Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events: Motivation and Psychological Contract as Predictors of...

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Managing Student Volunteers for MegaEvents: Motivation and PsychologicalContract as Predictors of SustainedVolunteerismChunlei Wanga & Larry Yub

a School of Tourism Management, Shanghai Normal University, 100 GuilinRoad, Xuhui District, Shanghai 200234, People's Republic of Chinab School of Business, The George Washington University, 2201 G Street NW,Washington, DC 20052, USAPublished online: 19 Feb 2014.

To cite this article: Chunlei Wang & Larry Yu , Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research (2014): ManagingStudent Volunteers for Mega Events: Motivation and Psychological Contract as Predictors of SustainedVolunteerism, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, DOI: 10.1080/10941665.2014.889027

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Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events:Motivation and Psychological Contract as Predictors

of Sustained Volunteerism

Chunlei Wang1 and Larry Yu2∗1School of Tourism Management, Shanghai Normal University, 100 Guilin Road, Xuhui

District, Shanghai 200234, People’s Republic of China2School of Business, The George Washington University, 2201 G Street NW, Washington, DC

20052, USA

Tourism destinations often leverage special events to promote tourism. However, specialevent organizers are confronted with the challenge of effectively managing volunteers toachieve high satisfaction and sustained volunteerism (SV). This study analyzes therelationships between volunteer motives, psychological contract (PC), satisfaction, andbehavioral intention. It accomplishes this aim by examining student volunteers’ satisfac-tion with the 2010 Shanghai World Expo and testing a conceptual model of SV usingmotivation and PC as predictors. Based on a sample of 579 college student volunteersin Shanghai, this study simultaneously investigates the antecedents of student satisfactionwith the World Expo and their behavioral intention to volunteer for other special events.Practical implications and future research directions of event volunteerism managementare fully discussed.

Key words: volunteer motivations, psychological contract, volunteer satisfaction,sustained volunteerism, 2010 Shanghai World Expo

Introduction

Tourism destinations often leverage special

events to promote tourism business for econ-

omic development and special events of

various types are increasingly seen as unique

tourist attractions and destination image

makers. The special event and festival activi-

ties in the tourism sector rely heavily on volun-

teers because a large number of individuals are

often necessary for creating and delivering

various types of services to the attendees at

the event. The financial contributions made

by the work carried out by volunteers at

Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2014http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2014.889027

∗Email: [email protected]

# 2014 Asia Pacific Tourism Association

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mailto:[email protected]

sporting events were estimated as a significant

labor cost savings to the sponsoring organiz-

ations (Solberg, 2003).

However, special event organizers are often

confronted with the challenges of recruiting,

training, managing, and retaining volunteers

for sustained volunteerism (SV) (Elstad, 2003;

Pauline, 2011). Furthermore, the nature of

commitment at non-recurring mega events

such as the Olympic Games and World Cup,

which occur during a relatively short period

of time, means that mega event volunteers

might demonstrate motivations and behaviors

which are different from those associated

with other types of volunteering (Baum &

Lockstone, 2007). For example, it is reported

that motivations possessed by special event vol-

unteers are different from those of other volun-

teers. This is because special event volunteers

usually find certain distinct dimensions impor-

tant due to their commitment and attachment

to the activity (Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam,

1998). A study examining volunteering in

relation to events therefore calls for a multiple

disciplinary approach to examine and explain

this prosocial phenomenon at the intersection

of the tourism business and society.

Prior studies on volunteering for special

events have typically followed two streams of

investigations: modeling volunteer motivations

(VMs) and examining the causal effect

between motivations and volunteer satisfaction

(VS). Few studies have attempted to examine

other dimensions of VS and the relationship

with SV, particularly involving volunteer man-

agement practices at a non-recurring mega

event such as the World Expo. Two notable

exceptions include the Volunteer Satisfaction

Index by Galindo-Kuhn and Guzley (2001)

and a human resource management approach

to VS and retention by Cuskelly, Taylor,

Hoye, and Darcy (2006). Both of these studies

attempted to measure VS and behavioral inten-

tion by analyzing sporting event sponsor man-

agement practices, leaving out the motivation

dimension. Furthermore, most prior studies

focused on motives and behaviors of a mature,

non-student population, leaving an empirical

void in examining student volunteering at

mega events.

In addition, the scope and complexity of

managing the World Expo have presented

great challenges to the Expo organizers in

effectively managing a great number of volun-

teers. The reason for this is the significant

differences between the World Expo and

other mega international sporting events oper-

ations, such as longer operation time of six

months, spatial concentration of pavilions

with crowded attendance, and running daily

special events and education forums.

Therefore, the operations of the World Expo

raise a unique set of requirements for recruiting,

organizing, and managingvolunteers.However,

no research has thus far been conducted on

student VM, experience, and satisfaction with

the World Expo. This study attempts to fill this

research gap by testing volunteers’ motivations

and their experience with Expo management

practices as predictors of SV. This multidimen-

sional model is examined in the context of the

2010 Shanghai World Expo, a non-recurring

megaevent staffedmainly by student volunteers.

The findings of this studywill contribute toevent

tourism research by employing a multidimen-

sional concept of SV and will provide practical

implications for effectively managing student

volunteers serving event tourists.

Literature Review

Volunteer Motivations

Research on why individuals volunteer at

special events has been carried out in different

2 Chunlei Wang and Larry Yu

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types of sporting venues. With regard to the

motives of sporting event volunteers, Farrell

et al. (1998) identified four categories of

motives by surveying volunteers at the Cana-

dian Women’s Curling Championship: purpo-

sive, solidary, external traditions, and

commitments. Using local residents in Sydney

as informants, Wang (2004) found five major

categories of VMs for sporting events: altruis-

tic value, personal development, community

concern, ego enhancement, and social adjust-

ment. A survey of 698 registered volunteers

prior to the XV Commonwealth Games in

Manchester, UK, revealed seven motivational

factors: community, personal development,

business opportunities, volunteer traditions,

esteem, egoistic, and positive experiences

(Downward & Ralston, 2005). VMs for the

Athens 2004 Olympic Games were investi-

gated to construct the Olympic Volunteer

Motivation Scale, which includes Olympic-

related, egoistic and purposive subscales

(Giannoulakis, Wang, & Gray, 2008).

