Post on 26-Feb-2023
ANT 310 / ARH 410:
Imperial and Post-Imperial Egypt: ca. 1550–332 BCE
(The Late Bronze Age Canaanites [New Kingdom])
Lecture 23: Canaanites pt.1© Notes and images compiled by Gregory Mumford 2014
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Inner division and terminology:
• Like the MB Age, the Late Bronze Age
has been subdivided variously:
W.F. Albright: C.F.A. Schaeffer: Dyn.
LB 1A 1550-1470 BC LB I 1600/1550-1450 BC Dyn.18
LB 1B 1470-1400 BC LB II 1450-1350 BC Dyn.18
LB IIA 1400-1300 BC LB III 1350 - Dyn.18
LB IIB 1300-1200 BC LB III - 1200 BC Dyn.19
• LB 1A = Ahmose Thutmose III & H.
Early empire
• LB 1B = Thutmose III Thutmose IV
Main campaigns
• LB 2A = Amenhotep III Horemheb
Amarna period peak-decline
• LB 2B = Ramesses I Qn. Tawosret
Ramesside intensification
• Iron 1A= Setnakhte Ramesses VI
Sea Peoples & decline.
• However, there = also much continuity
in Canaanite material culture.
The Canaanites:
1.Who were the “Canaanites” - Definition
2.Transition from MB to LB Age - NK empire
3.LB Age Settlement pattern - Communities
4.Lifestyle: arts, crafts, etc. - Mat. culture
5.Writing and language - Language
6.Religion and cult - Beliefs
7.Mortuary beliefs and burials - Burials
8.Trade and interactions - Interactions
9.Others within Canaan & its periphery - Diversity
10. Egyptian control - Egy. empire
The Canaanites:
Definition:
- The Canaanites may be defined
variously:
a. Place: peoples residing within the
area of modern Israel, Transjordan,
Southern Syria, and Lebanon.
b. Language: peoples speaking a
Canaanite language.
c. Self-identity: peoples who called
themselves “Canaanites”
- Prior to evidence for the Canaanite
language, the term “Canaanite” is
applied more broadly to the peoples
residing in the aforementioned area.
- Both the origin and initial appearance,
of the peoples who became known
as “Canaanites,” remain unclear.
- Earliest reference to “Canaanites”
dates to 18th cent. BC (Mari; MB I).
CANAANITES
The Canaanites:
Origins:
- It appears that the Canaanites prob.
originated from eastern Syria in MB I
(cultural links to later Syria-Palestine).
Transcriptions of :Canaan”:
- Hebrew, Ugaritic, & Phoenician:
term = kn‘n
- Akkadian cuneiform:
term = ki-na-ah-nu(m)
= mat ki-na-hi
= mat ki-in-na-ah-hi
- In Egyptian consonantal hieroglyphs:
term = k-3-n-‘-n-3
= k-i-n-‘-nw
= many variations
The next appearance of “Canaan”
occurs in late 15th–14th cent. BC (NK)
- Booty list of Amenhotep II
- The Amarna Letters
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Cultural diversity in Canaan:
Canaanites:
• The majority of Palestine’s population
consisted of Canaanites, who were of
West Semitic origin.
• LB Age Palestine, however, had gained
a significant influx of non-Semites,
especially the Hurrians who had left
northern Syria in the 16th cent. BC.
• Such links have been suggested via the
inclusion of Hurrian deities in names
that deviate from West Semitic names.
- i.e., Canaan and the Canaanites were
actually a more diverse peoples
Various Egyptian depictions of
Canaanite garments
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Egyptian empire’s foundation LB Age:
• From ca. “1550” BC to 1150 BC, Egypt
controlled the diverse Canaanite city-
states, populations, & the economy,
albeit with fluctuations in the extent
and nature of Egyptian governance.
• Egypt’s:
- Exaction of annual tribute,
- Imposition of duties upon city-states
regarding their var. contributions to
maintaining Egypt’s northern empire
- Mass deportations: people & livestock
- “Egyptianization” of city-state heirs,
- Exploitation of other resources,
- Retributive raids against rebels,
- Border disputes and fighting with
adjacent super powers over cities,
- Etc.
Reduced the power + prosperity of
many city-states (despite Pax Aegyptiaca)
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Egyptian empire’s foundation:
• Egypt’s establishment of an empire in
Palestine realized various benefits
for Egypt(!):
a. Securing trade routes to Lebanon
and Syria.
b. Exploiting Syria-Palestine for …
- Lumber (e.g., cedar; boxwood; etc.)
- Oil (e.g., olive and other oil)
- Wine (famed vintages from Retenu)
- Honey
- Wheat (e.g., both for transfers within
Palestine and to Egypt)
- Cattle (cows; sheep; goats; byproducts)
- Copper (via Sinai, Cyprus, etc.)
- Bitumen and salt (Dead Sea)
- Slaves (captives; servants; etc.)
- Concubines (trade, etc.)
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Syria-Palestine’s urban landscape:
• Egypt kept the MB Age political infra-
structure intact in its Levantine vassals.
• Major city-states in northern empire:
- Yurza (Tell Jemmeh?)
- Lachish
- Gath (Tell es-Safi?)
- Ashkelon
- Ashdod
- Jerusalem
- Gezer
- Shechem
- Gath-Padalla (Jatt in Plain of Sharon)
- Taanach
- Megiddo
- Rehob (South of Beth-Shean)
- Pehel (Pella)
- Shimon (Tel Shimron: W.Jezreel)
- Anaharath (Tel Rekhesh?)
- Acre
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Syria-Palestine’s urban landscape:
• Egypt kept the MB Age political infra-
structure intact in its Levantine vassals.
• Major city-states in northern empire:
- Yurza (Tell Jemmeh?)
- Lachish
- Gath (Tell es-Safi?)
