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Water Symbolism and Sacred Landscape in Hinduism: A Study of Benares (Vārāṇasī)(Wassersymbolismus und heilige Landschaft im Hinduismus: Eine Studie aus Benares(Vārāṇasi))Author(s): Rana P. B. SinghReviewed work(s):Source: Erdkunde, Bd. 48, H. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1994), pp. 210-227Published by: ErdkundeStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25646594 .Accessed: 29/10/2011 04:55
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210 Erdkunde Band 48/1994
WATER SYMBOLISM AND SACRED LANDSCAPE IN HINDUISM: A STUDY OF BENARES (VARANASI)
With 7 figures and 6 photos
Rana P. B. Singh
Zusammenfassung: Wassersymbolismus und heilige Land
schaft im Hinduismus: Eine Studie aus Benares (Varanasi) In der iiberlieferten Hindu-Mythologie wird Wasser als
die Ursprungsquelle von Schopfung und Leben beschrie
ben. Spater werden Gewassern und Flufiufern Heilkrafte
zugeschrieben. Sie werden dementsprechend als heilige Statten betrachtet. Der Ganges wird als die ? Mutter aller
Fliisse" angesehen und man glaubt, dafi besonders der
nordlich fliefiende Abschnitt bei Varanasi hochste Gnade
verheifit. In Varanasi fuhren vierundachtzig Stufenanlagen
(ghats) zum Ganges hinunter und es gibt mehr als fiinfzig Weiher. Diese Wasserstellen sind von mythologischer Be
deutung und werden regelmafiig von Glaubigen besucht -
entweder fiir Reinigungsrituale oder aus speziellen Moti
ven zu verschiedenen giinstigen Gelegenheiten. Die raum
liche Nahe und sakrale Gemeinsamkeit von Wasserstellen
fiihrten zur Entstehung einer Wasserlandschaft in der hei
ligen Stadt Varanasi. Dariiber hinaus gilt die Stadt als der
heiligste Ort des hinduistischen Glaubens iiberhaupt. Die
ser Aufsatz versucht, dessen speziellen Wassersymbolis mus im Zusammenhang mit der heiligen Landschaft zu
beschreiben.
Introduction
In ancient Hindu mythology (about 800 BCE) water is described as the foundation of the whole
world, the basis for life and the elixir of immortality (see SBr IV 8.2.2; III. 6.1.7; and IV. 4.3, 15). The
Atharva Veda (II. 3.6) prays: "May the waters bring us well-being!". There appear many such descrip tions about the quality, use, sanctity and symbolism of water (Eliade 1958, 188). In the later period water becomes a symbol of life, and the flow of water: life world. In curative terms water is regarded as a healer
{AVIV. 91.3). Metaphorically and metaphysically the ancient mythologies refer to water as the container of life, strength and eternity. More commonly water is perceived as a purifying medium. However, to
reach the source and receive the merit of "living water" involves a series of consecrations, rituals and
religious activities like pilgrimage and sacred baths. The cult of water is described in the vedic literature, and followed on vividly in the puranic literature.
The "wash away sins" quality of water is bound
up with the power of sanctity and cosmological con
notation in mythologies. Says Eliade (1959, 131), "Everything that is form manifests itself above the
waters, by detaching itself from the waters". The run
ning water in general and the Ganga (Ganges) water in particular, and sacred ponds, too, are described
as bestowers of sanctity and miracles. In this way a
common chain of interrelationship between water
bodies and human society is maintained by the varieties of performances and rituals. The psychic attachment to a place and maintenance of cultural
traditions reflect a realization of the divine mani festation at the place. The intensity of this manifest
power varies from one place to another. Such specific
places are known as tirthas (holy sites, or sacred
places). The three more generally identifiable factors for popularity and acceptance of sacred places are:
unique natural landscape, unique body of water, and an association with some great sage. These charac
teristics are eulogized in Hindu mythology. Varanasi
(Benares) in span of time acquired a distinct status
among the holy sites in India. Its location between the two rivers and along the notherly flow of the Ganga, and its association with Lord Siva are its unique characteristics.
