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Managing Student Volunteers for MegaEvents: Motivation and PsychologicalContract as Predictors of SustainedVolunteerismChunlei Wanga & Larry Yub
a School of Tourism Management, Shanghai Normal University, 100 GuilinRoad, Xuhui District, Shanghai 200234, People's Republic of Chinab School of Business, The George Washington University, 2201 G Street NW,Washington, DC 20052, USAPublished online: 19 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: Chunlei Wang & Larry Yu , Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research (2014): ManagingStudent Volunteers for Mega Events: Motivation and Psychological Contract as Predictors of SustainedVolunteerism, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, DOI: 10.1080/10941665.2014.889027
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Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events:Motivation and Psychological Contract as Predictors
of Sustained Volunteerism
Chunlei Wang1 and Larry Yu2∗1School of Tourism Management, Shanghai Normal University, 100 Guilin Road, Xuhui
District, Shanghai 200234, People’s Republic of China2School of Business, The George Washington University, 2201 G Street NW, Washington, DC
20052, USA
Tourism destinations often leverage special events to promote tourism. However, specialevent organizers are confronted with the challenge of effectively managing volunteers toachieve high satisfaction and sustained volunteerism (SV). This study analyzes therelationships between volunteer motives, psychological contract (PC), satisfaction, andbehavioral intention. It accomplishes this aim by examining student volunteers’ satisfac-tion with the 2010 Shanghai World Expo and testing a conceptual model of SV usingmotivation and PC as predictors. Based on a sample of 579 college student volunteersin Shanghai, this study simultaneously investigates the antecedents of student satisfactionwith the World Expo and their behavioral intention to volunteer for other special events.Practical implications and future research directions of event volunteerism managementare fully discussed.
Key words: volunteer motivations, psychological contract, volunteer satisfaction,sustained volunteerism, 2010 Shanghai World Expo
Introduction
Tourism destinations often leverage special
events to promote tourism business for econ-
omic development and special events of
various types are increasingly seen as unique
tourist attractions and destination image
makers. The special event and festival activi-
ties in the tourism sector rely heavily on volun-
teers because a large number of individuals are
often necessary for creating and delivering
various types of services to the attendees at
the event. The financial contributions made
by the work carried out by volunteers at
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2014http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2014.889027
∗Email: [email protected]
# 2014 Asia Pacific Tourism Association
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sporting events were estimated as a significant
labor cost savings to the sponsoring organiz-
ations (Solberg, 2003).
However, special event organizers are often
confronted with the challenges of recruiting,
training, managing, and retaining volunteers
for sustained volunteerism (SV) (Elstad, 2003;
Pauline, 2011). Furthermore, the nature of
commitment at non-recurring mega events
such as the Olympic Games and World Cup,
which occur during a relatively short period
of time, means that mega event volunteers
might demonstrate motivations and behaviors
which are different from those associated
with other types of volunteering (Baum &
Lockstone, 2007). For example, it is reported
that motivations possessed by special event vol-
unteers are different from those of other volun-
teers. This is because special event volunteers
usually find certain distinct dimensions impor-
tant due to their commitment and attachment
to the activity (Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam,
1998). A study examining volunteering in
relation to events therefore calls for a multiple
disciplinary approach to examine and explain
this prosocial phenomenon at the intersection
of the tourism business and society.
Prior studies on volunteering for special
events have typically followed two streams of
investigations: modeling volunteer motivations
(VMs) and examining the causal effect
between motivations and volunteer satisfaction
(VS). Few studies have attempted to examine
other dimensions of VS and the relationship
with SV, particularly involving volunteer man-
agement practices at a non-recurring mega
event such as the World Expo. Two notable
exceptions include the Volunteer Satisfaction
Index by Galindo-Kuhn and Guzley (2001)
and a human resource management approach
to VS and retention by Cuskelly, Taylor,
Hoye, and Darcy (2006). Both of these studies
attempted to measure VS and behavioral inten-
tion by analyzing sporting event sponsor man-
agement practices, leaving out the motivation
dimension. Furthermore, most prior studies
focused on motives and behaviors of a mature,
non-student population, leaving an empirical
void in examining student volunteering at
mega events.
In addition, the scope and complexity of
managing the World Expo have presented
great challenges to the Expo organizers in
effectively managing a great number of volun-
teers. The reason for this is the significant
differences between the World Expo and
other mega international sporting events oper-
ations, such as longer operation time of six
months, spatial concentration of pavilions
with crowded attendance, and running daily
special events and education forums.
Therefore, the operations of the World Expo
raise a unique set of requirements for recruiting,
organizing, and managingvolunteers.However,
no research has thus far been conducted on
student VM, experience, and satisfaction with
the World Expo. This study attempts to fill this
research gap by testing volunteers’ motivations
and their experience with Expo management
practices as predictors of SV. This multidimen-
sional model is examined in the context of the
2010 Shanghai World Expo, a non-recurring
megaevent staffedmainly by student volunteers.
The findings of this studywill contribute toevent
tourism research by employing a multidimen-
sional concept of SV and will provide practical
implications for effectively managing student
volunteers serving event tourists.
Literature Review
Volunteer Motivations
Research on why individuals volunteer at
special events has been carried out in different
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types of sporting venues. With regard to the
motives of sporting event volunteers, Farrell
et al. (1998) identified four categories of
motives by surveying volunteers at the Cana-
dian Women’s Curling Championship: purpo-
sive, solidary, external traditions, and
commitments. Using local residents in Sydney
as informants, Wang (2004) found five major
categories of VMs for sporting events: altruis-
tic value, personal development, community
concern, ego enhancement, and social adjust-
ment. A survey of 698 registered volunteers
prior to the XV Commonwealth Games in
Manchester, UK, revealed seven motivational
factors: community, personal development,
business opportunities, volunteer traditions,
esteem, egoistic, and positive experiences
(Downward & Ralston, 2005). VMs for the
Athens 2004 Olympic Games were investi-
gated to construct the Olympic Volunteer
Motivation Scale, which includes Olympic-
related, egoistic and purposive subscales
(Giannoulakis, Wang, & Gray, 2008).
