The Role of Beliefs Shaping Customers' View toward Advertising through Sport (Football) In Promoting...

493 International Journal of Scientific Management and Development

*Correspondent Author: Hadi Abdollahi3 ([email protected])

Manuscript No: IJSMD-KINA-2014-240

International Journal of Scientific Management and Development ISSN:2345-3974 Vol.2 (10), 493-504 October (2014)

Research Paper

The Role of Beliefs Shaping Customers' View toward Advertising through Sport (Football) In Promoting the

Brand Equity Saeid Sehhat

1, Mehdi Jafarzadeh Kenari

2, Hadi Abdollahi

3*

1Assistant Professor of Management, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran

2 Ph.D.Student of Business Management (Marketing), Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

3 M.A. student of Business Management, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran

Available online at: www.IJSMD.Com

Received 14th April 2014, Revised 8th May 2014, Accepted 14th May 2014

Abstract For several years, advertising has been a strong communicational tool to promote products and to achieve such aims as sale, profit and

brand promotion. One of the newest platform for advertising grown highly now is advertising through sport especially football as one

of the most popular athletic fields. Regarding such importance, the present study is conducted to promote three aims in

telecommunication service industry (Irancell Company). The first aim of this research is to identify the beliefs which shape audiences’

attitudes on advertising through sport particularly football. The second aim is that this research evaluates the effect of the beliefs

forming the attitude toward football advertisings on the total attitude toward advertising. The ultimate aim is to study the impact of the

attitude toward advertising on brand equity. The Present study is a survey which uses questionnaire to collect data. To achieve the

aims of this research, 386 users of Irancell’s products and services who were exposed by football advertising were considered as the

sample. To analyze data and to test research hypotheses and model, structural equation modeling (SEM) and confirmatory factor

analysis (CFA) were used. Research findings show the significant impact of such beliefs as “product information”, “social role and

image”, “hedonism”, “annoyance factor”, “materialism”, “falsity”, “reputation” in football advertising on “attitude toward

advertising” and the significant impact of “attitude toward advertising” in “brand equity”.

Keywords: beliefs shaping attitudes toward advertising through football, attitude toward advertising, brand equity, football.

Introduction

For several years, advertising has been a strong

communicational tool to promote products and to achieve such

aims as sale, profit and brand promotion. Manufacturers use

advertising to introduce new products, to recall current products

and to aware consumers and they spend high costs to this end.

However, a challenging issue is the impact of such costly

advertising on customers. The impact of advertising on

customers depends highly to consumers’ attitudes toward

advertising, since it is believed that a strong attitude toward

advertising impacts consumers’ behavior (Wells et al, 2000).

Preliminary researches for answer this issue, tested customers’

attitude toward advertising (i.e. Muehling, 1987; Shavitt, 1989).

Initial studies on attitude toward advertising were conducted in

1940s and 1950s. Based on such probes, customers’ general

attitude toward advertising was evaluated positively (Bauer

&Greyser, 1968). That is, advertising impacted positively on the

attitudes and, consequently, customers' purchasing intention.

Despite such researches, studies conducted in 1960s resulted in

contrary findings and showed that consumers’ general attitude

toward advertising is negative (Andrews, 1989; Mauhling,

1987). Such results show that at the beginning of shaping

professional advertising, they had positive impacts on

consumers’ attitudes while overtime, advertising lost its trust

among consumers and now consumers’ attitude on advertising is

negative.

Conducted studies in recent years indicate consumers’ attitudes

toward all types of advertising especially TV and online

advertisement s are getting worse and negative (Burns, 2003;

Pyun & James, 2009). On this basis, one of the most challenges

against advertisers is to return consumers’ trust to advertising

and to create a positive attitude. A guideline to face with this

challenge is to use proper platform and media for advertising

and sport is a proper platform for advertisements which has

grown amply in recent years.

Due to itsflexibility, expansion and high popularity, sport is

changing into an important advertising platform for many

companies (Kropp et al, 1999). Daily, many people are exposed

by ample advertising when they are observing amateur or

professional athletic events. In contrary to TV or online

advertisements, people welcome advertising through sport since

they watch athletic events more than advertisements (Harshaw

and Turner, 1999). In recent years, companies have found the

importance of sports in advertising and they spend huge costs on

their campaigns in sport media annually. Plunkett’s Sport

Industry Almanac (2007) estimated that USA spent about 375 –

425 million dollars in trading industry via sport in 2007. Such

calculations indicate that companies have spent 239 million

dollars on Internet advertising, 6.4 billion dollars on sponsorship

and 32.67 billion dollars on advertising through sport which

shows that the share of advertising through sports is too

remarkable (Pegoraro et al, 2010). Such growth in advertising

through sports shows that companies have currently found the

potential power of sport as a tool to achieve many marketing

aims (Lyberger and McCarthy, 2001). But,do such huge costs

have adequate effectiveness?

