A PROFFERANCE TO NEW OIL AND GAS NATIONS ON THE IDEALS AND DEMERITS
OF APPROACHES ADOPTED TOWARDS THE CURBING OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISK IN
UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS. AN ANALYSIS OF THE CHINA APPROACH.
CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION...................................................1
2.0 APPROACHES TO MANAGING UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS ENVIROMENTAL RISKS. 2
2.1 THE ECONOMIC ORIENTED STRATEGY...............................2
2.2 CONTROL AND COMMAND STRATEGY.................................3
2.3 SELF/VOLUNTARY REGULATION STRATEGY...........................4
3.0 HOW HAS THESE APPROACHES FARED IN CHINA........................5
4.0 CONCLUSION.....................................................8
5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................8
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Oil plays a vital role in our society today. Oil represents much
more than just one of the main sources of energy used by man. It is
a mixture of different hydro-carbons existing sometimes as liquid
(crude oil) and at other times as vapour (natural gas).1
It has however been asserted that the extraction of these hydro-
carbons is a very hazardous activity with great potential risk to
the general environment.2 It has further been opined that the
impacts of oil and gas exploration and production (E & P) activities
depends on the stage of the process, the size and complexity of the
project, the nature and sensitivity of the environment and the
effect of planning, pollution, prevention, mitigation and control
techniques.3
It is therefore the general opinion of most oil and gas scholars
that the environmental woes of the oil and gas industry occur more
notably during the upstream stages of operation inclusive of water
and land pollution during seismic survey as a result of accidental
spill.4 Air pollution during exploration and appraisal due to
atmospheric emissions as well as soil and water contamination due to
waste disposal. This impacts further go for the production phase and
abandonment.5
1 Energy For Me, ‘Petroleum-Oil and Natural Gas’ 2006-2014 www.energy4me.org/energyfacts/energy-sources/petroleum/ accessed on October3, 20142 Patson W Arinaitwe, ‘Environmental Regulation of Upstream Sector of Oil and Gas Industry’ 2013 Academia.edu www.academia.edu/2573032/Enviromental_Regulation_of_Upstream_Oil_and_Gas_Industry accessed on October 5, 20143 Joint E&P Forum/ UNEC Technical Publications, ‘Environmental Management in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: An Overview of Issues and Management Approaches’1997 4 Zhiquo Geo, Environmental Regulation of the Oil and Gas Industries (Kluwer Law International 1998) 1035 ibid
1
Certain environmental issues observed at this stage include
accidental spills and blow out during the development stage6 and
operational discharge and atmospheric emissions such as the gas
flaring during the production stage.7 Few incidents that can be used
to buttress these include the Piper Alpha offshore explosion of
1988, the Macondo blowout of 2010, the Montara accident of 2009, and
the Niger Delta gas flaring and water pollution in Nigeria among
others8
However despite the potential environmental effects associated with
the oil and gas industry, the sector plays a major role in societal
development, job creation and revenue source to government hence can
be even more viable if proactive environmental approaches are
adopted.9 This work therefore proffers to the government of emerging
nations into the oil play field, a general view to the ideals and
demerits of the approaches adopted by countries such as China to
curbing the environmental risks of upstream activities as well as
analysing how China has fared in this approach.
2.0 APPROACHES TO MANAGING UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS ENVIROMENTAL RISKS
It is notable that chapter 2 of the Brundtland Report of 198710
provides that at a minimum, sustainable development must not
endanger the natural systems that support life on earth: the soils,
6 ibid7 Alexandra S Wawryk, ‘International Environmental Standards in the Oil Industry: Improving the Operations of Transnational Oil Companies in Emerging Economies’ 2012 www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/vol13/article13-3.pdf accessed on October 5, 20148 B Mariano Jacqueline, ‘Environmental Impacts of the Oil Industry’ Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/co8/E6-185-18.pdf accessed on October 7, 20149 ibid10 1987 Brundtland Report: Our Common Future. DAC & Cities updated on January 21,2014 www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/historic-milestones/1987-brundtland-report-our-common-future accessed on October 6 ,2014
2
atmosphere, waters and living beings and that free goods such as air
and water are also resources and that the raw materials which are
converted to useful products during energy of production process.
The remaining is released as waste. According to the report,11
sustainable development therefore includes the mitigation of the
adverse environmental effects of energy production to enhance the
integrity of the ecosystem whilst balancing this with economic
development. The approaches that have been adopted towards the
maintaining of a sound environment during upstream activities of oil
and gas include:
2.1 THE ECONOMIC ORIENTED STRATEGY12
This approach is based on an assumption that an economic loss will
discourage operators on excessive emissions and an incentive will
spur a reduction.13 When a price is placed on pollution either
through the establishment of a cap-and-trade system (setting a
maximum allowable cap on total emissions), the setting up of charges
and levies on undue emissions or the levying of pollution tax,
operators will be forced to make decisions that are anti-pollution
oriented.14 An example of this is the United Kingdom Landfill tax
under the Financial Act of 1996.