Bang and Chelladurai (2003) identified six
volunteer motivational factors at the 2002
FIFA World Cup, which were classified as
the Volunteer Motivations Scale for Inter-
national Sporting Events: expression of
values, patriotism, interpersonal contacts, per-
sonal growth, career orientation, and extrinsic
rewards. However, this research seems to have
missed other factors motivating an individual
to volunteer for sporting events, such as indi-
viduals’ interest in or passion for a particular
type of sport. After modifying Bang and Chel-
ladurai’s (2003) Volunteer Motivations Scale
for International Sporting Events, Bang and
Ross (2009) refined the VMs into seven
factors: expression of values, community
involvement, interpersonal contacts, career
orientation, personal growth, extrinsic
rewards, and love of sport. These seven moti-
vational factors support previous literature
focusing on sport volunteer management and
are recognized as an extension of the seminal
work by Clary and his colleagues in 1998
and the study by Farrell et al. in 1998.
Comparing the scope and output of VM
studies in relation to sporting events, empirical
research into VM regarding non-sporting
events and festivals has been scant. One com-
prehensive study surveyed volunteers in five
special event organizations in South Australia
to measure their motivations for volunteering
at special events and festivals (Monga,
2006). Modifying traditional VM models,
Monga (2006, p. 58) identified five motiva-
tional factors for special events and festivals:
affiliatory, which refers to volunteers’ interest
for special events and their contributions to
the success of the events; fulfilling experience,
which includes a mix of values and enhance-
ment factors by Clary et al. (1998); solidary
factor, which expresses the social dimension
of relationships, family tradition in volunteer-
ing, and social pressure for volunteering;
opportunity for career development; and
expectation of personal rewards, which
include free access to events and an opportu-
nity for collecting souvenirs. This study ident-
ified two motivational factors that are specific
to special events and festivals: affiliatory and
personal rewards, with affiliatory measured
as the most significant motivating factor
among the five factors. This finding also sup-
ports the two motivational factors identified
by Bang and Ross (2009): love of sport and
extrinsic rewards in a sporting event.
Volunteers’ Perceived PsychologicalContract
The relationship between VM and satisfaction
is a focus of research aimed at developing an
understanding of determinants, factors, and
Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events 3
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relationships influencing event volunteers’ per-
formance and retention (Bang & Ross, 2009;
Cuskelly, Hoyle, & Auld, 2006; Farrell et al.,
1998; Reeser, Berg, Rhea, & Willick, 2005).
However, studies analyzing the relationship
between VM and satisfaction have been criti-
cized for missing the cognitive and social pro-
cesses underlying the complex factors and
relationships among motivation, performance,
satisfaction, and behavioral intention (Costa,
Chalip, Green, & Simes, 2006). For example,
Penner (2002) argued that volunteerism,
incorporating both intention to begin and
intention to remain, is likely to be influenced
by two major organizational variables: the
organization’s reputation and personnel prac-
tice and the individuals’ psychological con-
tracts (PCs), particularly in relation to the
individual’s perceptions and feelings about
how they are treated by the sponsor organiz-
ation. Based on a post-event survey of 1,098
volunteers involved with the 2001 Canada
Summer Games, Doherty (2009) identified
task overload and personal inconvenience as
the two major costs affecting volunteers’
plans for future volunteering.
By explaining that individuals enter into
relationships with other individuals or insti-
tutions where they believe they can receive
valued benefits (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959),
social exchange theory is applied to examining
event volunteers’ experiences with the event to
predict their behavioral intentions (Doherty,
2009). With its grounding in social exchange
theory, PC, defined by Rousseau (1995) as
the informal reciprocal agreement of a work
environment from the individual’s perspective,
is a concept useful for explaining the relation-
ship between an individual and an organiz-
ation. Many scholars applied PC theory to
exploring volunteers’ motivation, perform-
ance, perceived support, satisfaction, and be-
havioral intention because it provides a
valuable framework for examining the work
environment and understanding volunteers’
contributions (Accadia & Walker, 2009;
Farmer & Fedor, 1997; Harman & Doherty,
2011; Starnes, 2007).
Liao-Troth (2005) presented two interesting
studies using a PC approach and found that
agreeableness and emotional stability were
related to the relational PC. Moreover,
career motive and the personality factor of
conscientiousness were related to transac-
tional PCs. Meanwhile, he cautioned that it
would be a mistake to discount the effects of
motivation on the formation of PC and
suggested that motives might affect the con-
tents of the PC that the volunteer forms
(Liao-Troth, 2005). The study of Ralston,
Downward, and Lumsdon (2004) on the
2002 Commonwealth Games volunteers
found that volunteers expected professional
management. They also concluded that it
was important to understand the PC as being
based largely on trust at the initial stages of
involvement, but that this had to be validated
in the early contacts. Using qualitative
research, Nichols and Ojala (2009) provided
a revealing, juxtaposing analysis of both vol-
unteer and event manager perspectives
toward the sports event and advised event
managers to adopt a different management
practices for volunteers on the one hand and
paid staff on the other.