Nowadays, a very important and attractive issue for Study is to

evaluative the effectiveness of advertising through sport

(Lyberger and McCarthy, 2001). Authors tested advertising

effectiveness (particularly advertising through sports) in two

indices: advertising recall and advertising recognition (Stotlar&

Bennett, 2000; Turley & and Shannon, 2000). In fact, one of the

most fundamental reasons for the importance of effective

advertising is its potential power in promoting brand equity.


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International Journal of Scientific Management and Development

Effective advertising creates a proper context for shaping and

growing brand equity (Buil et al, 2011). Advertising through

sports shapes beliefs and, consequently, attitudes of consumers

to advertising more positively and more favorably (Pyun and

James, 2009). Such positive attitude toward advertising will be a

proper ground for developing brand equity (Buil et al, 2011).

Despite of the high importance of sports especially football in

advertising and returning audiences’ trust to advertising , few

researches are conducted on this field and one can almost claim

that there is no research on advertising through sports and its

impact on promoting brand equity of the companies. To this end

and to fill the current gap in the literature, present study plans to

identify those beliefs which shape consumers’ attitudes on

advertising through sports (football) and then to measure the

impacts of such beliefs on consumers’ attitudes toward

advertising and, finally, to measure the impact of consumers’

attitudes toward advertising on brand equity. To this end, used

of some aspects of those beliefs which shape consumers’

attitudes toward advertising through sport identified by Pyun

and James (2009) (namely product information, social role and

image, hedonism, annoyance, good for economy, materialism

and falsity) and two other aspects identified by authors

(reputation and popularity). To measure brand equity, Aaker’

brand equity aspects are used (namely perceived quality, brand

awareness, brand association and brand loyalty).

With its huge investments in advertising through sports

especially football (sponsor of Iranian League in 2011) and as a

well-established brands in telecommunication industry, Irancell

Telecommunication Service Company is selected for present

study.

Literature review

Pegoraroet al. (2010) studied the role of advertising through

sports in the rate of consumers’ shopping. In their research, they

introduced sport as a widespread and accessible marketing tool

which highly helps brand promotion. The major aim of this

research was to study how TV and online sport advertising help

consumption and consumers’ culture. In this line, they

considered NCAA men basketball matches.

In their research, Pyun and James (2009) identified those beliefs

which shaped an attitude toward advertising through sport and

the development of scales to measure such aspects. Finally, they

identified seven aspects as those beliefs which shape consumers’

attitudes toward advertising through sports namely product

information, social role and image, hedonism, annoyance, and

good for economy, materialism and falsity.

In another research, Pyun and James (2011) developed a

theoretical framework for advertising through sports and studied

the impact of identified beliefs in previous study on general

attitude toward advertising. They concluded consumers’ positive

beliefs on advertising through sports leads into consumers’

positive attitude toward advertising by companies.

Kambitsis et al (2002) studied why sports and famous athletes

are used for advertising. In this line, they considered 2000

Olympic Games. Their findings indicated that Olympic Games

do not play important role in sport advertising effectiveness.

Additionally, they concluded that advertising companies use

athletic figures based on their characters rather than their

successes; that is, they pay more attention to the popularity of

athletes than their reputation.

Buil et al (2011) tested the role of advertising and sale

promotions in creating brand equity. To this end, they

considered advertising costs and consumers’ attitudes toward

advertising. The results of their study indicated that consumers’

attitude toward advertising plays a key role in influencing brand

equity aspects (perceived quality, brand awareness, brand

association and brand loyalty) while the positive impact

advertising cost on brand equity is trivial.

Ruihley et al (2010) studied the role of using famous athletic

figures in advertising. They introduced advertising through

famous athletes as a proper tool to attract customers.

Since we face with such issues as belief and attitude, we explain

the differences of these two concepts.

Differences and relation between belief and attitude

Most often, belief and attitude are used as a single concept

(Eagly & Chaiken, 1998). Based on the Expectancy Value

Theory by Fishbein (1963), attitudes are roles of beliefs; in fact,

beliefs can be the causes of attitudes. In this theory, it is

assumed that the strongest beliefs have the highest impact on an

individual’s attitude (Fishbein, 1963). For instance, when people

are watching a football match through television in home, they

are highly exposed by paramount advertisements in stadium.

Someone may have a favorable attitude toward advertisements

in stadium due to valuable information on new goods while

someone else may have a positive attitude on advertisements

since they are attractive. Although both have similar (favorable)

attitude on advertisements in stadium, their effective beliefs on

their attitudes are different (they have different attitudes despite

of their similar attitudes). On the other hand, people may have

similar beliefs on an aim but they have different attitudes on the

same aim (Fishbein, 1967). For example, someone may like a

football team because of its stars while someone else may do not

like this team due to the same reason.

In present study, there is such difference between belief and

attitude tooand although beliefs and attitudes are related to each

other, they are independent. A belief is a descriptive opinion

expressed by someone about something which can be based on

information, idea and loyalty while an attitude is evaluations,

feelings and relative constant propensities of an individual on a

product or a thinking method. It is the attitudes which make

someone interested in or hate something (Kotler, 1997). Any

attitude is the result of some beliefs. Since the relationship

between belief and attitude is accepted, those beliefs which

shape attitudes on advertising through sports are mentioned

below and, on this basis, research hypotheses are developed.