Bang and Chelladurai (2003) identified six

volunteer motivational factors at the 2002

FIFA World Cup, which were classified as

the Volunteer Motivations Scale for Inter-

national Sporting Events: expression of

values, patriotism, interpersonal contacts, per-

sonal growth, career orientation, and extrinsic

rewards. However, this research seems to have

missed other factors motivating an individual

to volunteer for sporting events, such as indi-

viduals’ interest in or passion for a particular

type of sport. After modifying Bang and Chel-

ladurai’s (2003) Volunteer Motivations Scale

for International Sporting Events, Bang and

Ross (2009) refined the VMs into seven

factors: expression of values, community

involvement, interpersonal contacts, career

orientation, personal growth, extrinsic

rewards, and love of sport. These seven moti-

vational factors support previous literature

focusing on sport volunteer management and

are recognized as an extension of the seminal

work by Clary and his colleagues in 1998

and the study by Farrell et al. in 1998.

Comparing the scope and output of VM

studies in relation to sporting events, empirical

research into VM regarding non-sporting

events and festivals has been scant. One com-

prehensive study surveyed volunteers in five

special event organizations in South Australia

to measure their motivations for volunteering

at special events and festivals (Monga,

2006). Modifying traditional VM models,

Monga (2006, p. 58) identified five motiva-

tional factors for special events and festivals:

affiliatory, which refers to volunteers’ interest

for special events and their contributions to

the success of the events; fulfilling experience,

which includes a mix of values and enhance-

ment factors by Clary et al. (1998); solidary

factor, which expresses the social dimension

of relationships, family tradition in volunteer-

ing, and social pressure for volunteering;

opportunity for career development; and

expectation of personal rewards, which

include free access to events and an opportu-

nity for collecting souvenirs. This study ident-

ified two motivational factors that are specific

to special events and festivals: affiliatory and

personal rewards, with affiliatory measured

as the most significant motivating factor

among the five factors. This finding also sup-

ports the two motivational factors identified

by Bang and Ross (2009): love of sport and

extrinsic rewards in a sporting event.

Volunteers’ Perceived PsychologicalContract

The relationship between VM and satisfaction

is a focus of research aimed at developing an

understanding of determinants, factors, and

Managing Student Volunteers for Mega Events 3

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relationships influencing event volunteers’ per-

formance and retention (Bang & Ross, 2009;

Cuskelly, Hoyle, & Auld, 2006; Farrell et al.,

1998; Reeser, Berg, Rhea, & Willick, 2005).

However, studies analyzing the relationship

between VM and satisfaction have been criti-

cized for missing the cognitive and social pro-

cesses underlying the complex factors and

relationships among motivation, performance,

satisfaction, and behavioral intention (Costa,

Chalip, Green, & Simes, 2006). For example,

Penner (2002) argued that volunteerism,

incorporating both intention to begin and

intention to remain, is likely to be influenced

by two major organizational variables: the

organization’s reputation and personnel prac-

tice and the individuals’ psychological con-

tracts (PCs), particularly in relation to the

individual’s perceptions and feelings about

how they are treated by the sponsor organiz-

ation. Based on a post-event survey of 1,098

volunteers involved with the 2001 Canada

Summer Games, Doherty (2009) identified

task overload and personal inconvenience as

the two major costs affecting volunteers’

plans for future volunteering.

By explaining that individuals enter into

relationships with other individuals or insti-

tutions where they believe they can receive

valued benefits (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959),

social exchange theory is applied to examining

event volunteers’ experiences with the event to

predict their behavioral intentions (Doherty,

2009). With its grounding in social exchange

theory, PC, defined by Rousseau (1995) as

the informal reciprocal agreement of a work

environment from the individual’s perspective,

is a concept useful for explaining the relation-

ship between an individual and an organiz-

ation. Many scholars applied PC theory to

exploring volunteers’ motivation, perform-

ance, perceived support, satisfaction, and be-

havioral intention because it provides a

valuable framework for examining the work

environment and understanding volunteers’

contributions (Accadia & Walker, 2009;

Farmer & Fedor, 1997; Harman & Doherty,

2011; Starnes, 2007).

Liao-Troth (2005) presented two interesting

studies using a PC approach and found that

agreeableness and emotional stability were

related to the relational PC. Moreover,

career motive and the personality factor of

conscientiousness were related to transac-

tional PCs. Meanwhile, he cautioned that it

would be a mistake to discount the effects of

motivation on the formation of PC and

suggested that motives might affect the con-

tents of the PC that the volunteer forms

(Liao-Troth, 2005). The study of Ralston,

Downward, and Lumsdon (2004) on the

2002 Commonwealth Games volunteers

found that volunteers expected professional

management. They also concluded that it

was important to understand the PC as being

based largely on trust at the initial stages of

involvement, but that this had to be validated

in the early contacts. Using qualitative

research, Nichols and Ojala (2009) provided

a revealing, juxtaposing analysis of both vol-

unteer and event manager perspectives

toward the sports event and advised event

managers to adopt a different management

practices for volunteers on the one hand and

paid staff on the other.