- Ashkelon
- Ashdod
- Jerusalem
- Gezer
- Shechem
- Gath-Padalla (Jatt in Plain of Sharon)
- Taanach
- Megiddo
- Rehob (South of Beth-Shean)
- Pehel (Pella)
- Shimon (Tel Shimron: W.Jezreel)
- Anaharath (Tel Rekhesh?)
- Acre 40 km diameter
MB IIB-C: ca. 1800/1750 – 1550+ BC
MB Age Fortifications LB Age:
Ramparts and glacis:
• MB IIB-C represent the culmination in
the design, size, and complexity of the
fortification of major Levantine cities.
• These fortifications entailed building a
huge artificial earth rampart around
the perimeter of a city, creating a high
embankment with an upper wall.
• Another variant entailed sculpting and
building a high, steep-loped glacis
along the base of wall (similar effect).
• Both types aimed at raising a city wall
much higher above its high, steep-
sloping rampart or glacis to prevent the
use of battering rams, sappers, ladders.
• Such elaborate defence systems
spread throughout Syria-Palestine.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning & architecture:
Fortifications:
• Virtually all excav. LB Age sites in
Palestine lack fortifications in sharp
contrast to the preceding MB Age.
• Some settlements may have retained
upper walls on the MB Age ramparts,
which still lay around their settlements.
• A few sites reveal rebuilding of their
walling systems after destructions at
the beginning of LB 1 (ca.1550 BC):
• E.g., Hazor retains its prominence and
rebuilds its wall throughout the LB Age
• Megiddo kept its double-chambered
gateway, but lost its adjoining wall.
-The palace north wall served as a
partial wall beside the gate (T-III siege)
-The gate became more ceremonial.
Megiddo gateway & palace wall
Shechem
Hazor Stratum 2, LB 1 gate
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning & architecture:
Fortifications:
• Virtually all excavated LB Age sites in
Palestine lack fortifications in sharp
contrast to the preceding MB Age.
• Some settlements may have retained
upper walls on the MB Age ramparts,
which still lay around their settlements.
• A few sites reveal rebuilding of their
walling systems after destructions at
the beginning of LB 1 (ca.1550 BC):
• E.g., Hazor retains its prominence &
rebuilds its wall throughout the LB Age
• Megiddo kept its double-chambered
gateway, but lost its adjoining wall.
-The palace north wall served as a
partial wall beside the gate (T-III siege)
-The gate became more ceremonial.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Fortifications:
• Both Lachish & Tel Batash definitely
lack city walls throughout the LB Age.
• Large buildings = placed along the
mound edges, possibly serving as
pseudo walls, or features that provided
limited defence against raiding Habiru.
• The inhabitants at Tel Batash placed
wall sections and drainage holes in the
streets between these mound-edge
buildings, making a makeshift defence
• Gezer’s massive exterior wall is hotly
debated as dating either to the LB Age
or the succeeding Iron Age.
• 14th–13th cent BC fortifications occur at
Ashdod, T.Abu Hawam, T.Beit Mirsim.
• The apparent de-fortification is best
explained via Egyptian imperial policy.
Tell ed-Duweir = Ancient Lachish
Plain of Philistia: Ashdod
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning & architecture:
Town planning:
• As in MB Age, LB Age settlements
yield insufficient exposure to assess
town planning at any one site.
• However, the major N. settlements of
Hazor and Megiddo appear to have
retained or followed the main existing
layout founded in MB Age levels.
• In essence, only details change within
individual buildings and complexes,
whilst the street layout and major
structural walls remain in place.
• In contrast, Southern settlements
were largely destroyed & experience
a period of abandonment or major
alterations in their layout.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning:
• Some towns kept their orthogonal
layout, whilst others introduced an
irregular pattern of alleys, streets,
and thoroughfares.
• The larger settlements appear to have
distinct quarters with associated cult
centres: E.g., Hazor and Ugarit.
• In Syria and Palestine, temples and
palaces now become physically
separated, with palaces tending to be
near their city gates:
- Alalakh MB palace gate
- Megiddo MB palace gate
- Lachish MB palace a temple
- Hazor MB Temple-A disuse
MB temple-H continues
Megiddo Stratum VIII: 1400-1300 BC
Megiddo Stratum VIIB: 1300-1200 BC
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning & architecture:
Palaces:
• Megiddo illustrates the evolution of
a typical Canaanite palace from 1550
to 1150 BC (Strata X-VIIA):
a. Strata X-IX square building with a
courtyard surrounded by chambers.
b. Strat. VIII palace 50 x 33+ m:
- Central courtyard
- W-reception halls divided by pillars
- Adjacent bathroom to South
- Eastern living quarters
- Probable stairway to upper floor
c. Strat. VIIB palace renovated: W.hall
d. Strat. VIIA palace 3-roomed annex
= chapel/shrine with ivories.
Megiddo Str.VIII
palace
Megiddo Str.VIIB
palace
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning & architecture:
Elite domestic architecture:
• LB Age settlements also contain elite
dwellings smaller than nearby palaces:
E.g., Megiddo
- A central courtyard with surrounding
rooms and halls.
- Such elite houses probably served
the town’s nobility (maryannu).
E.g., Taanach West Building:
- 18 x 21 m building
- Courtyard at one corner
- Probable stairway to upper floor
- 9 square rooms
E.g., Aphek (13th cent. BC):
- 14 x 16 m building
- Several rooms and halls
- Archive reveals = Egy. administration
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Town planning & architecture:
Elite domestic architecture:
• LB Age settlements also contain elite
dwellings smaller than nearby palaces:
E.g., Megiddo
- A central courtyard with surrounding
rooms and halls.
- Such elite houses probably served
the town’s nobility (maryannu).