Given the importance of explaining the cog-
nitive and social processes of volunteers’ beha-
viors for special event management, this study
attempts to identify the relationships between
volunteer motives, PC, satisfaction, and be-
havioral intention. Based on the findings of
previous research, it is reasonable to assume
that the terms of the PC specify what volun-
teers expect to give and receive in their
relationships with the organization (Arnold,
1996), such as training and development
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opportunities or trust, respect, and loyalty (De
Meuse, Bergmann, & Lester, 2001). Freese
and Schalk (2008) suggested three methods
for evaluating PCs: a future-oriented approach
which compares contracts to expected attri-
butes or dimensions such as quid pro quo
exchanges, a content-oriented approach
which examines specific elements of the PC,
and an evaluation-oriented approach which
assesses the fulfillment or breach of the PC.
This study adopts the evaluation-oriented
approach to measure volunteers’ evaluation
of event management practices.
Volunteer Satisfaction and SustainedVolunteerism
Many studies investigating the motivations,
determinants, and experiences of individuals
participating in various types of volunteering
have tested the causal link which proceeds
from VMs and experiences on to satisfaction
and SV. However, it is recognized that the
VS and future commitment to volunteer are
generally associated with the type of volunteer
activities, type of motivations, management
practices, and specific demographics.
Researchers examining sources of satisfaction
have reported a variety of factors that influ-
ence volunteers’ level of satisfaction (Allen &
Shaw, 2009), such as communication quality,
organizational support, participation efficacy,
empowerment, and group integration encom-
passed in the Volunteer Satisfaction Index
(Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001), i.e. operat-
ing conditions, coworkers, nature of work,
communication, supervision, and contingent
rewards (Silverberg, Marshall, & Ellis, 2001).
The study by Houle, Sagarin, and Kaplan
(2005, p. 343) found that different tasks
satisfy individuals’ motivations differently.
By comparing the demographic makeup of
volunteers and their motives for participating
in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games and the
2000 Sydney Olympic Games, Kemp (2002)
concluded that internal factors seem to be
important for avoiding dissatisfaction among
the mega event volunteers, but are not suffi-
cient to explain satisfaction; it is crucial to
increase satisfaction by emphasizing the
uniqueness of the event: the external context
of being a part of the Olympic celebratory
atmosphere. Costa et al. (2006) considered
the role of training in event volunteers’ satis-
faction and found a significant linkage. John-
ston, Twynam, and Farrell (1999) found that
satisfaction experienced by event volunteers
for a major youth organization was related
to organizational attributes. Analyzing both
cause indicators and effects indicators on VS
in the park and recreation settings, Silverberg,
Ellis, Whitworth, and Kane (2002) revealed
that the nature of work, the extent to which
psychological functions are met, as well as
the quality of supervision, all serve to influence
satisfaction which, in turn, influences volun-
teer retention. Applying Holbrook’s value
typology to measuring VS and loyalty behav-
ior in a religious event, Gallarza, Arteaga,
Floristan, and Gil (2009) confirmed a relation-
ship among overall perceived value, satisfac-
tion, and loyalty and recommended that
destination managers and event planners
emphasize the values in volunteering in order
to increase satisfaction and behavioral
intention.
It is clear from the above review of the lit-
erature that VMs and satisfaction are driven
by a complex set of factors and relationships
that can be psychological, contextual, or
organizational. Therefore, the study of volun-
teers involved in special events must concen-
trate on examining volunteering at mega
events as a distinct group (Johnston et al.,
1999).
Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events 5
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Student Volunteerism
Student volunteers play a major role in special
events, civil services, and non-profit organiz-
ations. Due to the relatively higher overall
quality of personnel and the flexibility in man-
agement, using college volunteers as the main
source to provide services to visitors in mega
events has been an international common
practice. However, student volunteers have
largely been overlooked in prior research and
while there has been no progressive stream of
research building the knowledge base, particu-
larly with a contextual perspective (Wilson,
2000), a few studies have explored the motiv-
ations of youth student volunteers.
Gidron (1978) performed an analysis of
volunteer work and rewards by comparing
three samples of different age groups and
found that student volunteers under the age
of 24 valued their volunteer work as a learn-
ing experience. Gaining volunteer experience
as marketable assets for career opportunities
is emphasized to high school students
(Beale, 1984). Phillips and Phillips (2000,
p. 574) went even further to suggest that
student volunteer experience should target
employer-identified desirable job skills. A
cross-cultural study by Handy and colleagues
in 2010 surveyed undergraduate volunteers
from 12 countries and analyzed the relation-
ship of country difference in valuing volun-
teerism and volunteer participation. It
concluded that high student volunteer partici-
pation was found in countries which value
volunteerism more positively. It also found
that students with career motives in mind
did not volunteer more than students who
had other motives and they also exhibited a
lower intensity of volunteering. Liao-Troth
(2005, p. 522) examined the formation of
volunteers’ PC using volunteer motives and
personality factors from a sample of college
student volunteers involved in community
and school activities. He found that, out of
the six functional motives outlined by Clary
et al. (1998), only the career motive had a
positive effect on the formation of PC by
student volunteers.
Very few empirical studies have investigated
student volunteers’ motivation and experience
with special events. Using the 1994 Lilleham-
mer Winter Olympics as a case study, Elstad
(1997) reported that student volunteers rated
networking and making friends as the most
satisfying experience. In a qualitative study
of student motivation to volunteer at the Edin-
burgh International Magic Festival, Barron
and Rihova (2011) provided evidence of a uti-
litarian factor as the main impetus behind
student volunteerism since the students were
highly motivated by job-related benefits and
professional skill development.
It can be concluded that students are pri-
marily motivated to volunteer in events by
career and enhancement factors. For instance,
in the same study on volunteers participating
in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games and the
2000 Sydney Olympic Games, Kemp (2002)
found that learning is the most important for
younger student volunteers after comparing
these younger student volunteers (16–25
years) with the older volunteers group (45
years and over), which is consistent with the
findings by Williams, Dossa, and Tompkins
(1995). Positive experience with professional
development and opportunity to network
could affect the level of VS which will in turn
influence student volunteers’ future commit-
ment to volunteering. The determination of
the predictive power of student volunteers’
satisfaction and behavioral intention will
have significant implications for volunteer
management and SV.