Given the importance of explaining the cog-

nitive and social processes of volunteers’ beha-

viors for special event management, this study

attempts to identify the relationships between

volunteer motives, PC, satisfaction, and be-

havioral intention. Based on the findings of

previous research, it is reasonable to assume

that the terms of the PC specify what volun-

teers expect to give and receive in their

relationships with the organization (Arnold,

1996), such as training and development


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opportunities or trust, respect, and loyalty (De

Meuse, Bergmann, & Lester, 2001). Freese

and Schalk (2008) suggested three methods

for evaluating PCs: a future-oriented approach

which compares contracts to expected attri-

butes or dimensions such as quid pro quo

exchanges, a content-oriented approach

which examines specific elements of the PC,

and an evaluation-oriented approach which

assesses the fulfillment or breach of the PC.

This study adopts the evaluation-oriented

approach to measure volunteers’ evaluation

of event management practices.

Volunteer Satisfaction and SustainedVolunteerism

Many studies investigating the motivations,

determinants, and experiences of individuals

participating in various types of volunteering

have tested the causal link which proceeds

from VMs and experiences on to satisfaction

and SV. However, it is recognized that the

VS and future commitment to volunteer are

generally associated with the type of volunteer

activities, type of motivations, management

practices, and specific demographics.

Researchers examining sources of satisfaction

have reported a variety of factors that influ-

ence volunteers’ level of satisfaction (Allen &

Shaw, 2009), such as communication quality,

organizational support, participation efficacy,

empowerment, and group integration encom-

passed in the Volunteer Satisfaction Index

(Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001), i.e. operat-

ing conditions, coworkers, nature of work,

communication, supervision, and contingent

rewards (Silverberg, Marshall, & Ellis, 2001).

The study by Houle, Sagarin, and Kaplan

(2005, p. 343) found that different tasks

satisfy individuals’ motivations differently.

By comparing the demographic makeup of

volunteers and their motives for participating

in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games and the

2000 Sydney Olympic Games, Kemp (2002)

concluded that internal factors seem to be

important for avoiding dissatisfaction among

the mega event volunteers, but are not suffi-

cient to explain satisfaction; it is crucial to

increase satisfaction by emphasizing the

uniqueness of the event: the external context

of being a part of the Olympic celebratory

atmosphere. Costa et al. (2006) considered

the role of training in event volunteers’ satis-

faction and found a significant linkage. John-

ston, Twynam, and Farrell (1999) found that

satisfaction experienced by event volunteers

for a major youth organization was related

to organizational attributes. Analyzing both

cause indicators and effects indicators on VS

in the park and recreation settings, Silverberg,

Ellis, Whitworth, and Kane (2002) revealed

that the nature of work, the extent to which

psychological functions are met, as well as

the quality of supervision, all serve to influence

satisfaction which, in turn, influences volun-

teer retention. Applying Holbrook’s value

typology to measuring VS and loyalty behav-

ior in a religious event, Gallarza, Arteaga,

Floristan, and Gil (2009) confirmed a relation-

ship among overall perceived value, satisfac-

tion, and loyalty and recommended that

destination managers and event planners

emphasize the values in volunteering in order

to increase satisfaction and behavioral

intention.

It is clear from the above review of the lit-

erature that VMs and satisfaction are driven

by a complex set of factors and relationships

that can be psychological, contextual, or

organizational. Therefore, the study of volun-

teers involved in special events must concen-

trate on examining volunteering at mega

events as a distinct group (Johnston et al.,

1999).


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Student Volunteerism

Student volunteers play a major role in special

events, civil services, and non-profit organiz-

ations. Due to the relatively higher overall

quality of personnel and the flexibility in man-

agement, using college volunteers as the main

source to provide services to visitors in mega

events has been an international common

practice. However, student volunteers have

largely been overlooked in prior research and

while there has been no progressive stream of

research building the knowledge base, particu-

larly with a contextual perspective (Wilson,

2000), a few studies have explored the motiv-

ations of youth student volunteers.

Gidron (1978) performed an analysis of

volunteer work and rewards by comparing

three samples of different age groups and

found that student volunteers under the age

of 24 valued their volunteer work as a learn-

ing experience. Gaining volunteer experience

as marketable assets for career opportunities

is emphasized to high school students

(Beale, 1984). Phillips and Phillips (2000,

p. 574) went even further to suggest that

student volunteer experience should target

employer-identified desirable job skills. A

cross-cultural study by Handy and colleagues

in 2010 surveyed undergraduate volunteers

from 12 countries and analyzed the relation-

ship of country difference in valuing volun-

teerism and volunteer participation. It

concluded that high student volunteer partici-

pation was found in countries which value

volunteerism more positively. It also found

that students with career motives in mind

did not volunteer more than students who

had other motives and they also exhibited a

lower intensity of volunteering. Liao-Troth

(2005, p. 522) examined the formation of

volunteers’ PC using volunteer motives and

personality factors from a sample of college

student volunteers involved in community

and school activities. He found that, out of

the six functional motives outlined by Clary

et al. (1998), only the career motive had a

positive effect on the formation of PC by

student volunteers.

Very few empirical studies have investigated

student volunteers’ motivation and experience

with special events. Using the 1994 Lilleham-

mer Winter Olympics as a case study, Elstad

(1997) reported that student volunteers rated

networking and making friends as the most

satisfying experience. In a qualitative study

of student motivation to volunteer at the Edin-

burgh International Magic Festival, Barron

and Rihova (2011) provided evidence of a uti-

litarian factor as the main impetus behind

student volunteerism since the students were

highly motivated by job-related benefits and

professional skill development.

