit, longest duration.

5. Splitted Crown : Splitted into vertical sections.

6. Stumps : Entire plant after harvest of fruit and from which the base of

stem, roots, leaves and peduncle have been removed.

7. Stem bits or Stem disc : After harvest, the plant is uprooted and the stem

is cut longitudinally into 6-8 pieces. Then cut transversely into triangular

slices, each containing 1-2 buds. Planted in beds. Take 2-3 years to reach

flowering and fruiting.

8. Tissue Culture Plantlets : Micropropagation through shoot tip culture

is employed for multiplication of elite clones. 1000’s of plants can be

produced from one shoot tip. Commercially exploited and produced in

several laboratories and private firms like Indo American Hybrid Seeds,

Bangalore.

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PineappleChoice of Planting Material :

Different studies conducted in different states of India have revealed that

suckers and slips are ideal planting material for pineapple. Suckers weighing

500-1000 gm and 500-750 gm were found best for planting in Kerala and

Assam respectively. Under Karnataka conditions, slips weighing 350-450

gm were found best planting material.

1.5.2 Season of Planting

Main season is May - June. Avoid planting during periods of heavy rain and

it should be established before heavy rains. Can be planted through out the

year.

1.5.3 Different Planting Systems

The planting systems vary depending upon the topography of land, climate

and soil conditions, variety etc. In all the systems, prepare the land by

ploughing or digging followed by leveling.

1.5.3.1 Flat Planting

In West Bengal and in some parts of Kerala the system of flat planting i.e.,

ground level planting is followed. Planting is done in small pits of 15-20 cm

depth.

1.5.3.2 Raised Bed Planting

When pineapple is planted in low lying areas, raised beds are prepared and

planting in done. Channels are taken for drainage. Two to Three line planting

is practiced. Followed in some parts of Kerala.

1.5.3.3 Trench planting

Double row trench planting is very widely followed in Kerala, Assam,

Karnataka, Tripura, West Bengal and Goa. Single row trench system is

followed in hill side plantations of Assam and Tripura where soil erosion is a

problem because of the moderately heavy rain. Treble row trenches and four

row trenches are also seen occasionally.

Prepare trenches of convenient length of 90 cm width and 15-30 cm depth.

The trenches are made at a distance of 165 cm from centre to centre. The

distance between two trenches is 75 cm.

1.5.3.4 Contour Planting

This system is commonly seen in hill side plantations of Assam and Tripura.

Planting is done in terraces.

Selection and Treatment of Suckers :

Suckers of uniform size, weighing 500 – 1000 gm are the best planting material

under Kerala conditions. Keep under shade in a single layer for about 7 days

for drying. Strip off few older leaves. Allow the suckers to dry and cure for

another 7 days. Dip the cured suckers in 1 % Bordeaux mixture at the time of

planting.

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Tropical Fruits 1.5.4 Planting Kew Variety

Double row trench planting for Kew variety followed in Kerala is discussed

here. Plant the suckers in double rows in the prepared trenches at a spacing

of 60 – 70 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants. Depth of planting 7.5

– 10.0 cm. Adopt triangular method of planting in each trench, so that the

plants in two adjacent rows are not opposite to each other (plant population

40, 404 plants/ha).

For Mauritius variety when level ground planting is practiced after ploughing,

small pits are taken and planting is done. In low lying areas raised beds are

taken and planting is done. Spacing followed is 30 x 45 x 120 – 150 cm and

Plant population is 27000 – 31000 plants/ha.

Spacing - 30 x 70 x 75 cm

No. of plants/ha - Total area ÷ Area occupied by one plant

Area occupied by one plant - 30 x 82.5

= 0.3 x 0.825

Plant population = 10000 0

0.3 x 0.825

= 100000 0

0.2475

= 40, 404 plants /ha

Layout of pineapple plot

This is the high density planting recommended by Kerala Agricultural

University for Kew and Mauritius varieties and also by several other

Agricultural Universities of India. In traditional system only 15000 – 20000

plants per hectare is followed.

Pineapple plantation in Kerala and Uniform Flowering by Ethephon

211

Pineapple

Pineapple plantation in Kerala and Uniform Flowering by Ethephon

Advantages and Disadvantages of High Density Planting :

The advantages of high density planting are :

• Increased yield / unit area

• Reduced cost of cultivation

• Less weed infestation

• Protection of fruits from sun burn

• Increased production of suckers and slips

• Non-lodging of plants

• Provide shade to fruits – results in uniformly coloured lustrous fruits

• Results in overlapping of basal leaves forming a sort of natural covering

over the soil preventing evaporational losses and there by resulting in

moisture conservation.

The disadvantages of high density are :

• Reduction in size of individual fruits

• Incidence of more pests and diseases

• Difficulty in doing intercultural operations especially in case of spiny

varieties like Queen and Mauritius.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Answer the questions in the space provided.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1. What are important pineapple varieties grown in India ? Compare

the characteristic of two important varieties grown in Kerala.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

212

Tropical Fruits 2. Name the different types of planting material used in pineapple. What

is the ideal planting material under Kerala condition ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. What type of soil is required for plantation of pineapple ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

1.6 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT

Apply compost / cattle manure @ 25 t/ha as basal dressing. Apply fertilizers

as per following recommended dose :

gm/plant kg/ha

Nitrogen (N) 8g/plant 320

Phosphorous (P) 4 g/plant 160

Potassium (K) 8 g/plant 320

Full dose of P at the time of planting. The N and K may be applied in 4 split

doses. The application should be completed before harvest:

1st dose May - June (at planting)

2nd dose August - September

3rd dose November

4th dose May - June (2nd year)

Applicable for Kew only. For Mauritius variety the application should be

completed within one year. In areas where rains are scanty during November,

N and K may be applied in 3 equal splits i.e., avoid November application.

After application of fertilizers cover with soil by scraping the sides of trenches.

1.7 CULTURAL PRACTICES (CULTIVATION

PRACTICES)

The cultivation practices viz. irrigation, mulching, weeding, earthing up,

induction of flowering etc. are discussed in this section.

1.7.1 Irrigation and Mulching

Generally pineapple can tolerate drought conditions. However 5 - 6 irrigations

during dry months at an interval of 20 - 22 days is helpful. Mulching the crop

with dry leaves @ 6 t/ha will help to conserve soil moisture. However

mulching is not common in India.

213

PineappleHarvesting should be over before summer months if grown rainfed.

1.7.2 Weed Control

Successful weed control is very important in pineapple growing. Hand

weeding is very common in pineapple culture in India. However hand weeding

is very costly. Hence chemical weedicides are recommended. Pre-emergence

spray with Diuron 3 kg or Bromacil 2.5 kg in 600 liters of water per hectare

completely controls all types of weeds in pineapple plantation. If there is

subsequent growth of weeds, herbicide application may be repeated at half

the dose. Spraying should be done when there is adequate moisture in the

soil. Avoid periods of heavy rainfall for spraying.

1.7.3 Earthing Up

Earthing up is done after fertilizer application and after harvesting. It involves

pushing soil into the trench from the sides. Otherwise lodging will occur.

Also serves the purpose of weeding.

1.7.4 Induction of Flowering

Under natural conditions even if there is optimum nutritional and

environmental conditions, less than 40-50 % plants come to flowering. The

irregular flowering behaviour was one of the limiting factors in pineapple

cultivation earlier. Now wide range of chemicals viz., Ethrel, NAA, calcium

carbide etc. are used for induction of flowering in pineapple.

For induction of uniform flowering, application of 25 ppm Ethephon (2 chloro

ethyl phosphonic acid) in aqueous solution containing 2 % urea and 0.04 %

calcium carbonate is widely recommended in Kerala and in a number of

other states in India. The mixture @ 50 ml / plant is to be applied by pouring

into the heart of 15 – 17 months old plants in the case of Kew variety and for

Mauritius 7 - 8 months after planting. Apply to plants at 39 - 42 leaf stage.

For treating 1000 plants, 50 litres of the solution would be required.

For preparing 50 litres of solution, Ethephon (under the trade name/

commercial name – Ethrel) – 1.25 ml, urea – 1 kg and CaCO3 – 20 g are

required. The dosage has to be fixed depending on the availability of

commercial and the active ingredient contents. Flowering will commence

from 40th day after application and completed within 60 to 70 days in Kew

variety and in Mauritius flowering starts by 30 days and completed within 40

days. The main season of application is August – December. However can be

applied at any time of the year.

1.8 STAGGERING OF PRODUCTION

There is immense scope of spreading or staggering of fruit (harvest) throughout

the year. Staggering is possible by:

1. Using different planting materials at same time.

2. By using different sized planting materials at same time.

3. By application of growth regulators at different times.

214

Tropical Fruits 4. By planting suckers at different times.

5. Combination method of 3 and 4 is best.

1.9 FRUIT SET AND FRUIT GROWTH

Parthenocarpic multiple fruit formed by the fusion of fruit lets (100 – 200

berry like fruit lets). Fruit growth is characterized by a sigmoid curve.

Continuous increase in length, diameter and fruit weight upto 120th day. The

rate of increase is less pronounced from 120 – 150 days (Kew).

1.10 RATOONING

One plant crop and two ratoon crops are recommended. Plant crop means

first crop. After the harvest of plant crop, desuckering (removal of suckers)

is done leaving one or two suckers on the mother plant. The sucker plant

should be fertilized and earthed up. This practice of growing suckers on the

mother plant in known as ratooning. Mother plant is not uprooted.

The practice of continuing plantation for 20 - 30 years is seen in hill side

planting of Assam.

1.11 HARVESTING AND YIELD

Pineapple is a non – climacteric fruit and harvested at correct maturity. The

total duration of the crop is about 20-22 months for Kew i.e., harvesting 160-

175 days after ethephon application (about 5 1/2 months). For Mauritius 12-

13 months duration i.e. harvesting 125- 135 days after ethephon application

(about 4 1/2 months).

According to market proximity, purpose and mode of transportation,

harvesting time should be adjusted. Harvesting is possible throughout the

year.

For local market - at full maturity

For distant market - 75-80 % maturity

At maturity lower most eyes show colour change and get flattened

Kew - From dark green to orange yellow

Mauritius - From green to golden yellow

The harvesting in done with the help of a sharp knife along with the fruit

stalk of about 5-6 cm. Peak season of harvest in Kerala is February - May.

Application of growth regulator is during August - December. Adjust the

harvest before rainy season. Quality will be poor in fruits harvested during

rains (sugar will be less, acidity will be more and price will be low).

The yield depends on the plant population. If the population is 35000 - 40000

plants/ha, the yield expected is 40 - 50 t/ha. If the population is 43500 -

50000 plants/ha, the yield expected is 50 - 60 t/ha. There is possibility to get

this much yield. But in India, the productivity is very low, only 15 t/ha.

215

Pineapple1.12 STORAGE AND RIPENING

Pineapple can be stored for 4 weeks at temperature of 11-13°C at 85% RH.

Chilling injury is there below this temperature. Treating the fruits with growth

regulator NAA (500 ppm) and GA3 (100 ppm) is also helpful for extending

the storage life. By coating with wax emulsion storage life can be extended.

For enhancing ripening, Ethrel 2000 ppm is found good for uniform ripening.

1.13 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION

In India before packaging fruits are graded on the basis of size, shape, maturity,

freedom from diseases, pests and blemishes. After grading packaging is done.

In Assam packaging is done by wrapping individual fruits with paddy straw.

These are placed in standard size containers made of bamboo. From Kerala

the fruits are transported by lorry loads to Bombay, Calcutta and Bangalore

markets. The fruits are arranged crown side downwards and this crown will

act as a cushion while transportation. According to a study conducted by

CFTRI, Mysore, losses due to spoilage in transit were as high as 48%. It is

reported that when fruits are to be transported for long distance, refrigerated

transport is required to slow down ripening process.

1.14 PESTS AND DISEASES

No serious pests or diseases are noticed in the crop except light incidence of

leaf spot disease, heart rot, fruit rot etc. and also of mealy bug and scale

insects. However the disease heart rot is very serious in recent days. We shall

discuss this disease.

A) Disease

1.14.1 Heart rot or stem rot or root rot

This is a fungal disease caused by phytophthora. This has become serious in

recent days especially when pineapple is grown in low lying areas. The green

leaves turn yellowish green and tips turn brown. The central whorl of leaves

when affected will come out with a gentle pull. The basal portion of leaves

shows signs of rotting and will have foul odour. When uprooted the roots are

seen decayed. Poor physical condition of the soil and inadequate drainage

are responsible for the spread of this disease.

Control Measures :

Include good drainage, proper selection of healthy planting materials, careful

handling and prophylactic treatment of planting materials with copper

fungicides. After the incidence of disease, uproot and destroy the affected

plants and drench the soil with copper fungicides. (i.e. Phytolan @ 3g/litre).

B) Insects

A few insect like mealy bugs & scales, some time attack the crops. These

can be control by spraying any insecticide on the crops.

216

Tropical Fruits1.15 PLANT AND FRUIT ABNORMALITIES

We shall now discuss the abnormalities seen in pineapple. The abnormalities

are more common in the varieties of Cayenne group.

1.15.1 Multiple Crown

Ordinarily fruit bears a single crown. But in some cases fruit bears more than

one, even to the extent of 25. Consequently the top of the fruit will be flat

and broad and fruit will be unfit for canning. The fruit taste is insipid and

corky. It is supposed to be a heritable character. Vigorous growth with abundant

fertilizer or planting in virgin ground encourages multiple crowns.

1.15.2 Fruit and Crown Fasciation

Fruits set flattened and deformed to

such an extent that they are totally

useless. In certain cases proliferation

is so extreme that fruit is highly

flattened and twisted with

innumerable crowns. The exact reason

is not known. May be due to genetical

factors. Fruit and crown fasciation is

associated with high vigour of plants.

Prevalence of favourable climate for

vegetative growth during flower differentiation is supposed to cause this

abnormality.

1.15.3 Collar of Slips

The collar of slips is typified by the presence of a large number of slips

arising from peduncle close to the base of the fruit or even directly from the

fruit itself. High nitrogen fertilization and high rainfall along with relatively

low temperature are supposed to be congenial for such an abnormality.

1.15.4 Sun Scald

Sometimes the peduncle bearing the fruit leans or falls over to one side, thus

exposing one side of the fruit to direct sunrays. The cells under the skin of

exposed surface get damaged. Wrapping of fruit i.e., covering the fruit with

its own leaves or covering with dry leaves is done to control this.

1.16 EXPORT POTENTIAL

Even though India is the fifth largest producer of pineapple, 0.15 % (less

than 1 %) of the total production is exported. Exported as fresh fruit and also

a number of processed forms. Fresh pineapple is exported to Nepal, Saudi

Arabia, Russia and Kuwait. The important processed products are Jam, Jelly,

Dehydrated products, Squash, Juice concentrate, Slices, Canned products

etc. Next to mango, pineapple products are exported to the maximum extent.

However India’s contribution in the export of fruits is very poor, less than

1%. There is good scope of diversification and development of new products

Fruits and crown fascination

217

Pineapplefrom pineapple. The processed products are mainly exported to Russia,

Liberia, Oman and USA.

1.17 PROCESSING

Pineapple is used extensively in the food processing industry to prepare a

wide variety of products. The important processed products are pineapple

Juice, Squash, Juice concentrate, Slices, Pickle, Wine, Jam, Canned products

etc. It is estimated that nearly 50 % of the world production is utilized by

processing industry. However utilization of pineapple products in our country

does not follow world pattern. In India less than 1 % of the production is

processed. Among the products juice concentrates has great demand for export.

In 1988 a processing unit to make pineapple juice concentrates with a crushing

capacity of 2 tones / hour was set up by the NERAMAC (North Eastern

Regional Agricultural Marketing Corporation, Ltd.) at Agartala, Tripura. In

Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and North Eastern States processing factories

in private as well as in public sector have been established. The recipe for

different products are discussed below.

1.17.1 Pineapple Juice

Pineapple juice is usually prepared as a by product in the canning industry

and is a delicious beverage. Entire fruits or even scrapings and corers can be

used for the extraction of the juice. The juice can be consumed as such or

after sweetening with sugar.

After washing, remove the crown of the fruits by giving a sharp twist; remove

the peel with a stainless steel knife. Remove the eyes. Cut the sound portions

into small pieces; pass them through a mincer or chop them finely with a

sharp stainless steel knife. Wrap the prepared fruit in thick cloth and press

out the juice in a small basket press or juice extractor. Strain the juice through

coarse muslin cloth. The juice obtained is generally tart and becomes palatable

after adding sugar. Add sugar according to taste (60 g/kg) and strain the juice

again through coarse muslin cloth.

Heat the prepared juice rapidly in an aluminum or stainless steel pan on

direct fire to a temperature of 85 - 90°C. Pour the hot juice into plain cans

leaving 0.6 cm head space; seal the cans immediately. Alternatively pour the

hot juice into previously sterilized, warm bottles and seal air tight with crown

corks.

Process the cans in boiling water for 25 minutes at sea level. At higher altitudes

increase the processing time by 2 minutes for every 300 m rise in altitude.

Cool the cans immediately in running water, allow the bottles to cool gradually.

Store the cooled products in a cool and dry place.

1.17.2 Pineapple Squash and Pineapple Syrup

Extract the juice as in pineapple juice.

Recipe Squash Syrup

Juice 1.0 kg 1.0 kg

Sugar 1.7 kg 2.6 kg

218

Tropical Fruits Citric acid 20 g 25 g

Water 1.3 kg 400 g

Pineapple essence 8 ml 10 ml

Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) 2.4 g 2.4 g

Permitted Yellow colour 0.5 g 0.5 g

Mix the ingredients viz. sugar, citric acid and water and boil. Strain through

thick muslin cloth. After cooling add juice, essence and colour if required

and again stir. Dissolve the preservative (KMS) in a little quantity of water

and add to the filtered product. Mix thoroughly and fill in previously sterilized

bottles leaving a head space of 2.5 cm. Cork and store in a dry, cool place.