E.g., Taanach West Building:
- 18 x 21 m building
- Courtyard at one corner
- Probable stairway to upper floor
- 9 square rooms
E.g., Aphek (13th cent. BC):
- 14 x 16 m building
- Several rooms and halls
- Archive reveals=Egy. administration
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
LB Age Tower-Temples:
• LB Age temples display a wide
range of forms at many sites:
• Some temples continue from the MB,
being rebuilt and refurbished:
E.g., Hazor Area H Temple
E.g., Megiddo Temple
Hazor Area H Tower-temple (LB 1-2B):
XV: The front courtyard received an
altar and an ornate entryway.
XIV: Total rebuilding after destruction:
Retained the foundational outline.
Added outer entry hall to building.
Basalt orthostats along inner walls
Two couchant lions flank doorway
Basalt altar has spoked wheel:
= Anatolian/N. Syrian symbol for
the deity Hadad / Baal (MB+)
Basalt statue of deity on a bull.
Temple appears dedicated to Baal.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
LB Age Tower-Temples:
• LB Age temples display a wide range
of forms at many sites:
• Some temples continue from the MB,
being rebuilt and refurbished:
E.g., Hazor Area H Temple
E.g., Megiddo Temple
Hazor Area H Tower-temple (LB 1):
XV: The front courtyard received an
altar and an ornate entryway.
XIV: Total rebuilding after destruction:
Retained the foundational outline.
Added outer entry hall to building.
Basalt orthostats along inner walls
Two couchant lions flank doorway
Basalt altar has spoked wheel:
= Anatolian/N. Syrian symbol for
the deity Hadad / Baal (MB+)
Basalt statue of deity on a bull.
Temple appears dedicated to Baal.
Strat.-2
LB 1B
Strat.-1B
LB 2A
Strat.-1A
LB 2B
Levantine tower-temple
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
LB Age Tower-Temples:
• LB Age temples display a wide range
of forms at many sites:
• Some temples continue from the MB,
being rebuilt and refurbished:
E.g., Hazor Area H Temple
E.g., Megiddo Temple
Hazor Area H Tower-temple (LB 1-2):
XV: The front courtyard received an
altar and an ornate entryway.
XIV: Total rebuilding after destruction:
Retained the foundational outline.
Added outer entry hall to building.
Basalt orthostats along inner walls
Two couchant lions flank doorway
Basalt altar has spoked wheel:
= Anatolian/N. Syrian symbol for
the deity Hadad / Baal (MB+)
Basalt statue of deity on a bull.
Temple appears dedicated to Baal.
Hazor Area H Stratum 2
Migdol-temple:
LB 1B: ca.1470 – 1400 BC- Cultic incense stands, offering bowls,
and liver model (inscribed in cuneiform)
Hazor Area H Stratum 2
Migdol-temple:
LB 1B: ca.1470 – 1400 BC
Votive offerings from
Stratum 2 migdol-temple
at Hazor (Area H):
Bronze sheet figures
Hazor Area H Stratum 1B
Migdol-temple: LB 2A:
ca.1400–1300 BC
Basalt lion orthostat:
Guardian figure at entryway
Hazor: Area H Migdol-temple.
Stratum 1A LB 2B: 1300-1200 BC
Basalt altar with disk symbol of Hadad
And basalt cultic figures, one of which
Also has a disk-symbol of Hadad
i.e., = Baal cult (the storm god)
Hazor: Area H Migdol-temple. Stratum 1A = LB 2B: ca.1300 – 1200 BC
Bronze bull figurine from sanctuary = symbol of Baal (virility/fertility aspect)
Hazor: Area H Migdol-temple. Stratum 1A = LB 2B: ca.1300 – 1200 BC
Terra cotta shrine
for a cult figure
-- The Bull?
?
Hazor: Area H Migdol-temple.
Stratum 1A = LB 2B ca.1300-1200 BC
Basalt cultic seated-figure with head broken-off -- a deity?
Hazor:
Area H Migdol-temple.
Strat. 1A LB 2B 1300-1200
Basalt cultic seated-figure
with head broken-off
Hazor:
Area H
Mgdl-temple.
Strat. 1A
LB 2B
1300-1200 BC
Basalt cultic
basins and
trays for
cultic use
Hazor: Area H Migdol-temple.
Stratum 1A: LB 2B 1300-1200
Mycenaean bull/cow-figurine
Multiple cults & votives
from a diverse population
Hazor: Area H
Migdol-temple.
Stratum 1A:
LB 2B 1300-1200
Votive offerings of beads
& seals (i.e., jewellery)
What does it mean? How did the Canaanite temple work? …E.g., San Andras de Teixido, Galicia (Spain) Sailors offering model ships safety
Timeless
votive
offerings
to Saints
& God
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
LB Age Tower-Temples:
• Despite various temple designs in the
LB Levant, the widespread occurrence
of related temple types argues for
overall cultural homogeneity:
E.g., Hazor & Alalakh Tower-temples
- Both resemble each other closely in
structure, decoration, & furnishings,
even with dramatic alterations over
time.
Alalakh strata IV & I temples also
have lion orthostats
have a basalt altar
have a similar main hall
Megiddo tower temple lasts 500 yrs:
Two ashlar towers
Sanctuary changes
Enclosure built with
surrounding rooms.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Irregular Canaanite temples:
• Diverse and individual types of
Canaanite temples also appear at
LB Age sites:
Hazor Area C shrine in Lower City:
• Placed beside the interior rampart
• A broad-room
• 11 upright stones (stelae / masseboth)
- Central stone depicted two raised
arms below a lunar crescent-disk
• Vertical slab depicting a lion
• Statuette of a seated male
• An altar / offering table
• A pottery mask (ritual equipment?)
• A silver sceptre
• Hence, this small communal shrine
prob. served the immediate community
and had links with a lunar cult.
• Continuity through MB and Iron Ages
Hazor Area C Courtyard 6215
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Irregular Canaanite temples:
• Diverse and individual types of
Canaanite temples also appear at
LB Age sites:
Hazor Area C shrine in Lower City:
• Placed beside the interior rampart
• A broad-room
• 11 upright stones (stelae / masseboth)
- Central stone depicted two raised
arms below a lunar crescent-disk
• Vertical slab depicting a lion
• Statuette of a seated male
• An altar / offering table
• A pottery mask (ritual equipment?)