It can be concluded that students are pri-

marily motivated to volunteer in events by

career and enhancement factors. For instance,

in the same study on volunteers participating

in the 1994 Winter Olympic Games and the

2000 Sydney Olympic Games, Kemp (2002)

found that learning is the most important for

younger student volunteers after comparing

these younger student volunteers (16–25

years) with the older volunteers group (45

years and over), which is consistent with the

findings by Williams, Dossa, and Tompkins

(1995). Positive experience with professional

development and opportunity to network

could affect the level of VS which will in turn

influence student volunteers’ future commit-

ment to volunteering. The determination of

the predictive power of student volunteers’

satisfaction and behavioral intention will

have significant implications for volunteer

management and SV.


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Derived Hypotheses for Testing

The theoretical framework implies several testa-

ble predictions about the attributes of student

VMs, volunteer PC, VS, and SV. This study

thus focuses on four specific predictions related

to these four constructs. The first hypothesis

tests the direct effect of VMs on VS. In analyzing

VM factors, we follow the conceptual frame-

work of Penner (2002) to define volunteer

motivational factors by identifying general

motivational factors and volunteer-related

motivational factors. The general factors in

this study include personal belief and value, pro-

social personality, and social pressure. Volun-

teer-related motivations refer to individuals’

love of the event, in this case, love of Expo,

career opportunities, and interpersonal develop-

ment. These six motivational factors, such as

personal belief, prosocial personality, interper-

sonal development, career opportunity, love of

Expo, and social pressure, are therefore struc-

tured into an unobserved, exogenous construct

called VMs. A direct path is proposed, leading

from VMs to satisfaction. We therefore set

forth the first hypothesis as follows:

Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship

between volunteer motivations and volunteer satis-

faction.

A few previous studies attempted to test

whether there is any direct link between VM

and volunteer perceived PC (Accadia &

Walker, 2009; Liao-Troth, 2005). As discussed

in the literature review, Liao-Troth (2005) did

not find any direct effect caused by motivations

upon the formation of PC using a sample of fire-

fighters, but did find that career motive has a

direct effect on PC formation by student volun-

teers. However, the study of Accadia and

Walker (2009) found that there was no direct

effect between PC breach and career motive.

In our study, since the 2010 Shanghai Expo

was a highly structured mega event, we posit

that students’ VMs will affect how they per-

ceive Expo management practices framed as a

PC and that such a perceived PC will in turn

influence their level of satisfaction with their

volunteer experience. Therefore, we propose

to test PC as a mediator between VMs and

VS. Thus our second hypothesis is proposed as:


between volunteer motivations and volunteer per-

ceived fulfillment of psychological contract.

In addition to VMs, research has shown that

volunteers’ experience with management prac-

tices and organizational attributes is also

linked to VS and SV (Accadia & Walker,

2009; Penner, 2002). The way volunteers are

treated or managed has an effect on their be-

havioral intention and constitutes the PC

between the volunteer and the event sponsor

organization. Two main areas of management

practice are critical for generating the positive

volunteering experience, which will eventually

lead to satisfaction and behavioral intention:

pre-event training and on-site management

practices. The role of training for event volun-

teers has been identified as having a positive

effect on building a strong sense of volunteer

community and enhancing volunteer commit-

ment to the host organization and sub-

sequently leading to satisfaction (Costa et al.,

2006; Cuskelly et al., 2006). Volunteers’

experiences with management practices

include various aspects of event operations,

such as providing a considerate working and

resting environment, work hours, appropriate

scheduling, effective supervision, timely feed-

back, and positive recognition (Cuskelly

et al., 2006; Ralston et al., 2004). If the man-

agement practices are perceived negatively by

the volunteers, they could claim a PC breach


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on the part of the host organization and such a

negative experience would affect satisfaction

and behavioral intention (Starnes, 2007). We

propose the following hypothesis, which will

test the relationship between volunteers’ per-

ceived fulfillment of PC and VS:


between volunteers’ perceived fulfillment of psycho-

logical contract and volunteer satisfaction.

Previous involvement in volunteer activities is an

important determinant of future volunteering

(Hall, Lasby, Gumulka, & Tryon, 2006). The

positive causal link between VS and SV has

been reported by prior studies in various fields

of volunteerism (Morrison & Robinson, 1997;

Starnes, 2007). Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen

(1991, p. 281) concluded that “people will con-

tinue to volunteer as long as the experience as a

whole is rewarding and satisfying to their

unique needs”. Volunteer satisfaction as an ante-

cedent of behavioral intention to volunteer has

supported loyalty or commitment in the study

of volunteers for sporting and cultural events

(Doherty, 2009; Gallarza et al., 2009; Pauline,

2011). It is concluded that highly satisfied

student volunteers are likely to participate in

volunteering fordifferent eventshostedby differ-

ent organizations and they are also likely to share

positive experiences of the 2010 Shanghai World

Expo with classmates and friends. Therefore,

our final hypothesis is stated as follows:

Hypothesis 4: Volunteer satisfaction is positively

related to sustained volunteerism.

Methods

The Venue – The 2010 Shanghai WorldExpo

The 2010 Shanghai World Expo was a specta-

cle of nations and special events focusing on a

sustainability theme Better City and Better

Life and it attracted a record World Expo

attendance of 73.08 million. An estimated

two million volunteers contributed to the

success of the first comprehensive World

Expo ever held in China by volunteering

varying periods of time in the 2010 Shanghai

World Expo (Bureau of Shanghai World

Expo Coordination, 2010). Of the estimated

two million Expo volunteers, the majority

were urban civilian volunteers primarily pro-

viding services in the neighborhoods in which

they live. Of these, 130,000 volunteers

staffed the service stations in 18 districts and

counties of Shanghai during the event.

A total of 79,965 college student volunteers

in 13 regiments were dispatched to work at the

Expo site, contributing an estimated 10

million total work hours in 1.29 million

shifts. Each shift was scheduled for 6.5–7

hours with an estimated average of 405

minutes per shift. It was reported that volun-

teers inside the Expo Park served on average

518 visitors per shift, thus providing services

to 460 million persons during the 2010 Shang-

hai World Expo (Bureau of Shanghai World

Expo Coordination, 2010). Of the 79,965

college student volunteers, 78,495 (98.16%)

were from the colleges in Shanghai, 1,266

came from colleges in other Chinese cities,

and 204 came from overseas colleges.