When required, for 1 cup add 3 cups of water in the case of squash and 4

cups of water in the case syrup and drink.

1.17.3 Pineapple Beverage (Ready to serve)

Extract the pineapple juice from fully ripe pineapple as described earlier and

prepare the beverage using the following recipe.

Recipe

Pineapple Juice 100 g

Sugar 100-120 g

Citric acid 2.5 g

Water 800 g

Essence 0.25 ml.

Permitted Yellow colour 0.02 g

KMS 1 pinch

Mix Sugar, citric acid and water and heat till all the sugar is dissolved. Filter

the mixture through a fine muslin cloth. To this syrup, add the pineapple

juice, essence and colour and KMS. Mix them well. The beverage is ready

and can be consumed immediately.

If it is required to be preserved for 1-2 months, heat the beverage to 90°C, fill

hot into clean, warm and sterilized narrow mouth bottles leaving about 2.5

cm head space and apply crown corks. Alternatively pasteurize the filled

bottles after sealing for 10 minutes.

1.17.4 Canned Pineapple

In the international market canned pineapple has great demand. Ripe and

juicy fruit with characteristic colour and aroma should be selected and washed

in fresh water.

Remove the crown, peel, eyes and the core of the fruits (cores removed with

a corer) and cut into transverse slices of 1.25 cm thickness with a stainless

steel knife. Prepare the sugar syrup by mixing 1 kg sugar with 1.5 kg water

(40°B) and 6 g citric acid and bring it to boil. Place the pineapple rings (5 - 6)

in butter size plain cans. Fill the interspaces with syrup leaving 1.25 cm head

space.

Exhaust the cans until the temperature at the centre of the can attains 80°C

(time taken is about 7 minutes) and seal. Process the cans in boiling water for

219

Pineapple20 and 25 minutes in the case of butter size and A 2 ½ cans respectively. Cool

the cans quickly and store.

1.17.5 Pineapple Jam

After removing the crown, peel and eyes, cut the sound portions of the fruit

into small pieces. Crush them thoroughly and obtain a uniform mass. Add an

equal quantity of sugar by weight to the prepared pulp. Allow it to stand for

½ - 1 hour. Cook the mixture slowly with vigorous stirring, till the temperature

reaches 105.5°C (at sea level) or till the mass approaches jam consistency.

Fill the jam hot into sterilized dry jars cool them and screw tightly. Store in a

cool and dry place.

1.17.6 Pineapple Pickle

Select immature pineapple and wash them thoroughly. Remove the crown

and peel. Remove the eyes and core. Cut into very small pieces. Add salt to

pineapple pieces and keep for half an hour. Heat mustard or groundnut or

sesamum oil in a pan and add chopped ginger, garlic and green chillies into

the oil. Then add red chilli powder. Add pineapple pieces and mix well.

Finally add a small quantity of fenugreek and asafoetida powder and a pinch

of sodium benzoate. Add vinegar also. After mixing thoroughly allow to

cool. After cooling fill in to sterilized bottles.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1. What are the nutritional requirement for pineapple crops ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. What are the different products obtain from pineapple fruits ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. What are the abnormalities found in pineapple ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

1.18 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied the commercial pineapple varieties grown in

220

Tropical Fruits different countries and also in India, and the detailed cultivation practices of

pineapple. The nutritional requirement of pineapple is discussed. The

induction of flowering in pineapple by ethephon treatment is explained in

detail. The storage, packaging and transportation are described. The pests

and diseases and plant and fruit abnormalities are discussed. The utilization

of pineapple into different products are explained in detail. It is very important

to know all these details when we study about pineapple crop.

1.19 KEY WORDS

Control Planting : It is a plantation method of Pineapple used in

the Hill of Assam and Tripura, planting is done

on terraces.

Slips : If Pineapple slips are arise from the base of

fruits or from the top of peduncle i.e. just below

the fruits. These slips are used for Pineapple

propagation.

TSS : The total soluble solids ranges between 12°B

and 16°B.

Sucker : These are the vegetative growth in Pineapple

and arise from the buds of the stem below

ground region. These are used for vegetative

propagation.

1.20 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Bal, J.S. (2006). Fruit growing. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.

2. Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K. and Sanyal. D.S. (ed.) (2001). Fruits: Tropical

and Subtropical. Naya Udyog, Calcutta.

3. Collins, J.L. (1960). The pineapple – Botany, Cultivation and

Utilization. Leonard Hill LTD, London.

4. Chadha, K.L. Reddy, B.H.C. and Shikhamany, S.D. (1998). Pineapple,

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

5. KAU, (2007). Package of Practices Recommendations - Crops.

Directorate of Extension, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur,

Vellanikara.

6. Radha, T. and Mathew, L. (2007). Fruit Crops, New India Publishing

Agency, New Delhi.

1.21 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. The important pineapple varieties grown in India are Giant Kew, Kew,

Mauritius and Queen.

221

PineappleThe comparison of Kew and Mauritius are given below :

Kew Mauritius

1. Leaves are spine less Leaves are spiny.

2. Fruits are larger (1.5-2.5kg) Fruits are of medium size

cylindrical in shapes with (1.25-1.50 kg), slightly conical in

shallow and broad eyes, shape with deep eyes, not suitable

ideal for canning industry. for canning.

3. The unripe fruits are dark The unripe fruits are green in

green in colour. colour.

4. The flesh colour is light The flesh colour is golden yellow.

yellow.

5. Shy suckering habit, 0 – 2 2-3 suckers per plant.

suckers per plant.

6. Quality medium. Quality good, high sugar content,

better keeping quality compared to

Kew.

7. Duration 20-22 months. Duration 12-13 months.

2. The different types of planting material in pineapple are suckers, slips,

hapas, crowns, stumps, stem bits and tissue culture plants. Under Kerala

conditions suckers are the ideal planting material.

3. Pineapple can be grown in a wide range of soils, but it does not tolerate

water logging. Sandy and loamy soils or laterite soils are ideal. Heavy

clay soil and high water table are not conducive. The optimum pH is

between 5.5 to 6.0.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Apply compost / cattle manure @ 25 t/ha as basal dressing. Apply

fertilizers as per following recommended dose :

gm/plant kg/ha

Nitrogen (N) 8g/plant 320

Phosphorous (P) 4g/plant 160

Potassium (K) 8g/plant 320

Full dose of P at the time of planting. The N and K may be applied in 4

split doses.

2. The different processed products from pineapple include pineapple juice,

squash, syrup, jam, pickle, juice concentrates and canned pineapple.

3. Multiple crown, fruit and crown fasciation, collar of slips and sunscald

are the abnormalities in pineapple.

222

Tropical FruitsUNIT 2 PAPAYA (CARICA PAPAYA LINN.)

Structure

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Area and Production

2.3 Climate and Soil

2.4 Varieties

2.5 Land Preparation and Planting

2.5.1 Planting material

2.5.2 Planting season

2.5.3 Spacing

2.5.4 Planting method

2.6 Nutritional Requirements

2.7 Cultivation Practices

2.7.1 Irrigation

2.7.2 Weeding

2.7.3 Intercropping

2.7.4 Fruit thinning

2.7.5 Earthing up

2.7.6 Removal of male plants

2.8 Flowering, Sex Expression and Fruit Development

2.9 Harvesting

2.10 Storage

2.11 Packaging and Transportation

2.12 Processing

2.12.1 Papaya pickle

2.12.2 Papaya jelly

2.12.3 Papaya preserve

2.12.4 Canned papaya

2.12.5 Papaya nectar

2.12.6 Papaya squash

2.12.7 Tuti-frutti

2.12.8 Papaya petha

2.12.9 Papaya jam

2.12.10 Papain extraction

2.13 Plant protection

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Papaya2.13.1 Pests

2.13.2 Diseases

2.14 Let Us Sum Up

2.15 Key Words

2.16 Further References

2.17 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:

• explain the area and production scenario of papaya,

• explain the soil and climatic requirement of papaya,

• state the papaya varieties developed by different institutes in India,

• describe the manuring and fertilizer recommendation of papaya,

• elaborate on the cultivation practices of papaya,

• explain the processing of papaya into different products, and

• identify the important pests and diseases of papaya.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Papaya has long been known as the wonder fruit of the tropics and sub tropics.

It has got great importance due to its highly delicious nutritive value of fruits

and production potentiality. Owing to the increasing demand for fruits and

papain (digestive enzyme) and high returns, the area and production of papaya

have increased during the last few decades. Papaya provides cheap source of

vitamins and minerals in the daily diet of the people. It is an abundant source

of carotene, precursor of vitamin A.

Papaya is originated in Mexico. It was introduced to India during 16th century

by Portuguese people.

2.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

Total annual world production is estimated at 6 million tonnes of fruits. India

leads the world in papaya production with an annual oputput of about 26

lakh tonnes. Other leading producers are Hawaii, Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria,

Indonesia, China, Peru, Thailand and Philippines.

The area under papaya cultivation in India increased by 63 % from 83 thousand

ha in 2007-08 to 138 thousand ha in 2017-18 and the production increased

from 29 lakh tonnes to 60 lakh tonnes. Papaya is mostly cultivated in the

states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal, Assam,

Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra (Vide Table 1).

224

Tropical Fruits Table 1: Statewise area, production and productivity of papaya in different states in 2017-18

State Area Production Productivity

(‘000 ha.) (‘000 MT) (MT/ha)

Andhra Pradesh 18.01 1687.82 93.72

West Bengal 12.38 365.95 29.56

Karnataka 8.75 593.69 67.85

Jharkhand 2.66 116.41 43.76

Gujarat 20.31 1256.51 61.87

Maharashtra 10.28 408.30 39.72

Assam 7.21 147.40 20.44

Chhatisgarh 14.40 381.42 26.49

Madhya Pradesh 10.55 421.55 39.96

Tamil Nadu 1.53 141.58 92.54

Others 32.30 468.21 14.50

Total 138.40 5988.83 530.41

2.3 CLIMATE AND SOIL

Papaya, a tropical plant prefers warm and humid climate. Low temperature

(below 10°C) inhibits growth and affects fruit development. Fruits have less

flavour and sweetness. High temperature during flowering causes sterility,

while dry climate at mature stage increases sweetness. Optimum temperature

range is 22-26°C. It requires an evenly distributed annual rainfall of 150 to

180 cm. Papaya can be cultivated upto an elevation of 1200 m and it requires

protection from wind.

A fertile, deep and organically rich, well drained soil is the most ideal for

papaya cultivation. Alluvial and medium black soils having a pH of 6.5 to

7.0 are preferred. Papaya cannot withstand water stagnation, hence proper

drainage facilities should be provided. Under water logged conditions, the

foliage turns yellow, the lower leaves drop prematurely. Prolonged water

logging results in rotting of stem.

2.4 VARIETIES

A large number of papaya varieties are found in cultivation. Often wide

variability is noticed due to collection of seeds from open pollinated plants.

A number of improved papaya varieties have been developed by Indian

Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Regional Station, Pusa, Bihar, Tamil

Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore and Indian Institute of

Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore, which are suitable for growing in

different states of India.

In papaya, a number of varieties both indigenous and exotic are available.

Descriptions of varieties are given in the following Table-2.

•

225

PapayaTable 2: Papaya Varieties :

Variety Character

Varieties from IARI Regional Station, Pusa, Bihar

Pusa Gynodioecious variety with 100 % productive plants, yield

Delicious high, fruiting starts at 150 cm height, large fruit, pulp deep

orange, very sweet, TSS 13°Brix, flavour good.

Pusa Majesty Gynodioecious, bearing at a height of 45 cm, medium round

fruits, flesh firm, yellow, keeping quality good, tolerant to

root-knot-nematode.

Pusa Giant Dioecious variety, bearing at a height of 1 m, large fruits

suitable as a vegetable, canning (petha) and for tooty-fruity.

Tolerant to strong winds.

Pusa Dwarf Dwarf and dioecious, bearing at 40 cm height, fruit medium,

oval, flesh orange red, sweet, melting, TSS 9°Brix, suitable

for high density planting.

Pusa Nanha Dioecious, dwarf mutant, plant height 100-110 cm, suitable

for kitchen garden, pot planting, high density planting (1.25

x 1.25 m).

Varieties from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

CO1 Selection from the var. Ranchi. Dwarf, dioecious, bearing

at one metre height, fruit medium, spherical, smooth skin,

flesh orange-yellow, firm, sweet, juicy with pleasing

flavour. TSS 13°Brix, keeping quality good. Suitable for

table purpose.

CO2 Selection from inbred local strain, plants dioecious, medium

tall, fruits round to oval, flesh orange coloured, moderately

juicy, mild flavour, TSS 13°Brix, keeping quality good,

good variety for papain production.

CO3 Gynodioecious, hybrid between CO2 x Sunrise Solo, plant

tall, hermaphrodite, fruits medium, flesh reddish, sweet,

good keeping quality, TSS 14.6°Brix.

CO4 Dioecious hybrid between CO1 x Washington. Plants have

purple colouration, fruits medium, round, flesh yellow with

purple tinge, quality good, TSS 13.2°Brix.

CO5 Dioecious selection from Washington. Highest papain

yielder, 15 g dry papain/fruit. Average yield of 1500 kg dry

papain/hectare, TSS 13°Brix.

CO6 Inbred selection from Pusa Majesty. Dioecious, dual

purpose variety.

CO7 Gynodioecious variety with red flesh, uniform size and

shape. TSS 16.5°Brix with low stamen carpellody.

226

Tropical Fruits

Photo 2 : Papaya varieties (CO7 & Pusa Dwarf)

Photo 3 : Pusa Nanha

227

PapayaVarieties from IIHR, Bangalore

Coorg Honey Selection from Honey Dew, gynodioecious, excellent

Dew quality. Fruits borne on female plants are seedless, medium

size, oval in shape, very sweet, keeping quality medium.

Pink Flesh Excellent quality fruits with a TSS of 12-14°Brix medium

Sweet size, pink fleshed.

Arka Surya Hybrid of Sunrise Solo x Pink Flesh sweet, medium size,

red flesh, TSS 14°Brix, low cavity, good peeling quality.

Other Important Varieties

Pant Papaya-I Variety from Pant Nagar. Medium sized dioecious variety

recommended for Tarai area of UP.

Ranchi A variety from Bihar. Fruit medium to large, all the three

sex forms - male, hermaphrodite and female present.

Washington Important in Maharashtra. Plants violet coloured, fruits

large, ovate, green with good quality, suitable for papain

production.

Exotic varieties

Solo Gynodioecious, fruits small size with good quality. Female

plants produce round fruits, but hermaphrodite produces

elongated fruits. TSS 14°Brix. Flesh firm, good taste,

keeping quality good. Hawaii variety.

Sunrise Solo Gynodioecious, pink flesh, good taste, from Hawaii. An

inbred between Pink Solo x Yellow Fleshed farmer’s

selection.

Taiwan Gynodioecious, blood red flesh and good taste. Fruit

medium to large, ovate shape on female plant, whereas

elongate in hermaphrodite plant.

Thailand Gynodioecious, deep red flesh and good yield, very sweet.

Eksotica Malaysian variety developed by back crossing local Subang

and Sunrise Solo. High yielding early variety, TSS 13-

15°Brix. Hermaphrodite fruits are pyriform while the

females are round in shape.

Waimanalo A high quality variety, orange yellow flesh, fruits round,

smooth, shining and have a star shaped cavity. An improved

variety of Hawaii (U.S.A.)

Higgins Gynodioecious variety suitable for dry area. Fruit small to

medium, firm, yellow, export papaya variety in Hawaii.

Wilder Gynodioecious variety of Hawaii suitable for export,

uniformity in fruit size, firm and yellow fruits.

228

Tropical Fruits2.5 LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING

A well-drained upland is selected for planting. In open and high lying areas

plants are exposed to strong winds or storm. Therefore, for proper

establishment of papaya plants, suitable wind break should be planted at the

orchard boundary. Jaint (Sesbania aegyptiaca) should be sown around the

field at the onset of monsoon to act as an effective wind break. The planting

material used and planting details are described below.

2.5.1 Planting Material

Papaya is commercially propagated by seeds. The seed rate is 250-300 g/ha.

The seedlings can be raised in nursery beds 3 m long, 1 m wide and 10 cm

high as well as in pots or polythene bags. Fresh seeds after being treated with

0.1 % Monosan (phenyl mercuric acetate), ceresan etc. are sown 1 cm deep

in rows 10 cm apart and covered with fine compost or leaf mould. Light

irrigation is provided during the morning hours. The nursery beds are covered

with polythene sheets or dry paddy straw to protect the seedlings. Seeds will

germinate in 15-20 days. Two month old seedlings are transplanted in the

main field. Tissue culture plantlets produced by shoot tip culture are also

used for planting. Cuttings and mound layers are used to a very limited

scale.

2.5.2 Planting Season

Papaya is planted during spring (February - March), monsoon (June - July)

and autumn (October - November).

2.5.3 Spacing

A spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m to 3.0 x 3.0 m is followed depending on stature of

the variety. However high density cultivation with spacing of 1.5 x 1.5 m

enhances the returns to the farmer and is recommended for dwarf varieties. A

closer spacing of 1.2 x 1.2 m for cv. Pusha Nanha is adopted for high density

planting, accommodating 6,400 plants/ha.

2.5.4 Planting Method

The seedlings are planted in pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm size. In the summer

months the pits are dug about a fortnight before planting. The pits are filled

with top soil along with well decomposed farm yard manure. Tall and vigorous

varieties are planted at greater spacing while medium and dwarf ones at closer

spacing. In the case of dioecious varieties like CO1 or CO2, 3-4 seedlings

are transplanted per pit. It would be sufficient to plant two seedlings per pit

in the case of hermaphrodite types. In dioecious types 50 % of plants may be

male. Male plants are removed as soon as they flower and female and

hermaphrodite plants are retained. One male plant for every 10-20 female

plants is retained for effective pollination. Excess female or hermaphrodite

plants are also to be removed.