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Derived Hypotheses for Testing
The theoretical framework implies several testa-
ble predictions about the attributes of student
VMs, volunteer PC, VS, and SV. This study
thus focuses on four specific predictions related
to these four constructs. The first hypothesis
tests the direct effect of VMs on VS. In analyzing
VM factors, we follow the conceptual frame-
work of Penner (2002) to define volunteer
motivational factors by identifying general
motivational factors and volunteer-related
motivational factors. The general factors in
this study include personal belief and value, pro-
social personality, and social pressure. Volun-
teer-related motivations refer to individuals’
love of the event, in this case, love of Expo,
career opportunities, and interpersonal develop-
ment. These six motivational factors, such as
personal belief, prosocial personality, interper-
sonal development, career opportunity, love of
Expo, and social pressure, are therefore struc-
tured into an unobserved, exogenous construct
called VMs. A direct path is proposed, leading
from VMs to satisfaction. We therefore set
forth the first hypothesis as follows:
Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship
between volunteer motivations and volunteer satis-
faction.
A few previous studies attempted to test
whether there is any direct link between VM
and volunteer perceived PC (Accadia &
Walker, 2009; Liao-Troth, 2005). As discussed
in the literature review, Liao-Troth (2005) did
not find any direct effect caused by motivations
upon the formation of PC using a sample of fire-
fighters, but did find that career motive has a
direct effect on PC formation by student volun-
teers. However, the study of Accadia and
Walker (2009) found that there was no direct
effect between PC breach and career motive.
In our study, since the 2010 Shanghai Expo
was a highly structured mega event, we posit
that students’ VMs will affect how they per-
ceive Expo management practices framed as a
PC and that such a perceived PC will in turn
influence their level of satisfaction with their
volunteer experience. Therefore, we propose
to test PC as a mediator between VMs and
VS. Thus our second hypothesis is proposed as:
Hypothesis 2: There is a positive relationship
between volunteer motivations and volunteer per-
ceived fulfillment of psychological contract.
In addition to VMs, research has shown that
volunteers’ experience with management prac-
tices and organizational attributes is also
linked to VS and SV (Accadia & Walker,
2009; Penner, 2002). The way volunteers are
treated or managed has an effect on their be-
havioral intention and constitutes the PC
between the volunteer and the event sponsor
organization. Two main areas of management
practice are critical for generating the positive
volunteering experience, which will eventually
lead to satisfaction and behavioral intention:
pre-event training and on-site management
practices. The role of training for event volun-
teers has been identified as having a positive
effect on building a strong sense of volunteer
community and enhancing volunteer commit-
ment to the host organization and sub-
sequently leading to satisfaction (Costa et al.,
2006; Cuskelly et al., 2006). Volunteers’
experiences with management practices
include various aspects of event operations,
such as providing a considerate working and
resting environment, work hours, appropriate
scheduling, effective supervision, timely feed-
back, and positive recognition (Cuskelly
et al., 2006; Ralston et al., 2004). If the man-
agement practices are perceived negatively by
the volunteers, they could claim a PC breach
Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events 7
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on the part of the host organization and such a
negative experience would affect satisfaction
and behavioral intention (Starnes, 2007). We
propose the following hypothesis, which will
test the relationship between volunteers’ per-
ceived fulfillment of PC and VS:
Hypothesis 3: There is a positive relationship
between volunteers’ perceived fulfillment of psycho-
logical contract and volunteer satisfaction.
Previous involvement in volunteer activities is an
important determinant of future volunteering
(Hall, Lasby, Gumulka, & Tryon, 2006). The
positive causal link between VS and SV has
been reported by prior studies in various fields
of volunteerism (Morrison & Robinson, 1997;
Starnes, 2007). Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen
(1991, p. 281) concluded that “people will con-
tinue to volunteer as long as the experience as a
whole is rewarding and satisfying to their
unique needs”. Volunteer satisfaction as an ante-
cedent of behavioral intention to volunteer has
supported loyalty or commitment in the study
of volunteers for sporting and cultural events
(Doherty, 2009; Gallarza et al., 2009; Pauline,
2011). It is concluded that highly satisfied
student volunteers are likely to participate in
volunteering fordifferent eventshostedby differ-
ent organizations and they are also likely to share
positive experiences of the 2010 Shanghai World
Expo with classmates and friends. Therefore,
our final hypothesis is stated as follows:
Hypothesis 4: Volunteer satisfaction is positively
related to sustained volunteerism.
Methods
The Venue – The 2010 Shanghai WorldExpo
The 2010 Shanghai World Expo was a specta-
cle of nations and special events focusing on a
sustainability theme Better City and Better
Life and it attracted a record World Expo
attendance of 73.08 million. An estimated
two million volunteers contributed to the
success of the first comprehensive World
Expo ever held in China by volunteering
varying periods of time in the 2010 Shanghai
World Expo (Bureau of Shanghai World
Expo Coordination, 2010). Of the estimated
two million Expo volunteers, the majority
were urban civilian volunteers primarily pro-
viding services in the neighborhoods in which
they live. Of these, 130,000 volunteers
staffed the service stations in 18 districts and
counties of Shanghai during the event.
A total of 79,965 college student volunteers
in 13 regiments were dispatched to work at the
Expo site, contributing an estimated 10
million total work hours in 1.29 million
shifts. Each shift was scheduled for 6.5–7
hours with an estimated average of 405
minutes per shift. It was reported that volun-
teers inside the Expo Park served on average
518 visitors per shift, thus providing services
to 460 million persons during the 2010 Shang-
hai World Expo (Bureau of Shanghai World
Expo Coordination, 2010). Of the 79,965
college student volunteers, 78,495 (98.16%)
were from the colleges in Shanghai, 1,266
came from colleges in other Chinese cities,
and 204 came from overseas colleges.