• A silver sceptre
• Hence, this small communal shrine
prob. served the immediate community
and had links with a lunar cult.
• Continuity through MB and Iron AgesLunar cults
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Lachish: Fosse Temple outside City.
• 1th – 13th cents. BC: 1500-1200 BC
• 3 successive (superimposed) temples
• Indirect approach to main hall
• Pillared hall with offering benches
• Central altar/platform along back wall
• Later back rooms for ritual equipment
and priests’ usage.
• Last temple = destroyed ca.1200 BC
i.e., offerings smashed across floor.
• Earlier excess offerings buried in pits
(favissae) outside temple.
• Votives:
- Ivory pieces from a composite cult
statuette (hand; eye).
- Canaanite pottery
- Cypriot & Mycenaean pottery
- Some Egyptian pottery (rare)
- Jewellery, etc.
• Probably catering to foreigners, esp.
merchants?, perhaps Cypriots-Greeks
Aegean-style temple
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Overall settlement pattern trends:
• Both the overall number of people,
and the relative density of sites,
declined from the MB Age - LB Age.
a. The desert fringe regions are
basically abandoned.
b. Some major MB IIB-C cities are also
abandoned, or continue partially:
i. Beer Sheba Valley
ii. Central Hill country
iii.Jordan Valley
c. Some major MB Age cities, such as
Tell el-‘Ajjul and Tel Nagila become
small outposts, or are abandoned.
d. Var. cities in the central & northern
plains become impoverished sites:
E.g., Kabri, Aphek, Tel Gerisa, Dan,
and Shechem.
• Some are converted into Egy. forts.
Tell el-‘Ajjul
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Overall settlement pattern trends:
• In the LB Age, rural settlements also
declines sharply:
E.g., Many small MB Age agricultural
communities are abandoned in the hills
of Samaria & Ephriam.
• In contrast, there appears to be an
increase in semi-nomadic +nomadic
populations.
• R. Gonen’s demographic study has
concluded that the LB I period in
particular experiences a severe drop
in settlements (may = insufficient data),
with a relative revival in LB IIA-B.
• Of note, the overall population decline
is more evident in certain areas versus
other regions:
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Indigenous, Canaanite pottery:
• Canaanite pottery experiences an even
greater increase in types and foreign
influences and imports in the LB Age.
• The occurrence of foreign imports also
provides cross-cultural chronological
reference points with Egypt, Syria,
Cyprus, Anatolia, Greece, the Aegean.
Local pottery:
• LB Age Canaanite pottery develops
slowly from MB Age forms.
• I.e., There is NO sharp break between
MB and LB Age pottery.
• In contrast, MB IIC & LB I tend to
merge and are difficult to separate.
• Distinctions between the two rely on
the disappearance and appearance of
certain forms from a given corpus. Canaanite amphorae = storage jars
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metallurgy: i.e., copper sources.
• Cyprus formed the main supplier of
copper for the East Mediterranean
during the LB Age.
• At times when this copper supply
became inaccessible or much reduced
to Egypt (during the Egypto-Hittite war)
Egypt increased its exploitation of its
Eastern Desert & South Sinai sources,
& dug new mines in S. Negev: Timna.
• Otherwise, Cyprus enriched itself via
mining and exporting copper in an
“ox-hide”-shaped ingot that appears
throughout the Mediterranean:
- Cyprus (mines and ports)
- Ugarit (Ras Shamra)
- Shipwrecks off Turkey
- Sites in Greece
- Sites in Southern ItalyTimna
Cyprus
South Sinai
Timna
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metallurgy: i.e., tin sources bronze
• SE Anatolia (Turkey) supplied tin
from its mines, which accompanied
copper shipments in ingots to enable
the production of bronze (copper + tin).
• E.g., Tin ingots appear in a shipwreck
off the coast of Haifa.
• The recipient polities of copper and tin
shipments established smelting
installations to produce bronze tools,
weapons, & other items for local use:
• Tel Zeror (Plain of Sharon):
- Several smelting furnaces in an open
area with clay crucibles & bellows.
- Adjacent massive ash deposits attest
to long-term intense operations.
- An unusual abundance of Cypriot
pottery near the installations implies
an additional assoc. with Cypriots.
Tel Zeror mound plan
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metallurgy: i.e., Canaanite items.
Repertoire of bronze items:
• Sickle swords (began in MB II)
• Daggers (now cast with a hilt)
• Tanged spearheads
• Shafted/socketed spearheads
• Arrowheads
• Chisels (wood-working)
• Cymbals (temple rituals)
• Figurines (cultic applications)
Precious metals:
• Gold and silver jewellery, representing
recycled local materials and imported
gold from Egypt &. silver from Anatolia
• Precious metals become scarcer in
Canaan during the Late Bronze Age,
possibly owing to Egypt’s continuous,
and increasing extraction of tribute
from its vassal states.Deir el-Balah: Canaanite-Egy. jewellery
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metallurgy: i.e., Canaanite items.
Repertoire of bronze items:
• Sickle swords (began in MB II)
• Daggers (now cast with a hilt)
• Tanged spearheads
• Shafted/socketed spearheads
• Arrowheads
• Chisels (wood-working)
• Cymbals (temple rituals)
• Figurines (cultic applications)
Precious metals:
• Gold and silver jewellery, representing
recycled local materials and imported
gold from Egypt &. silver from Anatolia
• Precious metals become scarcer in
Canaan during the Late Bronze Age,
possibly owing to Egypt’s continuous,
and increasing extraction of tribute
from its vassal states.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Art: i.e., Canaanite artists & their work
• Most Canaanite artistic expression
appears in the miniature arts, including
cylinder seals, figurines, and jewellery.
