493 International Journal of Scientific Management and Development
*Correspondent Author: Hadi Abdollahi3 ([email protected])
Manuscript No: IJSMD-KINA-2014-240
International Journal of Scientific Management and Development ISSN:2345-3974 Vol.2 (10), 493-504 October (2014)
Research Paper
The Role of Beliefs Shaping Customers' View toward Advertising through Sport (Football) In Promoting the
Brand Equity Saeid Sehhat
1, Mehdi Jafarzadeh Kenari
2, Hadi Abdollahi
3*
1Assistant Professor of Management, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran
2 Ph.D.Student of Business Management (Marketing), Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
3 M.A. student of Business Management, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran
Available online at: www.IJSMD.Com
Received 14th April 2014, Revised 8th May 2014, Accepted 14th May 2014
Abstract For several years, advertising has been a strong communicational tool to promote products and to achieve such aims as sale, profit and
brand promotion. One of the newest platform for advertising grown highly now is advertising through sport especially football as one
of the most popular athletic fields. Regarding such importance, the present study is conducted to promote three aims in
telecommunication service industry (Irancell Company). The first aim of this research is to identify the beliefs which shape audiences’
attitudes on advertising through sport particularly football. The second aim is that this research evaluates the effect of the beliefs
forming the attitude toward football advertisings on the total attitude toward advertising. The ultimate aim is to study the impact of the
attitude toward advertising on brand equity. The Present study is a survey which uses questionnaire to collect data. To achieve the
aims of this research, 386 users of Irancell’s products and services who were exposed by football advertising were considered as the
sample. To analyze data and to test research hypotheses and model, structural equation modeling (SEM) and confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) were used. Research findings show the significant impact of such beliefs as “product information”, “social role and
image”, “hedonism”, “annoyance factor”, “materialism”, “falsity”, “reputation” in football advertising on “attitude toward
advertising” and the significant impact of “attitude toward advertising” in “brand equity”.
Keywords: beliefs shaping attitudes toward advertising through football, attitude toward advertising, brand equity, football.
Introduction
For several years, advertising has been a strong
communicational tool to promote products and to achieve such
aims as sale, profit and brand promotion. Manufacturers use
advertising to introduce new products, to recall current products
and to aware consumers and they spend high costs to this end.
However, a challenging issue is the impact of such costly
advertising on customers. The impact of advertising on
customers depends highly to consumers’ attitudes toward
advertising, since it is believed that a strong attitude toward
advertising impacts consumers’ behavior (Wells et al, 2000).
Preliminary researches for answer this issue, tested customers’
attitude toward advertising (i.e. Muehling, 1987; Shavitt, 1989).
Initial studies on attitude toward advertising were conducted in
1940s and 1950s. Based on such probes, customers’ general
attitude toward advertising was evaluated positively (Bauer
&Greyser, 1968). That is, advertising impacted positively on the
attitudes and, consequently, customers' purchasing intention.
Despite such researches, studies conducted in 1960s resulted in
contrary findings and showed that consumers’ general attitude
toward advertising is negative (Andrews, 1989; Mauhling,
1987). Such results show that at the beginning of shaping
professional advertising, they had positive impacts on
consumers’ attitudes while overtime, advertising lost its trust
among consumers and now consumers’ attitude on advertising is
negative.
Conducted studies in recent years indicate consumers’ attitudes
toward all types of advertising especially TV and online
advertisement s are getting worse and negative (Burns, 2003;
Pyun & James, 2009). On this basis, one of the most challenges
against advertisers is to return consumers’ trust to advertising
and to create a positive attitude. A guideline to face with this
challenge is to use proper platform and media for advertising
and sport is a proper platform for advertisements which has
grown amply in recent years.
Due to itsflexibility, expansion and high popularity, sport is
changing into an important advertising platform for many
companies (Kropp et al, 1999). Daily, many people are exposed
by ample advertising when they are observing amateur or
professional athletic events. In contrary to TV or online
advertisements, people welcome advertising through sport since
they watch athletic events more than advertisements (Harshaw
and Turner, 1999). In recent years, companies have found the
importance of sports in advertising and they spend huge costs on
their campaigns in sport media annually. Plunkett’s Sport
Industry Almanac (2007) estimated that USA spent about 375 –
425 million dollars in trading industry via sport in 2007. Such
calculations indicate that companies have spent 239 million
dollars on Internet advertising, 6.4 billion dollars on sponsorship
and 32.67 billion dollars on advertising through sport which
shows that the share of advertising through sports is too
remarkable (Pegoraro et al, 2010). Such growth in advertising
through sports shows that companies have currently found the
potential power of sport as a tool to achieve many marketing
aims (Lyberger and McCarthy, 2001). But,do such huge costs
have adequate effectiveness?
Nowadays, a very important and attractive issue for Study is to
evaluative the effectiveness of advertising through sport
(Lyberger and McCarthy, 2001). Authors tested advertising
effectiveness (particularly advertising through sports) in two
indices: advertising recall and advertising recognition (Stotlar&
Bennett, 2000; Turley & and Shannon, 2000). In fact, one of the
most fundamental reasons for the importance of effective
advertising is its potential power in promoting brand equity.