Beliefs which shape attitude toward advertising through

sports

Product information

According to Kotler (1997), companies advertise for three aims

(to aware, to convince and to recall). Awareness is one of the

most important aims. Advertising may involve high volume of

information which clarifies many points about products for

consumers. More quality of information and awareness of


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advertising would lead into consumers’ better decision making

(Alwitt and Prabhaker, 1992). Product information leads to more

efficiency of market and makes it possible for consumers to

adopt their needs and demands to manufacturers (Pollay and

Mittal, 1993). In fact, an informative advertisement is one that

makes you aware of new information about products.

Most people believe that information is the main reason

fortendency towards advertising. Besides, relevant and fruitful

information leads into positive attitude of people toward

advertising (Schlosser et al, 1999). Advertising provides you

with what you need to know or tend to know. Informative

advertising may provide information about new products and

services or new information about current services and products.

The important point is that advertising helps you to select among

options by providing necessary information (Pyun and James,

2011). On this basis, one can consider product information as

consumers’ attitude toward advertising through sport.

Hypothesis 1: the belief of product information of advertising

through sporthas positively effects on total attitude toward

advertising.

Social role and image

As a driving force of social role and image, advertising indicates

that it tries to sell lifestyle along with a product or service to

consumers (Burns, 2003). In fact, social role and image of a

product or brand depends on its credit for consumers. Usually,

people tend to buy luxury and fashionable goods and to put

trademarks on their clothes and personal items for showing off

(Pollay and Mitatal, 1993), this sense or belief is motivated by

the social image of the considered product. Korgonkar et al

(1997) say that some direct marketing companies try to sell

credit and reputation along with their products. Generally, the

owners of products and brands use advertising as a tool to

develop such belief. Concerning advertising through sports,

advertisers use football and football players to create an ideal

image in the eyes of customers so that a superior social image

and role would lead into more positive attitude of people (Pollay

and Mittal, 1993).

Hypothesis 2: the belief of social role and image of advertising

through sport has positively effects on total attitude toward

advertising.

Hedonism

Hedonism is an important indicator of positive and negative

attitudes which shows how people react to a product and

message. According to hedonism, TV advertisements are

expected to attract their audiences and customers by scoffing

(Wells et al, 2005). On this basis, hedonism is a belief which

shows that to what extent advertisements are attractive and

amazing or how well they are planned (Bauer & Greyser, 1968).

In fact, when advertisements are more attractive and shape

hedonism belief in their consumers, they can create a more

positive attitude among their consumers toward advertising.

Previous researches have also confirmed the important role of

hedonism in consumers’ attitudes toward advertising (Mehta,

2000; Schlosser et al, 1999). On this basis, sport can be used as

an important tool to add hedonism and attractiveness to

advertisements.

Hypothesis 3: the belief of hedonism of advertising through

sport has positively effects on total attitude toward advertising.

Good for economy

Bauer & Greyser (1968) emphasized that consumers’ beliefs on

economic impact of advertising shape their attitude toward

advertisements. When there is a close relationship between

economic advantages of advertising and personal benefits, they

will be more interested in responding such advertisements

(Elliot and Probhaker, 1992). One of the economical advantages

of advertising for consumers is to save the time and costs.

Korgaonkar et al (1997) showed that if consumers lack time and

money and cannot leave their home to shop; they use direct

marketing for saving their time and money. One can easily

acquire economic benefits of advertising through sport in

stadiums and TV commercials during athletic matches.

Customers show more tendency towards products and brands

which get familiar with them through their interested athletic

events and they are encouraged to buy them (Terely and Shenon,

2000). Campaigns during favorite athletic events such as

football lead into observers’ loyalty to these products (Turco,

1996). Attracted customers through advertisements in athletic

events can help economic survival of local and global markets

(Pollay and Mittal, 1993).Consumers’ perception on economic

costs and benefits of advertising through sport impact their

general attitude toward advertising positively.

Hypothesis 4: the belief of good for economy of advertising

through sport has positively effects on total attitude toward

advertising.

Materialism

One of the most important criticisms against advertising is the

negative social impacts by some advertisements (Mittal, 1994).

Some authors confirm that the main aim of some advertisements

is toattract the mindset of the society to material concerns and to

develop consumption feeling. Pollay and Mittal (1993) define

materialism as “a set of beliefs which consider consumption as a

route to maximize satisfaction.” Initial studies have tested the

relationship between materialism and attitude toward advertising

(Larkin, 1997; Mittal, 1994). On this basis, there is a negative

significant relationship between conceiving materialism and

attitude on advertising.

Hypothesis 5: the belief of materialism of advertising through

sport has negatively effects on total attitude toward advertising.