• Sculpture does appear, and exhibits
skills affiliated with MB North Syria,
but is much less common.
• All of the forms and motifs, however,
provide an invaluable source for
studying otherwise poorly preserved
Canaanite a. Garments
b. Physical appearance
c. Religion (iconography)
d. Cross-cultural relations
e. Aspects of daily life
f. Fauna
g. Flora
h. Etc.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Stone sculpture:
• Canaanite temples in particular display
stone sculpture that apparently is
derived from MB Age North Syrian art:
Ebla and Alalakh.
Orthostats (sculpted slabs):
Hazor:
• Stone orthostat portraying a crouching
lion flanking the temple’s entry.
also a Lioness head (from Hazor).
• The motif of guardian lions is popular
throughout the Levant, including an
association with a deity standing on a
lion’s back.
E.g., Ebla: row of lion heads on basins
E.g., Other temples with guardian lions
Beth-Shean:
• Basalt slab depicting a dog fighting a
lion in two registers (i.e., 2 stages).
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Stone sculpture:
Stone statuettes:
• Canaan has yielded small stone
anthropomorphic statuettes of divine
or royal figures:
E.g., A seated male holding an item in
a hand, such as a cup or lotus flower
(Hazor; Tel Sippor)
Stone stelae (free-standing slabs):
• Canaanite sculpture includes stelae
that often portray deities, such as
Baal: A warrior figure with a spear and
conical headdress, & variants.
(Ugarit; Tell Shihab)
El: A seated, elderly god (Ugarit).
Egyptian-style deities: A nomadic
Shasu(?) is depicted before an
Egyptian-style deity (Balua‘)
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Stone sculpture:
Stone statuettes:
• Canaan has yielded small stone
anthropomorphic statuettes of divine
or royal figures:
E.g., A seated male holding an item in
a hand, such as a cup or lotus flower
(Hazor; Tel Sippor)
Stone stelae (free-standing slabs):
• Canaanite sculpture includes stelae
that often portray deities, such as
Baal: A warrior figure with a spear and
conical headdress, & variants.
(Ugarit; Tell Shihab)
El: A seated, elderly god (Ugarit).
Egyptian-style deities: A nomadic
Shasu(?) is depicted before an
Egyptian-style deity (Balua‘)
Tell Shihab “Baal” on a stela
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Glyptic art:
• Cylinder seals provide a major source
for the study of local through foreign
art, iconography, and foreign contact.
• Palestine has produced about 400+
cylinder seals with diverse motifs,
while Syria contains larger quantities
(both as MB heirlooms & later styles).
• During Egypt’s control of much of the
Levant, cylinder seals suffer a decline
in quality (versus prosperous MB Age).
• Popular motifs / themes:
Warrior deity Baal
Naked/clothed goddess Astarte(?)
Cylinder seals = Syro-Mesopotamian
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Glyptic art:
Canaanite cylinder seals:
• The local Canaanite seal-cutting
workshops made simpler cylinder
seals with a broad range of motifs.
• They drew upon local through regional
and foreign motifs/influences.
• The Canaanites also imported seals
from elsewhere, including:
- Cyprus
- Assyria
• Hence, some seals appear essentially
as jewellery: an object d’art
• Other foreign seals may reflect the
presence, or transit, of foreign envoys:
- Merchants
- Messengers
- Others
Linear style technique in cylinder seal:
NW Syria: Tell Atchana (Alalakh II?)
Gezer (South Canaan): cylinder seal
Egyptian-style adopted in cylinder seal:
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Glyptic art:
Egyptian scarab seals:
• Canaan contains immense quantities
of Egyptian scarab seals during the
Late Bronze Age (i.e., imperial control)
• A number of scarabs bear Egyptian
royal names, indicating more official
contact with, or gifts to, vassal states.
• Although such scarabs provide a
chronological link, their tendency to be
retained as heirlooms reduced their
aid in dating their contexts of discovery
• Some king’s names were especially
popular as a talisman (protection), &
are produced after the king’s reign:
E.g., Thutmose III (Menkheperre) is
found on scarabs for 100s of yrs
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Ivory carving: popular industry.
• Ivory carving is a well-attested industry
in the Late Bronze Age, with artisans
using ivory to produce a wide range of
small items to decorative components
in composite objects:
- E.g., cosmetic containers
- E.g., inlay panels in furniture.
• A subterranean storage area in the
LB-Iron 1A palace at Megiddo (Str.VIIA)
yielded ca.300 pieces of carved ivory:
- One ivory piece bore the name of
Ramesses III (early Dyn.20: Iron 1A).
• This represents a re-building of the
LB Age palace, and may include items
that span the LB Iron 1A periods.
• The ivory pieces consisted of small
containers, decorative fittings, and
inlays that came from wooden furniture
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Ivory carving:
• Kantor and others have studied the
ivories in detail, dividing the artwork
into different cultural workshops:
a. Pure Canaanite artwork
b. Hybrid Canaanite-Egyptian artwork
c. Hybrid Canaanite-Mycenaean work
d. Imported Mycenaean ivories
e. A rare imported Hittite ivory
Canaanite ivory artwork:
• Canaanite artists made decorative
ivory panels for furniture, ivory plaques
and small boxes, and sculpted figures.
• Their favourite motifs include stylized
flora, fauna, and mythological beings.
• Female sphinxes, griffins, lions, and
antelopes appeared earlier in “Syrian”
glyptic art.
Mycenaean
Canaan
Hatti(Hittites)
Egypt
Mitanni
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Canaanite ivory artwork:
• Scenes often feature naked or clothed
female figures.
• The palace ivory bed panels often
have scenes of daily life at Ugarit and
to a lesser extent at Megiddo.
• An ivory plaque, which may have come
from a chair’s armrest shows a seated
ruler, a queen approaching, a female
lyre player, a soldier bringing POWs,
the prince/ruler in his chariot; banquet.