The Ganga (Ganges) River
In Hindu mythology all the rivers are revered as remover of pollution, however, the Ganga is embody
ing the most prominent and purifying liquid power. No river in the world's history has achieved such fame as the sacred river Ganga. At least from about
the third century the Ganga has played a vital role in ceremonies and worship
- in rituals of birth and
initiation, of purification and religious merit, of mar
riage and death. The Gariga is known as Mother
Gariga (Ganga Mai) bringing life in the form of sacred water. The Ganga is a sacred fluid, an essential ele
ment for all the Hindu rites and rituals. The Ganga is often described as the river flowing
in heaven, on earth and also in the netherworlds
(Tripathaga). That is how the Gariga is a "liquid axis
mundi, a pathway connecting all spheres of reality, a
presence at which or in which one may cross over to
Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 211
/\?u^^ Kailala
0 ?--^Gomukha-. A
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\ Calcuttaj^k 1 \l ) y^o^^X
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Fig. 1: The Gariga river flows from Gomukha (source) to Garigasagara (mouth) and covers a distance of 2,525 km
Der Ganges verlauft von Gomukha (Quelle) nach Garigasagara (Miindung) und ist 2525 km lang
another sphere of the cosmos, ascend to heavenly
worlds, or transcend human limitations" (Kinsley
1987, 193). Paraphrasing one of Carl Jung's state ments one could propose an ethics for the Gariga river and Hinduism: "People of India would never find true peace until they could come into harmo nious relationship with and deep feelings of rever ence to the Gariga river who is the cradle and identity of India's culture and civilization since time imme morial" (Singh 1993, 301).
Only after walking along the Gariga's bank one realizes that one's great-great-grandfathers once
walked that very bank and had certain experiences, manifestations and revelations. Revealing the Gariga as the living organism requires specific forms of com
munication, interaction and environmental sensitiv
ity. That is how the Gariga is known as the mother.
Beyond the economic and physical milieu one reaches the point of realizing the true spiritual value of the power of the Gariga for what it really is: a sense of power. As natural place she has physical,
mental, emotional and spiritual powers (energy) beyond her economic value. The stories of the Gariga may change, but the motherly river lives on. The
Gariga is described as the soul of India. There are many sacred sites and centres of pilgrim
age along the Gariga river (2525 km), for example Gomukha, Gangotri, Devaprayaga, Rsikesa, Harid
vara, Karikhala, Soron, Bithura, Prayaga/Allahabad, Vindyacala, Cunara, Varanasi, Patna, Sultanganj
212_Erdkunde_Band 48/1994
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Fig. 2: Varanasi: The 84 ghats along the Ganga riverfront
Varanasi: Die 84 ghats am Ufer des Ganges
Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 213
and Garigasagara - from source to mouth (Fig. 1).
The most sacred place among all the holy places of India is Varanasi, known as the microcosm of India.
The Gahga River in Varanasi
In its whole course the Gariga flows south to north in a crescent shape only in Varanasi. On the other
hand, the current has not shifted its water-edge along the left-bank cliff since the ancient past, while the other side is a flood-prone area. This natural condi
tion has tended to support the natural beauty of Varanasi.
The Gariga, the patron deity Lord Siva, and the sacred territory of Kasi together form the Cosmic
Trinity (Trimurti) of this great city says a 12th cen
tury text, the KKh (35.10): The Gahga, Siva, and Kasi: Where this Trinity is watchful, No wonder where is found the grace, That leads one on to perfect bliss.
With the realization of its highest mystic power of
sanctity, especially in Varanasi, people from all parts of India came and settled along the river - resulting in the development of a social space encompassing all of India (Singh 1980, 1990, 125).
The Gariga riverfront spreads over an arc of 6.4 km
(4 miles) along which lie 84 ghats (steps to the river
bank) between the confluence of the Asi in south and the Varana in north (Fig. 2). In archetypal terms each
ghat represents one lakha (100000) of organic species as described in Hindu mythologies; that is how in total all the 8400000 species are symbolized along the 84 ghats in Varanasi. Further, 12 zodiacs X 7 layers of atmosphere, or 7 cakras (sheaths in the human
body) also comes to 84. Thus the annual cycle of the cosmic journey is completed by taking a sacred bath at the 84 ghats. At these sacred sites puranic texts
identify 98 water-front sacred spots. The number 98 indicates the cosmic frame linking 14 bhuvana-kosa
(sheaths in total) of the human body and 7 layers between earth and heaven (Singh 1993, 68).