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Effective advertising creates a proper context for shaping and
growing brand equity (Buil et al, 2011). Advertising through
sports shapes beliefs and, consequently, attitudes of consumers
to advertising more positively and more favorably (Pyun and
James, 2009). Such positive attitude toward advertising will be a
proper ground for developing brand equity (Buil et al, 2011).
Despite of the high importance of sports especially football in
advertising and returning audiences’ trust to advertising , few
researches are conducted on this field and one can almost claim
that there is no research on advertising through sports and its
impact on promoting brand equity of the companies. To this end
and to fill the current gap in the literature, present study plans to
identify those beliefs which shape consumers’ attitudes on
advertising through sports (football) and then to measure the
impacts of such beliefs on consumers’ attitudes toward
advertising and, finally, to measure the impact of consumers’
attitudes toward advertising on brand equity. To this end, used
of some aspects of those beliefs which shape consumers’
attitudes toward advertising through sport identified by Pyun
and James (2009) (namely product information, social role and
image, hedonism, annoyance, good for economy, materialism
and falsity) and two other aspects identified by authors
(reputation and popularity). To measure brand equity, Aaker’
brand equity aspects are used (namely perceived quality, brand
awareness, brand association and brand loyalty).
With its huge investments in advertising through sports
especially football (sponsor of Iranian League in 2011) and as a
well-established brands in telecommunication industry, Irancell
Telecommunication Service Company is selected for present
study.
Literature review
Pegoraroet al. (2010) studied the role of advertising through
sports in the rate of consumers’ shopping. In their research, they
introduced sport as a widespread and accessible marketing tool
which highly helps brand promotion. The major aim of this
research was to study how TV and online sport advertising help
consumption and consumers’ culture. In this line, they
considered NCAA men basketball matches.
In their research, Pyun and James (2009) identified those beliefs
which shaped an attitude toward advertising through sport and
the development of scales to measure such aspects. Finally, they
identified seven aspects as those beliefs which shape consumers’
attitudes toward advertising through sports namely product
information, social role and image, hedonism, annoyance, and
good for economy, materialism and falsity.
In another research, Pyun and James (2011) developed a
theoretical framework for advertising through sports and studied
the impact of identified beliefs in previous study on general
attitude toward advertising. They concluded consumers’ positive
beliefs on advertising through sports leads into consumers’
positive attitude toward advertising by companies.
Kambitsis et al (2002) studied why sports and famous athletes
are used for advertising. In this line, they considered 2000
Olympic Games. Their findings indicated that Olympic Games
do not play important role in sport advertising effectiveness.
Additionally, they concluded that advertising companies use
athletic figures based on their characters rather than their
successes; that is, they pay more attention to the popularity of
athletes than their reputation.
Buil et al (2011) tested the role of advertising and sale
promotions in creating brand equity. To this end, they
considered advertising costs and consumers’ attitudes toward
advertising. The results of their study indicated that consumers’
attitude toward advertising plays a key role in influencing brand
equity aspects (perceived quality, brand awareness, brand
association and brand loyalty) while the positive impact
advertising cost on brand equity is trivial.
Ruihley et al (2010) studied the role of using famous athletic
figures in advertising. They introduced advertising through
famous athletes as a proper tool to attract customers.
Since we face with such issues as belief and attitude, we explain
the differences of these two concepts.
Differences and relation between belief and attitude
Most often, belief and attitude are used as a single concept
(Eagly & Chaiken, 1998). Based on the Expectancy Value
Theory by Fishbein (1963), attitudes are roles of beliefs; in fact,
beliefs can be the causes of attitudes. In this theory, it is
assumed that the strongest beliefs have the highest impact on an
individual’s attitude (Fishbein, 1963). For instance, when people
are watching a football match through television in home, they
are highly exposed by paramount advertisements in stadium.
Someone may have a favorable attitude toward advertisements
in stadium due to valuable information on new goods while
someone else may have a positive attitude on advertisements
since they are attractive. Although both have similar (favorable)
attitude on advertisements in stadium, their effective beliefs on
their attitudes are different (they have different attitudes despite
of their similar attitudes). On the other hand, people may have
similar beliefs on an aim but they have different attitudes on the
same aim (Fishbein, 1967). For example, someone may like a
football team because of its stars while someone else may do not
like this team due to the same reason.
In present study, there is such difference between belief and
attitude tooand although beliefs and attitudes are related to each
other, they are independent. A belief is a descriptive opinion
expressed by someone about something which can be based on
information, idea and loyalty while an attitude is evaluations,
feelings and relative constant propensities of an individual on a
product or a thinking method. It is the attitudes which make
someone interested in or hate something (Kotler, 1997). Any
attitude is the result of some beliefs. Since the relationship
between belief and attitude is accepted, those beliefs which
shape attitudes on advertising through sports are mentioned
below and, on this basis, research hypotheses are developed.