Falsity

Falsity refers to this concept that advertisements provide false

and deceiving information. In fact, falsity refers to providing

incorrect or semi-correct or deceitful information and/or not

saying a part of truth (Pyun and James, 2011). This claim that

advertising may deceive is studied in relation to some media

and, overall, in different probes (i.e. Larkin, 1977; Mehtta, 2000;

Schlosser et al, 1999; Schavitt et al, 1998). Pollay and Mittal

(1993) found that there is a strong and negative significant

relationship between falsity and individuals’ attitude on

advertising. It means that the people would have more negative


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attitude toward advertising and products if they are more

deceitful and deceiving.

Hypothesis 6: the belief of falsity of advertising through

sporthas negatively effects on total attitude toward advertising.

Annoyance

Baer and Greyser (1968) define irritating advertisements as

those advertisement which discomfort people. The content of an

advertisement and how to represent it can cause annoyance.

Extreme repetition of an advertisement and representing it in

improper time and location can lead into its discomfort.

Additionally, advertisements can be tormenting for other

reasons; the main point is that they incommode audiences and

the task of advertisers is to identify discomforting factor and

omitting it from advertisement.

According to authors, a reason of criticizing advertising is that

they cause annoyance and irritation forpeople. Aaker and

Bruzzone (1981) pointed out that TV commercials are too

annoying for watchers that impact their attitude reversely and

negatively. Gradually, such annoyance can cause people tohate

advertisements. Overall, the diversity of empirical studies lead

us to this result that annoyance and irritation is another belief

which impact on attitude to advertising (Pyun and James, 2009;

Pyun and James, 2011; Aaker and Bruzzone, 1981; Ducoffe,

1996). On this basis, one can conclude that if advertising acts as

an annoyance and an irritatingfactor, it will lead into negative

attitude of audiences toward advertising.

Hypothesis 7: the belief of annoyance of advertising through

sport has negatively effects on total attitude toward advertising.

Reputation

Reputation refers to the fact that to what extent famous and

well-known elements and figures are used in advertising. Using

famous figures such asmovie stars and athletes (particularly

football players) is seen in the advertising of many products. In

present age, stars and famous athletes are highly used in

advertisements and such kind of advertisements has led into the

improvement of recalling products by customers and it has a

positive impact on the behavior of selecting a brand by customer

(Carlson and Todd, 2008; Bush et al, 2004). Additionally, such

type of advertising increases the recognition and awareness of

consumers about a brand (Rohley et al, 2010).

Hypothesis 8: the belief of reputation of advertising through


Popularity

Popularity differs from reputation. An athletic or artistic figure

may have high reputation but he/she is not so popular among

people. For example, midfielderof UK national team and

Chelsea, John Terry, is a famous and well-known figure in

football world but due to his ethical scandals, he is not so

popular among fans. Generally, advertisers use popular

characters in addition to their reputation and they use popularity

as a tool to penetrate advertising among people and their

positive attitude and mental image toward brand (Rohley et al,

2010; Kambistis et al, 2002).

Hypothesis 9: the belief of popularity of advertising through


Attitude toward advertising and brand equity

Advertising is one of the most obvious activities of marketing.

Lutz defines attitude on advertising as “a favorable/unfavorable

tendency to respond a certain advertisement exposed in special

conditions”. Generally, writers assume that advertising is an

effective factor on building customer – oriented brand equity.

Through influencing over individuals’ attitude toward

advertising, companies impact on their buying decisions and

motivate them to purchase their products (Pyun and James,

2011).

Many authors have found that individuals’ attitude toward

advertising can play a vital role in impacting on brand equity

(Keller and Lehman, 2006; Bravo et al, 2007; Sriram, 2007).

Advertising is a powerful tool to develop brand emotional and

functional values (De Chernatony, 2010). An important strategy

in advertising which impacts on individuals’ attitude toward

advertising positively is its creativity. By a modern and

innovative advertising strategy, organizations are likely more

able to attract consumers’ attention and, consequently, attracting

customers’ attention can highly aid brand equity development

(Boyel et al, 2011).

Hypothesis 10: general attitude toward advertising has

positively effects on brand equity.

Brand equity and its aspects

Marketing connoisseurs have provided various definitions on

brand equity concept. Some authors have defined it as a set of

brand – related assets and debts as well as the name and symbol

which increases or decreases the value of provided product or

service to customers. Others have defined it as the certain

impact of brand knowledge on consumers’ response to brand

marketing. Some authors have defined brand equity as the power

brand acquired in market through name, symbol or logo.

However, the simplest definition of brand equity is the added

value or award of a product to customers which is attributed to

brand (Yoo et al, 2000; He, et al, 2011). If a customer is

convinced that there are remarkable differences among brands

and it leads toan important part of information in shopping

decision, the extent of customers’ reliance to brand – based

decision making will be increased. Brands especially those with

high value are considered as the most valuable and strongest

assets of an organization.

Brand equity is seen in both marketing and financial literatures.