According to the Brahma Purana (a 15th century text), the mystic power of bestowing bliss increases ten times when the Gariga enters the Vindhya region;
where it follows a westerly flow it is increased by hundred times, and when it follows a northerly flow in Varanasi the merit increases by a thousand times
(Singh 1987, 509). Following a common Hindu tra dition in the early morning at sunrise, pilgrims or devout citizens gather on the ghats to bathe in the
Gariga, drink at least a few drops of the sacred
water, and take blessings or religious instructions
from the ghatias ("priests" at the ghats) who, while seated at the river's edge under a typical canopy, preside over various offerings, including ancestral
offerings. Pilgrims then move into the narrow lanes to take a 'darsana' (auspicious sight) of the Visvesvara/
Visvanatha temple and the other sacred entities.
Among the 84 ghats five are considered as more
auspicious (Pahcatirthi); from the south to the north
they are: Asl, Dasasvamedha, Manikarnika, Parica
gariga, and Adi Kesava. Says the KKh (84.107) that
'having bathed in which a person shall never again be born'. These ghats are the most commonly visited
by pilgrims and devotees. These selective spots are
prescribed and described in detail in the KKh
(84.107-110), and are still very popularly visited
places -
either daily, or on auspicious occasions. The
architectural beauty of the city is not completed without the ghats. Vast beaches of stones, pavements and landings, ensure passage towards the waters of
the Gahga. They were developed during the con struction of the palaces and the bank buildings and ensure a transition of space. The palatial building at Ranamahala Ghat was made in late 17th century, and the Darbhanga Ghat in early 20th century in Greek pillar style (Photo 1). This portion is the most scenic spot along the Gariga.
Ast Ghat
Marking the southern edge of the city at the con fluence of the Asi, this ghat was referred to in a 17th
century text. The palatial buildings were made by the king of Varanasi in about 1830. This is one of the famous sites for celebrating the Surya Sasthi
("the Sixth day of the Sun" as mother goddess) festival held on the 5th and 6th day of the waxing fortnight of the month Karttika (October-Novem ber), when over ten thousand mothers perform this festival for the wellbeing of their sons.
Dasasvamedha Ghat
This ghat (Fig. 3, Photo 2) is presumed to be the first historically recorded site associated with the myth of the horse-sacrifice performed by the Bhara Siva
Naga kings around the 2nd century CE. Throughout the year this is the busiest ghat. On the 10th day of the waxing fortnight of Jyestha (May-June) worship of the Gariga is celebrated on a grand scale in the
Gariga temple at the top of the ghat. The sacred bath
PAofo 7: Varanasi: A scene of Ranamahala Ghat and Darbhariga Ghat, showing the architectural beauty (courtesy Niels Gutschow) ^
Co
Varanasi: Blick auf die architektonische Vielfalt von Ranamahala Ghat und Darbhariga Ghat
Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 215
" - ̂w^JW*'- ~^Wj&?.;:
Pteo -2: Varanasi: An early scene of Dasasvamedha Ghat as pictured by James Prinsep in 1830
Varanasi: Eine friihe Szenerie von Dasasvamedha Ghat, 1830 gemalt von James Prinsep
on the occasions of solar and lunar eclipses and in the month of Magna (December-January) is also
important.
Manikarnika Ghat
Mythologically known as "the great cremation
ground", this ghat (Fig. 4, Photo 3) is mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions of the 4th century. The ghat has two parts
- one for cremation, and the other for
bathing and rituals. After cremating corpses, the mourner and attendants take a bath at this site.
Pilgrims and devotees perform ancestral rites at this
ghat, more commonly in the special period of the
waning fortnight of Asvina (September-October).
Pancagahga Ghat
In 11th century mythologies this ghat (Fig. 5, Photo 4) is referred to frequently. It was famous for the grand temple of Veni Madhava, one representa
tion of Visnu, which was demolished and converted into a mosque in 1670 by the Mughal king Aurang zeb. That mosque still serves as a landmark along the arc of the river. The Gahga-arati ("offering oil
lamps to the goddess Gahga") at the time of sunrise and sunset is the most attractive scene at this ghat In the month of Karttika (October-November) the ritual of offering oil lamps to ancestors, hung up in the air on bamboo poles, is performed by the ghatias (^to-priests) on behalf of the devotees who patronize the cost or materials involved. Additional payment is also made for service of hoisting the lamps (daksina) every night. A ghatia tells many such stories of the families which by doing this ritual had received bles
sings from their ancestors resulting in prosperity.