Beliefs which shape attitude toward advertising through
sports
Product information
According to Kotler (1997), companies advertise for three aims
(to aware, to convince and to recall). Awareness is one of the
most important aims. Advertising may involve high volume of
information which clarifies many points about products for
consumers. More quality of information and awareness of
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advertising would lead into consumers’ better decision making
(Alwitt and Prabhaker, 1992). Product information leads to more
efficiency of market and makes it possible for consumers to
adopt their needs and demands to manufacturers (Pollay and
Mittal, 1993). In fact, an informative advertisement is one that
makes you aware of new information about products.
Most people believe that information is the main reason
fortendency towards advertising. Besides, relevant and fruitful
information leads into positive attitude of people toward
advertising (Schlosser et al, 1999). Advertising provides you
with what you need to know or tend to know. Informative
advertising may provide information about new products and
services or new information about current services and products.
The important point is that advertising helps you to select among
options by providing necessary information (Pyun and James,
2011). On this basis, one can consider product information as
consumers’ attitude toward advertising through sport.
Hypothesis 1: the belief of product information of advertising
through sporthas positively effects on total attitude toward
advertising.
Social role and image
As a driving force of social role and image, advertising indicates
that it tries to sell lifestyle along with a product or service to
consumers (Burns, 2003). In fact, social role and image of a
product or brand depends on its credit for consumers. Usually,
people tend to buy luxury and fashionable goods and to put
trademarks on their clothes and personal items for showing off
(Pollay and Mitatal, 1993), this sense or belief is motivated by
the social image of the considered product. Korgonkar et al
(1997) say that some direct marketing companies try to sell
credit and reputation along with their products. Generally, the
owners of products and brands use advertising as a tool to
develop such belief. Concerning advertising through sports,
advertisers use football and football players to create an ideal
image in the eyes of customers so that a superior social image
and role would lead into more positive attitude of people (Pollay
and Mittal, 1993).
Hypothesis 2: the belief of social role and image of advertising
through sport has positively effects on total attitude toward
advertising.
Hedonism
Hedonism is an important indicator of positive and negative
attitudes which shows how people react to a product and
message. According to hedonism, TV advertisements are
expected to attract their audiences and customers by scoffing
(Wells et al, 2005). On this basis, hedonism is a belief which
shows that to what extent advertisements are attractive and
amazing or how well they are planned (Bauer & Greyser, 1968).
In fact, when advertisements are more attractive and shape
hedonism belief in their consumers, they can create a more
positive attitude among their consumers toward advertising.
Previous researches have also confirmed the important role of
hedonism in consumers’ attitudes toward advertising (Mehta,
2000; Schlosser et al, 1999). On this basis, sport can be used as
an important tool to add hedonism and attractiveness to
advertisements.
Hypothesis 3: the belief of hedonism of advertising through
sport has positively effects on total attitude toward advertising.
Good for economy
Bauer & Greyser (1968) emphasized that consumers’ beliefs on
economic impact of advertising shape their attitude toward
advertisements. When there is a close relationship between
economic advantages of advertising and personal benefits, they
will be more interested in responding such advertisements
(Elliot and Probhaker, 1992). One of the economical advantages
of advertising for consumers is to save the time and costs.
Korgaonkar et al (1997) showed that if consumers lack time and
money and cannot leave their home to shop; they use direct
marketing for saving their time and money. One can easily
acquire economic benefits of advertising through sport in
stadiums and TV commercials during athletic matches.
Customers show more tendency towards products and brands
which get familiar with them through their interested athletic
events and they are encouraged to buy them (Terely and Shenon,
2000). Campaigns during favorite athletic events such as
football lead into observers’ loyalty to these products (Turco,
1996). Attracted customers through advertisements in athletic
events can help economic survival of local and global markets
(Pollay and Mittal, 1993).Consumers’ perception on economic
costs and benefits of advertising through sport impact their
general attitude toward advertising positively.
Hypothesis 4: the belief of good for economy of advertising
through sport has positively effects on total attitude toward
advertising.
Materialism
One of the most important criticisms against advertising is the
negative social impacts by some advertisements (Mittal, 1994).
Some authors confirm that the main aim of some advertisements
is toattract the mindset of the society to material concerns and to
develop consumption feeling. Pollay and Mittal (1993) define
materialism as “a set of beliefs which consider consumption as a
route to maximize satisfaction.” Initial studies have tested the
relationship between materialism and attitude toward advertising
(Larkin, 1997; Mittal, 1994). On this basis, there is a negative
significant relationship between conceiving materialism and
attitude on advertising.
Hypothesis 5: the belief of materialism of advertising through
sport has negatively effects on total attitude toward advertising.
Falsity
Falsity refers to this concept that advertisements provide false
and deceiving information. In fact, falsity refers to providing
incorrect or semi-correct or deceitful information and/or not
saying a part of truth (Pyun and James, 2011). This claim that
advertising may deceive is studied in relation to some media
and, overall, in different probes (i.e. Larkin, 1977; Mehtta, 2000;
Schlosser et al, 1999; Schavitt et al, 1998). Pollay and Mittal
(1993) found that there is a strong and negative significant
relationship between falsity and individuals’ attitude on
advertising. It means that the people would have more negative
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attitude toward advertising and products if they are more
deceitful and deceiving.