• Just this one scene illustrates a broad
range of things:
a. Costumes and regalia of different
classes and professions.
b. Different items, weaponry, etc. that
are otherwise not well-preserved.
c. A local depiction of Canaanites vs.
Egyptian propagandistic stereotypes
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Canaanite ivory artwork:
• Scenes often feature naked or clothed
female figures.
• The palace ivory bed panels often
have scenes of daily life at Ugarit and
to a lesser extent at Megiddo.
• An ivory plaque, which may have come
from a chair’s armrest shows a seated
ruler, a queen approaching, a female
lyre player, a soldier bringing POWs,
the prince/ruler in his chariot; banquet.
• Just this one scene illustrates a broad
range of things:
a. Costumes and regalia of different
classes and professions.
b. Different items, weaponry, etc. that
are otherwise not well-preserved.
c. A local depiction of Canaanites vs.
Egyptian propagandistic stereotypes
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Hybrid Canaanite-Egyptian ivories:
• This collection of ivories are mostly
Egyptian in form and motifs:
- Plaques depicting Egyptian deities
- Swimming-girl shaped cosmetic
containers
- Duck-shaped cosmetic containers
- Egyptian plants: e.g., papyrus.
• Despite the prevalence of Egyptian
influence, it appears that Canaanite
artisans made most of these things,
copying hieroglyphs and other motifs
inaccurately, but in an attempt to lend
an Egyptian feel to the artwork & forms
Egy. wooden swimming-girl cosm-spoon
Composite swimming-girl cosm-spoon
Ugarit: duck-shaped cosmetic container
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Ivory carving: sources of ivory.
• Hence, the ivory industry relied upon
raw materials that include mainly
elephant & hippopotamus tusks.
• The nearest source represents the
Syrian elephant, which resided in the
forests in Lebanon and Syria mostly
(now extinct).
• Other sources include Nubia & India.
• Raw tusks are known to be exported
throughout Egypt, the Near East, and
East Mediterranean, where local artists
used ivory to produce their own or
hybrid compositions for the elite.
• Despite an overall impoverishment in
Late Bronze Canaan, the local elites
were still prosperous, and in the 13th
to early 12th centuries BC reveal
widespread collections of ivories.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metal artwork: figurines etc.
Figurines and pendants:
• LB Age artisans continued to produce
figurines and pendants in gold, silver,
and bronze.
• A seated male, probably the god EL,
wears a long mantle and represents
the head of the Canaanite pantheon.
• A seated female wearing a long robe
is likely El’s spouse: Astarte?
• A naked female figure is likely the
goddess Astarte, who represents love
and fertility ().
a. Often portrayed on gold-sheet
pendants (triangular in form).
b. Sometimes shown in full-figure
c. Or abbreviated head & genitalia
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metal artwork: figurines etc.
Figurines and pendants:
• A warrior, prob. the god Baal-Hadad,
forms the most popular subject:
a. Striding figure
b. Holding a spear/weapon & shield
• A naked female standing on a lion
is identified by Egyptian captions as
Qudshu: “the Holy One.”
a. Canaanite deity depicted in both
Canaan and Egypt.
b. Lachish temple variant shows her
wearing an Egyptian-style crown,
standing on a horse, and holding
two lotus flowers (Acropolis temple).
• Humans are less frequently portrayed
in metal figures, but include a king or
priest wearing a mantle with a right
hand raised palm outward in adoration
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metal artwork: figurines etc.
Figurines and pendants:
• A warrior, prob. the god Baal-Hadad,
forms the most popular subject:
a. Striding figure
b. Holding a spear/weapon & shield
• A naked female standing on a lion
is identified by Egyptian captions as
Qudshu: “the Holy One.”
a. Canaanite deity depicted in both
Canaan and Egypt.
b. Lachish temple variant shows her
wearing an Egyptian-style crown,
standing on a horse, and holding
two lotus flowers (Acropolis temple).
• Humans are less frequently portrayed
in metal figures, but include a king or
priest wearing a mantle with a right
hand raised palm outward in adoration
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Metal artwork: figurines etc.
Figurines and pendants:
• A warrior, prob. the god Baal-Hadad,
forms the most popular subject:
a. Striding figure
b. Holding a spear/weapon & shield
• A naked female standing on a lion
is identified by Egyptian captions as
Qudshu: “the Holy One.”
a. Canaanite deity depicted in both
Canaan and Egypt.
b. Lachish temple variant shows her
wearing an Egyptian-style crown,
standing on a horse, and holding
two lotus flowers (Acropolis temple).
• Humans are less frequently portrayed
in metal figures, but include a king or
priest wearing a mantle with a right
hand raised palm outward in adoration
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Clay figurines:
• Levantine artisans produced clay
figurines by putting raw clay into
moulds and baking the clay figurine.
• Most figurines consist of naked
females, equated with naked fertility
goddesses, such as Astarte (or Anat?)
• Such figurines are likely used mainly
by women, such as the later biblical
teraphim:
(Genesis 31:19-35; I Samuel 19:13-16)
• Female figurines are often standing,
holding snakes or lotus flowers.
• They often have Egyptian “Hathor”-
style hair: curled side-locks.
• Another type of female figurine
includes a female lying on a bed
(which is a popular type in NK Egypt).
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Clay figurines:
• Levantine artisans produced clay
figurines by putting raw clay into
moulds and baking the clay figurine.
• Most figurines consist of naked
females, equated with naked fertility
goddesses, such as Astarte (or Anat?)
• Such figurines are likely used mainly
by women, such as the later biblical
teraphim:
(Genesis 31:19-35; I Samuel 19:13-16)
• Female figurines are often standing,
holding snakes or lotus flowers.
• They often have Egyptian “Hathor”-
style hair: curled side-locks.
• Another type of female figurine
includes a female lying on a bed
(which is a popular type in NK Egypt).