2.6 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Papaya is a nutrient loving plant and for quick growth and production of

229

Papayahigh yield, adequate and efficient manuring is essential. Both organic and

inorganic manures are highly beneficial to the papaya plants. Organic manure

may be applied @ 10 to 25 kg/plant/year at the onset of south west monsoon.

Since papaya is continuous in fruiting habit, it removes high quantity of

nutrients from soil i.e., 1770 g N, 200 g P, 2120 g K, 350 g Ca, 180 g Mg, 200

g S, 989 mg B, 3364 mg Fe, 1385 mg Zn and 8 mg Mo per ton of papaya

fruit. Field experiments done at different States with many varieties suggested

that application of N, P2O

5 and K

2O vary from 140-350 g, 70-375 g and 0-

500 g respectively/plant/year. Both organic as well as inorganic fertilizers

are to be given.

Leaf nutrient analysis determines fertilizer needs of papaya plant. It has

been reported that mature petiole (6th leaf from the top) is the diagnostic leaf

and the best time for analysis is at flowering stage. Fertilizer dosages vary

with location, variety and soil type. Experimental results from IIHR, Bangalore

suggested that 240 g N, 500 g P2O

5 and 500 g K

2O/plant/year gave the best

results in Coorg Honey Dew papaya, whereas N, P, K, @ 400 g, 350 g and

600 g respectively per plant/year in three splits at 30, 60 and 120 days after

transplanting gave better yield at West Bengal. In Andhra Pradesh and Madhya

Pradesh, the recommended dosage for N, P2O

5 and K

2O are @ 250, 250 and

500 g/plant/year and it is 250, 200, 200 g respectively at Tamil Nadu. In

Kerala the recommended dose of N, P2O

5 and K

2O are @ 200, 200 and 400

g/plant/year.

Apart from major nutrients, micronutrients are also required and experiments

proved that foliar application of boron (0.1 %), Mn (0.25 %) and Cu (0.25

%) applied singly or in combination at 2 and 3 months after transplanting

enhanced growth, flowering, yield and quality in papaya. Deficiency of boron

resulted in the formation of deformed fruits. Papaya plant responds well to

the application of biofertilizers viz., Azotobactor and Azospirillum. It has

been reported that application of 20 kg vermicompost/plant hastened flowering

and increased the yield attributes in papaya.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.

1. Name the papaya varieties developed by TNAU, Coimbatore.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. Name two Hawaiian papaya varieties.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

230

Tropical Fruits 3. What is the Planting season of papaya ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

4. Give the fertilizer recommendation for papaya in Tamil Nadu and

Kerala.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2.7 CULTIVATION PRACTICES (CULTURAL

PRACTICES)

Under this section we shall study the cultivation practices. This includes

irrigation, breeding, intercropping, fruit thinning, earthing up etc.

2.7.1 Irrigation

The irrigation schedule is fixed on the basis of soil type and weather conditions

of the region. Protective irrigation is provided in the first year of planting.

During the second year, irrigation is provided at fortnightly interval in winter

and at an interval of 10 days in summer. Basin system of irrigation is mostly

followed. But case is to be taken to avoid water stagnation around the plant.

The ring system of irrigation is found to be better than basin system because

the ring system prevents irrigation water coming into contact with the stem,

thus preventing collar rot. Irrigation increases both the number and size of

marketable papaya fruit. In low rainfall area where water is scarce, sprinkler

or drip system of irrigation can be adopted.

Photo 1 : Ring System of Irrigation in Papaya

231

Papaya

2.7.2 Weeding

The plot should be kept free of weeds. Two hand diggings in a year are

necessary to check weed growth. Weeding should be done on regular basis

especially around the plants. Application of Diuron or Alachlorin or

Butachlorine (2.0 kg/ha) as pre-emergence herbicide two months after

transplanting can effectively control the weeds for a period of four months.

2.7.3 Intercropping

Intercrops such as short duration vegetables can be grown during initial stages.

No intercrops are taken after the onset of flowering stage.

2.7.4 Fruit Thinning

Fruit thinning is an important practice that will regulate production and

improve the percentage of uniform size marketable fruit. The underdeveloped

and small fruitlets are removed in the early stages of development.

2.7.5 Earthing up

Earthing up of papaya plant should be done which will support plants to

remain in position and also protect them from direct contact with rain and

irrigation water. Earthing up is usually done before or after the onset of

monsoon.

2.7.6 Removal of Male Plants

At flowering time, excess male plants should be removed from the plantation.

In a row one male plant can be retained for 10 female plants.

2.8 FLOWERING, SEX EXPRESSION AND

FRUIT DEVELOPMENT

Papaya starts flowering and fruiting in 3-5 months after planting and attains

maturity in 5 months after fruit set depending on variety, age, climate and

232

Tropical Fruits nutrient status of soil. Flowering and fruiting continue throughout life span

of plant but economic life is only for 3-5 years.

Sex expression in papaya is very complicated phenomenon. It has been

reported that there are eight (8) working categories of sex as staminate,

teratological staminate, reduced elongata, elongata, carpelloid elongata,

pentandria, carpelloid pentandria and pistillate. However there are three basic

sex forms viz. Staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite. The pistillate plant is

stable, while staminate and hermaphrodite plants may be either phenotypically

stable or phenotypically ambivalent going through seasonal sex reversals

during which they produce varying proportions of staminate, perfect and

pistillate flowers. Changes in the sex expression is accelerated by

environmental factors such as low temperature to produce perfect flowers on

the male plant. Fertile hermaphrodite types also have some pistillate flowers

which may show male tendency in summer and female tendency in winter. A

large difference between day and night temperature can produce more female

flowers than normal. Long day and high temperature has been reported to

promote the formation of female flower in Coorg Honey Dew.

The application of growth regulators has been found to change sex in papaya

GA3 spray of 50 ppm in CO1 increased the femaleness. It was reported that

SADH treatment proved very effective in CO1 for the control of height,

acceleration of flowering and fruiting at lower node, increase in fruit set and

yield. TIBA 100 ppm spray to papaya seedlings increased the femaleness.

Application of GA3 on Coorg Honey Dew increased the production of

hermaphrodite and staminate flowers, caused a two fold increase in vitamin

C contents but reduced the seed number, fruit size and pectin content. Ethephon

@ 240-960 ppm and chlorflurenol @ 20-80 ppm induced intersexual and

female flowers as well as male flowers on genetically male plants of Honey

Dew cultivar. GA3 at 25 ppm and ethrel at 100 ppm on 100-125 days old

seedlings tended to produce more females. Defoliation has been reported to

induce maleness.

It is difficult to identify the correct sex in papaya varieties until their floral

emergence.

Fruit showed a double sigmoid type growth pattern during development. There

is a progressive increase in total sugars, vitamins (A and C), minerals (Ca, P

and K), tannins, xanthophylls and carotene pigments during later part of fruit

development. Papaya is a climacteric fruit with characteristic respiratory peak

and ethylene production pattern during ripening. At maturity, fruit skin shows

yellow streaks and latex becomes watery.

2.9 HARVESTING

Harvesting is done by picking individual fruit by hand. While harvesting,

fruits are not allowed to fall on ground. Fruits showing streaks of yellow

colour are harvested.

About 20-50 fruits are obtained from a plant and on an average yield varies

from 40-50 tonnes ha-1 during first year and it reduces to 20-25 tonnes ha-1

in second year. Although papaya trees bear fruits continuously for many years,

233

Papayait is not economical to retain the trees after 3 years.

2.10 STORAGE

Mature papaya fruits ripe within 2-4 days after harvest. Fruits can be stored

at 20°C, if temperature is above 20°C, fruit will be affected by fungal diseases

like Colletotrichum sp. and when the temperature is below 20°C, it will lead

to chilling injuries. Low temperature (10-15°C) and controlled atmospheric

(2 % O2, 5 % CO

2 and 16°C) storage can extend shelf life by 2 weeks.

Dipping fruits in mycostatin or aureofungin (1000 ppm) effectively control

post harvest decay of papaya fruits. Ripening was delayed when fruits were

vapor-heat treated, wrapped and stored. Ripening of papaya can be controlled

by low temperature storage (13-15°C) with an ethylene absorbent (7 g/kg).

Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP) in heat shrinkable film and low

temperature (15°C) storage delayed and retarded firmness loss.

2.11 PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION

The harvested fruits should be collected in single layers in shallow baskets

padded with straw or similar soft material and taken to the packing shed.

Before packing, suitable grading of fruits should be done to get higher price.

Damaged and diseased fruits should be rejected which can be utilized in

local consumption only. Fruits are graded on the basis of skin colour, weight,

size and shape. They should be uniform in colour and shape.

Packing of papaya fruits differ from place to place and marketing distances

in our country. If the fruits are to be sent to a distant market, they should

immediately be packed in single layers after harvesting, one above the other

and separated by paddy straw and should be sent to the market as soon as

possible. For local markets the fruits are generally heaped in ground with or

without wrapping with newspaper. For semi-distant markets the fruits are

individually wrapped with newspaper and packed in shallow bamboo baskets

with straw or shredded paper around the fruit layer, each packing, weighing

20-25 kg in weight. For fairly long distance transportation wooden crates or

plastic containers are used in which fruits are arranged in single layer wrapped

in newspaper, each packing weighing about 15 kg, sawdust, straw or plastic

foam are used as cushion.

2.12 PROCESSING

The raw fruit is used in South India for making curries, soups, either alone or

combined with other vegetables. The cooked papaya tastes like the cooked

product of cucumber. The mature and ripe papaya fruit can be suitably

processed to give different products like pickle, jelly, candy, petha, squash,

etc. Another important product from papaya is papain. The different products

are discussed below.

2.12.1 Papaya Pickle

Peel and slice the green papaya. Cover it with boiling water for three minutes.

Strain the water and sprinkle common salt on the blanched slices. Allow the

234

Tropical Fruits fruit slices to dry up to some extent. Place the prepared papaya slices in the

jar. Cover with vinegar. Add two teaspoons of husked mustard for every kg

of fruit slices. Add turmeric in suitable quantities and close the jar air-tight.

The slices cure in 2-3 weeks and give good pickle.

In another method, after drying the slices, different types of spices (chilli,

fenugreek, asafoetida and garlic) with mustard or groundnut or sesamum oil

is mixed in it. This can be used soon after preparation.

2.12.2 Papaya Jelly

Select fully mature but somewhat raw fruits. Thoroughly clean in water and

remove the peel and seeds and cut into pieces. Add water at the rate of 2.5 kg

for every kg of fruit and about two teaspoons of citric acid. Heat the mixture

for 30 minutes to extract pectin. Cool the extract and allow to settle for about

2 hours. Carefully decant the clear extract or filter it through thick cloth. Test

the extract for pectin content with a few drops of ethyl alcohol. The formation

of a single clot indicates high pectin. The presence of a number of clots

shows moderate pectin content. If a gelatinous precipitate forms, then it has

low pectin content. Concentrate extract by heating till it gives test for high

pectin content.

Mix the extract with equal quantity of sugar by volume, if it is rich in pectin.

The ¾th quantity of sugar is sufficient if it has moderate pectin content. Cook

the material till it falls in the form of sheets or flakes when let down from a

spoon. Alternatively, cooking may be done up to 105.5°C. Pour the product

into sterilized and dry glass jars and cool. Cover with a layer of molten wax

and close the lid air-tight.

2.12.3 Papaya Preserve

Use fully mature and unripe fruits. Peel and remove the seeds. Cut the flesh

into pieces of 7.5 cm x 7.5 cm and prick them with stainless steel fork. Immerse

the fruit pieces in dilute lime water (15 g of lime in one litre of water) for

about 3-4 hours. Wash the pieces 3-4 times with fresh lots of water and boil

in sugar syrup of 40°Brix. Keep overnight. Next day, drain out the syrup and

add enough sugar to raise its Brix to 50°. Repeat the process every day till the

Brix of residual syrup reaches 70-75°. Drain off the syrup. Cut the fruit pieces

further to the desired shape.

2.12.4 Canned Papaya

Select fully developed, ripe but firm fruits with good aroma. Wash them in

cold water and cut length-wise into slices of 2.5-4 cm width. Remove the

peel and seeds. Cut the flesh cross-wise into pieces of 2.5-4 cm length or into

cubes. Pack the fruit pieces in standard cans. Add sugar syrup of 33°Brix

(prepared by mixing one cup of sugar with 2 cups of water and half a

teaspoonful of citric acid) leaving a head space of 6 mm. Exhaust the cans in

boiling water at 88°C for 5 minutes. Close the cans immediately and process

at 100°C for 12 minutes. Cool the product in running water and store at room

temperature.

235

Papaya2.12.5 Papaya Nectar

Nectar is a thin pulp of the fruit suitably blended with sugar and citric acid to

obtain a product of 15-20°Brix and mild acid taste.

Cut the fully ripe fruit into slices and peel with a stainless steel knife and

crush the pieces into pulp and pass through a fine sieve to remove the fibrous

materials. The yield of pulp from ripe fruit is about 50 per cent.

Gradually mix the pulp with double quantity of water. Add sugar (half the

quantity of pulp) and citric acid. Mix thoroughly. Strain the product through

muslin cloth. Heat the prepared nectar to 85-88°C and fill into previously

sterilized plain cans. Seal the cans, invert them for a minute and cool them in

running cold water to about 38°C. Cool the product subsequently under

atmospheric conditions. Equipment used should be of non-corrosive metal.

2.12.6 Papaya Squash

It has been reported that papaya squash can be prepared from ripe papaya.

Juice is extracted from the pulp. Sugar syrup is prepared and juice is mixed.

Finally desired colour, preservative and essence is added and bottled before

marketing.

2.12.7 Tuti-frutti

This product is made after peeling the raw matured fruit and making into

small pieces. Dip the pieces in dilute lime water for 4 hours. Wash thoroughly

with 3-4 change of water. After washing it is boiled in sugar solution till it

becomes soft. In the process citric acid and desired colour is added. Potassium

meta bisulphite is added after cooling. The process is repeated for 7 days.

After 7 days the pieces are kept in sugar solution continuously for another

one week. The pieces are taken out, cut into smaller pieces, dried and packed

in polythene covers.

2.12.8 Papaya Petha

The unripe matured fruits are used for making petha. The skin of fruit is

peeled off and the fruit is cut into pieces of 8 x 8 cm. Keep these pieces in

dilute lime water for 3-4 hours. Wash thoroughly with 3-4 changes of water.

Boil in 40 % solution of sugar. More sugar is added in order to make it 72 %

concentration. Sodium benzoate (0.02 %) is added which act as a preservative.

The product is then put into sterilized bottle or can. Suitably labelled and

sealed.

2.12.9 Papaya Jam

The matured ripe fruit is used for making papaya jam. The fruit is peeled off.

Remove the seeds and cut into small pieces. Mixed with equal quantity of

sugar and a small quantity of citric acid and cooked with small quantity of

water, till the consistency of jam is obtained. Fill the jam into sterilized bottles.

2.12.10 Papain Extraction

Papaya is cultivated on a commercial scale mainly for papain production.

236

Tropical Fruits Papain is a proteolytic digestive enzyme present in the latex or milky secretion

of papaya plants and immature fruits. Papain is extracted from 90-100 days

old fruits. During morning hours (before 9.00 am), fruits are longitudinally

incised about 0.3 cm deep on four sides, from the stalk end to tip. Latex is

collected in arecanut spathes, aluminium trays or glass vessels. Same fruit

can be incised repeatedly thrice (total 16 incisions) at an interval of 3-4 days

for extraction of papain. It is also reported that for getting maximum papain

yield lancing (cutting) has to be done at 7 days interval. The scarred fruits

can be utilized for tuti-frutti production. For increasing storage life, potassium

metabisulphite (0.05 %) is added to the latex. Latex is then dried either under

sun or at a temperature of 50-55°C. Dried flakes are powdered and light

brown in colour known as Semi Refined, is sieved in a 10 mesh and stored in

polythene bags or airtight glass containers. This can be stored for six months

without any deterioration in its quality. Spray dried crude powder known as

refined papain is of higher activity. Yield of papain is influenced by variety,

fruit size, maturity, management practices and environmental factors. Papain

yield can be increased by spraying growth regulators viz., Ethrel (200 ppm),

IBA (25 or 50 ppm) or GA3 (100 or 200 ppm). Tapped fruits are equally tasty

as untapped fruits, although their appearance is spoiled. Biochemical analysis

of fruits have also revealed that latex extraction has no effect on the quality

of the fruit.

The average yield of papain varies from 200-300 g per tree with a maximum

of 450 g in two years. When papaya is commercially grown for papain

production, the trees are retained only for 2 years. Papain is highly valued as

an industrial product in preparing various digestive enzymes, clarification of

beer and in meat tenderising. Besides it is also used in pharmaceutical industry,

textile, garment cleaning, paper and adhesive manufacture, dental and face

cream.

2.13 PLANT PROTECTION

Papaya is affected by a number of pests and diseases. The important pests

and diseases are discussed in this section.

2.13.1 Pests

The important pests are red spider mite, fruit fly and nematodes.

i) Red spider mite (Tetranychus spp.) : It affects leaves and fruits resulting

yellowing of leaves, rough brown fruit skin colouration and scarring.

Mites are controlled by spraying kelthane 18.5 EC or lime sulphur (0.05

%).

ii) Oriental Fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis) : They affect ripe papaya fruits

before harvest. Fruit flies are controlled by spraying sevin 5 % or

Dimethoate (0.1 %).

iii) Nematodes : Papaya orchards are severely affected by root knot nematode

and reniform nematode. In affected plants, roots form galls which lead to

stunted growth, yellowing and drying of leaves. Growing tolerant varieties

like Pusa Majesty, application of carbofuran (2 kg ha-1) or neem cake

(1 kg ha-1) are effective control measures.

237

Papaya2.13.2 Diseases

Papaya plant is affected by fungal and viral diseases and the important diseases

are the following.