Hypothesis 6: the belief of falsity of advertising through
sporthas negatively effects on total attitude toward advertising.
Annoyance
Baer and Greyser (1968) define irritating advertisements as
those advertisement which discomfort people. The content of an
advertisement and how to represent it can cause annoyance.
Extreme repetition of an advertisement and representing it in
improper time and location can lead into its discomfort.
Additionally, advertisements can be tormenting for other
reasons; the main point is that they incommode audiences and
the task of advertisers is to identify discomforting factor and
omitting it from advertisement.
According to authors, a reason of criticizing advertising is that
they cause annoyance and irritation forpeople. Aaker and
Bruzzone (1981) pointed out that TV commercials are too
annoying for watchers that impact their attitude reversely and
negatively. Gradually, such annoyance can cause people tohate
advertisements. Overall, the diversity of empirical studies lead
us to this result that annoyance and irritation is another belief
which impact on attitude to advertising (Pyun and James, 2009;
Pyun and James, 2011; Aaker and Bruzzone, 1981; Ducoffe,
1996). On this basis, one can conclude that if advertising acts as
an annoyance and an irritatingfactor, it will lead into negative
attitude of audiences toward advertising.
Hypothesis 7: the belief of annoyance of advertising through
sport has negatively effects on total attitude toward advertising.
Reputation
Reputation refers to the fact that to what extent famous and
well-known elements and figures are used in advertising. Using
famous figures such asmovie stars and athletes (particularly
football players) is seen in the advertising of many products. In
present age, stars and famous athletes are highly used in
advertisements and such kind of advertisements has led into the
improvement of recalling products by customers and it has a
positive impact on the behavior of selecting a brand by customer
(Carlson and Todd, 2008; Bush et al, 2004). Additionally, such
type of advertising increases the recognition and awareness of
consumers about a brand (Rohley et al, 2010).
Hypothesis 8: the belief of reputation of advertising through
sport has positively effects on total attitude toward advertising.
Popularity
Popularity differs from reputation. An athletic or artistic figure
may have high reputation but he/she is not so popular among
people. For example, midfielderof UK national team and
Chelsea, John Terry, is a famous and well-known figure in
football world but due to his ethical scandals, he is not so
popular among fans. Generally, advertisers use popular
characters in addition to their reputation and they use popularity
as a tool to penetrate advertising among people and their
positive attitude and mental image toward brand (Rohley et al,
2010; Kambistis et al, 2002).
Hypothesis 9: the belief of popularity of advertising through
sport has positively effects on total attitude toward advertising.
Attitude toward advertising and brand equity
Advertising is one of the most obvious activities of marketing.
Lutz defines attitude on advertising as “a favorable/unfavorable
tendency to respond a certain advertisement exposed in special
conditions”. Generally, writers assume that advertising is an
effective factor on building customer – oriented brand equity.
Through influencing over individuals’ attitude toward
advertising, companies impact on their buying decisions and
motivate them to purchase their products (Pyun and James,
2011).
Many authors have found that individuals’ attitude toward
advertising can play a vital role in impacting on brand equity
(Keller and Lehman, 2006; Bravo et al, 2007; Sriram, 2007).
Advertising is a powerful tool to develop brand emotional and
functional values (De Chernatony, 2010). An important strategy
in advertising which impacts on individuals’ attitude toward
advertising positively is its creativity. By a modern and
innovative advertising strategy, organizations are likely more
able to attract consumers’ attention and, consequently, attracting
customers’ attention can highly aid brand equity development
(Boyel et al, 2011).
Hypothesis 10: general attitude toward advertising has
positively effects on brand equity.
Brand equity and its aspects
Marketing connoisseurs have provided various definitions on
brand equity concept. Some authors have defined it as a set of
brand – related assets and debts as well as the name and symbol
which increases or decreases the value of provided product or
service to customers. Others have defined it as the certain
impact of brand knowledge on consumers’ response to brand
marketing. Some authors have defined brand equity as the power
brand acquired in market through name, symbol or logo.
However, the simplest definition of brand equity is the added
value or award of a product to customers which is attributed to
brand (Yoo et al, 2000; He, et al, 2011). If a customer is
convinced that there are remarkable differences among brands
and it leads toan important part of information in shopping
decision, the extent of customers’ reliance to brand – based
decision making will be increased. Brands especially those with
high value are considered as the most valuable and strongest
assets of an organization.
Brand equity is seen in both marketing and financial literatures.
By brand equity in present study, we mean “customer – based
brand equity” indicated in marketing literature. Customer –
based brand equity looks at brand value generation resources in
terms of customer so that brand power is hidden in what
customers have seen, heard and felt overtime and through their
experiences about brand. Brand generates value for both
customer and organization and the main source of such value is
hidden in customers and their mindsets would determine actual
value for beneficiaries. Aaker (1991) believes that brand equity
is based on four aspects namely “brand perceived quality”,
“brand awareness”, “brand association” and “brand loyalty”.