By brand equity in present study, we mean “customer – based

brand equity” indicated in marketing literature. Customer –

based brand equity looks at brand value generation resources in

terms of customer so that brand power is hidden in what

customers have seen, heard and felt overtime and through their

experiences about brand. Brand generates value for both

customer and organization and the main source of such value is

hidden in customers and their mindsets would determine actual

value for beneficiaries. Aaker (1991) believes that brand equity

is based on four aspects namely “brand perceived quality”,

“brand awareness”, “brand association” and “brand loyalty”.


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Awareness refers to the capability of people in identifying a

trademark or name which provides a certain product category.

Mental image originates from consumers’ varied perceptions in

their mind toward the brand. Quality indicates the quality of

provided services or products by brand. Brand loyalty is shaped

due to positive feelings and perception to a brand and causes

shopping repetition (Martinez et al, 2009). Below, each aspect of

brand equity is described:

Perceived quality: it is consumer’s judgment on excellence or

superiority of goods (services) concerning its aim compared to

other goods (services) in the market which may be or may not be

adopted to the real quality of a product.

Brand awareness: it is conceived by brand recognition or

recalling it. In fact, brand awareness is defined as a potential

capability to identify and recall that brand is a member of a

certain product category.

Brand association: it includes anything which relates customer’s

mind to brand. It can be a given geographical location,

company, rivals, retailers, shop, symbol, plan or lifestyle.

According to Aaker (1991), brand associations are a set of brand

assets and debts and include communications between brand and

consumers’ minds. Brand association is one of the most

important factors of brand equity (Lee and Beck, 2008).

Brand loyalty: it is a relative prejudiced behavioral reaction in

shopping by an individual overtime to a brand. Such behavior

causes people to tend to that brand in decision making processes

and evaluating a set of names in their minds. Customers’ loyalty

to trademark leads to positive word–of–mouth, creates

fundamental entry barriers for rivals, empowers the company to

respond competitive threats, creates more sale and income, and

decreases customers’ sensitivity to rivals’ marketing efforts.

High number of loyal customers to a trademark is considered as

the asset of a company and the main index of brand equity. Also,

the sensitivity of loyal’ customers to prices changes is lower

than disloyal customers (Sahin et al, 2011).

Based on background, literature and research hypotheses,

provided model in this research is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: conceptual model of brand equity based on those beliefs which shape attitude toward advertising through sport

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HIndividuals’

attitude toward

advertising

Social role and

image

Product

information

Hedonism

Annoyance

Good for economy

Materialism

Falsity

Beliefs which shape attitudes

toward advertising through sports

Reputation

Popularity

Brand

awareness

Perceived

quality

Brand

association

Brand loyalty

Bra

nd

eq

uit

y


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Methodology

Research methodology

In the present study, we look for studying and identifying those

beliefs which shape attitudes toward Irancell football advertising

and the impact of such factors on audiences’ general attitude

toward advertising and brand equity. In terms of purpose and the

nature of the problem, this is an applied research and it is a

survey in terms of data collection method. In terms of

methodology, it is a descriptive study. To collect data,

questionnaire tool is used. The questions were in 5-point Likert

scale (strongly disagree, disagree, no agree & no disagree, agree,

strongly agree).

Measures

Present study includes 11 variables namely “product

information”, “social role and image”, “hedonism”, “annoyance

factor”, “good for economy”, “materialism”, “falsity”,

“reputation”, “popularity”, “attitude toward advertising ”, and

“brand equity”. All mentioned variables are measured by

measuring variables. For collect data and measure variables,

questionnaire tool is used. The questions were in 5-point Likert

scale

To measure product information, 3 items are used and there are

2 items for social role and image, 2 items for hedonism, 3 items

for annoyance factor, 3 items for good for economy and 4 items

for falsity. All items are developed by Pyun and James (2009).

To measure reputation and popularity that developed by authors,

three items structured by authors are used. To measure attitude

on advertising, three items by Builet al. (2011) and to measure

brand equity, 14 items developed by Builet al .(2011), Aaker

(1991) and Kimpakorn and Tocquer (2010) are used. On this

basis, research questionnaire consists of 42 items shown in table

1. Some demographic items were added to the end of the

questionnaire and are explained in the research finding sector.

Data analysis method

To analyze data and to test research hypotheses, Structural

Equation Modeling (SEM) is used (Anderson and Gerbing,

1988). SEM is a very strong multivariable analysis in

multivariable regression category which helps author to test a set

of regression equations simultaneously. To study model

reliability, Chronbach’s α coefficient and to measure model

fitness and questionnaire validity, Confirmatory Factor Analysis

(CFA) is used.

Research Statistical sample and Statistical population

The present study is conducted to study the impact of those

beliefs that shape attitudes toward Irancell advertising through

football on the attitude toward advertising and brand equity of

this telecommunication service company in Tehran

Metropolitan. Since men are more exposed by advertising

through football due to their higher interest in football, this

study has only addressed men. So, the statistical population of

this research consists of all men in Tehran who are exposed by

Irancell advertisements through football. Since the statistical

population of the research is indefinite the sample size of the

research was considered as 380. To access considered sample

and more random sampling method, the authors went in

different times to various stadiums and places in the city and

asked their questions randomly. To keep a safe margin, 400

questionnaires were distributed among which 386 questionnaires

were confirmed.