Survey Instrument
We followed Churchill’s (1979) recommen-
dations for designing a reliable and valid
survey instrument for empirical research.
After an intensive review of the literature in
English, multi-item measures for the four con-
structs, namely VMs, PC, satisfaction, and SV,
were selected for this study. The variables
were all tested in multiple studies in either
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non-event, general volunteer activities or
special event volunteer activities. Some vari-
ables were then modified to fit the mega
event of the World Expo and the Chinese
social and cultural context for this study.
The instrument was first written in English
and consisted of two parts: the multi-items
for measuring the four constructs as well as
demographic information. All rating assess-
ments were measured on a seven-point Likert
scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (7).
This study followed a cross-cultural adap-
tion process for translating and back-translat-
ing the instrument to ensure semantic
consistency and minimize possible construct
or item bias (Chen, Chiou, & Chen, 2008).
The English version of the instrument was
first forward-translated into Chinese by two
bilingual faculty members knowledgeable
about event tourism and volunteer studies.
This first version of the Chinese questionnaire
was then presented to a panel of three
Chinese faculty members teaching in the event
management program and supervising
student volunteers at the Expo for review and
comments related to both linguistic and cul-
tural contexts. The recommendations by this
panel were included in the second revised
Chinese version, which was then pilot tested
by a team of five student volunteers (three
female and two male students; two had com-
peted volunteer service, one was still volunteer-
ing, and two were scheduled to serve soon) for
understandability and cultural relevance. The
students raised questions on the clarity of
some survey items and provided suggestions
for modifying the instrument. Finally, we fol-
lowed the recommended technique by Brislin
(1980) to perform back-translation to detect
any item bias and the final revision of a few dis-
crepancies of semantic consistency was made.
Data
Since 98% of the Expo site volunteers came
from local universities, the sample frame
included student volunteers enrolled in the
universities and colleges in Shanghai. We con-
tacted the Expo Volunteer Work Stations of
six colleges (each station was responsible for
Expo volunteer management of each unit/
college), which included five 4-year univer-
sities and one 3-year professional college
with different enrollments, to request assist-
ance with the survey after the Expo ended on
31 October 2010. All agreed to assist with
this survey.
The survey questionnaire was first distribu-
ted via each school’s Expo Volunteer Work
Station and a total of 900 questionnaires
were distributed by the six colleges, with
numbers varying between 100 and 200 per
school depending on the proportion of Expo
site volunteers from each school. The student
volunteers were encouraged to participate
and return the completed survey through an
email invitation by each Expo Volunteer
Work Station. A total of 631 surveys were col-
lected by 30 November 2010. After an initial
review of the collected data for missing
values and inconsistent responses, 579 ques-
tionnaires were determined to be complete
and suitable for the analysis, resulting in a
response rate of 64%.
The respondents in this study were 23%
male and 77% female, which is in line with
the gender distribution ratio in different vol-
unteer activities reported in several previous
studies (Gibelman & Sweifach, 2008; Gillath
et al., 2005; Handy et al., 2010; Penner & Fin-
kelstein, 1998). Of the 579 respondents, 20%
were freshmen and sophomores under the age
of 20, while the majority was between the ages
of 20 and 29 (80%). Most of them were four-
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year college students (67%), 24% were from
three-year professional colleges, and the
remaining 9% were graduate students. There
was a wide range of days completed by the vol-
unteers, ranging from 1 to 150 days. Most of
them volunteered for 14 days (52%), 19%
committed 16 days, and 11% contributed to
seven-day volunteer service. The average
length of volunteer service was reported at
14.3 days, with a standard deviation (SD) of
4.6 days.
Data Analysis
We followed the recommendations of the two-
step procedures for data analysis: assess the
reliability and validity of the measures before
they are tested in the structural equation
model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The
first procedure was to analyze the measure-
ment model, using confirmatory factor analy-
sis, while the second was to perform an
evaluation of the structural relationships
among latent constructs, using structural
equation modeling. A confirmatory factor
analysis was first performed to identify how
strongly each item is associated with the
hypothesized factor. Table 1 gives the mean,
SD, factor loading (FL), and t value of each
item measured in the survey. As reported in
Table 1, the observed variables and their
underlying latent constructs have shown sig-
nificant relationships, supporting the conver-
gent validity of the measures since all FLs are
significant at p , .001.
The next step is to test the structural
relationships among the above factors. Based
on the conceptual model modified from
Penner’s theoretical framework (2002), we
first tested the model by constructing the
seven motive factors into a new construct
called VMs. The initial test revealed a weak
estimate for this new construct (the good-
ness-of-fit index ¼ 0.899, the Tucker-Lewis
index ¼ 0.908, the comparative fit index ¼
0.926, and the root-mean-square error of
approximation ¼ 0.072). After reviewing the
seven motive factors, we noted that the beta
value for extrinsic rewards factor was 0.53,
while the beta values of the other six factors
were above 0.74. To determine the reason
why this factor did not play a significant role
in students’ motivation to volunteer, we
assembled a small group of student volunteers
to discuss this issue and also reviewed the
Expo Site Volunteer Handbook for possible
answers. The focus group discussion and the
review of the Handbook revealed that these
motivations and behaviors were discouraged
by the Bureau of the Shanghai World Expo
Coordination, Shanghai Volunteer Associ-
ation, and the Expo Volunteer Work Station
of each respective college. Therefore, we
decided to drop the extrinsic rewards factor
from the VM construct. The revised testing
showed improved estimates for this construct
(the goodness-of-fit index ¼ 0.928, the
Tucker-Lewis index ¼ 0.935, the comparative
fit index ¼ 0.944, and the root-mean-square
error of approximation ¼ 0.065).