Survey Instrument

We followed Churchill’s (1979) recommen-

dations for designing a reliable and valid

survey instrument for empirical research.

After an intensive review of the literature in

English, multi-item measures for the four con-

structs, namely VMs, PC, satisfaction, and SV,

were selected for this study. The variables

were all tested in multiple studies in either


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non-event, general volunteer activities or

special event volunteer activities. Some vari-

ables were then modified to fit the mega

event of the World Expo and the Chinese

social and cultural context for this study.

The instrument was first written in English

and consisted of two parts: the multi-items

for measuring the four constructs as well as

demographic information. All rating assess-

ments were measured on a seven-point Likert

scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to

strongly agree (7).

This study followed a cross-cultural adap-

tion process for translating and back-translat-

ing the instrument to ensure semantic

consistency and minimize possible construct

or item bias (Chen, Chiou, & Chen, 2008).

The English version of the instrument was

first forward-translated into Chinese by two

bilingual faculty members knowledgeable

about event tourism and volunteer studies.

This first version of the Chinese questionnaire

was then presented to a panel of three

Chinese faculty members teaching in the event

management program and supervising

student volunteers at the Expo for review and

comments related to both linguistic and cul-

tural contexts. The recommendations by this

panel were included in the second revised

Chinese version, which was then pilot tested

by a team of five student volunteers (three

female and two male students; two had com-

peted volunteer service, one was still volunteer-

ing, and two were scheduled to serve soon) for

understandability and cultural relevance. The

students raised questions on the clarity of

some survey items and provided suggestions

for modifying the instrument. Finally, we fol-

lowed the recommended technique by Brislin

(1980) to perform back-translation to detect

any item bias and the final revision of a few dis-

crepancies of semantic consistency was made.

Data

Since 98% of the Expo site volunteers came

from local universities, the sample frame

included student volunteers enrolled in the

universities and colleges in Shanghai. We con-

tacted the Expo Volunteer Work Stations of

six colleges (each station was responsible for

Expo volunteer management of each unit/

college), which included five 4-year univer-

sities and one 3-year professional college

with different enrollments, to request assist-

ance with the survey after the Expo ended on

31 October 2010. All agreed to assist with

this survey.

The survey questionnaire was first distribu-

ted via each school’s Expo Volunteer Work

Station and a total of 900 questionnaires

were distributed by the six colleges, with

numbers varying between 100 and 200 per

school depending on the proportion of Expo

site volunteers from each school. The student

volunteers were encouraged to participate

and return the completed survey through an

email invitation by each Expo Volunteer

Work Station. A total of 631 surveys were col-

lected by 30 November 2010. After an initial

review of the collected data for missing

values and inconsistent responses, 579 ques-

tionnaires were determined to be complete

and suitable for the analysis, resulting in a

response rate of 64%.

The respondents in this study were 23%

male and 77% female, which is in line with

the gender distribution ratio in different vol-

unteer activities reported in several previous

studies (Gibelman & Sweifach, 2008; Gillath

et al., 2005; Handy et al., 2010; Penner & Fin-

kelstein, 1998). Of the 579 respondents, 20%

were freshmen and sophomores under the age

of 20, while the majority was between the ages

of 20 and 29 (80%). Most of them were four-


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year college students (67%), 24% were from

three-year professional colleges, and the

remaining 9% were graduate students. There

was a wide range of days completed by the vol-

unteers, ranging from 1 to 150 days. Most of

them volunteered for 14 days (52%), 19%

committed 16 days, and 11% contributed to

seven-day volunteer service. The average

length of volunteer service was reported at

14.3 days, with a standard deviation (SD) of

4.6 days.

Data Analysis

We followed the recommendations of the two-

step procedures for data analysis: assess the

reliability and validity of the measures before

they are tested in the structural equation

model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The

first procedure was to analyze the measure-

ment model, using confirmatory factor analy-

sis, while the second was to perform an

evaluation of the structural relationships

among latent constructs, using structural

equation modeling. A confirmatory factor

analysis was first performed to identify how

strongly each item is associated with the

hypothesized factor. Table 1 gives the mean,

SD, factor loading (FL), and t value of each

item measured in the survey. As reported in

Table 1, the observed variables and their

underlying latent constructs have shown sig-

nificant relationships, supporting the conver-

gent validity of the measures since all FLs are

significant at p , .001.

The next step is to test the structural

relationships among the above factors. Based

on the conceptual model modified from

Penner’s theoretical framework (2002), we

first tested the model by constructing the

seven motive factors into a new construct

called VMs. The initial test revealed a weak

estimate for this new construct (the good-

ness-of-fit index ¼ 0.899, the Tucker-Lewis

index ¼ 0.908, the comparative fit index ¼

0.926, and the root-mean-square error of

approximation ¼ 0.072). After reviewing the

seven motive factors, we noted that the beta

value for extrinsic rewards factor was 0.53,

while the beta values of the other six factors

were above 0.74. To determine the reason

why this factor did not play a significant role

in students’ motivation to volunteer, we

assembled a small group of student volunteers

to discuss this issue and also reviewed the

Expo Site Volunteer Handbook for possible

answers. The focus group discussion and the

review of the Handbook revealed that these

motivations and behaviors were discouraged

by the Bureau of the Shanghai World Expo

Coordination, Shanghai Volunteer Associ-

ation, and the Expo Volunteer Work Station

of each respective college. Therefore, we

decided to drop the extrinsic rewards factor

from the VM construct. The revised testing

showed improved estimates for this construct

(the goodness-of-fit index ¼ 0.928, the

Tucker-Lewis index ¼ 0.935, the comparative

fit index ¼ 0.944, and the root-mean-square

error of approximation ¼ 0.065).