Questionnaire reliability and validity

To analyze internal structure of the questionnaire and validity of

the results, CFA and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) are

used. To this end, Standardized Factor Loading and AVE are

computed for all items and indicators of variables shown in table

1. The validity is seen when all Standardized Factor Loading

(SFL) relevant to each measuring variable and AVE relevant to

each main variable are greater than 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker,

1981). As seen in table 1, the rates of Standardized Factor

Loading and AVE are greater than 0.5. So, one can conclude

that the questionnaire enjoys plausible validity. To measure

reliability, Chronbach’s α coefficient is used. For a plausible

reliability, Chronbach’s α Value should be greater than 0.7. All

Chronbach’s α Values shown in table 1 are greater than 0.7.

Table 1: the rates of Standardized Factor Loading, Chronbach’s α Value and AVE

Items SFL Chronbach’s

α coefficient

AVE

Product information

Irancell football advertising provides the traits of its products and services.

Irancell football advertising helps me to aware (update) its brand products and services.

Irancell football advertising a good source of information about its brand products and

services.

Social role and image

Irancell football advertising helps me to aware what to buy in order to keep a well social

image.

Irancell football advertising gives me ideas on fashion.

Hedonism

Irancell football advertising is often fun and amazing.

Sometimes, Irancell football advertising is more enjoyable than the content of other

advertising media.

Annoyance factor

0.58

0.89

0.74

0.41

0.79

0.79

0.63

0.84

0.89

0.66

0.73

0.72

0.7

0.76

0.63

0.62

0.6

0.56


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Irancell football advertising is often clamoring and creates annoyance.

Irancell football advertising is often long.

Irancell football advertising is ridiculous.

Good for economy

Irancell football advertising usually helps the economy of other countries.

Irancell football advertising usually helps local economy.

Irancell football advertising helps to increase life standards.

Materialism

Irancell football advertising is making a materialistic community where people are

highly interested in buying and owning products and services.

Irancell football advertising encourages us to buy what we do not really need them.

Irancell football advertising builds the life of people on an unreal world.

Through creating the propensity to buy unnecessary products, Irancell football

advertising leads into wasting natural resources.

Falsity

Irancell football advertising is usually far from reality.

Irancell football advertising is deceitful.

Reputation

Irancell football advertising generally uses sport stars.

Irancell football advertising uses high adherent teams.

Irancell football advertising is well known.

Popularity

Irancell football advertising generally uses lovely athletic figures.

Irancell football advertising uses popular teams.

We are interested in Irancell football advertising.

Attitude on advertising

Irancelladvertising is creative.

Irancelladvertising is niche.

Irancelladvertising is distinguished form campaigns by rivals (other telecommunication

service companies).

Brand equity

Irancell supplies very high quality products and services.

Irancell improves the quality of its products and services regularly.

Irancell provides trustable products and services.

Irancell provides products and services with excellent characteristics.

When I think about telecommunication services, Irancell brand is one of the brands

comes to my mind.

Irancell brand is one I recognize it well.

I can distinguish Irancell brand from the brands of its rivals.

The reason for selecting Irancell brand is the type of its services.

Always, I have a good experience in using Irancell products and services.

Always, I remember the brand’s attractive advertising.

Upon hearing the name of Irancell, I remember its logo in my mind.

I am loyal to Irancell.

In telecommunication service industry, Irancell is my first choice.

Because of Irancell products and services, I will not buy the products and services of

other companies.

6.60

0.55

0.51

0.54

0.83

0.69

0.58

0.70

0.65

0.68

0.73

0.51

0.80

0.83

0.53

0.74

1

0.77

0.55

0.53

0.86

0.85

0.78

0.68

0.58

0.45

0.49

0.47

0.56

0.88

0.92

0.75

0.71

0.74

0.75

0.78

0.76

0.81

0.86

Total (0.87)

0.51

0.64

0.55

0.58

0.56

0.61

0.56

Findings

Research descriptive findings

For better identification of the nature of the used population in

this study and more familiarity with research variables, it is

necessary to describe statistical data before analyzing them. As

mentioned, in the present study, 386 respondents were studied

who were all male. Additionally, 236 individuals were less than

30 years old, 98 were between 30 – 45 years old and 52 were

over 45years old. In terms of education, 89 individuals had high

school diploma or lower, 33 had Associates degree, 189 had

Bachelor's degree and 75 had Master's degree and higher. The

results of demographic data are depicted in table 2.


500


Table 2: research demographic data

% Quantity Age Variable

100 386 Male Sex

61.13 236 -30 Age

25.38 98 30 - 45

13.49 52 +45

23.05 89 Diploma and lower Education

8.54 33 Associates degree

48.96 189 Bachelor's degree

19.45 75 Master's degree and higher

Meanwhile, the descriptive data on independent and dependent

variables are outlined in table 3. As seen, average, minimum,

maximum and standard deviation of research variables are

mentioned in the following table.