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Awareness refers to the capability of people in identifying a
trademark or name which provides a certain product category.
Mental image originates from consumers’ varied perceptions in
their mind toward the brand. Quality indicates the quality of
provided services or products by brand. Brand loyalty is shaped
due to positive feelings and perception to a brand and causes
shopping repetition (Martinez et al, 2009). Below, each aspect of
brand equity is described:
Perceived quality: it is consumer’s judgment on excellence or
superiority of goods (services) concerning its aim compared to
other goods (services) in the market which may be or may not be
adopted to the real quality of a product.
Brand awareness: it is conceived by brand recognition or
recalling it. In fact, brand awareness is defined as a potential
capability to identify and recall that brand is a member of a
certain product category.
Brand association: it includes anything which relates customer’s
mind to brand. It can be a given geographical location,
company, rivals, retailers, shop, symbol, plan or lifestyle.
According to Aaker (1991), brand associations are a set of brand
assets and debts and include communications between brand and
consumers’ minds. Brand association is one of the most
important factors of brand equity (Lee and Beck, 2008).
Brand loyalty: it is a relative prejudiced behavioral reaction in
shopping by an individual overtime to a brand. Such behavior
causes people to tend to that brand in decision making processes
and evaluating a set of names in their minds. Customers’ loyalty
to trademark leads to positive word–of–mouth, creates
fundamental entry barriers for rivals, empowers the company to
respond competitive threats, creates more sale and income, and
decreases customers’ sensitivity to rivals’ marketing efforts.
High number of loyal customers to a trademark is considered as
the asset of a company and the main index of brand equity. Also,
the sensitivity of loyal’ customers to prices changes is lower
than disloyal customers (Sahin et al, 2011).
Based on background, literature and research hypotheses,
provided model in this research is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: conceptual model of brand equity based on those beliefs which shape attitude toward advertising through sport
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HIndividuals’
attitude toward
advertising
Social role and
image
Product
information
Hedonism
Annoyance
Good for economy
Materialism
Falsity
Beliefs which shape attitudes
toward advertising through sports
Reputation
Popularity
Brand
awareness
Perceived
quality
Brand
association
Brand loyalty
Bra
nd
eq
uit
y
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Methodology
Research methodology
In the present study, we look for studying and identifying those
beliefs which shape attitudes toward Irancell football advertising
and the impact of such factors on audiences’ general attitude
toward advertising and brand equity. In terms of purpose and the
nature of the problem, this is an applied research and it is a
survey in terms of data collection method. In terms of
methodology, it is a descriptive study. To collect data,
questionnaire tool is used. The questions were in 5-point Likert
scale (strongly disagree, disagree, no agree & no disagree, agree,
strongly agree).
Measures
Present study includes 11 variables namely “product
information”, “social role and image”, “hedonism”, “annoyance
factor”, “good for economy”, “materialism”, “falsity”,
“reputation”, “popularity”, “attitude toward advertising ”, and
“brand equity”. All mentioned variables are measured by
measuring variables. For collect data and measure variables,
questionnaire tool is used. The questions were in 5-point Likert
scale
To measure product information, 3 items are used and there are
2 items for social role and image, 2 items for hedonism, 3 items
for annoyance factor, 3 items for good for economy and 4 items
for falsity. All items are developed by Pyun and James (2009).
To measure reputation and popularity that developed by authors,
three items structured by authors are used. To measure attitude
on advertising, three items by Builet al. (2011) and to measure
brand equity, 14 items developed by Builet al .(2011), Aaker
(1991) and Kimpakorn and Tocquer (2010) are used. On this
basis, research questionnaire consists of 42 items shown in table
1. Some demographic items were added to the end of the
questionnaire and are explained in the research finding sector.
Data analysis method
To analyze data and to test research hypotheses, Structural
Equation Modeling (SEM) is used (Anderson and Gerbing,
1988). SEM is a very strong multivariable analysis in
multivariable regression category which helps author to test a set
of regression equations simultaneously. To study model
reliability, Chronbach’s α coefficient and to measure model
fitness and questionnaire validity, Confirmatory Factor Analysis
(CFA) is used.
Research Statistical sample and Statistical population
The present study is conducted to study the impact of those
beliefs that shape attitudes toward Irancell advertising through
football on the attitude toward advertising and brand equity of
this telecommunication service company in Tehran
Metropolitan. Since men are more exposed by advertising
through football due to their higher interest in football, this
study has only addressed men. So, the statistical population of
this research consists of all men in Tehran who are exposed by
Irancell advertisements through football. Since the statistical
population of the research is indefinite the sample size of the
research was considered as 380. To access considered sample
and more random sampling method, the authors went in
different times to various stadiums and places in the city and
asked their questions randomly. To keep a safe margin, 400
questionnaires were distributed among which 386 questionnaires
were confirmed.