To test the two main hypotheses that VMs

and PC are predictors of SV, we used PC as a

mediator for developing the structural

relationships in the model. Organizational

support was previously modeled as a mediator

between PC and satisfaction by Accadia and

Walker (2009). The PC construct includes

variables measuring event volunteer training

and organizational management practice.

Figure 1 shows the results of the model

testing the relationships between VMs, PC,

and satisfaction and then between satisfaction

and SV.


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Table 1 Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Constructs Measure Mean SD FL t

Construct 1 Volunteer motivations

Factor 1: Personal belief

PB1 Volunteering makes me feel good about myself 5.40 1.59 0.64 15.27

PB2 It makes me feel valued and respected 5.89 1.28 0.85 20.61

PB3 It enhances my self-esteem 5.49 1.47 0.81 NA

Factor 2: Prosocial personality

PP1 I want to give something back to the community 6.07 1.16 0.86 21.84

PP2 I am compassionate toward people in need 6.20 1.11 0.80 NA

PP3 Volunteering is a commitment as a citizen 5.97 1.23 0.74 17.80

Factor 3: Social pressure

SP1 My peers (classmates and friends) are volunteering 5.34 1.51 0.71 15.91

SP2 Most people in my community volunteer 4.98 1.65 0.74 NA

SP3 The society expects me to volunteer 5.51 1.49 0.83 17.11

Factor 4: Career opportunity

CO1 Opportunity to make job contacts 5.38 1.51 0.73 18.37

CO2 Gain work experience which might lead to jobs 5.93 1.24 0.86 NA

CO3 It is good on my resume for future employment 5.61 1.40 0.82 22.40

Factor 5: Interpersonal development

ID1 Broaden my horizon 6.24 1.15 0.76 16.74

ID2 Meet new people to make new friends 6.00 1.22 0.78 18.12

ID3 Learn new skills 5.60 1.39 0.75 NA

Factor 6: Love of Expo

LE1 The Shanghai Expo is very close to my heart 6.22 1.20 0.78 15.78

LE2 I have special interest in the Shanghai Expo 5.92 1.26 0.81 20.39

LE3 I want to be associated with the Shanghai Expo 6.11 1.18 0.81 NA

(Continued)

Man

aging

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Table 1 Continued

Constructs Measure Mean SD FL t

Factor 7: Extrinsic rewards

EA1 Opportunity to collect Expo souvenirs 4.83 1.76 0.71 15.66

EA2 Opportunity for free admission to the Expo 4.47 1.95 0.87 16.63

EA3 Gain quick access for friends/relatives for visiting popular pavilionsa 3.93 2.17 0.75 NA

Construct 2 Psychological contract

PC1 Training program was effective 5.20 1.57 0.82 17.56

PC2 Considerate work and rest environment 5.48 1.44 0.72 20.36

PC3 Work assignment is appropriate 5.36 1.46 0.80 NA

PC4 Timely feedback from supervisors about how we perform our job 5.58 1.34 0.85 28.01

PC5 Continuous support and recognition 5.31 1.54 0.78 19.37

PC6 Effective supervision 5.55 1.31 0.81 20.35

Construct 3 Volunteer satisfaction

VS1 Volunteering at the Expo is a rewarding experience 6.54 1.05 0.79 NA

VS2 I am glad I took part in the Expo volunteer program 6.57 0.99 0.84 35.51

VS3 On the whole, I am satisfied with the program 6.09 1.28 0.79 20.27

VS4 I will share my volunteer experience with others 6,24 1.16 0.87 23.32

Construct 4 Sustained volunteerism

SV1 I now intend to volunteer for a wider range of activities/organizations than before the

Expo

6.16 1.09 0.89 NA

SV2 The Expo experience has made me more inclined to offer my services as a volunteer 5.96 1.22 0.85 25.89

SV3 I am willing to volunteer for any other type of event 5.86 1.39 0.62 16.36

Notes: Since the parameters are fixed at 1.0 for the maximum-likelihood estimation, t values were not generated for those fixed at 1 for identification reasons. Allfactor loadings are significant at p , .001.aThe most popular pavilions at the Expo required a wait time of more than five or six hours.

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Results

Analysis of Reliability and Validity

Table 2 reports the testing of reliability and val-

idity of the constructs in the model. As given in

Table 2, the composite reliability (CR)

measured by the alpha coefficients ranged

from 0.83 to 0.93, all above the recommended

cut-off point of 0.70 by Nunnally (1978). Each

construct demonstrated an acceptable level of

reliability for the model. The convergent val-

idity was analyzed by calculating the average

variance extracted (AVE). As given in Table

2, the convergent reliability was supported

since all AVE were above the recommended

level of 0.5 by Fornell and Larcker (1981).

Fornell and Larcker (1981) also rec-

ommended assessing the measuring scales’ dis-

criminate validity by comparing the square

root of AVE and the correlations shared

between the constructs in the model. If the

square root of AVE is greater than the shared

correlations between the constructs, the dis-

criminate validity scales are therefore deemed

acceptable. Table 2 compares the square root

of AVE (in italics) with the correlations

among the constructs. The comparison

shows that all the square roots of AVE are

greater than the inter-construct correlations.

The construct validity of scales is therefore

acceptable for this analysis.