Table 3: descriptive data on research variables

Standard deviation Average Maximum Minimum Quantity Research variables

0.88516 3.1254 4.67 1 386 Product information

0.90300 2.5413 5 1 386 Social role and image

0/91014 3.0183 5 1 386 Hedonism

0.94481 2.685 5 1 386 Annoyance factor

0.76648 2.8807 5 1 386 Good for economy

0.76405 2.9885 5 1.25 386 Materialism

0.87885 2.5275 5 1 386 Falsity

0.76261 3.2446 5 1.33 386 Reputation

0.79593 2.893 5 1.33 386 Popularity

0.96399 3.2569 5 1 386 Attitude on advertising

0.68170 3.1388 4.58 1.58 386 Brand equity

Model fitness test

To determine provided model fitness by CFA, various goodness

of fit indicators are used as shown in table 4. Overall, each

acquired indicator for model is not by itself the reason for fitness

or unfitness of the model; rather, such indicators should be

described along with each other. Both X2 and secondary fitness

tests show that the model is adequately proper and they move

toward the factors of the model and we focus on such factors.

Table 4 indicates the most important indices and depicts that the

model enjoy proper fitness. All indices indicate that the model is

fit to observed data. Model fit indices show the appropriateness

of measuring model since ratio of Chi-Squareto freedom degree

is less than 3, RMSEA is less than 0.9 and other indices are also

plausible. In other words, the overall model is significant and

admirable.

Table 4: model goodness of fit

Allowed level Ratio Index

1338 2

χ

566 df

< 3 2.36 2 ⁄dfχ

> 0.9 0.92 GFI

< 0.09 0.082 RMSEA

> 0.9 0.93 CFI

> 0.8 0.9 AGFI

> 0.9 0.9 NFI

> 0.9 0.91 NNFI

Testing model hypotheses

Initially, Pearson correlation ratio test was used to study the

relations between the variables of each hypothesis. The results

are shown in table 5. As seen, the relationship between attitude

on advertising with such variables as product information, social

role and image, hedonism, annoyance factor, good for economy

and brand equity in confidence level as 99% and the relationship

between attitude on advertising and such variables as

materialism, falsity, reputation and popularity in confidence

level as 95% are significant. Concerning the significance

between the variables of research hypotheses, we test them:


501


Table 5: the relationship between the variables of hypotheses

Test result (Sig) Correlation (R) Indices relations

Significant relationship 0.000 **0.383 Product information and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.016 **0.231 Social role and image and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.000 **0.396 Hedonism and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.018 **0.225- Annoyance factor and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.044 **0.194 Good for economy and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.065 *0.134- Materialism and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.083 *0.116- Falsity and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.060 *0.181 Reputation and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.095 *0.161 Popularity and attitude toward advertising

Significant relationship 0.000 **0.462 Attitude toward advertising and brand equity

*Significant in confidence level as 95%

**Significant in confidence level as 99%

The results of testing research hypotheses based on SEM are

shown in table 6. As seen, based on t statistic, hypotheses 1, 2, 6

and 7 in confidence level as 95% and hypotheses 3, 4, 8 and 10

in confidence level as 99% are confirmed. Hypotheses 5 and 9

are not significant in both confidence levels and they are

rejected. So, one can conclude that product information, social

role and image, materialism and falsity variables impact on

attitude toward advertising in confidence level as 95%.

Hedonism, annoyance factor and reputation impact on attitude

toward advertising in confidence level as 99%. Attitude toward

advertising also impacts on brand equity in confidence level as

99%. However, the impact of such variables as good for

economy and popularity on attitude toward advertising were not

confirmed.

According to path coefficient, one can conclude that the impact

of such variables as product information, social role and image,

hedonism and reputation on attitude toward advertising and the

impact of attitude toward advertising on brand equity is linear,

positive and direct; that is, one percent improvement in

independent variables will increase dependent variables as one

percent and vice versa. For instance, by one percent

improvement in product information variable, attitude on

advertising will be likely (95%) improved by 0.12 percent. The

impact of annoyance factor, falsity and materiality on attitude

toward advertising is linear, positive and direct; that is, increase

in independent variable decreases the dependent variable and

vice versa. For example, by one percent decrease in product

annoyance factor, attitude on advertising will be likely (99%)

improved by 0.16 percent. so, this hypothesis is confirmed. The

ratios of other hypotheses can be described similarly.

The amount of determined coefficient (r2) regarding the impact

of all beliefs on advertising is 0.37. It shows that independent

variables namely product information, social image and role,

hedonism, annoyance factor, falsity and reputation can forecast

37% of changes in attitude toward advertising dependent

variable and remained 63% is due to forecasting error and it can

include other influencing variables over attitude toward

advertising.

The amount of determined coefficient regarding the impact of

attitude toward advertising on brand equity is 0.21. It shows that

attitude toward advertising can forecast 21% of changes in brand

equity and remained 79% is due to forecasting error and it can

include other influencing variables over brand equity.