Adi Kesava Ghat
Since the Gahadavala period (11th century), this
ghat is famous for the temple of Visnu as Kesava -
assumed to be the oldest in the region. For Vaisnavi
Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 217
I I I I t \\/hll \ Jf jfllm A m mL*\ It I H I ill I I hi Jirl I * in //Ail/ Imm m- \ fl I \ I
^mMwnwnwnwnwnwnwnwnwnwnmmMwnwnwnwnwnwnwMwnwBMwm^^ if^Ail' AS^Ba^^^^^l
Photo 3: Varanasi: A scene of Manikarnika Ghat. The ritual of offering oil lamps hung up in the air on bamboo poles marks an ancestral rite (courtesy Niels Gutsghow)
Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Manikarnika Ghat. Das Ritual der Darbietung von Ollampen an Bambusstocken be
inhaltet die Verehrung der Ahnen
tes (devotees of Visnu) this is the most attractive site. In practice, most of the pilgrims take a bath at the closeby confluence of the Varana and the Gahga, followed by a visit and rituals in the Adi Kesava
temple.
The five ghats in perspective
These five ghats symbolize the microcosmic body of Lord Visnu: Asi is the head, Dasasvamedha is the
chest, Manikarnika is the navel, Pancagahga is the
thighs, and Adi Kesava is the feet. This recalls the
myth that Visnu first placed his holy feet in Vara nasi. Thus the area along the Gahga river is sym bolized as Visnu's body. Says the KKh (84.114) that
"having bathed in the five ghats a person never again receives a body of five elements; rather he becomes the five-faced Siva in Kasi."
The two most important occasions for bathing in the Gahga at Varanasi are makara-samkranti (winter
solstice; 14th of January), and mesa-samkranti (vernal equinox; 14th of April). The other important occa sions are the full-moon days (especially of Octo
ber-November), eclipses, and the new-moon days. On any of these occasions over a hundred thousand
visitors take a holy bath in the Gariga. It is obvious from the participatory survey on the
occasion of the winter solstice (14th of January 1993,
Thursday) that a little less than half of the visitors
belonged to higher castes (Brahmins, Rajputs and
Bhumihars) -
reflecting the sense of faith and better economic affordability. Age (50 and above), low education and nearness to the city are among the fac
tors for the intensity of participation. Similar results were also found on the occasion of the new-moon
day that fell on the 26th February 1993 (Saturday). If the new-moon day falls on Monday it increases the power of bestowing merit, e. g. on the 18th of
January 1988. Most of the visitors belong to the middle-class income group.
After a purificatory bath in the Gariga and wor
shipping her, pilgrims head for an auspicious glimpse
218 Erdkunde Band 48/1994
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Ft?. 4: Varanasi: Manikarnika and nearby ghats, known for cremation and ancestral rites. Numbers 1 to 8 show the
important shrines and temples
Varanasi: Manikarnika und die umliegenden ghats, bekannt fiir Einascherungen und Rituale, die den Ahnen gewid met sind. Die Nummern 1 bis 8 markieren die Lage der bedeutenden Schreine und Tempel
(darsana) of the patron deity, Visvesvara/Visvanatha and the ancillary shrines in and around the temple compound, Kala Bhairava (the protector of the city and controller of Death), Sarikatamocana, Durga, and others.
The birth of the Gariga, referring to her coming on earth from heaven, is celebrated on the 10th of the
waxing fortnight of Jyestha (May-June). In 1992 it fell on June 10. Devotees believe that to bathe in the
Gariga in the morning of this day bestows high merit and relief from the sins committed earlier. This day is followed by another auspicious day, ekddasi, asso ciated with the worship of Visnu, the protector. Those who take a religious vow (sahkalpa) to worship the Gariga start the bathing and associated rituals from the first day of Jyestha and complete the cycle on the 11th day (ekddasi).