To test the two main hypotheses that VMs
and PC are predictors of SV, we used PC as a
mediator for developing the structural
relationships in the model. Organizational
support was previously modeled as a mediator
between PC and satisfaction by Accadia and
Walker (2009). The PC construct includes
variables measuring event volunteer training
and organizational management practice.
Figure 1 shows the results of the model
testing the relationships between VMs, PC,
and satisfaction and then between satisfaction
and SV.
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Table 1 Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Constructs Measure Mean SD FL t
Construct 1 Volunteer motivations
Factor 1: Personal belief
PB1 Volunteering makes me feel good about myself 5.40 1.59 0.64 15.27
PB2 It makes me feel valued and respected 5.89 1.28 0.85 20.61
PB3 It enhances my self-esteem 5.49 1.47 0.81 NA
Factor 2: Prosocial personality
PP1 I want to give something back to the community 6.07 1.16 0.86 21.84
PP2 I am compassionate toward people in need 6.20 1.11 0.80 NA
PP3 Volunteering is a commitment as a citizen 5.97 1.23 0.74 17.80
Factor 3: Social pressure
SP1 My peers (classmates and friends) are volunteering 5.34 1.51 0.71 15.91
SP2 Most people in my community volunteer 4.98 1.65 0.74 NA
SP3 The society expects me to volunteer 5.51 1.49 0.83 17.11
Factor 4: Career opportunity
CO1 Opportunity to make job contacts 5.38 1.51 0.73 18.37
CO2 Gain work experience which might lead to jobs 5.93 1.24 0.86 NA
CO3 It is good on my resume for future employment 5.61 1.40 0.82 22.40
Factor 5: Interpersonal development
ID1 Broaden my horizon 6.24 1.15 0.76 16.74
ID2 Meet new people to make new friends 6.00 1.22 0.78 18.12
ID3 Learn new skills 5.60 1.39 0.75 NA
Factor 6: Love of Expo
LE1 The Shanghai Expo is very close to my heart 6.22 1.20 0.78 15.78
LE2 I have special interest in the Shanghai Expo 5.92 1.26 0.81 20.39
LE3 I want to be associated with the Shanghai Expo 6.11 1.18 0.81 NA
(Continued)
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Table 1 Continued
Constructs Measure Mean SD FL t
Factor 7: Extrinsic rewards
EA1 Opportunity to collect Expo souvenirs 4.83 1.76 0.71 15.66
EA2 Opportunity for free admission to the Expo 4.47 1.95 0.87 16.63
EA3 Gain quick access for friends/relatives for visiting popular pavilionsa 3.93 2.17 0.75 NA
Construct 2 Psychological contract
PC1 Training program was effective 5.20 1.57 0.82 17.56
PC2 Considerate work and rest environment 5.48 1.44 0.72 20.36
PC3 Work assignment is appropriate 5.36 1.46 0.80 NA
PC4 Timely feedback from supervisors about how we perform our job 5.58 1.34 0.85 28.01
PC5 Continuous support and recognition 5.31 1.54 0.78 19.37
PC6 Effective supervision 5.55 1.31 0.81 20.35
Construct 3 Volunteer satisfaction
VS1 Volunteering at the Expo is a rewarding experience 6.54 1.05 0.79 NA
VS2 I am glad I took part in the Expo volunteer program 6.57 0.99 0.84 35.51
VS3 On the whole, I am satisfied with the program 6.09 1.28 0.79 20.27
VS4 I will share my volunteer experience with others 6,24 1.16 0.87 23.32
Construct 4 Sustained volunteerism
SV1 I now intend to volunteer for a wider range of activities/organizations than before the
Expo
6.16 1.09 0.89 NA
SV2 The Expo experience has made me more inclined to offer my services as a volunteer 5.96 1.22 0.85 25.89
SV3 I am willing to volunteer for any other type of event 5.86 1.39 0.62 16.36
Notes: Since the parameters are fixed at 1.0 for the maximum-likelihood estimation, t values were not generated for those fixed at 1 for identification reasons. Allfactor loadings are significant at p , .001.aThe most popular pavilions at the Expo required a wait time of more than five or six hours.
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Results
Analysis of Reliability and Validity
Table 2 reports the testing of reliability and val-
idity of the constructs in the model. As given in
Table 2, the composite reliability (CR)
measured by the alpha coefficients ranged
from 0.83 to 0.93, all above the recommended
cut-off point of 0.70 by Nunnally (1978). Each
construct demonstrated an acceptable level of
reliability for the model. The convergent val-
idity was analyzed by calculating the average
variance extracted (AVE). As given in Table
2, the convergent reliability was supported
since all AVE were above the recommended
level of 0.5 by Fornell and Larcker (1981).
Fornell and Larcker (1981) also rec-
ommended assessing the measuring scales’ dis-
criminate validity by comparing the square
root of AVE and the correlations shared
between the constructs in the model. If the
square root of AVE is greater than the shared
correlations between the constructs, the dis-
criminate validity scales are therefore deemed
acceptable. Table 2 compares the square root
of AVE (in italics) with the correlations
among the constructs. The comparison
shows that all the square roots of AVE are
greater than the inter-construct correlations.
The construct validity of scales is therefore
acceptable for this analysis.