A) Fungal Diseases :

i) Damping off (Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp. and Rhizoctonia solani)

: It is very common in nursery plants during rainy season. High

atmospheric humidity, water stagnation and a temperature range of 20-

25°C are favourable factors for spread of the disease. Control measures

include sterilization of nursery soil with formaldehyde (2 %), treating

seeds with ceresan (2 g/kg of seed), drenching nursery beds with captan

or Bordeaux mixture (1 %) and avoiding excess irrigation.

ii) Collar rot (Pythium aphanidermatum) : Soil borne pathogens become

severe during rainy season. Swelling at collar region is the typical

symptom. Disease can be controlled by drenching soil with Bordeaux

mixture and pasting Bordeaux mixture at collar region. Proper drainage

should be provided and affected plants are to be removed from the field.

iii) Root rot (Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium sp.) : Seedling and grown

up plants get affected. Treating seeds with captan or ceresan (3 g/kg of

seed), nursery bed sterilization and drenching soil with Bordeaux mixture

solution are the control measures.

Other diseases are fruit rot (Phytophthora palmivora), Black spot

(Cercospora papayae) and leaf blight. The former disease is controlled

by spraying Bordeaux mixture (1 %) and dipping fruits in hot water (115-

120°F) for 5 minutes. The later diseases are controlled by spraying

Mancozeb (0.2 %).

B) Viral diseases :

i) Papaya Mosaic Virus (PMV) : A very serious disease transmitted through

sap and aphids. Symptoms are yellowing of leaves, bending of petioles

and stunted growth of plant. Uprooting and destruction of affected plants

and controlling vectors are done for checking the disease.

ii) Papaya Leaf Curl : The virus is transmitted through whitefly, graft

transmissible but not through sap. Leaf size gets reduced, they show

crinkling, distortion and curling. Affected plants should be destroyed.

Vectors can be controlled by spraying Rogor (0.03 %).

iii) Distortion Ring Spot Virus : The virus is transmitted through sap and

aphids. The younger leaves are distorted. Destruction of affected plants

and controlling vectors are done for checking the disease.

C) Disorders :

Important disorders seen in papaya are skin freckles and die back. In the

former one freckle like blemishes occurred on ripe papaya fruits. Wrapping

young fruits in white paper bags reduce this incidence.

Papaya dieback is a severe problem in Queensland. Affected plants show a

238

Tropical Fruits brown discolouration in the vascular tissue, later developed into the stem

and leaves. Low calcium content favours this type of discolouration in papaya.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Space is given below for the answer.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the Unit.

1. What are different processed products of papaya ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. What are the viral diseases of papaya ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. How ripening of papaya can be controlled by temperature ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

4. What is the temperature to store fruits of papaya ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2.14 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about papaya crop, details of area and production,

soil and climatic requirement, different varieties, nutritional requirement,

cultivation practices, harvesting, processing, storage, packaging,

transportation, pests and diseases. Papaya is an important fruit crops of tropics

and subtropics. This fruit crop is considered to be a wonder fruit crop and

grown primarily for its delicious fruits and for extraction of its digestive

constituent, papain. Papaya gives one of the highest production of fruits per

hectare.

2.15 KEY WORDS

PMV : It is a viral disease of Papaya, known as papaya

mosaic virus.

Papain : Papain is a proteolytic digestive enzyme

239

Papayapresent in the Latex or milky secretion of

papaya immature fruit and papaya plant.

CO1, CO2, CO3, CO4

etc. : These are the identification number or name

of papaya varieties developed by Tamil Nadu

Agriculture University, Coimbatore.

2.16 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Bose, T.K., Mitra, S.K. and Sanyal, D.S. (ed.) (2001). Fruits : Tropical

and Subtropical. Naya Udyog, Calcutta.

2. KAU. (2007). Package of Practices Recommendations – Crops.

Directorate of Extension, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur,

Vellanikkara.

3. Mansha Ram (2005). Papaya. Directorate of Information and Publications

of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.

4. Radha, T. and Mathew, L. (2007). Fruit Crops. New India Publishing

Agency, New Delhi.

2.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. The papaya varieties developed by TNAU, Coimbatore are CO-1, CO-2,

CO-3, CO-4, CO-5, CO-6 and CO-7.

2. Solo and Sunrise Solo are two Hawaiian papaya varieties.

3. Papaya is planted during spring (February - March), Monsoon (Jun - July)

and autumn (October - November).

4. State N P2O

5K

2O

Tamil Nadu 250 200 200 (g/plant/year)

Kerala 200 200 400 (g/plant/year)

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. The different processed products of papaya are papaya pickle, papaya

jelly, papaya preserve, canned papaya, papaya nectar, papaya jam, papaya

petha, papaya squash and tuti-frutti.

2. The viral diseases of Papaya are – Papaya mosaic virus (PMV); Papaya

leaf curl and distortion ring spot virus of papaya.

3. Ripening of Papaya fruit can be controlled by low temperature storage at

13 to 15°C with an ethylene absorbent (7g/Kg).

4. Ideal temperature to store papaya fruit is 20°C, if temperature is above

20°C, fruit will be affected by fungal diseases like Colletotrichum sp.

and when temperature is below 20°C, it will lead to chilling injuries.

240

Tropical FruitsUNIT 3 CASHEW (ANACARDIUM

OCCIDENTALE L.)

Structure

3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Area and production

3.3 Soil

3.4 Climate

3.5 Varieties

3.6 Establishment of Plantations

3.6.1 Propagation

3.6.1.1 Seed Propagation

3.6.1.2 Propagation by Air Layering

3.6.1.3 Propagation by Soft Wood Grafting

3.6.2 Planting

3.7 Nutritional Requirement

3.8 Cultural Practices

3.8.1 Weeding

3.8.2 Mulching

3.8.3 Training and Pruning

3.8.4 Irrigation

3.8.5 Intercropping

3.8.6 Plant protection

3.8.6.1 Tea Mosquito

3.8.6.2 Stem and Root Borer

3.8.6.3 Die Back or Pink Disease

3.9 Harvesting and Yield

3.10 Post-harvest Handling of Cashew

3.10.1 Processing of Raw Cashewnuts

3.10.1.1 Roasting

3.10.1.2 Shelling

3.10.1.3 Drying

3.10.1.4 Peeling

3.10.1.5 Grading

3.10.1.6 Packing

3.10.1.7 Storage

3.10.2 Processing of Cashew Apple

3.10.2.1 Cashew Apple Juice

241

Cashew3.10.2.2 Cashew Apple Syrup

3.10.2.3 Cashew Apple Jam

3.10.2.4 Cashew Apple Candy

3.11 Marketing of Raw Cashewnuts

3.12 Let Us Sum Up

3.13 Key Words

3.14 Further Reference

3.15 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to know:

• the importance of cashew, its scope and potentials in the agricultural sector,

• traditional cashew growing areas with varieties suited to the region,

• production of good quality planting materials in cashew,

• cultural operations for maximizing productivity,

• pest and disease problems and methods to manage them effectively, and

• post harvest handling of cashew.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is indigenous to Central and South

America, notably northeastern Brazil, where it is called by its Portuguese

name Caju (the fruit) or Cajueiro (the tree). Portuguese and Spanish explorers

who reached the New World, spread the tree to the tropical countries of the

world. The crop was introduced in India from Brazil by the Portuguese during

the later half of the 16th century mainly for afforestation and soil conservation.

It is now widely grown in tropical climates, including parts of Africa and

Asia, for its cashew “nuts” and “cashew apples”.

The seeds are the source of cashew nuts, produced by shelling the roasted

fruits. Among various nuts, cashew nut enjoys an unenviable position and it

is an unavoidable snack in all important social functions. The nuts are used

in confectionery and dessert. The nuts yield an edible oil, but due to high

price of kernels, oil is not usually extracted. The nuts contain water 5 %,

protein 20 %, fat 45 %, carbohydrate 26 %, fibre 1.5 % and mineral matter

2.5 %. The pericarp or shell contains 50 % Cashewnut shell liquid, a vesicant

composed of 90 % Anacardic acid and 10 % cardol. The shells yield cashew

shell oil and used as water proofing agent and as a preservative. The cashew

apple is juicy, astringent and edible and it is used for making wine, jam,

pickle, and ready to serve beverages. Cashew apple is distilled to produce

alcoholic drink (Fenny). The sap from the bark provides an indelible ink.

The cashew apple contains water 88 %, proteins 0.2 %, fat 0.1 %, carbohydrate

11.6 % and rich in vitamin C.

242

Tropical Fruits3.2 AREA AND PRODUCTION

Cashew is produced in around 32 countries of the world. The world production

figures published by FAO, is around 2.7 million tons per annum. The major

raw cashew producing countries with their production figures in 2005 (as

per the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization) are Vietnam (960,800 tons),

Nigeria (594,000 tons), India (460,000 tons), Brazil (147,629 tons) and

Indonesia (122,000 tons). World’s total area under the cultivation of cashew

is around 35,100 km². India ranks first in area utilized for cashew production,

though its yields are relatively low. The world’s average yield is 780 kg/

hectare.

Collectively, Vietnam, India and Brazil account for more than 90 % of all

cashew kernel exports. The first introduction of cashew in India was made in

Goa from where it spread to other parts of the country. Though its commercial

exploitation began from the early 60’s, marginal lands and denuded forests

were the areas set apart for the plantation development. Because of its

adaptability to a wide range of agro climatic conditions, the crop has emerged

as one of the most remunerative crops in marginal and poor soils and gained

the status of an export oriented commodity bringing considerable foreign

exchange to the country.

The area under cashew in India is the highest in the world and is mainly

confined to Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra along the west coast

and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal along the east

coast. To a limited extent it is being cultivated in Chattisgarh, North Eastern

States (Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya and Nagaland) and Andaman

& Nicobar Islands. Now cashew occupies an area of 10.62 lakh hectares in

the country as on 2017-18 with a production of 8.17 lakh MT. It generates

employment for over 3 lakh persons, out of which 95 % are women. The

area, production and productivity of cashew in India are provided below:

Table 1: Statewise area, production & productivity of Cashewnut in India.

STATE 2017-18

Area Production Productivity

(‘000 ha) (‘000 MT) (Kg/ ha)

Kerala 92.81 88.18 950.00

Karnataka 129.07 89.45 693.00

Chattisgarh 13.70 9.83 700.00

Maharashtra 191.45 269.44 1400.00

Tamil Nadu 142.28 71.03 500.00

Andhra Pradesh 186.78 116.92 630.00

Odisha 193.99 98.59 500.00

West Bengal 11.36 12.96 1140.00

Gujarat 7.25 6.50 900.00

NE States 15.28 11.56 750.00

Others 78.08 42.55 550.00

TOTAL 1062.04 817.00 8713.00Source: Horticulture Statistics Division, Department of Agriculture, Coopn & Farmers Welfare.

243

CashewDuring 2017-18, India exported 73,810 MT of cashew kernels valued at

Rs. 5131.73 crores. USA, Netherlands, UK, Japan, UAE, France, Canada,

Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Italy, German Fed. Republic, Austria, Israel and

Spain are the major international buyers of Indian Cashews. During the year

the export figures in respect of Cashewnut Shell Liquid (CSNL) and raw

nuts were 7,326 MT and 5,86,663 MT worth Rs. 27.94 crores and Rs. 7931.29

crores respectively. The number of cashew processing units as per 2016-17

statistics is 3940 with a total capacity of 1,64,3000 MT and the utilization is

worked out as 75 %.

3.3 SOIL

The cashew is hardy and drought resistant, but is damaged by frost. It can be

grown on a wide range of soils except heavy clay, water logged and saline

soils. Cashew is very modest in its soil requirements and can adapt itself to

varying soil conditions without impairing productivity. But it performs much

better on good soils than on poor soils. Well drained red, sandy and laterite

soils are ideal for good growth and yield of cashew.

3.4 CLIMATE

Cashew grows best in the warm, moist and typically tropical climate. It is

grown in areas upto an altitude of 600-700 m where the temperature does not

fall below 20°C for prolonged periods. Though the plant can be grown up to

1200 m above MSL, it is best adopted to the coastal regions. It comes up well

in areas receiving a rainfall ranging from 600-4500 mm per annum.

Cashew is typically a sun plant and the performance reduces proportionately

with increasing degree of shade. The optimum temperature lies between 24-

28°C, though it tolerates a temperature above 36°C for a shorter period.

The climatic factors which affect the performance of cashew are:

1. Cloudy weather during flowering enhances damage of flowers by tea

mosquito.

2. Heavy rains during flowering and fruit set impairs production.

3. High temperature (39-42°C) during fruit set and development causes fruit

drop.

In general, dry spell during flowering and fruit set ensures better harvest in

cashew.

3.5 VARIETIES

Being a perennial crop, selection of varieties suited to the region plays a very

important role in success of cultivation. A number of high yielding varieties

with export quality kernels have been released from different research

institutes in India and details are furnished In Table 2 and the varieties suited

to different states are provided in Table 3.

244

Tropical Fruits Table 2 : Cashew varieties released from different research stations in India.

Name of Institutions Yield Nut Kernel Shelling Export

Varieties (Kg/tree) Wt.(gm.) Wt.(gm.) (%) grade

Kanaka KAU,  12.80 6.80 2.08 30.58 W 280

(H-1598) Madakkathara

Dhana KAU,    10.66 8.20 2.44 29.80 W 210

(H-1608) Madakkathra

Amrutha KAU,  18.35 7.18 2.24 31.58 W 210

(H-1597) Madakkathara

Priyanka KAU,   17.03 10.80 2.87 26.57 W 180

(H-1591) Madakkathara

Madakka- KAU,  17.00 7.25 1.88 26.20 W 210

thara-2 Madakkathara

(NDR-2-1)

Vengurla1 KKV, 19.00 6.20 1.39 31.00 W 240

Vengurla

Vengurla 4 KKV, 17.20 7.70 1.91 31.00 W 210

Vengurla

Vengurla 6 KKV, 13.80 8.00 1.91 28.00 W 210

Vengurla

Vengurla 7 KKV, 18.50 10.00 2.90 30.50 W 180

Vengurla

BPP 4 ANGRAU 10.50 6.00 1.15 23.00 W 400

BPP 6  ANGRAU 10.50 5.20 1.44 24.00 W 400

BPP 8 ANGRAU 14.50 8.20 1.89 29.00 W 210

(H2/16)

Vridha- TNAU, 7.40 5.10 1.45 28.30 W 320

chalam 2 Vridhachalam

(M- 44/3)

Vridha- TNAU, 11.68 7.18 2.16 29.10 W 210

chalam 3 Vridhachalam

(M- 26/2)

Ullal 1 UAS, Ullal 16.00 6.70 2.05 30.70 W 210

Ullal 3 UAS, Ullal 14.70 7.00 2.10 30.00 W 210

Ullal 4 UAS, Ullal 9.50 7.20 2.15 31.00 W 210

Chintamani UAS, 7.20 6.90 2.10 31.00 W 210

Chintamani

UN 50 UAS, Ullal 10.50 9.00 2.24 32.80 W 180

NRCC 2 NRCC, 9.00 9.20 2.15 28.60 W 210

PUttur

Jhargram-1 BCKVV, 8.50 5.00 1.50 30.00 W 320

Jhargram

Bhubanesh- OUAT, 10.50 4.60 1.47 32.00 W 320

war -1 Bhubaneshwar

Goa-1 ICAR Res. 7.00 7.60 2.20 30.00 W 210

Centre, Goa

245

CashewTable 3 : Varieties recommended for different states of India.

State Name of Varieties

Kerala Madakathara -2, Amritha, Dhana (H-1608), Priyanka

(H-1591), Kanaka (H -1598), Selection-2 ,V4, V6, V7,

VRI-3 ,VRI-2, Ullal-1, Ullal-3, Ullal-4 

Karnataka Ullal-1, Ullal-2, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, UN-50, Selection-

2, Chintamani1, VRI- 2, VRI-3, V4

Goa V4, V6, V7, VRI-2, VR1-3, Goa-1 

Maharashtra Maharashtra V1, V4, V6, V7, VR1-2, VRI-3, Ullal-1,

Ullal-3, Ullal-4, BPP-8 

Tamil Nadu VRI-2, VRI-3

Andhra Pradesh BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8, VR1-2, Selection-2, Ullal-1,

Chintamani-1

Odisha BHB-1, VR1-2, V4, BPP-8, Dhana 

West Bengal Jhargram-1, Madakathara-1, BPP-8 

Madhya Pradesh VR1-2, V1, V4,V7, BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8 

Manipur V1, V4, V7, Ullal-3, Ullal-4 

Tripura Ullal-3, Ullal-4, V1, V4, V7, VRI-2 

Meghalaya V1, V4, V7, Ullal-3, Ulla-4, VRI-2 

Nagaland VR1-2, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, V1, V4, V7 

Assam Ullal-3, Ullal-4, V1, V4, V7, VR1-2 

Pondicherry VRI-2, VRI-3

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1. Describe the importance of cashew cultivation.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. Which are the climatic factors influencing the yield of cashew ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. List out the cashew varieties suited for South Indian states.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

246

Tropical Fruits3.6 ESTABLISHMENT OF PLANTATIONS

3.6.1 Propagation

Cashew can be propagated by seed and vegetatively by air layering and soft

wood grafting. Since it is a highly cross pollinated crop, vegetative propagation

is recommended to obtain true to type progeny. Field establishment of air

layers is poor. Softwood grafting is better as it gives high rate of field survival

and records early flowering.

3.6.1.1 Seed Propagation

The mother trees of 15-23 years having good health and intensive branching

habit with panicles having high percentage of hermaphrodite flowers, bearing

7-8 nuts per panicle with nuts of medium size and weight (5-8 g/nut) with an

average yield of 15 kg nuts per annum are selected as mother plants. Mother

trees are selected during February and seed nuts are collected during March

- April. Mature, medium sized nuts, which sink in water, are dried in the sun

for 2-3 days. The seedlings are raised in polythene bags of size 20 cm x 15

cm and filled with garden soil, leaving a gap of 1-1.5 cm above. Sow the

presoaked nuts at a depth of 2-3 cm with the stalk end up. Seeds germinate in

7-10 days.