Kundas/Sacred Ponds
The sacred territory of Varanasi is dramatically associated with water bodies. The eastern edge is determined by the Gariga river, north by the Varana
river, and south by the Asi. The whole city has hun dreds of water ponds (Hindi: tdldb, Sanskrit: kundd) which even as late as the mid nineteenth century formed a series of streams dividing the city into five forest tracts (vana)
- from north to south these were Maha Vana, Daru Vana, Ananda Vana, Harikesa
Vana and Bhadra Vana (Fig. 6) Many of the water
ponds were interlinked during heavy rains (July September), draining the area. In a way the sacred
topography of the city thus followed a seasonal
rhythm of nature. The map of Varanasi made by the British scholar Prinsep in 1822 clearly shows how
Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 219
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] Ik ^^^^^^^^^^ ^ " ' "'^
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Fig. 5: Varanasi: Pancaganga and nearby ghats. Numbers 1 to 8 refer to important shrines and temples
Varanasi: Pancaganga und die umliegenden ghats. Die Nummern 1 bis 8 markieren die Lage von bedeutenden
Schreinen und Tempeln
numerous these ponds and tanks were (Fig. 6). His
drawing shows how in the north Maha Vana and Daru Vana were divided by the stream linking Mari dakini and Matsyodari, further meeting Rinamocana and finally flowing into the Varana river. One part of this stream, during heavy rains, met the Gahga river near Manikarnika Ghat. The overflow of the
water connected Bhulotana Garha, Benia Talab,
Suraja Kunda Misira Pokhara and finally met the
Gahga at Dasasvamedha Ghat. Of course, these water bodies are filled up, however, only during heavy rains or floods, when the channels come again to the surface, reminding us of the old water bodies and their routes, as in the years 1948, 1978 and 1992.
In spite of such changes in landscape, the impor tance of sacred ponds (kundas) is not lost. On auspi cious occasions at the bank of these sacred ponds
many religious activities are performed, and fairs
(melds) and bathing rituals held. These are eulogized in the mythological literature and maintained by continuing tradition.
The mythological literature mentions sixty sacred
ponds, six bigger wells (vdpis) and thirty-one sacred wells (kupas) in Varanasi. With the increase of pop ulation and spread of settlements, many of the water sites were either filled up, or were encroached upon
within the residential quarters. However, the famous sites are still alive. The notable onces are described below.
Jndnavdpi ("Well of Wisdom ")
This well symbolizes the primordial water asso ciated with the story of Isana (Siva's form controlling
220 Erdkunde Band 48/1994
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Photo 4: Varanasi: A scene of Pancagahga Ghat. A series of chatari (canopy) of priests is a distinct view (courtesy Niels Gutschow)
Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Pancagahga Ghat. Eine Ansammlung von Schirmen fur die Priester ist ein bezeichnen
der Anblick
the northeast realm of the universe), who dug the earth at this site with his trident and offered the water to Avimuktesvara, the most ancient form of Siva in
Varanasi (KKh 33.17, 18). Says the KKh (33.50) that
Siva, on becoming acquainted with the circumstance, promised to take up his abode in the well in liquid form, and to reside there for destroying ignorance and to give wisdom (jhana). According to local tradition, after the temple was demolished in 1669 by the
Mughal king Aurangzeb, Visvanatha-Siva took refuge in the well and since then resides there. Jnanavapi is the highest among all the pilgrimage centres, and a direct manifestation of wisdom, giver of all sorts of
knowledge, preserver of merits of all the lihgas, the most auspicious and direct manifestation of Siva, and was in Varanasi long before the Ganga came to earth (KKh 34.123).
During most of the sacred journeys and rituals
pilgrims first come here to sip the water and take a vow (sahkalpa) of initiation and completion of their ritual journeys. At the end of the journey they return to sip the saced water again as a mark of completion.
Presently the well is well equipped with iron bars across the top, and a cloth is spread over the iron
grill to prevent coins, flowers and ritual items of
pilgrims from plunging into it. The well is surrounded
by a low-roofed colonnade, the stone pillars of which are arranged in four rows.
Manikarnika, or Cakrapuskarini Kunda
The mythology given in the KKh (60.137-138; 61.83-85) tells us that for the benefit of the three worlds the mythic king Bhagiratha brought the Gariga to the place where Manikarnika is - to Siva's Forest of Bliss, to Visnu's Lotus Pool. This is eulogized as the "Door of Heaven", located close to the Ghat, around which the cremation ground is situated. The
tank, surrounded today by a cast-iron railing, is some sixty feet square at the top, narrowing to about
twenty feet square at the water's edge (Photo 5). The well is said "to spring from a square independent of the Gariga
- an underground river that flows directly
Rana P. B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 221
nll^H^k^k^k^ki&^k^k^k^B^kHflH^&al Ink^k^k^k^k^k^k^k^k^k^kVkik^nBW
i%o/0 5: Varanasi: A scene of Cakrapuskarini Kunda, Manikarnika Ghat (courtesy Niels Gutschow) Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Cakrapuskarini Kunda, Manikarnika Ghat
from Gomukha, the "Cow's mouth" in the Hima
laya, the place where the River Ganga emerges from a mountain glacier" (Egk 1983, 239f). The KKh
(chapter 26) says:
During the cosmic flood of dissolution, there was nothing at all. . . . There was only Pure Reality, aBrahmana. . . .