Questionnaire reliability and validity
To analyze internal structure of the questionnaire and validity of
the results, CFA and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) are
used. To this end, Standardized Factor Loading and AVE are
computed for all items and indicators of variables shown in table
1. The validity is seen when all Standardized Factor Loading
(SFL) relevant to each measuring variable and AVE relevant to
each main variable are greater than 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker,
1981). As seen in table 1, the rates of Standardized Factor
Loading and AVE are greater than 0.5. So, one can conclude
that the questionnaire enjoys plausible validity. To measure
reliability, Chronbach’s α coefficient is used. For a plausible
reliability, Chronbach’s α Value should be greater than 0.7. All
Chronbach’s α Values shown in table 1 are greater than 0.7.
Table 1: the rates of Standardized Factor Loading, Chronbach’s α Value and AVE
Items SFL Chronbach’s
α coefficient
AVE
Product information
Irancell football advertising provides the traits of its products and services.
Irancell football advertising helps me to aware (update) its brand products and services.
Irancell football advertising a good source of information about its brand products and
services.
Social role and image
Irancell football advertising helps me to aware what to buy in order to keep a well social
image.
Irancell football advertising gives me ideas on fashion.
Hedonism
Irancell football advertising is often fun and amazing.
Sometimes, Irancell football advertising is more enjoyable than the content of other
advertising media.
Annoyance factor
0.58
0.89
0.74
0.41
0.79
0.79
0.63
0.84
0.89
0.66
0.73
0.72
0.7
0.76
0.63
0.62
0.6
0.56
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Irancell football advertising is often clamoring and creates annoyance.
Irancell football advertising is often long.
Irancell football advertising is ridiculous.
Good for economy
Irancell football advertising usually helps the economy of other countries.
Irancell football advertising usually helps local economy.
Irancell football advertising helps to increase life standards.
Materialism
Irancell football advertising is making a materialistic community where people are
highly interested in buying and owning products and services.
Irancell football advertising encourages us to buy what we do not really need them.
Irancell football advertising builds the life of people on an unreal world.
Through creating the propensity to buy unnecessary products, Irancell football
advertising leads into wasting natural resources.
Falsity
Irancell football advertising is usually far from reality.
Irancell football advertising is deceitful.
Reputation
Irancell football advertising generally uses sport stars.
Irancell football advertising uses high adherent teams.
Irancell football advertising is well known.
Popularity
Irancell football advertising generally uses lovely athletic figures.
Irancell football advertising uses popular teams.
We are interested in Irancell football advertising.
Attitude on advertising
Irancelladvertising is creative.
Irancelladvertising is niche.
Irancelladvertising is distinguished form campaigns by rivals (other telecommunication
service companies).
Brand equity
Irancell supplies very high quality products and services.
Irancell improves the quality of its products and services regularly.
Irancell provides trustable products and services.
Irancell provides products and services with excellent characteristics.
When I think about telecommunication services, Irancell brand is one of the brands
comes to my mind.
Irancell brand is one I recognize it well.
I can distinguish Irancell brand from the brands of its rivals.
The reason for selecting Irancell brand is the type of its services.
Always, I have a good experience in using Irancell products and services.
Always, I remember the brand’s attractive advertising.
Upon hearing the name of Irancell, I remember its logo in my mind.
I am loyal to Irancell.
In telecommunication service industry, Irancell is my first choice.
Because of Irancell products and services, I will not buy the products and services of
other companies.
6.60
0.55
0.51
0.54
0.83
0.69
0.58
0.70
0.65
0.68
0.73
0.51
0.80
0.83
0.53
0.74
1
0.77
0.55
0.53
0.86
0.85
0.78
0.68
0.58
0.45
0.49
0.47
0.56
0.88
0.92
0.75
0.71
0.74
0.75
0.78
0.76
0.81
0.86
Total (0.87)
0.51
0.64
0.55
0.58
0.56
0.61
0.56
Findings
Research descriptive findings
For better identification of the nature of the used population in
this study and more familiarity with research variables, it is
necessary to describe statistical data before analyzing them. As
mentioned, in the present study, 386 respondents were studied
who were all male. Additionally, 236 individuals were less than
30 years old, 98 were between 30 – 45 years old and 52 were
over 45years old. In terms of education, 89 individuals had high
school diploma or lower, 33 had Associates degree, 189 had
Bachelor's degree and 75 had Master's degree and higher. The
results of demographic data are depicted in table 2.
International Journal of Scientific Management and Development ISSN:2345-3974 Vol.2 (10), 493-504 October (2014)
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International Journal of Scientific Management and Development
Table 2: research demographic data
% Quantity Age Variable
100 386 Male Sex
61.13 236 -30 Age
25.38 98 30 - 45
13.49 52 +45
23.05 89 Diploma and lower Education
8.54 33 Associates degree
48.96 189 Bachelor's degree
19.45 75 Master's degree and higher
Meanwhile, the descriptive data on independent and dependent
variables are outlined in table 3. As seen, average, minimum,
maximum and standard deviation of research variables are
mentioned in the following table.