3.6.1.2 Propagation by Air Layering

The air layers are prepared during February to March so that successful air

layers could be planted to the main field in the ensuing South West monsoon

season. Select 9-12 month - old pencil thick terminal shoots, remove carefully

a ring of bark 0.6-1.2 cm thick by using a sharp knife. Wind a string around

the cut area and cover it with moist moss or wood shavings or sand and saw

dust mixture or ordinary potting mixture and cover with polythene film of

size 23 x 15 cm and tied with jute fibre. When roots emerge from the ringed

portion in 40-60 days, give a V cut at the lower end of the layered portion.

Deepen the cut after 15 days and the successful layers could be separated

after 7 days. The layers can be defoliated two weeks prior to separation from

the mother plant. The layers are potted in coconut husk containers 15 x 15

cm after carefully removing the polythene sheet and kept in shade. Avoid

over watering. The layers are planted along with the container with the onset

of rains. The plants are protected from strong sun using dry leaves. It is

necessary to take up mulching also.

3.6.1.3 Propagation by soft wood grafting

Cashew can be successfully established through different methods of grafting

like epicotyle grafting, soft wood grafting, veneer grafting and side grafting

and by patch budding. Among these, soft wood grafting is the best for

commercial production of grafts, a description of the same is provided

hereunder.

Rootstock are raised by collecting nuts (7-9 g) during February-April and

sun dried for 2-3 days.  Prepare the potting mixture in the proportion of one

part red soil, one part sand and one part compost. Fill the bags (25 x 15 cm

size with 30-40 holes) properly up to the brim with the potting mixture. Sow

247

Cashewthe pre soaked seeds with stalk-end upwards at a depth of not more than 2.5

cm and irrigate. The seednuts usually germinate within 15-20 days after

sowing. 45-60 days old seedlings are selected as rootstock for grafting.

The rootstock is prepared by removing the leaves leaving two pairs bottom

leaves and a transverse cut is made on the rootstock at a height of 15-20 cm

from ground level and the terminal shoot is removed. A cleft of 6-7 cm deep

is made in the middle of the decapitated stem by giving a longitudinal cut. A

little portion of wood is removed from the inner sides of the cleft at the top,

so that after grafting the joint will be perfect.

Select a matching scion stick of the same thickness as that of the rootstock of

10-12 cm long by cutting off the excess portion at the bottom. Shape the cut

end of the scion in to a wedge of 6-7 cm long by chopping off the bark and

little portion of wood from two opposite sides. 

The wedge of the scion is inserted into the cleft of the rootstock to see that

the cambial layers of both the rootstock and the scion come in perfect contact

with each other. The graft joint is secured firmly with 2.5 cm wide and 30 cm

long polythene strip of 100 gauge thickness. A long and narrow HD polythene

bag of 15 x 12.5 cm size and 100 gauge thickness is inserted on the grafted

plant, tied at the bottom with a single knot in order to protect the scion stick

from drying up.  The freshly grafted plants are left in the nursery shed for

about two weeks to encourage sprouting of the terminal buds. After two weeks

the polythene caps are removed gently and the grafts are shifted to open

condition in the nursery. Within 3-4 weeks, 70-80 % of the grafts will

sprout. The grafts are ready for planting within 5-6 months. The rate of success

varies with season, the highest being in June - November.

3.6.2 Planting

The optimum recommended spacing is 7.5 x 7.5 m to 8 x 8 m with population

density ranging from 156-177. High density planting, a technique aimed at

increasing productivity from cashew plantations, involves planting at closer

spacing of 4 x 4 m with 625 plants per/ha and thinning at later stages

depending upon the canopy development to minimize competition. This can

also be adopted for better utilization of space during early years.

The square system of planting can be followed. The ideal time for planting is

usually during monsoon season (June - August) both in the west coast and

east coast. If irrigation facilities are available, planting can be done throughout

the year except winter months. Normally cashew grafts are planted in the

pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm. It is preferable to dig the pits at least 15-20 days

before planting and expose to sunlight so that termites and ants, if any, which

damage the roots of the grafts will migrate elsewhere. The pits should be

completely filled with a mixture of top soil and organic manure to ¾ of the

pit capacity. The grafts are planted after carefully removing the polythene

bag. Care should be taken to see that the graft joint remains at least 5 cm

above the ground level at the time of planting. The polythene tape around the

graft union is to be removed carefully. Staking should be done immediately

after planting to protect the grafts from wind damage. Mulch the basins of

plants with organic waste materials during early years.

248

Tropical Fruits3.7 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT

Manures and fertilizers promote growth of the plants and advance the onset

of flowering in young trees. Application of 10-15 kg of farm yard manure or

compost per plant is beneficial. The current fertilizer recommendations for

cashew is 500 g N (1.1 kg urea), 125 g P2O

5 (625 g rock phosphate) and 125

g K2O (208 g Muriate of potash) per plant per year. The ideal period for

fertilizer application is immediately after the cessation of heavy rains and

with available soil moisture. During the 1st, 2nd and 3rd year of planting 1/3rd,

2/3rd and full doze of fertilizers should be applied and 3rd year onwards full

quantity is to be applied.

3.8 CULTURAL PRACTICES

3.8.1 Weeding

Clean weeding is done within 2 m radius of the trunk and slash weeding the

interspaces is essential until the trees spread out their canopies. Weeding can

be done chemically by using Glyphosate (post emergent) 6 to 7 ml/l (0.8 kg

a.i./ha) during June - July. 

3.8.2 Mulching

Mulching the tree basins will help in conservation of soil moisture and

prevents soil erosion. Mulching with organic matter or residues inhibits weed

growth and reduces surface evaporation during summer and also regulates

the soil temperature. In sloppy areas, soil and water conservation practices

can be done by making trenches of 30 cm width, 60 cm depth. And convenient

length may be taken in between rows along the contour. This will not only

conserve soil and moisture but will also enable to enhance the growth of

cashew.

3.8.3 Training and Pruning

Training and pruning are aimed at making a better frame work of cashew

plant so that cultural practices are easy. The sprouts arising from the root

stock portion of the cashew graft should be removed frequently during the

first year of planting. Removal of water shoots, lower branches, crisscross

branches and dry branches are found to be beneficial to enhance flowering

and the yield.

3.8.4 Irrigation

In India cashew is grown mainly under rain fed condition. However protective

irrigation during January - March at fortnightly intervals @ 200 l/plant

improves fruit set, fruit retention, thereby increasing nut yield.

3.8.5 Intercropping

Intercropping received little attention in the cashew. However, depending on

soil, climatic conditions, local situations, pineapple, annual vegetables,

tapioca, pulses, turmeric, ginger etc, can be grown as inter crops during early

249

Cashewyears. Pineapple can be grown between two rows of cashew in trenches opened

across the slope. Paired row of pineapple suckers can be planted in each

trench at 60 cm between rows and 40 cm between two suckers within the

row. The trenches can be opened at 1 m between two rows of cashew.  

3.8.6 Plant Protection

Tea mosquito bug, stem borer, thrips, leaf minor and leaf blossom webber

are important pests of cashew. Of these, tea mosquito and stem borer causes

economical damage in cashew.

3.8.6.1 Tea Mosquito

Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) can cause yield reduction to the tune

of 30-40 per cent damaging tender shoots, inflorescence and immature nuts

at various stages of development. It attacks the tree in all the seasons during

flushing, flowering and fruit setting period but the peak period of infestation

is from October - March.

Control : To control the pest, spray schedule involving three sprays

synchronizing new flushing (October - November), flowering (November -

December) and fruit setting (January - February) may be given with

Quinalphos (25 % EC) - 0.05 %, or Carbaryl (50 % WP) - 0.01 % or

Phosphamidon (85 % WSC) - 0.03 %. A rational rotation of insecticides

would be desirable to counteract the tendency of the pest to develop field

resistance. The number of sprays should be limited to three and the same

insecticide should be used for the subsequent sprays.

3.8.6.2 Stem and Root Borer

Stem and root borer (Plocaederus ferrugineus L.) is also a dangerous pest

and kill the entire plant. It is mostly seen in neglected gardens. The larvae of

a beetle tunnel into the tree trunk and eats the bark all around the trunk.

Control : Manual removing of grubs and pasting the damaged portion with

mixture of Carbaryl 50 gm (50 %) and copper oxychloride (25 gm) in one

liter of water give effective control.

3.8.6.3 Die Back or Pink Disease

The disease is prevalent during the rainy season. Appearance of white patches

on branches as a film of silky thread or mycelium is the first symptom followed

by die back of twigs from the tip.

Control : The affected parts are to be chiseled out and applied with Bordeaux

paste. Prophylactic spray of bordeaux mixture 1 % during May - June and

October will be useful.

3.9 HARVESTING AND YIELD

The flower panicles emerging from the graft during 1st and 2nd year should be

removed in order to allow the plant to put good vegetative growth and better

framework. Economic bearing in cashew commences after 3rd year of planting.

The ripened fruits fall down and nuts from fallen fruits have to be collected.

250

Tropical Fruits Nuts can be dried in sun for 2 to 3 days on cement floor and can be stored in

gunny bags. The yield starting from 1 kg in 3rd - 4th year, yield goes on

increasing as the canopy develops and one can expect more that 10 kgs of

nuts in 8 to 10 years old plant depending on management.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1. Describe the commercial method of propagation of cashew.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. Give an account of the cultural practices of cashew for enhancement

of productivity.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. What do you know about the pest and disease problems in cashew ?

How can you control these ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3.10 POST HARVEST HANDLING OF CASHEW

The processing units are mainly concentrated in the states of Kerala, Tamil

Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha. The process

is highly labour intensive and the work force consists mainly of women. The

nuts are dried for 1-2 days to reduce the moisture level to 7-8 per cent. The

processing of raw nuts involves roasting, shelling, drying, peeling, grading

and packing. The steps involved in commercial processing of cashew nuts

are detailed below :

3.10.1 Processing of Raw Cashewnuts

3.10.1.1 Roasting

Roasting of raw nuts is done to separate adhering shell from the kernel. There

are three types of roasting viz, drum roasting, oil bath roasting and steam

roasting.

i) Drum Roasting : This is one of the oldest and more widely used methods.

The nuts are fed into a rotating red hot drum which will ignite the shell.

251

CashewThe drum is kept in rotation for 3-4 minutes and the roasted nuts are

discharged from the lower end of the drum and immediately covered by

ash after sprinkling water, so as to absorb the oil on the surface. This

facilitates the removal of the remaining oil on the shell.

ii) Oil Bath Roasting : In this method conditioned nuts are passed through

CNSL bath heated to 170-200°C by conveyor buckets for 1-2 minutes

during this period the shell gets heated rupturing the wall and releasing

the oil into the bath. The oil is recovered by continuous over flow

arrangement. The roasted nuts are centrifuged to remove adhering oil,

cooled and shelled by hand and leg operated shelling machines. The kernel

with the adhering testa is scooped out using a sharp needle.

iii) Steam roasting : The raw nuts are steam cooked at about 120-140 lbs/sq

inch pressure. Shell oil can be extracted in later stages by crushing. The

nuts are shelled by hand and leg operated shelling machines. 

A general comparison of the above three methods would show that the

oil bath method and steam roasting systems require more initial investment

and higher maintenance costs: the drum roasting method being the

cheapest. From the point of view of environmental pollution the safest is

the steam roasting method. Steam roasting is the commonly used method

by most of the processing units.

3.10.1.2 Shelling

Cashewnuts after roasting and cooling are to be shelled by hand or foot

operated shell cutters (mechanical device). After shelling the kernels and

shell pieces are separated manually.

3.10.1.3 Drying

The kernels after shelling are dried to a moisture content of about 4-5 % in

hot chambers at 70-80°C in perforated trays for about 6-8 hours. In order to

ensure uniform drying, the position of the trays has to be changed frequently.

After drying, the kernels are kept in the moist chamber for 24 hours which

facilitates easy removal of testa (peeling) and minimizes broken kernels.

3.10.1.4 Peeling

This process involves the removal of testa (seed coat) from the kernel and is

done using a sharp knife or bamboo piece.

3.10.1.5 Grading

Kernels are graded according to the size manually. In the International Market

bold whole kernels fetch premium price. The grading standards developed in

India refer to white whole (undamaged) kernels and indicate the number of

kernels per lb of weight. The largest kernels come in the grade W 180 (170-

180/lb) and the smallest of the seven grades is W 500 (450-500/kg).

3.10.1.6 Packing

The export grade requires packaging of kernels in 11.3 kg capacity tins, in

which kernels are put, the air is replaced by CO2 and then sealed. In domestic

252

Tropical Fruits market, packing is done in smaller tins or polythene bags and sealed. By

processing 100 kg nuts, about 22-24 kg of whole kernels can be obtained and

the broken kernels will be 3-4 %. In India, manual processing gives a

comparatively higher yield of wholes (90-95 %) when compared to

mechanised processing in other countries (65-75 %).

3.10.1.7 Storage

Dried nuts are stored in clean jute bags with a capacity of 80 kg nuts. Storage

in HDPE bags is not recommended for raw nuts. The store should be well

ventilated, fly proof with low humidity, free of stored product pests and well

insulated to prevent water seepage during rains. Bags are placed over wooden

planks so that contact with warehouse floor is avoided. Processed nuts can

be stored in packages in containers as mentioned above.

3.10.2 Processing of Cashew Apple

Cashew apple refers to the swollen peduncle to which the nut is attached.

Cashew apple, though very juicy and sweet, is not normally eaten because of

its astringent and acrid principles. It is very rich in vitamin C and contains

four to five times as much vitamin C as citrus. Sound cashew apple can be

used for the juice extraction. Juice is extracted either by using screw press or

basket press.

3.10.2.1 Cashew Apple Juice

The juice can be extracted with screw press, basket press or simple hand

pressing. The extracted juice is strained through muslin cloth which is clarified

by adding 1.4 gm of PVP (Poly Vinyl Pyrrolidone) per litre of juice and the

mixture is stirred for two minutes after which it is strained again through

muslin cloth. Sugar is added according to the taste and boil the juice. The

finished product may be chemically preserved by using sodium benzoate at

the rate of 0.8 g/100 ml. The mixture is poured into well sterilized bottles,

cork air tight with crown cork and stored in a cool dry place. 

3.10.2.2 Cashew Syrup

Extraction of juice and removal of astringency are done in the same way in

the pretreatment of juice. Sugar is added at the rate of 1 to 1.25 kg/l of juice.

20 - 22 g. citric acid /l and 0.08 % as sodium benzoate are added to the juice.

All ingredients are mixed thoroughly and kept it as such for 3-5 hours so that

clear syrup forms a separate layer which can be easily shiphoned. Bottling

can be done as described for juice. 

3.10.2.3 Cashew Apple Jam

Cashew apple must be thoroughly cleaned by washing with water. Immerse

the apple in 3 % salt solution for three days to reduce the tannin content, after

which the fruits are steamed for 15 to 20 minutes at 0.7 to 1.05 kg steam

pressure. Then the apples are crushed and mixed with 750 g sugar per kg of

apple and boil it. A pinch of citric acid is added towards the end of cooling

process to improve the taste. Store it in well sterilized jam bottles.

253

Cashew3.10.2.4 Cashew Apple Candy

Just as in the case with Jam, cleaned apples are first immersed in a 3 % salt

solution. Next day drain out the salt water and steep the fruits in fresh salt

solution and repeat the process for a third time. Drain away salt water and

add potassium metabisulphite (625 mg/kg) and keep in this solution for

another two to three days. The apples are then thoroughly washed in water.

Keep them in a perforated crate made of aluminium or stainless steel and

blanched in boiling water for five minutes, followed by a steaming in a

pressure cooker for five minutes, at 0.35 kg pressure. The apple should not

be very soft.

Prepare 300°Brix syrup containing 0.1 % citric acid and 500 mg. potassium

metabisulphite/kg of apple. Soak apples in the syrup in a stainless steel vessel,

wooden or glass disc and covered. Next day the syrup is taken out and sugar

is added to the same syrup for raising the concentration upto 350°Brix. Syrup

is again boiled for about ten minutes and pour back over the apples. Repeat

the process daily, raising the sugar content by 50°Brix each time for the next

three days and then raise the sugar content by 100°Brix each time for the 6th

and 7th day so that the final strength of the syrup is 700°Brix. Keep the apple

for eight to ten days in the syrup for complete absorption of sugar. Remove

the syrup and dry up the apple which can be stored in screw capped glass jars

in a cool dry place.

3.11 MARKETING OF RAW CASHEWNUTS

Marketing of raw cashewnut in India has not yet been organized except in

Goa where co-operative marketing society is procuring raw nuts to some

extent. There are a number of intermediaries between the primary producer

and the processing unit, who exploit the growers. Wholesale merchants and

the processing factories own collecting centres in important cashew producing

areas during the harvesting period. In certain areas, some processors contact

the producers directly and enjoy good bargaining power by providing credit

facilities to the producers. As marketing system is not well organized, the

price received by the grower is small.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note : a) Answer the questions in the space provided.

b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit.

1. Discuss the steps involved in processing of cashewnuts.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. List out major cashew apple products and describe briefly the methods

of preparation.

............................................................................................................

254

Tropical Fruits ............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. What are the problems in marketing of cashew ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3.12 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied the importance of cashew, its soil and climatic

requirements and varieties suited to different cashew states. The methods of

large scale production of planting materials, planting methods, cultural

operations and harvesting practices have been studied in detail. The post

harvest handling methods of cashew nuts and cashew apple to prevent post

harvest losses have been covered under this unit. The prospects for taking up

cultivation of this crop in the country is immense, as it grows in very poor

environments as well.

3.13 KEY WORDS

Cashewnut Shell Liquid (CNSL): CNSL is a valuable raw material

obtained as a by-product during the

processing of cashew kernel. The nut

has a shell of about 1/8 inch thickness

inside which is a soft honeycomb

structure containing a dark reddish

brown viscous liquid called Cashew

nut Shell Liquid. This raw material is

used for a number of polymer based

industries like paints and varnishes,

resins, industrial and decorative

laminates, break lining and rubber

compounding resins.