Goodness-of-Fit of Structural EquationModel

The structural model tests the assumed linear,

causal relationships among the constructs with

data collected from student volunteers at the

2010 Shanghai World Expo. For a measure-

ment model to have sufficient good model fit,

it is recommended to review several good-

ness-of-fit indexes for assessing the overall fit

of the proposed model, which includes the

comparative fit index (Bentler, 1990), the

goodness-of-fit index (Tabachnick & Fidell,

2007), the Tucker-Lewis index (Bentler &

Bonett, 1980), the incremental fit index

(Bollen, 1990), and the root-mean-square

error of approximation. The cut-off values

for a good model fit using the comparative fit

index and the Tucker-Lewis index are rec-

ommended to be 0.95 or above (Bentler &

Bonett, 1980; Hu & Bentler, 1999). The cut-

off point for the goodness-of-fit index has

been traditionally set for 0.90 or 0.95 if FLs

and sample sizes are low (Miles & Shevlin,

1998). For the root-mean-square error of

approximation, values of 0.05 or less indicate

a well-fitting model (Browne & Cudeck, 1993;

Hu & Bentler, 1999).

The test reveals that the Chi-square was sig-

nificant (x2 ¼ 959.69, df ¼ 380, p , .001).

Since a large sample size increases the Chi-

square value that is likely to be significant,

researchers often rely on non-x2 measures of

fit to determine the model fit. In this case, we

sought an alternative index by using x2/df to

assess the model fit. As suggested by Kline

(2005), a x2/df ratio of less than 3 indicates a

well-fitting model; thus, the x2/df of 2.53 for

this model is within the acceptance of fit

measure. The structural model demonstrates

an acceptable model fit considering the

sample size used for this study. Model values

of the comparative fit index greater than

0.90 and the root-mean-square error of

approximation below 0.07 are considered to

be acceptable model fitting values when asses-

sing models using samples of more than 200

(Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998;

Steiger, 2007). Therefore, the structural

equation model provided an acceptable fit to

the data collected from student volunteers

who served at the 2010 Shanghai World


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Expo on the fit indices: the goodness-of-fit

index ¼ 0.90, the comparative fit index ¼

0.949, the Tucker-Lewis index ¼ 0.942, the

incremental fit index ¼ 0.949, and the root-

mean-square error of approximation ¼ 0.051

with 90% confidence interval of 0.047–0.055.

Hypothesis Testing

As shown in Figure 1, the dimension of VMs

positively affects VS (ß ¼ 0.57, t ¼ 9.12, p ,

.001) and also has a positive effect on PC (ß

¼ 0.71, t ¼ 13.12, p , .001). The PC dimen-

sion is positively related to VS (ß ¼ 0.23, t ¼

4.25, p , .001). Furthermore, satisfaction is

a strong antecedent of behavioral intention

(ß ¼ 0.76, t ¼ 15.71, p , .001). Clearly, all

proposed hypotheses have been accepted in

this study. The structural model also shows

the explanatory power of the test since the

R2 values show that VMs and PC dimensions

account for 56% of variance in satisfaction

Figure 1 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of Research Model.

Note: ∗∗∗ p , .001 and � Significant route.

Table 2 Means, SD, Correlations, CR and AVE

VM PC VS SV

VM 0.79

PC 0.71 0.80

VS 0.73 0.63 0.83

SV 0.64 0.55 0.76 0.79

Mean 5.76 5.41 6.36 6.00

SD 0.90 1.23 0.99 1.06

CR (a) 0.93 0.90 0.91 0.83

AVE 0.62 0.64 0.68 0.63

Notes: Diagonal elements (in italic) are the square root of the AVE. Off-diagonal elements are the correlations among thefour constructs.


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and that satisfaction explains 58% of the var-

iance in SV.

Discussions and Applications

The use of volunteers for special events is an

integral part of destination management.

Studies of volunteerism in sporting events

have investigated various motivations, organ-

izational attributes and their effect on satisfac-

tion, and behavioral intention (Bang & Ross,

2009; Farrell et al., 1998). However, research

on volunteerism in the World Expo has been

long neglected. Due to its long operating dur-

ation of six months and the need for a large

number of volunteers, the World Expo organi-

zers faced a greater challenge to recruit,

organize, motivate, and manage the volun-

teers. This study fills the lacuna in World

Expo volunteer research by examining

student volunteers’ satisfaction with the 2010

Shanghai World Expo and testing a concep-

tual model of predicting SV using motivation

and PC as predictors. The theoretical and

practical implications are discussed in the fol-

lowing sections.

Theoretical Implications

The main purpose of this research is to deter-

mine the predictors of SV for special events

by investigating college student volunteers’

motives and perceived PCs. Adopting a multi-

dimensional concept of volunteer motives and

PC, this study simultaneously investigates the

antecedents of student VS with the 2010

Shanghai World Expo and their behavioral

intention for volunteerism.

The result supports several earlier research

findings that VM is positively related to VS

(Barron & Rihova, 2011; Johnston et al.,

1999; Pauline, 2011). In further examining

the dimensionality of VMs, six out of the

seven motivational factors, such as interperso-

nal development, prosocial personality, career

opportunity, love of Expo, personal belief, and

social pressure, are all identified as influencing

motivational determinants for volunteering at

the 2010 Shanghai World Expo. However, our

study reveals that extrinsic rewards are not a

motivating factor for students to volunteer at

the Expo and, in fact, have a negative effect

on satisfaction. In addition, our post-Expo

interview with student volunteers found that

they were asked by the Expo management

and universities not to seek extrinsic rewards

during their volunteer service.

The strong positive effect of motivations on

the perceived PC sheds new light on the

relationship between these two constructs. As

previously mentioned, Liao-Troth (2005)

failed to find any direct motivational effect

on the formation of PC using a sample of fire-

fighters. But he did find that career motive was

related to the transactional aspect of the PC

formation using a sample of student volun-

teers. This study provides a new empirical evi-

dence that PC could be influenced by

motivations as individuals seek different

experiences in a structured and managed

mega event to fulfill their expectations.