Goodness-of-Fit of Structural EquationModel
The structural model tests the assumed linear,
causal relationships among the constructs with
data collected from student volunteers at the
2010 Shanghai World Expo. For a measure-
ment model to have sufficient good model fit,
it is recommended to review several good-
ness-of-fit indexes for assessing the overall fit
of the proposed model, which includes the
comparative fit index (Bentler, 1990), the
goodness-of-fit index (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2007), the Tucker-Lewis index (Bentler &
Bonett, 1980), the incremental fit index
(Bollen, 1990), and the root-mean-square
error of approximation. The cut-off values
for a good model fit using the comparative fit
index and the Tucker-Lewis index are rec-
ommended to be 0.95 or above (Bentler &
Bonett, 1980; Hu & Bentler, 1999). The cut-
off point for the goodness-of-fit index has
been traditionally set for 0.90 or 0.95 if FLs
and sample sizes are low (Miles & Shevlin,
1998). For the root-mean-square error of
approximation, values of 0.05 or less indicate
a well-fitting model (Browne & Cudeck, 1993;
Hu & Bentler, 1999).
The test reveals that the Chi-square was sig-
nificant (x2 ¼ 959.69, df ¼ 380, p , .001).
Since a large sample size increases the Chi-
square value that is likely to be significant,
researchers often rely on non-x2 measures of
fit to determine the model fit. In this case, we
sought an alternative index by using x2/df to
assess the model fit. As suggested by Kline
(2005), a x2/df ratio of less than 3 indicates a
well-fitting model; thus, the x2/df of 2.53 for
this model is within the acceptance of fit
measure. The structural model demonstrates
an acceptable model fit considering the
sample size used for this study. Model values
of the comparative fit index greater than
0.90 and the root-mean-square error of
approximation below 0.07 are considered to
be acceptable model fitting values when asses-
sing models using samples of more than 200
(Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998;
Steiger, 2007). Therefore, the structural
equation model provided an acceptable fit to
the data collected from student volunteers
who served at the 2010 Shanghai World
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Expo on the fit indices: the goodness-of-fit
index ¼ 0.90, the comparative fit index ¼
0.949, the Tucker-Lewis index ¼ 0.942, the
incremental fit index ¼ 0.949, and the root-
mean-square error of approximation ¼ 0.051
with 90% confidence interval of 0.047–0.055.
Hypothesis Testing
As shown in Figure 1, the dimension of VMs
positively affects VS (ß ¼ 0.57, t ¼ 9.12, p ,
.001) and also has a positive effect on PC (ß
¼ 0.71, t ¼ 13.12, p , .001). The PC dimen-
sion is positively related to VS (ß ¼ 0.23, t ¼
4.25, p , .001). Furthermore, satisfaction is
a strong antecedent of behavioral intention
(ß ¼ 0.76, t ¼ 15.71, p , .001). Clearly, all
proposed hypotheses have been accepted in
this study. The structural model also shows
the explanatory power of the test since the
R2 values show that VMs and PC dimensions
account for 56% of variance in satisfaction
Figure 1 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of Research Model.
Note: ∗∗∗ p , .001 and � Significant route.
Table 2 Means, SD, Correlations, CR and AVE
VM PC VS SV
VM 0.79
PC 0.71 0.80
VS 0.73 0.63 0.83
SV 0.64 0.55 0.76 0.79
Mean 5.76 5.41 6.36 6.00
SD 0.90 1.23 0.99 1.06
CR (a) 0.93 0.90 0.91 0.83
AVE 0.62 0.64 0.68 0.63
Notes: Diagonal elements (in italic) are the square root of the AVE. Off-diagonal elements are the correlations among thefour constructs.
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and that satisfaction explains 58% of the var-
iance in SV.
Discussions and Applications
The use of volunteers for special events is an
integral part of destination management.
Studies of volunteerism in sporting events
have investigated various motivations, organ-
izational attributes and their effect on satisfac-
tion, and behavioral intention (Bang & Ross,
2009; Farrell et al., 1998). However, research
on volunteerism in the World Expo has been
long neglected. Due to its long operating dur-
ation of six months and the need for a large
number of volunteers, the World Expo organi-
zers faced a greater challenge to recruit,
organize, motivate, and manage the volun-
teers. This study fills the lacuna in World
Expo volunteer research by examining
student volunteers’ satisfaction with the 2010
Shanghai World Expo and testing a concep-
tual model of predicting SV using motivation
and PC as predictors. The theoretical and
practical implications are discussed in the fol-
lowing sections.
Theoretical Implications
The main purpose of this research is to deter-
mine the predictors of SV for special events
by investigating college student volunteers’
motives and perceived PCs. Adopting a multi-
dimensional concept of volunteer motives and
PC, this study simultaneously investigates the
antecedents of student VS with the 2010
Shanghai World Expo and their behavioral
intention for volunteerism.
The result supports several earlier research
findings that VM is positively related to VS
(Barron & Rihova, 2011; Johnston et al.,
1999; Pauline, 2011). In further examining
the dimensionality of VMs, six out of the
seven motivational factors, such as interperso-
nal development, prosocial personality, career
opportunity, love of Expo, personal belief, and
social pressure, are all identified as influencing
motivational determinants for volunteering at
the 2010 Shanghai World Expo. However, our
study reveals that extrinsic rewards are not a
motivating factor for students to volunteer at
the Expo and, in fact, have a negative effect
on satisfaction. In addition, our post-Expo
interview with student volunteers found that
they were asked by the Expo management
and universities not to seek extrinsic rewards
during their volunteer service.
The strong positive effect of motivations on
the perceived PC sheds new light on the
relationship between these two constructs. As
previously mentioned, Liao-Troth (2005)
failed to find any direct motivational effect
on the formation of PC using a sample of fire-
fighters. But he did find that career motive was
related to the transactional aspect of the PC
formation using a sample of student volun-
teers. This study provides a new empirical evi-
dence that PC could be influenced by
motivations as individuals seek different
experiences in a structured and managed
mega event to fulfill their expectations.