Then that One pure form, Lord Siva ["spirit"] was the
form of that Formless One, and with him was the goddess Sakti, calledPrakrti
["Matter"J as well as Maya ["Illu
sion"]. And the two of them, Siva and Sakti, created this
place. . . . Thereafter they created a Divine Man (Visnu) for the creation of world. . . . At this site Visnu made a
beautiful lotus pond and filled it up with water from the sweat of his own limbs, and performed fierce austerities
for 500 000years (KKh 26.8, 15, 28, 43, 52).
This kunda was the world's first pool. It was the first holy spot dug out at the dawn of time and filled
with the sacred water of Lord Visnu's perspiration. As a testimony to that story Visnu's footprints are visible there. Before purifying themselves in the
pond, Hindu pilgrims first pray at the marble slab which bears Visnu's footprints. Millions of Hindus
have sprinkled it with holy water and adorned it with flowers. Whenever a Maharaja (king) of Bena res dies, it is alongside the footprints that he is cremated.
Each year when the Ganga recedes the water leaves a huge mass of alluvial silt in the tank.
Moreover, during the peak floods the kunda is com
pletely inundated and often disappears from view, as in August 1993. When floods and waters recede,
gradually the excavation and reclamation of the silt
begins and is completed by sivaratri (the new-moon
day of February-March). On this occasion a grand celebration takes place. The pilgrims passing along this route perform special rituals in honour of their
ancestors; additionally as a completion rite pilgrims also come here and perform the rituals of thanks
giving.
Durgd Kunda
The temple of the goddess Durga is located in the southern extremity of Varanasi and associated with
222 Erdkunde Band 48/1994
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"
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^ 5: A Pokhara |n ̂ MSnamandira
^ Harikesa ^iy?//* ^ n i
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runs into the Varana Garha D . - . _ X^GaunEf
* b at Madhia Ghat
b n a d r a ^ Kd:?/ Sankudhara ^Vana '^W^^^^
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^ Kuoda
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? RanaR B.Singh "'"''"^'^^^^ ^ , \'.
_D.G.
F/^. 5: Varanasi: Ancient water bodies and five forest tracts (after James Prinsep 1822)
Varanasi: Uralte Gewasser und fiinf Waldgebiete
Rana P. B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 223
1 Durga Devi 2 LaksmT 3 SarasvatT 4 Canda Bhairava 5 BhadrakalT 6 Ganesa
7 Jalesvara 8 Surya 9 Kukkutesvara 10 Jvalaharesvara 11 Durga Vinayaka G Gate
Fig. 7: Varanasi: Durga Kunda and Durga temple. Numbers 1 to 12 show the shrines
Varanasi: Durga Kunda und der Tempel von Durga. Die Nummern 1 bis 12 markieren die Lage der Schreine
a sacred pond (Fig. 7). According to mythology Durga protects the city from the south. She is said to have rested at Durga Kunda after slaying the
mythic demon. Durga here is called Kusmanda
("Pumpkin Gourd"), one among the nine manifesta tions. On every Tuesday, and more frequently in the
month of Sravana (July-August) worshippers per form rituals at this site. Presently the water of the
pond is so polluted that only a few pilgrims dare to bathe; in fact most of them put only some drops
of this water upon their head as a mark of the puri ficatory rite. Pilgrims performing sacred journeys like the Nagara Pradaksina ("Pilgrimage around the City"), Kedara Khanda ("Sacred segment of
Kedara") and Pancakrosi (the outer sacred circuit) pass through this site and perform rituals. During the month of Sravana (July-August) a religious fair is held - attended by an enormous multitude of people. Both sides of the road are decorated by shops for sweets and ritual items. The other two periods of
224 Erdkunde Band 48/1994
mass visitation are the 1st to 9th day of the waxing fortnight of Gaitra (March-April) and Asvina (Sep tember
- October).
Closeby to this sacred pond lies Kuruksetra Kunda, which is famous for the bath taken there on the occa sion of a solar eclipse. This tank was constructed by
Queen Rani Bhavani of Bengal in about 1775, in commemoration of the war fought at Kuruksetra
described in the epicMahabharata. This tank is square, and is built with stone stairs, leading down to the water.