High Density planting (HDP) : A technique aimed at increasing

productivity from cashew plantations

and it involves planting at closer

spacing of 4m x 4m with 625 plants

per/ ha and thinning at later stages

depending upon the canopy

development to minimize competition.

This can also be adopted for better

utilization of space during early years.

This provides additional income

during the initial years.

255

Cashew3.14 FURTHER REFERENCES

1. Alice Kurien and Peter, K.V. (2007). Commercial Crops Technology.

New India Publishing Agency, Pitampura, New Delhi-110088, pp-63-

99.

2. Bhaskar Rao, E.V.V. and Swamy, K.R.M. (1994). Cashew In: Advances

in Horticulture Vol-9 Plantation and Spice Crops - Part I (Eds: Chadha

K.L and Rethinam, P.) Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, pp-79-

97.

3. Ohler, J.G.(1979). Cashew. Communication 71. Department of

Agricultural Research, Koninklijk Institute voor de Tropen, Amsterdam,

pp-260.

3.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Among various nuts, cashewnut enjoys an unenviable position and it is

an unavoidable snack in all important social functions. The nuts are used

in confectionery and dessert. The nuts contain water 5 %, protein 20 %,

fat 45 %, carbohydrate 26 %, fibre 1.5 % and mineral matter 2.5 %. The

pericarp or shell contains 50 % Cashewnut shell liquid and is used as

water proofing agent and as a preservative. The cashew apple is juicy,

astringent and edible and it is used for making wine, jam, pickle, and

ready to serve beverages. Cashew apple is distilled to produce alcoholic

drink (Fenny). The sap from the bark provides an indelible ink. The cashew

apple contains water 88 %, proteins 0.2 %, fat 0.1 %, carbohydrate 11.6

% and rich in vitamin C.

2. The climatic factors which affect the performance of cashew are

i) Cloudy weather during flowering enhances damage of flowers by tea

mosquito bug.

ii) Heavy rains during flowering and fruit set impairs production.

iii) High temperature (39-42°C) during fruit set and development causes

fruit drop.

In general, dry spell during flowering and fruit set ensures better harvest

in cashew.

3. The varieties suited to South Indian states are :

Kerala Madakathara-2, Amritha, Dhana (H-1608),

Priyanka (H-1591), Kanaka (H-1598),

Selection-2, V4, V6, V7, VRI-3, VRI-2, Ullal-

1, Ullal-3, Ullal-4

Karnataka Ullal-1, Ullal-2, Ullal-3, Ullal-4, UN-50,

Selection-2, Chintamani-1, VRI-2, VRI-3, V4

256

Tropical FruitsTamil Nadu VRI-2, VRI-3

Goa V4, V6, V7, VRI-2, VR1-3, Goa-1

Andhra Pradesh BPP-4, BPP-6, BPP-8, VR1-2, Selection-2,

Ullal-1, Chintamani -1 

Puducherry VRI-2, VRI-3

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Though cashew can be successfully established through different methods

of grafting like epicotyle grafting, soft wood grafting, veneer grafting

and side grafting and by patch budding/soft wood grafting is the best for

commercial production of grafts.

Rootstock are raised by collecting nuts (7-9 g) during February-April

and sun dried for 2-3 days. Fill the bags (25 x 15 cm size with 30-40

holes) with potting mixture consisting of one part red soil, one part sand

and one part compost. Sow the pre soaked seeds with stalk-end upwards

at a depth of not more than 2.5 cm and irrigate. Germination starts in 15-

20 days after sowing. 45-60 days old seedlings are selected as rootstock

for grafting.

The rootstock is prepared by removing the leaves leaving two pairs bottom

leaves and a transverse cut is made on the rootstock at a height of 15-20

cm from ground level and the terminal shoot is removed. A cleft of 6-7

cm deep is made in the middle of the decapitated stem by giving a

longitudinal cut. Select a matching scion stick of the same thickness as

that of the rootstock of 10-12 cm long by cutting off the excess portion at

the bottom. Shape the cut end of the scion in to a wedge of 6-7 cm long

by chopping off the bark and little portion of wood from two opposite

sides. 

The wedge of the scion is inserted into the cleft of the rootstock to see

that the cambial layers of both the rootstock and the scion come in perfect

contact with each other. The graft joint is secured firmly with 2.5 cm

wide and 30 cm long polythene strip of 100 gauge thickness. A long and

narrow HD polythene bag of 15 x 12.5 cm size and 100 gauge thickness

is inserted on the grafted plant, tied at the bottom with a single knot in

order to protect the scion stick from drying up.  The freshly grafted plants

are left in the nursery shed for about two weeks to encourage sprouting

of the terminal buds.  After two weeks the polythene caps are removed

gently and the grafts are shifted to open condition in the nursery. Within

3-4 weeks, 70-80 % of the grafts will sprout. The grafts are ready for

planting within 5-6 months. The rate of success varies with season, the

highest being in June - November.

2. The important cultural practices are:

Manuring : Application of 10-15 kg of farm yard manure or compost

per plant is beneficial. The fertilizer recommendations for cashew is 500

g N (1.1 kg urea), 125 g P20

5 (625 g rock phosphate) and 125 g K

2O (208

g Muriate of potash) per plant per year. The ideal period for fertilizer

257

Cashewapplication is immediately after the cessation of heavy rains and with

available soil moisture. During the 1st, 2nd and 3rd year of planting 1/3rd, 2/

3rd and full doze of fertilizers should be applied and 3rd year onwards full

quantity is to be applied.

Weeding : Clean weeding is done within 2 m radius of the trunk and in

slash weeding the interspaces is essential until the trees spread out their

canopies. Weeding can be done by chemically by using Glyphosate (post

emergent) 6 to 7 ml / l (0.8 kg a.i./ha) during June–July. 

Mulching : Mulching the tree basins will help in conservation of soil

moisture and prevents soil erosion. Mulching with organic matter or

residues inhibits weed growth and reduces surface evaporation during

summer and also regulates the soil temperature.

Training and pruning : The sprouts arising from the rootstock portion

of the cashew graft should be removed frequently during the first year of

planting. Removal of water shoots, lower branches, crisscross branches

and dry branches are found to be beneficial to enhance flowering and the

yield.

Irrigation : In India cashew is grown mainly under rain fed condition.

However protective irrigation especially summer months during January-

march at fortnightly intervals @ 200 l/plant improves fruit set, fruit

retention, thereby increasing nut yield.

3. Tea mosquito bug, stem borer, thrips, leaf minor and leaf blossom webber

are important pests of cashew. Of these, tea mosquito bug and stem borer

causes economical damage in cashew.

Tea mosquito : Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) can cause yield

reduction to the tune of 30-40 per cent damaging tender shoots,

inflorescence and immature nuts at various stages of development. It

attacks the tree in all the seasons during flushing, flowering and fruit

setting period but the peak period of infestation is from October to March.

To control the pest, spray schedule involving three sprays synchronizing

new flushing (October - November), flowering (November - December)

and fruit setting (January - February) may be given with Quinalphos (25

% EC) - 0.05 %, or Carbaryl (50 % WP) - 0.01% or Phosphamidon (85

% WSC) - 0.03 %. A rational rotation of insecticides would be desirable

to counteract the tendency of the pest to develop field resistance. The

number of sprays should be limited to three and the same insecticide

should be used for the subsequent sprays.

Stem and root borer : Stem and root borer (Plocaederus ferrugineus L.)

is also a dangerous pest and kill the entire plant. It is mostly seen in

neglected gardens. The larvae of a beetle tunnel into the tree trunk and

eats the bark all around the trunk. Manual removing of grubs and pasting

the damaged portion with mixture of Carbaryl 50 gm (50 %) and copper

oxychloride (25 gm) in one liter of water give effective control.

Die back or pink disease : The disease is prevalent during the rainy

season. Appearance of white patches on branches is the first symptom

258

Tropical Fruits followed by die back of twigs from the tip. The affected parts are to be

chiseled out and applied with Bordeaux paste.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. The first step is cleaning and roasting. Roasting of raw nuts is done to

separate adhering shell from the kernel. There are three types of roasting

viz, drum roasting, oil bath roasting and steam roasting. A general

comparison of the above three methods would show that the oil bath

method and steam roasting systems require more initial investment and

higher maintenance costs: the drum roasting method being the cheapest.

From the point of view of environmental pollution the safest is the steam

roasting method. Steam roasting is the commonly used method by most

of the processing units. Cashew nuts after roasting and cooling are to be

shelled by hand or foot operated shell cutters (mechanical device). After

shelling the kernels and shell pieces are separated manually. The kernels

after shelling are dried to a moisture content of about 4 - 5 % in hot

chambers at 70 - 80°C in perforated trays for about 6 - 8 hours. In order

to ensure uniform drying, the position of the trays has to be changed

frequently. After drying, the kernels are kept in the moist chamber for 24

hours which facilitates easy removal of testa (peeling) and minimizes

broken kernels. The next step is peeling which involves the removal of

testa (seed coat) from the kernel and is done using a sharp knife or bamboo

piece. The kernels are then graded according to the size manually. In the

International Market bold whole kernels fetch premium price. The grading

standards developed in India refer to white whole (undamaged) kernels

and indicate the number of kernels per lb of weight. The largest kernels

come in the grade W 180 (170-180/lb) and the smallest of the seven

grades is W 500 (450-500/kg). The graded cashew kernels are then packed.

The export grade requires packaging of kernels in 11.3 kg capacity tins,

in which kernels are put, the air is replaced by CO2 and then sealed.

2. Cashew apple is very juicy and sweet, is not normally eaten because of

its astringent and acrid principles. In India, much of the cashew apple is

lost and in many places, it is never used. A number of products with

commercial value can be prepared using cashew apple.

Cashew apple juice: The juice can be extracted and strained through

muslin cloth which is clarified by adding 1.4 gm of PVP (Poly Vinyl

Pyrrolidone) per litre of juice. The mixture is stirred for two minutes

after which it is strained again through muslin cloth. Sugar is added

according to the taste and boil the juice. The finished product may be

chemically preserved by using sodium benzoate at the rate of 0.8 g/100

ml. The mixture is poured into well sterilized bottles, cork air tight with

crown cork and stored in a cool dry place.

Cashew Syrup: Extraction of juice and removal of astringency are done

in the same way in the pretreatment of juice. Sugar is added at the rate of

1 to 1.25 kg/l of juice. 20-22 g citric acid/l and 0.08 % as sodium benzoate

are added to the juice. All ingredients are mixed thoroughly and kept it as

such for 3-5 hours so that clear syrup forms a separate layer which can be

259

Casheweasily siphoned. Bottling can be done as described for juice. 

Cashew Apple Jam: Cashew apple must be thoroughly cleaned by

washing with water. Immerse the apple in 3 % salt solution for three days

to reduce the tannin content, after which the fruits are steamed for 15 to

20 minutes at 0.7 to 1.05 kg steam pressure. Then the apples are crushed

and mixed with 750 g sugar per kg of apple and boil it. A pinch of citric

acid is added towards the end of the cooling process to improve the taste.

Store it in well sterilized jam bottles.

Cashew Apple Candy: Cleaned apples are first immersed in a 3 % salt

solution. Next day drain out the salt water and steep the fruits in fresh

salt solution and repeat the process for a third time. Drain away salt water

and add potassium metabisulphite (625 mg/kg) and keep in this solution

for another two to three days. The apples are then thoroughly washed in

water. Keep them in a perforated crate made of aluminium or stainless

steel and blanched in boiling water for five minutes, followed by a

steaming in a pressure cooker for five minutes, at 0.35 kg pressure. The

apple should not be very soft. Prepare a 300°Brix syrup containing 0.1 %

citric acid and 500 mg. potassium metabisulphite/kg of apple. Soak apples

in the syrup in a stainless steel vessel, wooden or glass disc and covered.

Next day the syrup is taken out and sugar is added to the same syrup for

raising the concentration upto 350°Brix. Syrup is again boiled for about

ten minutes and pour back over the apples. Repeat the process daily,

raising the sugar content by 50°Brix each time for the next three days and

then raise the sugar content by 100°Brix each time for the 6th and 7th day

so that the final strength of the syrup is 700°Brix. Keep the apple for

eight to ten days in the syrup for complete absorption of sugar. Remove

the syrup and dry up the apple which can be stored in screw capped glass

jars in a cool dry place.

3. Marketing System of raw cashewnut in India is not organized except in

Goa. There are a number of intermediaries between the primary producer

and the processing unit, who exploit the growers. Wholesale merchants

and the processing factories own collecting centres in important cashew

producing areas during the harvesting period. In certain areas, some

processors contact the producers directly and enjoy good bargaining power

by providing credit facilities to the producers. As marketing system is

not well organized, the price received by the grower is small.

260

Tropical FruitsUNIT 4 COCONUT

Structure

4.0 Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Area and Production

4.3 Soil and Climatic Requirements

4.4 Botany and Varieties

4.4.1 Characteristic Features of Coconut Palm

4.4.2 Flowering and Fruit Development

4.5 Propagation

4.5.1 Nursery and Seedling Selection

4.6 Field Planting and Management

4.6.1 Shading, Weeding and Interculture

4.6.2 Drought Management

4.7 Nutritional Requirement

4.8 Irrigation

4.9 Intercropping and Mixed Cropping

4.10 Plant Protection

4.10.1 Pests

4.10.2 Diseases

4.11 Harvesting and Storage

4.12 Marketing

4.13 Processing

4.13.1 Traditional methods

4.13.2 Product Diversification and Value Addition

4.13.3 Byproducts from Coconut Tree

4.14 Let Us Sum Up

4.15 Key Words

4.16 Further Reference

4.17 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• understand the importance of coconut, varieties, soil and climaticrequirements,

• explain propagation, field planting and management of young and yieldingcoconut gardens,

• describe pest and disease management strategies for coconut, and

• discuss post harvest handling and product diversification of coconut.

261

Coconut4.1 INTRODUCTION

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is the most beautiful and useful of all cultivated

palms in the world. It is popularly known as ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ or ‘Tree of

Heaven’ as the palm yields more products of use to the mankind than any

other tree and every part of it is useful in one way or another. It provides

livelihood for millions of people around the globe. The dried kernel (copra)

contains 60 to 70 per cent oil which is one of the richest sources of vegetable

oil and is widely used for cooking and also for various industrial purposes.

The coconut milk, tender coconut and toddy tapped from unopened

inflorescence also are some valuable products from coconut. Wood from

mature coconut trunk is used for furniture. Coconut husk provides fibre which

finds various uses due to its elasticity and resistance to mechanical wear and

dampness. Coir and a number of Coir products are made this fibre. Coir pith

and fibre dust, byproducts of coir industry, are used as mulch for conserving

soil. The shell is an important source of charcoal and activated carbon. The

leaf is used for thatching. Newer products like virgin coconut oil, biodiesel

and geo-textiles have greater demands in both domestic and foreign markets.

4.2 AREAS OF PRODUCTION

Coconut is considered to have originated in South-East Asia or the Pacific

Islands from where it spread to other regions either by man or naturally by

sea currents. At present, this crop is cultivated in over 90 countries of the

tropical belt in the latitude range of 23°N and 23°S. The major countries

cultivating coconut are India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,

Thailand, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. India, Indonesia, Philippines and Sri

Lanka together account for 81 per cent of the area and production. The other

major coconut producing are Brazil, Thailand, Mexico, Vietnam, Malaysia,

Papua New Guinea etc. India presently is the largest producer of coconut in

the world accounting for 15.5 per cent of the area and 27 per cent of the

world production. India is also ahead of other countries in productivity.

In India, the area under coconut is 2.01 million hectares and the annual

production is 16.41 billion nuts in 2017-18, with an average productivity of

8165 nuts/ha/year. It is cultivated in 18 states and three Union Territories. Of

these, 90 per cent of the area and 89 per cent of the production of the country

are from the peninsular region covering Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and

Andhra Pradesh, nuts/ha./year. Though Kerala leads in area (43 per cent) and

production (38.26 per cent), its productivity is only 6,889 nuts per hectare in

2005-06 as compared to 13,133 ,12,992 and 8577 per hectare respectively in

Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

4.3 SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Coconut grows best in relatively coarse textured soils like sandy loams, sandy

coastal alluviums and sandy river valleys. The ideal soil conditions for better

growth and performance of the palm are proper drainage, good water-holding

capacity, presence of water table within 3 m and absence of rock or any hard

substratum within 2 m of the surface. Grown up trees can withstand short

periods of drought as well as water logging.

262

Tropical Fruits Coconut tree requires equitable climate, bright sunshine, fairly high humidity

and a well distributed rainfall of 100 cm. It grows up to an elevation of 1000

m above MSL. Cold and frosty climates are not suitable for the crop.

4.4 BOTANY AND VARIETIES

Coconut is a perennial monocot belonging to Family Arecaceae (formerly,

Palmae). It has a tall, slender and uniformly thick unbranched stem and a

massive crown bearing many long feathery leaves and heavy bunches at

various stages of development. Coconut types in all countries are broadly

grouped into two based on stature, ‘Tall’ and ‘Dwarf’, Tall types are widely

grown and are economically important due to their superior meat (kernel)

qualities West Coast Tal and East Coast Tall respectively, are two traditional

varieties available from ancient times along the West Coast and East Coast

of the Peninsular India. Other promising varieties developed through

Introduction/Selection are: Andaman Ordinary, Lakshadweep Ordinary,

Cochin China, Philippines, Java, Andaman Giant, San Ramon, Kappadam,

Komadan etc. Wide variation in all plant characters exists in tall populations

due to cross pollination. However, Dwarf types are almost true breeding and

only three subtypes with colour shades of Green, Orange and Yellow are

generally present.