Table 6: testing research hypotheses

Result (r2) (β) t Indices Hypothesis

Confirmed 0.37

0.12 *2.53 1. the impact of product information on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.07 *2.23 2. the impact of social role and image on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.25 **4.18 3. the impact of hedonism on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.16- **3.05 4. the impact of annoyance factor on attitude toward advertising

Rejected 0.22 1.33 5. the impact of good for economy on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.15- *2.46 6. the impact of materialism on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.23- *2.14 7. the impact of falsity on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.21 **3.13 8. the impact of reputation on attitude toward advertising

Rejected 0.16 1.43 9. the impact of popularity on attitude toward advertising

Confirmed 0.21 0.36 **3.75 10. the impact of attitude toward advertising on brand equity

*Significant in confidence level as 95%

**Significant in confidence level as 99%


502


Discussion and conclusion

Today, audiences’ trust in advertising as the result of marketing

efforts is highly decreased and people consider advertising as a

tool to deceit them and to sell products of companies. Although

advertising is one of the most tangible marketing activities with

a long record and companies spend huge budgets with the hope

of a miracle, such costs are wasted without any result since

consumers do not trust advertisements. Therefore, one should

look for an initiative to attract consumers’ trust in advertising. A

guideline to campaign this challenge is to use a proper platform

and media for advertising. Advertising platform is a channel for

advertising through which customers are communicated and its

influence over audiences will be also improved. A proper

platform for advertising which has highly grown in recent years

is sport especially football. Due to its flexibility, expansion and

popularity, football is getting a very important advertising

platform for many companies. By improving audiences’ attitude

toward advertising through football, companies’ brand equity

will be also developed. To this end, present research studied the

impact of those beliefs which shape the attitude toward football

advertising on general attitude toward advertising and,

consequently, the impact of attitude toward advertising on brand

equity.

In present study, those beliefs that shape audiences’ attitude

toward advertising through football are initially studied and

identified and then the impact of such beliefs on audiences’

attitudes toward advertising (not simply football advertising) of

Irancell Telecommunication Service company is measured.

Finally, the impact of attitude toward advertising on brand

equity is also measured. After studying existing literature,

“product information”, “social role and image”, “hedonism”,

“annoyance factor”, “good for economy”, “materialism” and

“falsity” were identified as beliefs which shape attitude on

athletic advertising. Besides, after studying and interviewing

with connoisseurs of advertising and behavior, two other beliefs

namely “reputation” and “popularity” were also identified as

beliefs which shape attitude on advertising through football and,

consequently, the impact of all nine beliefs on attitude toward

advertising was measured. The Present study is a survey which

uses questionnaire to collect data. To achieve the aims of this

research, 386 users of Irancell’s products and services who were

exposed by football advertising were considered as the sample.

To analyze data and to test research hypotheses and model,

structural equation modeling (SEM) and confirmatory factor

analysis (CFA) were used.

The results from analyzing collected data indicate that “product

information”, “social role and image”, “hedonism”, “annoyance

factor”, “good for economy”, “materialism”, “falsity” and

“reputation” impact on audiences attitude on advertising

significantly. “Annoyance factor”, “materialism” and “falsity”

impact negatively and “product information”, “social role and

image”, “hedonism” and “reputation” impact positively. “Good

for economy” and “popularity” were not significant.

Additionally, the results show that the impact of “attitude on

advertising” on “brand equity” is also significant. On this basis,

one can conclude that by improving information, proper social

imaging, more amazing items, weakening annoyance factors,

decreasing materialism and consumption thinking, respecting

authenticity and, finally, using well–known figures in

advertising through football, it is possible to increase audiences’

attitude toward advertising through football and non-football

advertising positively. Such positive attitude toward advertising

will lead into brand equity improvement and enhancement.

According to the outcomes of the present research the following

functional propositions, applicable more to the big, prosperous

and creditable brand owning business companies and

institutions, are presented as follows:

1. Regarding the attractiveness that sport and activities

connected to it especially football have for the individuals,

companies should try more to present a part of their advertising

programs through this influential means so that company’s other

advertising programs would be affected and the client’sattitude

towards advertising in general would become more desirable.

2. An agreeable social image (sign) in company’s sport

advertisement from the view point of its customers should be

executed, so that they would receive sense credit and social

respect, when to use the company’s products.

3. In advertising through sport, the principles of

attraction, amusement and pleasure should be followed by sense

of humor as much as possible to attract the client’s attention

more and create a positive customer’s attitude towards

Advertisement

4. Depicting the materialistic and consumption –oriented

aspects of services and products presented by the company

should be avoided in advertising, so that customers would not

feel that the company is advertising merely for an increase in

sales and not having their profits in mind.

5. Presenting misleading, false, manipulated and incorrect

information in advertising through sports which leads to the

client’s mistrust towards the advertisings, should be avoided as

much as possible, so that the client’s outlook on advertising

through sports would not turn negative, as it is in other publicity

domains such as television and online advertising.

6. Popular sports (like football) and well-known and

popular athletes should be used in advertising in order to entail

more publicity efficiency and more enhancement of the special

brand value for the company.

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