Deir el-Balah
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Writing:
Akkadian script in Levant:
• The cosmopolitan nature of LB Age
Canaan, which had broader relations
with the East Mediterranean and Near
East, is reflected in the writing systems
found throughout Palestine.
• As in Middle Bronze Age, Akkadian
cuneiform script and language
formed the international means of
communication throughout the
Near East: = lingua franca.
• In addition, the archives at Ugarit,
Amarna letters, and other isolated
tablets from Hazor, Megiddo, Tanaach,
Aphek, and Tel Hebron, reveal that
Canaanites used cuneiform widely
in various religious & secular texts:
- E.g., Dictionaries
Lists, etc.
Aphek 1250 BC letter
Megiddo: LB 1A frag.
of Gilgamesh epic
Tanaach: frags.
of cuneiform tablets
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Ugarit’s archive regarding Canaan:
• A large corpus of LB Age texts occurs at
Ugarit (Ras Shamra), yielding the most
important information on the Canaanites
• While Ugarit lay outside the borders of
Egypt’s northern Canaanite empire, and
contained a “non-Canaanite” population,
the Ugaritic language & culture = sub-
group related to Canaanite culture.
• The numerous Akkadian & Ugaritic
texts from the archives of the palace
and temples yield a broad range of data
on the Canaanite …
a. Political system
b. Economy
c. Social structure
d. International relations
e. Religion
f. Etc.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Akkadian script in Levant (cont.’):
• Each city-state ruler apparently had
locally trained scribes in his service.
• The discovery of bilingual and trilingual
dictionary tablets in Akkadian, at such
sites as Aphek, reveal the existence of
local scribal schools and reference
collections for the non-indigenous
speakers/readers/writers of Akkadian.
• The presence and usage of Akkadian
at Egypt’s royal court emphasizes the
need for all East Mediterranean states
to employ scribes conversant in this
language for international relations.
• Despite Egypt’s political domination of
the Levant, it recognized that Akkadian
had to be used to communicate with
its vassals and neighbouring states,
in trade, commerce, and diplomacy.
Hebron: cuneiform tablet listing animals
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Egyptian script in Levant:
• However, the Egyptian language is
also found in the Levant, using formal
hieroglyphs on stone slabs associated
with state and funerary-cultic structures
(e.g., statuary; stelae; jambs; lintels).
• Egyptian business script also occurs,
being best preserved on var. hieratic-
inscribed bowls or other less-
perishable materials (e.g., clay coffins;
scarab seals; etc.).
• The Egyptian texts mostly reflect the
usage of Egyptian script by
a. Egyptians in Canaan
(military, state, temple administration),
b. Some Egyptianized Canaanites
(i.e., princes rulers), and
c. Canaanite scribes.
• However, both Egyptian & Akkadian
still foreign languages to Canaanites.Dyn.19 Sety I stela
at Beth-Shan
Mt.Ebal R2 scarab
Dr. el-Balah stela
Deir el-Balah: Egy
hieratic on bowl
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Indigenous Levantine script/language
• The Levantine population, including
Canaanites and northern affiliated
peoples (e.g., Ugarit), also developed
their own alphabetic writing system,
beginning in the later MB Age.
• This innovation became one of the
most important contributions to
Western civilization: the Canaanite
alphabet formed the foundation for the
later development of the Phoenician
and Greek alphabets.
• The Levant experiences two distinct
forms of the “Canaanite” alphabet:
a. North: Ugarit
b. South: Canaan with two variants:
- Proto-Sinaitic
- Proto-CanaaniteProto-Canaanite & Ugaritic alphabet!
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Ugaritic-alphabetic script:
• In the northern Levant, at Ugarit, the
indigenous scribes developed an
alphabetic script with 27 signs using
cuneiform signs (= specific to Ugarit).
• This adapted the use of clay tablets,
used for traditional Akkadian cuneiform
but used a stylus to write in the much
simplified new alphabetic system.
• As a major trading peoples, acting as
mediators between Syria-Mesopotamia
and the East Mediterranean, it was a
natural move to simplify the difficult &
cumbersome Akkadian script to a much
simpler alphabetic script that could be
learnt and used much more easily and
widely by business persons.
• Most of Ugarit’s mythological texts in
the temple library used the new script.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Canaanite alphabetic script:
• The Canaanites, who were dominated
politically by Egypt in the LB Age,
introduced their own distinct alphabetic
script based on acronyms.
• This Canaanite script displays two
variants: a. Proto-Sinaitic
b. Proto-Canaanite
a. Proto-Sinaitic:
• The Proto-Sinaitic script appears in
the Sinai Peninsula primarily, being
written on rock slabs, rock faces, and
some earlier Middle Kingdom statues
in the copper mining region.
• This script was apparently used by
Canaanites exploiting the copper
mining region in Middle Bronze IIB-C:
ca.1750-1550 BC (post-Middle Kingdom)
• This script = still poorly understood
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
b. Proto-Canaanite:
• This script occurs in brief inscriptions
on pottery vessels & stone+metal items.
• Both its date of origin and meaning
remain poorly understood (similarly
to Proto-Sinaitic).
- E.g., Lachish Brief text
- E.g., Tel Nagila Brief text
- E.g., Shechem Longer stone text
• The Shechem text has been dated to
Late MB IIC, in the 16th cent. BC
• The remaining Proto-Canaanite texts
are dated to LB 2B (13th cent. BC)
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Proto-Canaanite & Proto-Sinaitic:
• Of the relatively few translated texts,
they seem to refer to cultic activities.
• A Proto-Canaanite text on a jar from
Lachish’s Fosse temple is a dedication
to the goddess of this shrine.
• In Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions, one of
the very few known words is Ib‘lt:
“for/belonging to the lady”
• This epithet may refer to Astarte, who
in-turn may represent the Egyptian
goddess Hathor, who has a shrine in
the S. Sinai turquoise mining region:
“Hathor, Mistress of the Turquoise.”