Table 3: descriptive data on research variables
Standard deviation Average Maximum Minimum Quantity Research variables
0.88516 3.1254 4.67 1 386 Product information
0.90300 2.5413 5 1 386 Social role and image
0/91014 3.0183 5 1 386 Hedonism
0.94481 2.685 5 1 386 Annoyance factor
0.76648 2.8807 5 1 386 Good for economy
0.76405 2.9885 5 1.25 386 Materialism
0.87885 2.5275 5 1 386 Falsity
0.76261 3.2446 5 1.33 386 Reputation
0.79593 2.893 5 1.33 386 Popularity
0.96399 3.2569 5 1 386 Attitude on advertising
0.68170 3.1388 4.58 1.58 386 Brand equity
Model fitness test
To determine provided model fitness by CFA, various goodness
of fit indicators are used as shown in table 4. Overall, each
acquired indicator for model is not by itself the reason for fitness
or unfitness of the model; rather, such indicators should be
described along with each other. Both X2 and secondary fitness
tests show that the model is adequately proper and they move
toward the factors of the model and we focus on such factors.
Table 4 indicates the most important indices and depicts that the
model enjoy proper fitness. All indices indicate that the model is
fit to observed data. Model fit indices show the appropriateness
of measuring model since ratio of Chi-Squareto freedom degree
is less than 3, RMSEA is less than 0.9 and other indices are also
plausible. In other words, the overall model is significant and
admirable.
Table 4: model goodness of fit
Allowed level Ratio Index
1338 2
χ
566 df
< 3 2.36 2 ⁄dfχ
> 0.9 0.92 GFI
< 0.09 0.082 RMSEA
> 0.9 0.93 CFI
> 0.8 0.9 AGFI
> 0.9 0.9 NFI
> 0.9 0.91 NNFI
Testing model hypotheses
Initially, Pearson correlation ratio test was used to study the
relations between the variables of each hypothesis. The results
are shown in table 5. As seen, the relationship between attitude
on advertising with such variables as product information, social
role and image, hedonism, annoyance factor, good for economy
and brand equity in confidence level as 99% and the relationship
between attitude on advertising and such variables as
materialism, falsity, reputation and popularity in confidence
level as 95% are significant. Concerning the significance
between the variables of research hypotheses, we test them:
International Journal of Scientific Management and Development ISSN:2345-3974 Vol.2 (10), 493-504 October (2014)
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International Journal of Scientific Management and Development
Table 5: the relationship between the variables of hypotheses
Test result (Sig) Correlation (R) Indices relations
Significant relationship 0.000 **0.383 Product information and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.016 **0.231 Social role and image and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.000 **0.396 Hedonism and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.018 **0.225- Annoyance factor and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.044 **0.194 Good for economy and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.065 *0.134- Materialism and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.083 *0.116- Falsity and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.060 *0.181 Reputation and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.095 *0.161 Popularity and attitude toward advertising
Significant relationship 0.000 **0.462 Attitude toward advertising and brand equity
*Significant in confidence level as 95%
**Significant in confidence level as 99%
The results of testing research hypotheses based on SEM are
shown in table 6. As seen, based on t statistic, hypotheses 1, 2, 6
and 7 in confidence level as 95% and hypotheses 3, 4, 8 and 10
in confidence level as 99% are confirmed. Hypotheses 5 and 9
are not significant in both confidence levels and they are
rejected. So, one can conclude that product information, social
role and image, materialism and falsity variables impact on
attitude toward advertising in confidence level as 95%.
Hedonism, annoyance factor and reputation impact on attitude
toward advertising in confidence level as 99%. Attitude toward
advertising also impacts on brand equity in confidence level as
99%. However, the impact of such variables as good for
economy and popularity on attitude toward advertising were not
confirmed.
According to path coefficient, one can conclude that the impact
of such variables as product information, social role and image,
hedonism and reputation on attitude toward advertising and the
impact of attitude toward advertising on brand equity is linear,
positive and direct; that is, one percent improvement in
independent variables will increase dependent variables as one
percent and vice versa. For instance, by one percent
improvement in product information variable, attitude on
advertising will be likely (95%) improved by 0.12 percent. The
impact of annoyance factor, falsity and materiality on attitude
toward advertising is linear, positive and direct; that is, increase
in independent variable decreases the dependent variable and
vice versa. For example, by one percent decrease in product
annoyance factor, attitude on advertising will be likely (99%)
improved by 0.16 percent. so, this hypothesis is confirmed. The
ratios of other hypotheses can be described similarly.
The amount of determined coefficient (r2) regarding the impact
of all beliefs on advertising is 0.37. It shows that independent
variables namely product information, social image and role,
hedonism, annoyance factor, falsity and reputation can forecast
37% of changes in attitude toward advertising dependent
variable and remained 63% is due to forecasting error and it can
include other influencing variables over attitude toward
advertising.
The amount of determined coefficient regarding the impact of
attitude toward advertising on brand equity is 0.21. It shows that
attitude toward advertising can forecast 21% of changes in brand
equity and remained 79% is due to forecasting error and it can
include other influencing variables over brand equity.