The study of PC plays a purposeful role in

understanding volunteers’ contributions

(Farmer & Fedor, 1997). In this study, the PC

dimension measures student volunteers’

experience with the Expo management practice

as perceived by how they were treated by the

Expo management. The findings show that

student volunteers’ positive experience was

the result of a positive PC fulfillment in which

the Expo management provided effective train-

ing and management. Furthermore, positively

perceived PC between the volunteers and the

Expo management resulted in positive VS.


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One of the salient contributions of this study

is to model simultaneously the dimensions of

VMs and PC on satisfaction and SV. This

model enables us to examine the complex

causes of volunteerism and behavioral inten-

tions by analyzing the relationships and inter-

actions among motives and organizational

management practices perceived by the volun-

teers as PC. As Penner (2002, p. 260) argued,

“it would be unwise to talk about the impact

of motives on volunteerism independently of

their relationship with other correlates of this

behavior”. Though our study found that

motivation is more positively related to satis-

faction than to PC, both dimensions are

highly correlated (r ¼ 0.71). Therefore, desti-

nation event organizers need to consider both

dimensions for recruiting, training, supervis-

ing, and retaining volunteers.

The strong predictive effect of satisfaction

on SV demonstrates students’ behavioral

intention for future volunteerism. Since the

World Expo is a non-recurring mega event,

their satisfaction with the 2010 Shanghai

World Expo volunteering experience furthered

their belief in the values of volunteerism for a

wide range of volunteering activities with

different organizations.

Implications for Practice

There are practical implications which can be

drawn from this study on student volunteer-

ism. As destination managers recruit college

students to be volunteers, they should first

take into account the various factors that

motivate students to volunteer and then

design management practices that fit the

characteristics of the college students. Our

study provides new support from a different

cultural context to previous studies that

student volunteers are motivated by interper-

sonal development and the search for career

opportunities (Barron & Rihova, 2011;

Finkelstein, 2008; Handy et al., 2010; Liao-

Troth, 2005). Furthermore, individual stu-

dents’ interest in or love for a particular

event is another major factor motivating vol-

unteer participation (Bang & Ross, 2009;

Monga, 2006). These three motives can be

categorized as “volunteer-related motives”, a

term used by Penner (2002). This gives desti-

nation managers some direction in terms of

how to stimulate student motivation to volun-

teer and how to recruit students for various

types of special events. It is also important to

note that certain motivational factors may

vary in different cultural or organizational

contexts. For instance, extrinsic rewards are

not identified as a major motivation to volun-

teer by the Chinese student volunteers

working for a highly organized and govern-

ment-dominated mega event. But it was

found to be a major motivating factor in

other special event contexts (Bang & Ross,

2009; Monga, 2006).

Our study found that the PC between the

student volunteers and the Expo organizer

embodied in management practices had a

direct effect on VS and SV. An effective train-

ing program that provides clear guidance

and expectations helps volunteers define and

understand their roles, responsibilities, and

relationships with management, professional

paid staff, fellow volunteers, and tourists. Fur-

thermore, management practices are a key

component of the PC between the volunteers

and management because the volunteers

want to be treated fairly in return for their

commitment. They appreciate a considerate

work and rest environment (particularly for

outdoor events in extreme climate), appropri-

ate work assignments, and a thoughtful work-

load. Moreover, students prefer to work in

organizations with effective supervision and


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they expect support and recognition. Destina-

tion managers therefore need to provide a

balanced PC that will fulfill the expectations

and experience of the volunteers who will

commit to SV.

Research Limitations and Future ResearchDirections

Several limitations are noted in this study.

First, the sample includes student volunteers

who participated in different periods of the

six-month World Expo in Shanghai, from

May to October in 2010. During this six-

month period, some students volunteered at

the Expo when the spring and fall semesters

were in session, while others participated

during the summer vacation. Furthermore,

the six-month period was also characterized

by seasonal variations from late spring to

summer and fall. Therefore, academic and cli-

matic factors (especially working in the hot

summer in Shanghai) may have had certain

effects on student VMs and satisfaction.

Second, the model tested in this research did

not consider personality traits or dispositional

influence on VS and SV. These individual attri-

butes may have a predictive effect on the satis-

faction and behavioral intention. Third,

though this study identified prosocial beliefs

and behaviors of student volunteers, the find-

ings may not be generalized to explain proso-

cial values and behaviors of other population

segments or of professionals due to the homo-

geneous nature of the college student sample.

Finally, as Farrell et al. (1998) suggested, we

recognize that whether students are willing

to continue volunteering could be affected by

the types of events they experienced, such as

volunteering for high-profile mega events

versus low-profile mundane community ser-

vices. Therefore, future research is needed for

understanding if the types of events would

influence the degree of SV. Perhaps one of

the future research avenues in SV is to

conduct a follow-up study on the prosocial

behaviors of the students a few years after

the Shanghai World Expo to determine if

they had actually volunteered for any other

events.

Being valued as a prosocial behavior in con-

temporary societies, volunteerism is found in

all social, cultural, economic, and political

realms and draws research interest from scho-

lars in many different disciplines. A recent

study provides an excellent overview of mul-

tiple theoretical and conceptual modeling of

volunteerism approached from the perspec-

tives of economics, sociology, psychology,

and political science. As such, the authors

noted the difficulty of defining volunteering

due to the multiple disciplinary approaches,

each of which attaches different meaning

and functions to the volunteering phenom-

enon (Hustinx, Cnaan, & Handy, 2010,

p. 429). It could be concluded that multiple

disciplines and multiple methods, especially

cross-cultural examination, should be

applied to the future research on volunteering

in tourism.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge the

research support by the Oriental Scholar

Program of Shanghai Education Commission

and Shanghai Normal University.

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