Overview of the alphabet:
• An exceedingly important innovation.
• It simplified both the ease of learning
how to read and write & using writing.
• It also increased literacy immensely.
Lachish
Ewer
with
Proto-
Canaanite
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
EL:• Head of the Canaanite pantheon, with
El meaning “leader.”
• Major deity representing “order” in the
universe.
• In his traits there are allusions to
infancy, childhood, i.e, a passive/calm
nature (shown seated & bearded).
• He is often called the father of Baal.
• Epithets: “Father of all the gods”
“Father of the years”
“Father of men”
“Bull El” (i.e., fertility link)
“King”
• Earthly kings are called “son of EL”
• EL appears in Syria ca. 2500 BC
(?) = Dagon/Dagan EL = Astarte
Yam Mot Baal = Anat
Summary of Levantine pantheon:
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Aštar / Astarte:• She is the wife of EL and is a major
deity.
• Epithets: “Lady Asherah of the Sea”
“Mother of all the gods”
“Wet-nurse of the gods”
• She represents the mother of Baal,
but is not well-disposed towards him.
• She is important in the Levant from
1500 BC onwards.
• She may have solar features in South
Arabia.
• She also becomes important in New
Kingdom Egypt (and later)
• She is later a major deity amongst the
Sidonians and Phoenicians.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Dagan / Dagon:• A weather deity / manifestation.
• Epithets: “The rainy one”
“Lord of corpses”
Has chthonic affiliations
• Also a deity of grain / fertility.
• Recognized as an alternate father of
Baal (maybe two different traditions?).
• Initially from the Middle Euphrates
region in Syria.
• Spreads to W. Syria and Palestine
in 1500 – 1000 BC.
• Has temples at Ugarit (Ras Shamra)
• Becomes a major deity in the Iron Age
Philistine culture.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Baal:• A weather deity with variant names:
-Baal-Zephon, who lives on Jebel el-
Aqra in Syria, has a few temples in
Ugarit and a temple in Egypt (D19).
-Baal-Karmelos, who resides at Mt.
Carmel (in Palestine).
-Baal, Baal-Hadad, or Hadad, a chief
deity of Ugarit.
• Epithets: “prince” (Baal-zebub),
“The bull-calf”
“The Rider of the Clouds”
- Appearing in storms
- Life-giving force behind crops,
animals, and people.
- Battling chaos of the sea and
the heat of the summer.
Model of Baal temple at Ugarit (Ras Shamra)
Storm clouds in Lebanon: “Rider of Clouds”
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Baal (continued):• A major deity in the Levant.
• One tradition labels him as the son of
Dagan / Dagon (also a weather god)
• Another tradition equates him with
being a son of EL (chief of pantheon).
• He is depicted
a. striding
b. Armed with weapons
c. Throwing lightning bolts
• Baal represents the positive aspects of
the natural cycle: i.e., growing crops,
rebirth,etc. (the opposite of Mot/Death)
• He is later a major opponent deity to
the Israelite religion.
Old Testament Baal-zebub (our Satan)
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Anat:• A goddess of beauty, love, etc.
• Also known as a fierce warrior.
• Adopted by Egyptians and shown
protecting the pharaoh from enemies.
• Epithets: “Virgin/Maiden Anat”
“The destroyer”
• She is called the daughter of EL.
• She is both the sister & lover of Baal
(she changes to a heifer to make love
to Baal who changes to a bull).
• She also plays the role of the “widow”
when Baal is killed (prior to his
resurrection)
• A major deity in the Levant from
1500 BC to the Hellenistic period.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Yam:• An important deity of the sea & water
in general, being thus important to
sailors.
• Yam/Sea has two personality types:
a. Calm: i.e., good summer weather
b. Anger: i.e., harsh winter weather
• Epithets: “Lord Sea”
“Prince River”
• Yam has temples and regular offerings
being generally an important deity.
• Yam is a traditional enemy of Baal,
with whom he often fights.
Yam = associated with the Sea
Sailors would offer votives to Yam
i.e., to receive safety on a voyage
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Mot (“Death”):• The Underworld deity and a major
enemy of Baal (i.e., his counterpart).
• god of “death”
• Name comes from mwt “to die”
• Epithets: “Mot is a son of the gods”
“Beloved of EL”
• He resides in the Underworld
• He can take the form of a snake
• In death people are said to be eaten
by Mot.
• Baal battles Mot and is killed, but is
reborn (Anat defeats Mot in revenge)
• Mot = hard dry earth in summer.
• Baal = green crops in winter-Spring.
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Religion: deities:
Mot (“Death”):• The Underworld deity and a major
enemy of Baal (i.e., his counterpart).
• god of “death”
• Name comes from mwt “to die”
• Epithets: “Mot is a son of the gods”
“Beloved of EL”
• He resides in the Underworld
• He can take the form of a snake
• In death people are said to be eaten
by Mot.
• Baal battles Mot and is killed, but is
reborn (Anat defeats Mot in revenge)
• Mot = hard dry earth in summer.
• Baal = green crops in winter-Spring.
Drought in Syria; + generic scene below
Mot (“death” i.e., heat/drought)
killing Baal (“life” i.e., crops)
LB Age: ca. 1550 – 1200 BC
Other Levantine (W. Semitic) deities:
- Aštar = Son of Astarte
- (el)qunirša = Creator of the earth
- Hauran/Horon= Chthonic deity (fierce)
- Kamoš/Kamiš= 1000 BC god of Moab
- Kothar-Hasis = Craftsman of the gods
- Kotharat = Usually 7 goddesses
(childbirth & fertility)
- Rephaim = “saviors” (chthonic?)
- Rešep = Plague god, fights evil
- Šahr+Šalim = “Dawn” and “Dusk”
Gracious & merciful gods
- Šapaš = Sun-goddess
Traverses underworld at
night; EL’s messenger.
- Yarik & Nikkal= Lunar deities.