Table 6: testing research hypotheses
Result (r2) (β) t Indices Hypothesis
Confirmed 0.37
0.12 *2.53 1. the impact of product information on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.07 *2.23 2. the impact of social role and image on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.25 **4.18 3. the impact of hedonism on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.16- **3.05 4. the impact of annoyance factor on attitude toward advertising
Rejected 0.22 1.33 5. the impact of good for economy on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.15- *2.46 6. the impact of materialism on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.23- *2.14 7. the impact of falsity on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.21 **3.13 8. the impact of reputation on attitude toward advertising
Rejected 0.16 1.43 9. the impact of popularity on attitude toward advertising
Confirmed 0.21 0.36 **3.75 10. the impact of attitude toward advertising on brand equity
*Significant in confidence level as 95%
**Significant in confidence level as 99%
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Discussion and conclusion
Today, audiences’ trust in advertising as the result of marketing
efforts is highly decreased and people consider advertising as a
tool to deceit them and to sell products of companies. Although
advertising is one of the most tangible marketing activities with
a long record and companies spend huge budgets with the hope
of a miracle, such costs are wasted without any result since
consumers do not trust advertisements. Therefore, one should
look for an initiative to attract consumers’ trust in advertising. A
guideline to campaign this challenge is to use a proper platform
and media for advertising. Advertising platform is a channel for
advertising through which customers are communicated and its
influence over audiences will be also improved. A proper
platform for advertising which has highly grown in recent years
is sport especially football. Due to its flexibility, expansion and
popularity, football is getting a very important advertising
platform for many companies. By improving audiences’ attitude
toward advertising through football, companies’ brand equity
will be also developed. To this end, present research studied the
impact of those beliefs which shape the attitude toward football
advertising on general attitude toward advertising and,
consequently, the impact of attitude toward advertising on brand
equity.
In present study, those beliefs that shape audiences’ attitude
toward advertising through football are initially studied and
identified and then the impact of such beliefs on audiences’
attitudes toward advertising (not simply football advertising) of
Irancell Telecommunication Service company is measured.
Finally, the impact of attitude toward advertising on brand
equity is also measured. After studying existing literature,
“product information”, “social role and image”, “hedonism”,
“annoyance factor”, “good for economy”, “materialism” and
“falsity” were identified as beliefs which shape attitude on
athletic advertising. Besides, after studying and interviewing
with connoisseurs of advertising and behavior, two other beliefs
namely “reputation” and “popularity” were also identified as
beliefs which shape attitude on advertising through football and,
consequently, the impact of all nine beliefs on attitude toward
advertising was measured. The Present study is a survey which
uses questionnaire to collect data. To achieve the aims of this
research, 386 users of Irancell’s products and services who were
exposed by football advertising were considered as the sample.
To analyze data and to test research hypotheses and model,
structural equation modeling (SEM) and confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) were used.
The results from analyzing collected data indicate that “product
information”, “social role and image”, “hedonism”, “annoyance
factor”, “good for economy”, “materialism”, “falsity” and
“reputation” impact on audiences attitude on advertising
significantly. “Annoyance factor”, “materialism” and “falsity”
impact negatively and “product information”, “social role and
image”, “hedonism” and “reputation” impact positively. “Good
for economy” and “popularity” were not significant.
Additionally, the results show that the impact of “attitude on
advertising” on “brand equity” is also significant. On this basis,
one can conclude that by improving information, proper social
imaging, more amazing items, weakening annoyance factors,
decreasing materialism and consumption thinking, respecting
authenticity and, finally, using well–known figures in
advertising through football, it is possible to increase audiences’
attitude toward advertising through football and non-football
advertising positively. Such positive attitude toward advertising
will lead into brand equity improvement and enhancement.
According to the outcomes of the present research the following
functional propositions, applicable more to the big, prosperous
and creditable brand owning business companies and
institutions, are presented as follows:
1. Regarding the attractiveness that sport and activities
connected to it especially football have for the individuals,
companies should try more to present a part of their advertising
programs through this influential means so that company’s other
advertising programs would be affected and the client’sattitude
towards advertising in general would become more desirable.
2. An agreeable social image (sign) in company’s sport
advertisement from the view point of its customers should be
executed, so that they would receive sense credit and social
respect, when to use the company’s products.
3. In advertising through sport, the principles of
attraction, amusement and pleasure should be followed by sense
of humor as much as possible to attract the client’s attention
more and create a positive customer’s attitude towards
Advertisement
4. Depicting the materialistic and consumption –oriented
aspects of services and products presented by the company
should be avoided in advertising, so that customers would not
feel that the company is advertising merely for an increase in
sales and not having their profits in mind.
5. Presenting misleading, false, manipulated and incorrect
information in advertising through sports which leads to the
client’s mistrust towards the advertisings, should be avoided as
much as possible, so that the client’s outlook on advertising
through sports would not turn negative, as it is in other publicity
domains such as television and online advertising.
6. Popular sports (like football) and well-known and
popular athletes should be used in advertising in order to entail
more publicity efficiency and more enhancement of the special
brand value for the company.
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