Loldrka Kunda ("Well of the Trembling Sun ")
Of the twelve sun shrines of the city, the one called Lolarka is the most famous and marks the southern
edge of the city. Its first reference is made in a 8th
century BC text, the SBr (VI. 1.28), which describes the twelve Suns associated with twelve solar months.
Long before the formation of Hinduism, Lolarka was famous for sun and snake worship during Bud dha's time. Historically it became more famous
during the Gahadavala kings in the 11th century.
Presently, Lolarka Kunda is a Sun and Saivite site of worship that reflects a complex history of gradual mythological fusion, and it remains a powerful place that draws thousands of Hindus. Eulogizing this tank the KKh (46.67) states that the water of Asi River and the rays of the sun god Lolarka work
together to erase the sins of those who come to Vara
nasi. Bathing in this tank provides the merit of
purification from sin and disease, and finally bles
sing for life and fertility. On every Sunday many people still take baths and
worship the Sun god Lolarka and a nearby lihga of Lolarka-Siva (Lolarkesvara). The 6th day of the
waxing fortnight of Bhadrapada (August-Septem ber) is the most auspicious day, Lolarka Sasthi, when tens of thousands of worshippers, mostly ladies, take baths in the tank to receive bliss for their sons and
their wellbeing. This tank maintains its popularity as a site of a non-Brahmanical fertility ritual. Both,
vow-taking and thanksgiving rites are performed on
this occasion. Most pilgrims come here to perform thanksgiving who have earlier received an offspring, and finally they perform the tonsure of small chil
dren (mundana) as a rite of passage at the same spot. As is customary since the early 19th century, after
taking baths and performing rituals at this site pil
grims proceed to Krnga Kunda, about half a kilo metre northwest, associated with the Tantric sage
Kina Rama. They again take baths in the latter tank
and sing religious songs.
Laksmi Kunda
Lying in the central part of the city the tank is associated with Laksmi, the goddess of "wealth" (see KKh 70.63). On the 8th of the waxing fortnight of
Bhadrapada (August-September) the goddess moves from the sanctum to the foreground. And, on the 16th day a religious fair is held there. Those who
perform fasting and austerity for Laksmi bathe in the tank, listen to puranic stories, enjoy the glimpse of Laksmi, and honour her with sixteen kinds of
grains and sixteen kinds of flowers. The sixteen-day period is called "Sorahia Mela". On the final day of this period
- the eighth day of the waning fortnight of Asvina (September-October)
- the festival of
Jivita Putrika, or popularly known as Jiutia is cele brated on a great scale. In 1993 this period started on 23 rd September and was completed on 8th October. This festival is mostly observed by women
for a long and prosperous life of their children. At the embankments of Laksmi Kunda ladies make
yantras (sacred designs) under the guidance of a
priest with vermilion and wheat and rice flour. While
performing thanksgiving both husband and wife
together take an active part in rituals.
Pisacamocana Kunda
This sacred tank is one among the three sites for ancestral worship and rituals; the others are Mani
karnika Kunda and Kapiladhara Kunda. The wan
ing fortnight of Asvina (September-October) is the most auspicious period of worship at these sites. The ancient name of this pond was Vimaladaka Kunda, but after its association with providing liberation
(-mocana) to a departed soul that took the form of a
goblin (Pisaca-), the present name became popular
(see KKh 54.74; KP 32, 62). For those departed souls fated to become a goblin, by baths and doing rituals here they are "set free". After a passage of
time there also developed exorcism to get relief from
the evil spirit. Most commonly on every Sunday and
Tuesday victims pay a visit and by the complicated rituals under the guidance of oracles obtain libera tion from the evil spirits. On the 14th day of the
waxing fortnight of Margasirsa (November-Decem ber), a sacred journey in the form of a circumam
bulation of the tank is done. A huge crowd of visitors
stop on this occasion and cook wheat-flour balls and
fry eggplants on the open fire made of pats of cow
dung. This food is called "pure food" (sattvika), the one inclined towards tranquillity and quietism (Parry
Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 225
Photo 6: Varanasi: A scene of Dharma Kiipa, a sacred well associated with Dharmaraja - the Lord of Death, Yama
(courtesy Niels Gutschow)
Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Dharma Kiipa, ein heiliger Brunnen, zugeordnet Dharmaraja - dem "Herrn des
Todes", Yama
1985, 613). This fair is called Lota-Bhanta Mela. The ritual performed here is meant to remember the Pisaca's soul finally was set free. The majority of the attendants are women from nearby villages.