Fig. 1a : Orange Dwarf and West Fig. 1b: Green Dwarf

Coast Tall Palms Palm

The popular dwarf varieties in India include Chawghat Dwarf Green and

Chawghat Dwarf Chowghat Orange Dwarf and Malayan Yellow types and

these are mostly self-pollinated. During the last four decades, a few hybrid

varieties using selected trees of Tall and Dwarf types were evolved in India

and released for cultivation. eg., T x D/D x T and TxT combinations, Some

Fig. 2 : Coconut as a major component

crop in a typical homestead set up in

Kerala.

of the promising hybrids from Kerala

are: Chandra Sankara, Chandra

Laksha, Kera Sankara. Laksha Ganga,

Ananda Ganga, Kera Ganga, Kera

Sree etc., Figure 1a shows Orange

Dwarf and Tall types of coconut trees

while Fig.1b gives a Green Dwarf

palm.

Tall varieties are sturdy, take 8-10

263

Coconutyears for bearing and steady bearing is attained by 13-15 years and are 30-35

m tall. Average life span is about 60-70 years or more while Dwarf palms

flower early, yield for about 25-40 years and grow up to 15-20 m. Figure 2

represents a typical homestead farm with coconut as a major component in

Kerala.

4.4.1 Characteristic Features of Coconut Palm

The coconut stem called ’trunk’ originate from a swollen base of the young

seedling 2-3 years of planting. The stem grows fast during early years and

under good management, start flowering by 3-5 years in Dwarf trees and 5-8

year onwards in Talls. The stem bears at its top, when in steady yielding

stage, 25-35 leaves and 12-14 bunches. The massive terminal part is called

crown consisting of long stout pinnate leaves and bunches at various stages

of development. Each leaf produces in its axil, an inflorescence called spadix.

Production of leaves and spadices is in succession. One leaf and with it, a

spadix will be produced in a month but usually one or two numbers more are

noticed in healthy regular bearing palms.

4.4.2 Flowering and Fruit Development

Fig.3 : Coconut crown showing

‘Pleonanthy’ and monoecious condition

with small male and button shaped

female flowers from a newly burst

spadix.

Coconut as stated above is a perennial

tall tree and thus has a long gestation

period. It exhibits called ‘pleonanthy’

a phenomenon of continuing

vegetative growth along with

flowering which lasts up to the death

of the palm. The inflorescence, spadix

enclosed in a spathe, emerges in the

axil of each leaf in every 25-30 days

and this indicates the commencement

of flowering in coconut. The long

spadix opens longitudinally and spike

with male flowers emerges out.

Coconut palm is monoecious ie., the

inflorescence called bears both male

and female flowers, (see figure-3)

males opening first followed by

female flowers with a gap of about 2-

3 weeks in tall palms permitting cross

pollination. In dwarf palms there is overlapping of male and female phases,

hence more self pollination. The spike is 1.2 m to 1.8 m long and is branched

in to 30-35 spikelets bearing at the base of one or more or nil number of

female flowers called ‘buttons’ which later become nuts. The number of

buttons ranges from a few to about 50 out of which 25-60 per cent matures to

nuts. Each spikelet also bears numerous small male flowers which shed of

after dehiscence, the total number will be 8-10 thousands. Pollination is

assisted by insects and wind. In coconut, the duration from flower primordia

initiation to spadix opening is 36-38 months and then 11-12 months for nut

maturity.

264

Tropical Fruits Fruit Development :

The fruit of coconut is a drupe and the spike with the developing nuts is

called a ’bunch’. Each nut is attached to the spikelet by a persistent perianth.

Growth of fruit starts immediately after fertilization. From 3rd month water is

formed inside the button followed by appearance of coconut shell which

grows till full maturity of the nut. The kernel begins to form from 7th month

and continues up to 11th month.

The coconut fruit a drupe, has an outer thick leathery layer, the pericarp, a

fibrous mesocarp with a hard shell, and a solid endosperm, the kernel or

meat. Both pericarp and mesocarp together represent the coconut husk and

the water in the vacuole of the thick kernel is the liquid endosperm of the

fruit.

Activity 1 : Visit coconut gardens, identify Tall and Dwarf types of palms,

note their characteristic features and examine planting material production

procedures.

4.5 PROPAGATION

Coconut is propagated only through seed. Vegetative propagation has not

been successful in coconut. Tall coconut varieties which are widely cultivated

in all countries, show high variability in all plant characters due cross

pollination. Thus, being a perennial crop utmost care should be taken for

selection of mother plants for collection of seed nuts. The following selection

criteria are used as guideline for mother palm selection.

• Regular yielding palms of 15 years or more with an average yield not less

than 80 nuts/year/palm.

• More than 30 fully opened leaves with short, strong petioles and wide

leaf base firmly attached to the stem.

• At least 12 bunches with strong bunch stalks.

• Bearing nuts of medium size and of oval or oblong shape, with husked

nuts weighing not less than 600 g.

• Mean copra content of more than 150 g/nut.

4.5.1 Nursery and Seedling Selection

Seed nuts collected from selected mother palms are stored under shade

arranging the nuts with the stalk end up. Up to three layers of nuts can thus

be stored arranging them one over the other with sand filling the interspaces.

In Kerala, seed nuts are collected during January to April and sowing is done

in May-June. Well-drained area with 50% shade is selected for nursery. Beds

of 1.5 m width and of convenient length with a space of 75 cm between beds

are made. Sowing of seed nuts is to be done in 30 cm deep trenches formed

in the beds, at 30 x 30 cm spacing. Give temporary shade with palm leaves

during summer months if shade is inadequate. Irrigate the nursery once in

two days during the rain-free period and keep nursery free of weeds. Remove

265

Coconutungerminated nuts from six months of sowing. For field planting 9-12 month

old seedlings with high vigour are selected based on early germination, rapid

growth having collar girth of 10-12 cm and seedling vigour as indicated by

early splitting of Figure-4 has 8-9 months old seedlings. The recovery of

quality seedlings will be about 60-65 %. The seedlings are lifted from nursery

using spade and the roots are removed. Keep seedlings in shade and use

them for planting as soon as possible.

Fig. 4 : Vigourous young coconut seedlings ready for

transplanting in the main field.

4.6 FIELD PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT

The land for planting coconut should be prepared well in advance which in

turn depends upon topography of land, soil type and other factors. Contour

terracing or bund formation will be required on sloppy and undulating terrains.

In low lying areas, form mounds to a height of 1m above water level.

Interspaces of these mounds can be filled to form bunds.

The spacing between trees and between rows will depend on the planting

system, soil type, etc. Under normal conditions, a spacing of 7.5 x 7.5 m with

a population of 170 plants per hectare in the square system or 198 plants in

the triangular system, is given. Under single hedge with a spacing of 5 m in

the rows and 9 m between rows, 220 plants can be planted per hectare. In the

double hedge system, with a spacing of 5 x 5 m in rows and 9 m between

pairs of rows, 280 plants can be accommodated per hectare.

Pit sizes recommended are 1.0 m3 in loamy soils with low water table, 1.2 m3

in laterite soils with laterite rock below and 0.75 m3 in sandy soils. The pits

are refilled with top soil to a height of 60 cm below the ground level and

seedlings are planted. But in low level areas seedlings are planted in shallow

pits and as the trees grow up ground level will be raised so as to cover the

bole portion of the plants.

266

Tropical Fruits If there is assured supply of water for irrigation, coconut can be planted at

any time of the year. The best time of planting in Kerala is by the onset of

south west Monsoon in May - June.

4.6.1 Shading, Weeding and Interculture

Coconut requires full sunlight for good growth and yield. However, during

the first 2-3 years of its establishment, young palms require shade, especially

in summer months and when irrigation is not done. Shading with palm leaves

around the plant is the usual practice. Planting crops like banana, cassava

etc., also can provide temporary shade and protect the seedlings from hot

sun.

The traditional practice of weed control consists of slash weeding twice a

year and the organic matter is used as mulch. This will improve soil fertility,

soil porosity and microbial growth.

4.6.2 Drought Management

Continuous periods of drought leads to stunted growth, drooping of leaves,

immature nut fall and decreased yield. Some methods of drought management

are:

• Bury coconut husk in layers around the palm either in linear trenches

(0.5 m wide and deep) taken 3 m away from the base between rows of

palms or in circular trenches taken around the palm at a distance of 2 m

from the base with the concave surface up and covered with soil. The

beneficial effect of husk burial lasts for three to seven years.

• Mulching the basins with green/dry leaves including coconut leaves at

the close of north-east Monsoon (October - November).

• On level field, excess water of rainy season may be conserved by taking

small trenches in the field.

• On sloppy areas, the land may be terraced and trenches dug across the

slope.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Which are the major coconut producing countries ?

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............................................................................................................

2. What is the recommended spacing for coconut ?

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267

Coconut............................................................................................................

3. Write any three criteria for mother palm selection in coconut.

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4. Describe botanical features of the fruit of coconut.

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4.7 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT

Coconut like any other perennial crops, requires nutrients in adequate

quantities in the form of NPK and minor elements for better growth and

yields. However, the need for different nutrients varies with different soils

The fertilizer recommendation for different soils, varieties and other

management conditions of Kerala are given in Table 1.

Table 1 : Fertilizer recommendation for coconut in Kerala.

Quantity (Kg/palm/year)

N P2O

5K

2O

1. General recommendation

a) Average management, 0.34 0.17 0.68

mostly rainfedb)

b) Good management 0.50 0.32 1.20

2. For reclaimed clayey soils 0.25 0.35 0.90

(as in Kuttanad)

3. Red loam soils (Southern Kerala) 0.68 0.23 0.90

4. Hybrids and high-yielding palms

a) For irrigated areas 1.00 0.50 2.00

b) For rain fed conditions 0.50 0.32 1.20

Organic manures :

@ 25 kg/palm may be applied along with fertilizers by the onset of south-

west monsoon. Fertilisers may best be applied in two split doses for rain fed

coconut, one third in May - June and two-third by September - October. For

irrigated crop, the entire quantity required for a year may be given in four

equal splits in May - June, September - October, December and February.

Basins are taken at a radius of 1.8 m and may have a depth of 25 cm towards

the periphery. Apply fertilisers in the basin in May-June and rake in. Close

the basin after application of the second dose of fertilisers in September -

October for rainfed crop.

268

Tropical Fruits The quantity of fertilisers recommended for young coconut during the first

year is one-third of the full dose for adult palms and for the second year, two-

third. Full recommended adult dose is to be given from fourth year onwards.

Green manure :

Crops suitable for coconut are cow pea, crotalaria, Sunhemp and Daincha

and cover crops such as Peuraria, Mimosa invisa etc. The seeds of these

crops are sown towards the periphery of basins taken at a radius of 2 m from

the base of the palm for green manuring during April - May with the onset of

pre-monsoon showers. When the plants start flowering, the plants are uprooted

or ploughed in and incorporated into the soil during August - September and

the basins are covered with soil.

Recycling of palm waste and residues of all intercrops is a good practice of

maintaining the organic matter content of soil. Palm wastes like coconut

leaves, crown waste, dried spathes, husk etc. may be deposited in small

trenches of convenient length, 0.5 m - 0.75 m wide and 0.3 m - 0.5 m deep

at a distance of 2-2.5 m away from the base of palm. Fill up the trenches with

wastes along one side, say north, during one year, opposite side in the next

year, eastern side in the third year and western side in the fourth year.

4.8 IRRIGATION

Water needs of coconut is determined by different climatic and soil factors.

The frequency of irrigation will depend on the water holding capacity of the

soil and the rate at which water is lost. Therefore, for proper growth and

production, it is advised to irrigate the palms during summer months in basins

around the palm, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 : Irrigation schedule for coconut under Kerala conditions.

Soil types

Parameters Sandy Sandy Loam Silty

loam clay

Quantity of water / irrigation / 600 800 1300 1600

palm in litres in a basin of 1.8 m

radius

Frequency of Irrigation (days)

All areas in Kerala except north 3-4 5 7-8 9

– eastern portion of Thrissur and

Palakkat districts

North-eastern portion of Trissur 2-3 3-4 5-6 6-7

and Palakkat districts

For a better water use efficiency, drip irrigation is now being widely used.

Four drips per palm will supply 32 litres of water per hour and irrigating

daily for two hours gives a steady supply of water to palm.

4.9 INTERCROPPING AND MIXED CROPPING

In coconut, intercropping refers to the cultivation of short duration crops

along with coconut. Examples are banana, pineapple, yams, ginger etc. When

269

Coconutlong duration crops like cocoa, nutmeg, clove etc. are grown along with

coconut, it is mixed cropping eg., cocoa, nutmeg, clove etc. While taking up

inter and mixed cropping, the following factors must be considered and

managed.

1. Light infiltration through coconut canopy varies with age. In plantations

of above 20 years, it ranges from 30-80 per cent. In the early years,

interspace light availability is close to 100 per cent and it reduces gradually

to about 20 per cent in 9 to 10 years after planting. Hence, in the early

years, almost any annual/biennial crop can be raised depending on

availability of light.

2. Long duration crops can be planted only after about 20 years.

3. Avoid competition by intercrops with coconut for water and nutrient.

Provide additional watering and manuring to each and every crop. The

spacing of these crops should be in such a way that it should be minimum

2 m away from the base of the palm.

The following crops are recommended as intercrops.

• Cereals: Rice, maize, millets etc.

• Legumes and pulses: Ground nut, horse gram and cow pea.

• Tubers: Tapioca, sweet potato, yams, colocasia.

• Fruit Crops: Banana, pineapple, papaya.

• Fodder grasses: Hybrid napier, guinea grass.

• Mixed crops: Cocoa, black pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove.

4.10 PLANT PROTECTION

In the traditional coconut areas like Kerala, the trees are attacked by various

insect pests and diseases which damage the palms and reduce production.

We will now examine the nature of damage and control measures of these

separately.

4.10.1 Pests

The most important ones are rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, cockchafer

beetles, leaf-eating caterpillar, mites, coreid bugs and mealy bugs.

i) Red palm weevil (Rhyncophorus ferrugeneus) : This is the most

dangerous of all pests attacking coconut in the state and difficult to control

as the grubs bore in to interior tender portions of the growing young

palms The diagnostic symptoms are appearance of holes on the stem,

oozing out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibrous

matter through the hole, longitudinal splitting of leaf base and wilting of

central shoot.

Control : Provide field sanitation and avoid injury to stem.

The topmost three leaf axils may be filled with 250 g neem cake or marotti

270

Tropical Fruits cake with equal volume of sand

twice during April / May and Sept

/ October. Apply Sevidol 8 g 25 g

along with fine sand thrice during

April - May and Sept - October

and December - January.

Naphthalene balls 12.0 g with fine

sand once in 45 days.

Boreholes are sealed except the

top most one and pour 1.0 %

carbaryl @ 1.00 litre per palm

using a funnel.

Coconut log traps with fermenting

toddy or pineapple or sugarcane

activated with yeast or molasses,

can be set in the coconut

plantation to attract and trap the

free floating population of red

Fig. 5 : Young WCT palms showing

symptoms of attack by Red palm weevil

and Rhinoceros beetle.

palm weevils. Incorporate any of the insecticide to each trap and kill the

weevils trapped. Figure-5 presents two WC Tall young palms damaged

from a combined attack by Red palm weevil and Rhinoceros beetle.

ii) Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) : The adult rhinoceros beetle

bores into the unopened fronds and spathes and the attacked portions

show characteristic triangular cuts. The chewed up leaves when open,

show scissor-cuts on the leaves. Due to this, considerable leaf lamina is

lost and this leads to low productivity.

Management :

• Provide field sanitation

• Hook out beetles from attacked palm using beetle hooks

• Leaf axil filling as recommended for red palm beetle.

• Incorporate cuttings of Clerodendron infortunatum in the cowdung/

compost pits where the grubs multiply or treat these pits with 0.01 %

carbaryl every three months

• Release Bacculovirus oryctes infected adults @ 10-15/ ha

iii) Leaf - eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) : The caterpillars eat the

chlorophyll of older leaves of coconut and remains within the galleries

of silk and frass. The attack is severe during summer months.

Control :

• Cut and burn affected leaves.

• Release larval/pupal parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus

nephantidis and Brachymeria nosatoi.

• Spray Dichlorvos 0.02 % on the undersurface of leaves.

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Coconutiv) Cockchafer beetle (Leucopholis coneophora) : The grubs damage the

coconut palm roots. The leaves of the palm become yellow and do not

grow to their full size. Management of this pest involves catching the

adults and killing them to the extent possible or treating the soil application

with insecticides like Chlorpyriphos (0.04 %) and phorate 10G @10 g/

palm.

v) Eriyophid Mite (Aceria guerreronis) : The mites suck the sap from

young buttons. Symptoms appear as white triangular patches on 2-3

months old young nuts. These patches dry turn dark and nuts get deformed.

The husk is made unsuitable for coconut fiber industry. Reduction in

husk yield is about 40 % and that of copra 20 %.

Management : Collect and destroy all fallen buttons. Apply 2 % neem

oil + garlic emulsion or 0.004 % azadirachtin or wettable suplher 0.4 %

in the crown on young bunches. In large coconut plantations, dicofol 0.1

% is applies, but never on homesteads using rocker sprayer @ 1.0 - 1.5l

/ palm. Three rounds of sprays are required and are given during April -

May, September - October and January - February months.

vi) Coried bug : This bug attacked buttons become deformed with

characteristic crevices and scars on the husk below the perianth with gum

exudations and the tender nuts become barren. To control this pest, apply

0.1 per cent Carbaryl on the newly opened inflorescence, the entire crown

excluding the leaves and older bunches.

vii) Mealy bugs : Mealy bugs infest the unopened spindle leaf and

inflorescence. As a result, the leaves become highly stunted, suppressed,

deformed and present a crinkled appearance. Button mealy bugs colonize

under the perianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts harbouring mealy

bugs remain on the spadix, which serve as inoculum for further spread.

Remove and destroy all dried up inflorescence and unproductive buttons.