The study of PC plays a purposeful role in
understanding volunteers’ contributions
(Farmer & Fedor, 1997). In this study, the PC
dimension measures student volunteers’
experience with the Expo management practice
as perceived by how they were treated by the
Expo management. The findings show that
student volunteers’ positive experience was
the result of a positive PC fulfillment in which
the Expo management provided effective train-
ing and management. Furthermore, positively
perceived PC between the volunteers and the
Expo management resulted in positive VS.
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One of the salient contributions of this study
is to model simultaneously the dimensions of
VMs and PC on satisfaction and SV. This
model enables us to examine the complex
causes of volunteerism and behavioral inten-
tions by analyzing the relationships and inter-
actions among motives and organizational
management practices perceived by the volun-
teers as PC. As Penner (2002, p. 260) argued,
“it would be unwise to talk about the impact
of motives on volunteerism independently of
their relationship with other correlates of this
behavior”. Though our study found that
motivation is more positively related to satis-
faction than to PC, both dimensions are
highly correlated (r ¼ 0.71). Therefore, desti-
nation event organizers need to consider both
dimensions for recruiting, training, supervis-
ing, and retaining volunteers.
The strong predictive effect of satisfaction
on SV demonstrates students’ behavioral
intention for future volunteerism. Since the
World Expo is a non-recurring mega event,
their satisfaction with the 2010 Shanghai
World Expo volunteering experience furthered
their belief in the values of volunteerism for a
wide range of volunteering activities with
different organizations.
Implications for Practice
There are practical implications which can be
drawn from this study on student volunteer-
ism. As destination managers recruit college
students to be volunteers, they should first
take into account the various factors that
motivate students to volunteer and then
design management practices that fit the
characteristics of the college students. Our
study provides new support from a different
cultural context to previous studies that
student volunteers are motivated by interper-
sonal development and the search for career
opportunities (Barron & Rihova, 2011;
Finkelstein, 2008; Handy et al., 2010; Liao-
Troth, 2005). Furthermore, individual stu-
dents’ interest in or love for a particular
event is another major factor motivating vol-
unteer participation (Bang & Ross, 2009;
Monga, 2006). These three motives can be
categorized as “volunteer-related motives”, a
term used by Penner (2002). This gives desti-
nation managers some direction in terms of
how to stimulate student motivation to volun-
teer and how to recruit students for various
types of special events. It is also important to
note that certain motivational factors may
vary in different cultural or organizational
contexts. For instance, extrinsic rewards are
not identified as a major motivation to volun-
teer by the Chinese student volunteers
working for a highly organized and govern-
ment-dominated mega event. But it was
found to be a major motivating factor in
other special event contexts (Bang & Ross,
2009; Monga, 2006).
Our study found that the PC between the
student volunteers and the Expo organizer
embodied in management practices had a
direct effect on VS and SV. An effective train-
ing program that provides clear guidance
and expectations helps volunteers define and
understand their roles, responsibilities, and
relationships with management, professional
paid staff, fellow volunteers, and tourists. Fur-
thermore, management practices are a key
component of the PC between the volunteers
and management because the volunteers
want to be treated fairly in return for their
commitment. They appreciate a considerate
work and rest environment (particularly for
outdoor events in extreme climate), appropri-
ate work assignments, and a thoughtful work-
load. Moreover, students prefer to work in
organizations with effective supervision and
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they expect support and recognition. Destina-
tion managers therefore need to provide a
balanced PC that will fulfill the expectations
and experience of the volunteers who will
commit to SV.
Research Limitations and Future ResearchDirections
Several limitations are noted in this study.
First, the sample includes student volunteers
who participated in different periods of the
six-month World Expo in Shanghai, from
May to October in 2010. During this six-
month period, some students volunteered at
the Expo when the spring and fall semesters
were in session, while others participated
during the summer vacation. Furthermore,
the six-month period was also characterized
by seasonal variations from late spring to
summer and fall. Therefore, academic and cli-
matic factors (especially working in the hot
summer in Shanghai) may have had certain
effects on student VMs and satisfaction.
Second, the model tested in this research did
not consider personality traits or dispositional
influence on VS and SV. These individual attri-
butes may have a predictive effect on the satis-
faction and behavioral intention. Third,
though this study identified prosocial beliefs
and behaviors of student volunteers, the find-
ings may not be generalized to explain proso-
cial values and behaviors of other population
segments or of professionals due to the homo-
geneous nature of the college student sample.
Finally, as Farrell et al. (1998) suggested, we
recognize that whether students are willing
to continue volunteering could be affected by
the types of events they experienced, such as
volunteering for high-profile mega events
versus low-profile mundane community ser-
vices. Therefore, future research is needed for
understanding if the types of events would
influence the degree of SV. Perhaps one of
the future research avenues in SV is to
conduct a follow-up study on the prosocial
behaviors of the students a few years after
the Shanghai World Expo to determine if
they had actually volunteered for any other
events.
Being valued as a prosocial behavior in con-
temporary societies, volunteerism is found in
all social, cultural, economic, and political
realms and draws research interest from scho-
lars in many different disciplines. A recent
study provides an excellent overview of mul-
tiple theoretical and conceptual modeling of
volunteerism approached from the perspec-
tives of economics, sociology, psychology,
and political science. As such, the authors
noted the difficulty of defining volunteering
due to the multiple disciplinary approaches,
each of which attaches different meaning
and functions to the volunteering phenom-
enon (Hustinx, Cnaan, & Handy, 2010,
p. 429). It could be concluded that multiple
disciplines and multiple methods, especially
cross-cultural examination, should be
applied to the future research on volunteering
in tourism.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the
research support by the Oriental Scholar
Program of Shanghai Education Commission
and Shanghai Normal University.
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