Sacred Ponds along the Pahcakrosi Route
The route which delimits the sacred territory (Kasi), called pancakrosiyatra, passes by eight sacred
ponds and wells; from east to west (clockwise) they are: Lolarka, Durga, Kardama, Gandharva, Bhai
rava, Sindhusarovara, Yupa and Kapiladhara. In
these ponds pilgrims take baths and receive merit; however, at present Sindhusarovara and Yupa have
lost their existence due to lack of water, while the rest have polluted water. Kapiladhara Kunda represents
the holy spot of Garigasagara, the meeting point of the Gariga to the Bay of Bengal, and is famous for ancestral rites. To avoid pollution, pilgrims bathe at the closeby wells and perform an abstract form of bathing at these sites by pouring a few drops of water from these ponds upon their heads.
The other important sacred ponds are: Suraja ("sun") Kunda, specially visited on every Sunday of Caitra (March-April) to get relief from skin diseases
(see KKh 48.53); Dharma Kupa (Photo 6), visited
during the llth-15th of the waxing days of Karttika
(October-November) to receive blessing from Yama, or Dharmaraja (Lord of Death; see KKh 97.58); Naga ("snake") Kupa, visited on the 5th of the
waxing day of Sravana (July -August) to be safe from snakes (see KKh 66.10); and Candresvara Kupa visited on the full-moon day of Caitra (March-April) to honour the Moon (see KKh 68.51).
There are still many lakes, pools and wells in Vara nasi today. In addition to their mundane use they serve as places of ritual bathing. Most of them still remain as natural, clay-banked pools; however, some
of them have been converted into tanks with stone
steps leading to the water along all four sides. These
pools in the ancient past served as popular religious sites for Hindus, and the city was famous as a place of abundant waters. But nowadays the visitor to the
city would hardly notice this unusual geography. Eck (1983, 51) has rightly remarked that "Its many tanks and pools are hidden in crowded sections of the city, accessible only by very narrow lanes. The basins that were once lakes have become city parks, and the running streams have become streets".
Towards Sacred Ecology
Concerning environmental problems, ethics of
land use is suggested as a philosophical legacy. The
226_Erdkunde _ Band 48/1994
Gariga river is symbolized as the liquid divine energy nourishing the inhabitants and purifying them. The
mythologies recall that the water of the Gahga meets various water bodies (ponds and wells) on auspicious occasions through legendary underground connec tions. This refers to the idea of transferring energy at various spots. The sacred bath and astronomically defined sacred time suitable for it are described in
conjunction with the position of the sun and its association with various constellations. The sun sym bolizes the male (awakened, jagrathd) and water the female (sleep, susupta) modes of existence. The sense of divine landscape (e. g. of land or water) is either the direct product of inherent qualities of living organisms or else has been greatly modified by their
presence.
The efficacy of the water spots for bathing is often
eulogized to be equal to or many times greater than one of the standard vedic sacrifices. They were thus
prescribed as a simpler means of obtaining the kind of benefits acquired by those who could not afford to
support expensive, elaborate, and archaic rituals or
extensive journeys. The mythic stories tell us how a sinner restored to a particular bathing place and attained salvation or spiritual blessing. In most of the cases the names of the ponds and ghats recall this
mythology. In comparison to other sacred sites, the water-spot
places are charged with more liminality. They are
places that were in the past, and still are on the
margins of a structured world. In time these places began to assume an ambiguity, each used in a trans
formed form from their original motive; however,
they maintain their basic essence. But the minor
spots, mythologically less important, have lost their
identity in the physical milieu - being replaced by
a replicated version like a well. However, of these remain memorable spots. Pilgrims pay their rever
ence to them. These water-spots are liminal places, "thresholds"
- interconnecting the physical realm of
the present earth and the divine realm of the past heaven.
The nature is serene, beautiful, and hospitable to
life if we maintain the counter-balance with it. We need to revitalize the spiritual sense of ecology, a
worldview of harmonic relationship between man
and nature. It is a sad irony that somehow we are
on the verge of losing that relationship, resulting in water logging, opening of old channels and blocking of drain lines during heavy rains or heavy floods in
Varanasi. This results from our present poverty of
awareness and realization. The ecological mind never
interprets its habitat in human terms only, but also
in terms of divine and natural landscape. Above all, we are part of the cosmos where the order and unity of the whole world ist maintained.
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