Application of dimethoate 0.1 per cent, quinalphos 0.05 per cent, and

fenthion 0.1 per cent at the infested bunches, checks button mealy bugs.

viii) Mammalian Pests-Rats and Squirrels : These mammals, mainly field

rats, stay in nests on the coconut crown, bore in to tender nuts and feed

on the contents. Their attack is severe during summer months. Their

control is rather difficult as they can move from tree to tree.

Crown cleaning at least once in a year can reduce damage. Placing baits

containing Warfarin, Zinc sulphide etc., at short intervals, also will help

controlling the pest population.

4.10.2 Diseases

i) Bud Rot : This disease caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora

affects the growing bud. The wet monsoons and the ensuing cool post-

monsoon periods are the most conducive seasons for its incidence and

development. The base of the spindle becomes rotten and emits a foul

smell. This disease can be checked by prophylactic spraying with

Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent at the start of the monsoon and after the

rains.

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Tropical Fruits ii) Stem Bleeding : This disease is characterised by the oozing of a dark

liquid which often dries up leaving a black streak on the trunk. This is

found caused by the fungus Thielaviopsis paradoxa but some stress factors

like drought make the palms susceptible to the disorder. The disease can

be managed to some extend by chiseling away the affected portions and

spraying systemic fungicide Tridemorph (Calixin) at 5 per cent.

iii) Basal Stem rot / Ganoderma wilt : This disease infects the roots first

and then spreads to the bole region, blocking the conducting vessels. The

disease spreads from plant to plant through root to root contact and the

spread is faster in light soils compared to clayey soils. Leaves of the

outer whorl start drying in quick succession much faster than the usual

rate. These leaves, however, do not fall off and hang around the crown to

look like a leafy skirt. The drying continues and soon the entire crown

dries up. The infected plants are to be isolated by deep trenches (1m deep

and 0.5 m wide) taken around the infected palms. The entire root-zone is

drenched with 1 per cent copperoxychloride solution or 1 per cent Calixin.

iv) Root - wilt disease : In Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu, coconut palms

are affected by the serious ‘root wilt’ disease. Affected palms present an

emaciated look with the green colour drained from leaves, which are

bent inward to like the rib cage of animals, and often the leaflets showing

dead patches at the tips and along margins (Fig. 6 gives picture of root

wilt affected palms in the background along with a high yielding one in

the foreground. The loss by reduction in yield is considerable depending

on the severity of damage inflicted by the malady. This disease is the

most dreaded disorder of coconut reported to be caused by ‘Phytoplasma’.

Fig. 6 : Heavy yielding WCT in a home stead with Root-wilt disease affected

coconut palms. Right: Root-wilt affected Tall palm

There is no cure known so far for this malady. However, the disease can be

managed, and productivity of the palm restored to a considerable extent. The

following measures may be adopted.

(a) Nutrition and irrigation are very important in restoring the health of the

palm. In addition to the normal dose of fertilizers, an additional dose of

0.5 kg Magnesium sulphate may be given to restore the green colour of

the leaves.

(b) Control leaf rot by removing infected portions of the spear leaf by treating

with systemic fungicides like Hexaconazole is needed.

(c) Plants which give less than10 nuts a year, those which are very severely

affected by the disease and those which are very old and senile, may be

removed from the garden.

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Coconut4.11 HARVESTING AND STORAGE

Tall varieties of coconut come to bearing after about the 5-8 years under

good management and reaches steady bearing by 8-10 years. Poor management

may delay first bearing to eighth year and steady bearing to 15th year.

A coconut tree produces a bunch every month and harvesting is usually done

at intervals 45 days with 6-8 harvests in a year. Under good management, the

average yield will be about 60 to 80 nuts per palm under unirrigated condition

and about 100 to 120 with irrigation. The average yields are pretty higher in

the non traditional areas.

Nuts for copra making, culinary edible purposes and other social and religious

purposes, are harvested after 10-11 months of pollination and for tender

coconut, 6-8 months old nuts are harvested. The correct stage of maturity

can be judged only by experience.

Coconut is harvested manually by professional climbers. Bunches of required

maturity are cut with a sharp knife specially made for the purpose and the

bunches are allowed to fall. Nuts are separated from bunches and barren and

undersized nuts are discarded. In some states like Karnataka, mature nuts are

harvested from ground using bamboo poles fitted with a sharp knife. Some

climbing devices have been devised by Research Institutions, but they have

not become popular with the majority of coconut farmers.

Tender nuts are normally used fresh and or can be stored for a few days

before they are utilised. Harvested nuts for domestic purposes can be used

right from harvest. Nuts for copra making are either used immediately after

harvest or stored for 2-3 weeks. In big holdings, nuts are stored in godowns

till they are taken for processing. For ball copra making, fully mature nuts

are stored separately. In Kerala where coconuts are mainly converted in to

copra, small processors collect the harvested nuts dehusked and dried in the

drying yards or smoked if sun drying is not possible and the final produce is

packed in gunny bags. The copra thus prepared are transported and sold to

merchants/milling units.

4.12 MARKETING

On the marketing side, although the supply of coconut has been fairly stable

over the years, its prices have been subjected to seasonal and annual

fluctuations mainly on account of variations in demand as well as due to the

interference of middlemen in the processing chain. In Kerala, the price of

coconut is heavily dependent on the price of coconut oil. Although it provides

numerous products which are commercially significant, the demand for

coconut and the prospects of coconut cultivation are governed the coconut

oil and copra sectors.

4.13 PROCESSING

The coconut industry in India is centred mostly around coconut oil and its

products. Value addition and product diversification are being attempted only

274

Tropical Fruits on a limited scale unlike countries like The Philippines, Sri Lanka etc, though

by product utilization is in the increase. New technologies are available for

post harvest processing of coconuts. Since more than 50 per cent of the nuts

produced in India are utilized for edible, religious and industrial purposes,

there is good scope for manufacturing and marketing of many products. Details

relating to above said aspects are presented in the following paragraphs.

4.13.1 Traditional methods

Coconut is an important source of vegetable oil used for edible and industrial

applications. Many products are processed from coconut meat or kernel.

Among these, copra, coconut oil and cake are the most important traditional

coconut products.

i) Copra : The dried coconut endosperm (meat) is called copra. For the

preparation of copra, nuts are dehusked, opened and dried either in the

field or at a separate site where facilities for drying are available The

former system is practiced more by small farmers while the latter by the

larger farms and estates where shells and husks are also utilized. In India,

two forms of copra are made viz; milling copra (cup copra) and ball copra.

The former is used for extraction of coconut oil while ball copra is mostly

used in the form of a dry fruit.

ii) Milling copra: The steps involved in the production of milling copra

from which coconut oil is extracted, are seasoning of the mature harvested

nuts by heaping them and covering with coconut fronds for 2-4 weeks,

followed by dehusking, splitting and drying. Three methods of drying

are:

1) Sun drying : Split nuts are kept in the sun After 2 or 3 days of drying,

the meat is scooped out from the shell and dried again for another 4-

5 days.

2) Smoke drying : This is done when sun drying becomes difficult. The

wet kernel is dried in a kiln like structure and the product obtained is

smoked copra. There are several types of kilns in use.

3) Mechanical drying : In this method, copra is dried by clean hot air in

driers at 90°C in the initial stage followed by 60°C after 2 hours or

70°C for initial 8 hrs and 60°C for the remaining period.

4) Packing and storage : Dried copra should be properly packed and

stored in the least humid conditions. The safe moisture level is 5-6

per cent. Copra can be packed in polythene lined gunny bags. However,

storing for longer periods would cause deterioration due to absorption

of moisture and result in mouldy and insect attacked copra. Early

utilization of dried copra is always desirable

iii) Extraction of coconut oil : Traditionally, coconut oil was extracted by

country “chakku” where pieces of copra were fed into the bullock driven

extraction units. Oil recovery is poor in this type of country expellers,

Subsequently, this system was replaced by rotary method of extraction.

Majority of the traditional oil mills were equipped with this method.

275

CoconutHowever, the most efficient system of extraction of oil from copra is by

the use of expellers. The oil recovery in this method is comparatively

higher than that of rotary mills and is about 65 per cent by weight of

copra.

Coconut oil is utilized as an edible as well as an industrial oil and generally

grouped as a Lauric oil in the international market. This oil is immensely

used in the food industry by virtue of its characteristics such as easy

melting behaviour, digestibility resistance to oxidative rancidity pleasing

flavour etc. It contains Vitamin E and act as an ideal energy source in

baby food.

iv) Coconut oil cake : Coconut cake is the residue left after the extraction of

oil from copra. The yield of coconut cake varies from 30-35 per cent of

the copra depending upon the method employed for extraction. It is mainly

used as cattle feed.

v) Ball copra : Conversion of mature coconut into edible ball copra is a

traditional method followed in the states of Karnataka and northern parts

of Kerala. It is made by storing 12-14 months old nuts (with husk) for

10-12 months. The coconut water insidegradually dries up when copra

gets detached from the shell. After dehusking and splitting the shell, the

copra in the form of a ball is removed and stored. This copra can be

stored for a longer period Figure 7 shows cup copra and ball copra made

by traditional method.

Fig.7 : Traditional coconut products- Cup copra and Ball copra

(Courtesy-Coconut Development Board, Cochin)

4.13.2 Product Diversification and Value Addition

A large number of food products can be prepared from coconut meat, milk,

mature coconut water, tender coconut water, coconut toddy etc. (Fig.8) They

include:

• Virgin coconut oil: The coconut oil extracted from raw and matured

coconut through wet processing method is known as Virgin Coconut Oil.

VCO is a premium grade oil with very low Free Fatty Acids (FFAs) and

curative properties.

• Desiccated coconut: This is an important commercial product used in

confectionery and has worldwide demand. After dehusking and shelling

of fully matured coconut, the outer brown testa is removed by thin shaving

(paring) and the meat is disintegrated into gratings. This is dried to a

moisture level of 3 per cent, sieved and packed.

276

Tropical Fruits • Coconut milk/ cream: ‘Coconut milk’ is the commercial term for the

processed and packed milk extracted from fresh matured coconuts. This

is an instant product which can either be used directly or diluted with

water to make various preparations such as curries, sweets, desserts,

pudding, etc.

• Spray dried coconut milk powder: This is prepared from the milk taken

from fresh meat of mature nuts. The process consists of deshelling, paring,

disintegrating, squeezing, pasteurizing and spray drying.

• Coconut jam: Coconut jam is prepared from coconut skim milk, sugar

and glucose.

• Coconut vinegar: This is a product obtained fermenting sugar fortified

coconut water with yeast Sacharomycess cervisea and acetobacter bacteria.

The process is elaborate. A quick generation process for producing quality

vinegar from matured coconut water using vinegar generators is now

available.

• Coconut water concentrate: For the production of coconut water

concentrate, fully matured coconut water is used. Coconut water is

concentrated by spray evaporation technique developed in Germany.

• Nata-de-coco: In India, a large quantity of matured coconut water is

wasted at the premises of the processing units causing environmental

problems. Nata-de-coco is a gelatinous product prepared by the action of

cellulose forming bacteria namely Acetobacte raceti subspecies xylinium.

Generally 100 litres of coconut water can yield about 30 kg of raw nata.

• Tender coconut water: Nuts at 6-8 months age is used for tender coconut

water. Tender coconut water is now available in pouches and aluminium

cans. The technology for packing of tender coconut water is developed

by the Defence Food Research Laboratory, Mysore.

• Snowball tender coconut: Eight months old nuts are used for this

purpose. In India, the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute,

Kasargode, Kerala, has developed this technology. The important steps

involved in the process are dehusking to give a round/oval shape, making

a groove in the shell and scooping out the tender kernel in ball shape.

• Coconut toddy and neera: Coconut toddy is obtained by tapping mature

unopened spadix of coconut. Tapping is the process of beating the spadix

with a mallet a few minutes daily for about a month so as to facilitate

exudation of the inflorescence sap which is usually collected in mud pots.

Before tapping every day, a thin shaving from the tip of the spadix is

removed for easy flow of sap. The fresh toddy is an invigorating drink

and is great demand. Fermented toddy on distillation yields arrack.

• Coconut jaggery: Coconut jaggery is produced from fresh toddy and

contains high sugar content of 88 per cent. Fresh toddy when boiled to

118-120°C and allowed to cool, solidifies and the solid mass is known as

coconut jaggery.

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Coconut

Fig. 8 : Different value added products and byproducts

from coconut tree (Courtesy-CDB,Cochin)

4.13.3 Byproducts from Coconut Tree

Besides various edible products from meat, tender nut, neera/toddy etc,

coconut tree gives a number of byproducts out of different parts of the tree,

mainly the husk which is the outer cover of the nut, its shell, timber, leaf etc.

Husk is the source of the coir and products from which are of commercial

importance. We may examine the salient features and uses of the by products.

Figure 9 gives pictures of coconut by products from shell and coir.

Fig. 9 : Handicrafts from coconut shell and coir geo-textile

(Courtesy-GDB.Cochin)

• Coir and Coir Products from Husk: Husk of mature coconut is

composed of many fibres embedded in a soft spongy tissue called pith.

The fibres are 20-30 cm long and have high tensile strength and are used

to make coir. Manufacture of coir and coir products is an important agro-

based cottage industry providing livelihood to millions and contributes a

significant share to the Country’s export earnings. India is the premier

coir producing country in the world.

• Coir Pith: It is the byproduct from husk obtained during extraction of

coconut fibre and has good demand in various horticultural activities as

it an excellent soil conditioner, rooting medium and mulching material.

It also finds uses as moisture conservative, organic manure, and for

manufacture of coir pith briquettes used as fuel etc. Coir pith can be

converted into coir pith compost employing Pleurotes (mushroom).

278

Tropical Fruits • Coconut shell products: Activated carbon, shell powder and shell

charcoal are the major products manufactured from coconut shell obtained

after separation of copra. These products are used for many industrial

and purification purposes. Handicrafts prepared from mature shell also

are in good demand in all markets.

• Other byproducts: Coconut wood is very strong and mature trees make

good building materials, furniture wall panels etc. Coconut leaf is mainly

used thatching, and for use as shading material, feed for elephants, as

fuel and preparation of brooms baskets etc.

• Coir geo-textiles: Coir nettings of various mesh prepared by weaving

coir yarn. This is a recently developed approach which can provide

protection to sloppy surfaces against soil erosion and grass turfs. These

can be used for growing vegetables on slopes up to 60°.

Activity 2: Visit coconut processing units and note harvesting and copra

making. Familiarise with the different edible products and verify their uses.

Also visit a super market and get acquainted with the value added products

and byproducts from coconut.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1. Give the fertilizer recommendation for hybrids and high yielding

palms grown under irrigated conditions.

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............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

2. What is the quantity of water for irrigating coconut using drip method ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

3. Name two spice crops suited for intercropping in coconut gardens.

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

4. What are the symptoms of root wilt disease ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

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279

Coconut5. What is virgin coconut oil ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

6. What is Nata-de-coco ?

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

............................................................................................................

4.14 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied the uses of coconut, major coconut producers in

the world and in India, soil and climatic requirements, varieties, cultivation

practices, pests and diseases and processing aspects of coconut. Coconut tree

is considered farmer friendly as it provides food and fuel while staying within

ambience of the homesteads of the medium and small farmers in the tropics.

In spite of various problems in marketing, low productivity, pest and disease

problems, the crop still continues to be the mainstay for millions of people in

the tropics particularly in India. Sustainability can be achieved by effective

utilization of technologies evolved from the different research stations by

gainful/utilization through product promotion and value addition.

4.15 KEY WORDS

Copra : Dried meat/kernel of coconut.

Intercropping : Cultivation of short duration crops along

with coconut like banana, pineapple, yams,

ginger etc.

Mixed cropping : Cultivation of long duration crops like

cocoa, nutmeg, clove and cocoa.

Spadix : Inflorescence of coconut enclosed in a boat

shaped spathe.

4.16 FURTHER REFERENCE

1. Alice, K and Peter, K.V. (2007). Commercial Crops Technology. New

India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 500 p.

2. Child, R. (1994). Coconuts (II Edn.), Longman, London.

3. Menon, K.P.V. and Pandalai, K.M. (1960). The Coconut Palm-A

Monograph. Indian Central Coconut Committee, Kochi, Kerala.

4. Nampoothiri, K.U.K. and Singh, H.P. (2000). Trends in Coconut

Research and Development in India. Coconut Development Board,

Kochi, Kerala.

280

Tropical Fruits 5. Ohler J.G. (1984). Coconut, Tree of Life. FAO Plant Production and

Protection Paper 57, Food and Agriculture organization of the United

Nations, Rome.

6. Rethinam, P. Poduval, S. and Nandakumar T.B. (Eds). Coconut Products.

Coconut Development Board, Min. Agriculture, G.O.I., Kochi, Kerala,

India.

7. Thampan, P.K. (1996). Coconut for Prosperity. Peekay Tree Crops

Development Foundation, Kochi, Kerala.

4.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Papua New

Guinea and Fiji.

2. 7.5 m x 7.5 m.

3. Regular yielding palms of 20 years or more with an average yield of not

less than 80 nuts/year/palm.

More than 30 fully opened leaves with short, strong petioles and wide

leaf base firmly attached to the stem.

Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong shape with the husked nuts

weighing not less than 600 g.

4. The coconut fruit is a drupe with an outer thick layer pericarp, a fibrous

mesocarp with a hard shell), and a solid endosperm, kernel or meat. Both

pericarp and mesocarp together represent the coconut husk and the water

in the vacuole of the thick kernel is the liquid endosperm of the fruit.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. 1.00, 0.50, 2.00 kg N, P2O

5 and K

2O/palm/year.

2. 32 litres/day.

3. Ginger, turmeric.

4. Affected palms present an emaciated look with the green colour drained

from leaves, which are bent inward to like the rib cage of animals, and

often the leaflets showing dead patches at the tips and along margins.

5. The coconut oil extracted from raw and matured coconut kernel through

wet processing method.

6. Nata-de-coco is a gelatinous product prepared by the action of cellulose

forming bacteria namely Acetobacter aceti subspecies xylinium.