In this approach, incentives are made available to the upstream
operators as a reward for incorporating pollution reduction and
control in their production decisions. Policy and commitment alone
cannot provide assurance that environmental performance will meet
industry practise thus the need for an incorporation of these
11 ibid12 W Patson (n2)13 www.yosemite.epa.gov/ee/epa/edd.nsf/pages/economic/incentives.html accessed on October 7, 201414 G Ted and H John, ‘Market Based Approaches to Environmental Regulation, Foundation and Trends in Micro Economics, 2006 http://www.faculty.are.umd.edu/jhorowitz/mic013.pdf accessed on October 7, 2014
3
policies into the formal management activity15 and an address of all
sectors of desired environmental performance.16
Some of the economic mechanisms that have been suggested for the oil
and gas industry include: Performance Bonds,17 Environmental Trust
Funds,18 Environmental Lien19 and Environmental Taxation.20
Certain scholars have however argued that environmental tax does not
create incentive to reduce emissions but only limit purchase of
goods linked with emissions, and does not guarantee a total desire
to cease purchase of this emission prone goods by the operators.21
This approach has further been criticised for its failure to create
adequate motivation for upstream oil and gas players to go beyond
compliance.22
2.2 CONTROL AND COMMAND STRATEGY23
In this approach, the government ‘commands’ pollution reductions
(for instance setting emission standards) and ‘controls’ how such
reductions are achieved. The government can make statutes which set
standards and provide mechanisms towards the enforcement of
sanctions and civil penalties on defaulters.24 This control covers
15 Environmental Principles. EUROPIA/E&P Forum (1991)16 Environmental Guidelines UKOOA (1991)17 A B Rosenfeld et al, ‘Reinvesting the Well: Approaches to Minimising the Environmental and Social Impact of Oil Development in the Tropics’ 1997 Policy Paper Vol 2 Conservation International p5018 ibid19 The US CERCLA20 Rosenfeld (n17) p5121 B Allen & H Winston, ‘The Use of Economic Incentives in Developing Countries: Lessons from International Experience with Industrial Air Pollution’ 1999 Resources for the Future www.rff.org/rff/documents/rff-dp-99-39.pdf accessed on October 9, 201422 A J William & G F Tuurlough, ‘Environmental Self-Regulation and Sustainable Economic Growth: The Seamless Web Framework’ 1999 Journal of Eco management Audit 61-75 www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.10002 accessed on October 10,201423 W Patson (n2)24 Richard B Stewart, ‘United States Environmental Regulation: A Failing Paradigm’ 1996 15J.L & COM 585,587
4
numerous oil wells. In the USA, the essential laws regulating
upstream operators include the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act,25
Clean Water Act,26 and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).27The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ensures the compliance with
set standards.28
Environmental regulations may be situate in variety of national
laws.29 In certain cases, they are included in clauses inserted into
petroleum laws and planning laws, while in others, specific
legislations has been made for issues bothering on pollution, water
and air quality, environmental assessment, environmental health and
safety, etc.30 The regime for granting rights to conduct petroleum
can operations may place certain requirements on an operator with
regards to environmental protection and it is usual that the
consents will be required as the operations develop.31
This strategy has been criticised for creating a friction between
the regulator and the industry as operators are only bound to comply
with prescriptions of statutes and might not see a reason to
wilfully comply.32 According to critics, this approach prevents the
operator’s choice to analyse and adopt the most effective approach
and replaces it with one that places a high administrative cost on
the government.33 This therefore entails that the strategy is
25 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 43 U.S.C.A 133 et seq26 Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C (1972) www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws accessed on October 10, 201427 National Environmental Policy Act 42 U.S.C.A 4321 et seq28 Rebecca M. Bratspies, ‘A Regulatory Wake-Up Call: Lessons from BP’s Deep Water Horizon Disaster’ (2011-2012) 5 Golden Gate U. Envtl.L.J.729 Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)30 ibid31 ibid32 A Bruce & S Richard, ‘Reforming Environmental Law: The Democratic Case for Market Incentives’(1987-1988)13 Column.J.EnvH.L 17133 K E Armstrong & W E Fraizer, ‘Environmental Law for the E & P Industry: AModel for the Future’ (Society of Petroleum Engineers Conference Paper 1996) http://www.onepetro.org/mslib accessed on October 10, 2014
5
expensive to maintain. Scholars have further criticised this
approach on the grounds that the host governments and its agencies
as a regulator might not even possess the necessary technical,
economic and informative strength to supervise these companies or
implement sufficient environmental guidelines that can best regulate
a technically sophisticated industry like the ‘oil and gas’.34 It is
asserted that the environmental policy in the UK is shifting from
this approach to the innovation-oriented environmental governance
arrangement which encourages maximum compliance and innovation.35
2.3 SELF/VOLUNTARY REGULATION STRATEGY36
In this approach, the operator analyses the possible risks involved
in the upstream activities with an aim to managing it.37 Through this
approach, the Health, Safety and Environmental Policies of the
operator is defined and documented along with the company’s
strategic objectives.38 These policies are not only implemented and
maintained but is also be communicated to the company’s employees.39
It then entails that individual companies are increasingly adopting
policies and codes to guide their personnel, contractors and
suppliers.40 This has led to the growth of the Corporate Social
Responsibility among oil companies.41 This approach is categorised
34 Barry Barton et al, Regulating Energy and Natural Resources (2edn OUP 2006) 40835 Shu-Ling & Martin Sexton, ‘New Governance Approaches to Environmental Regulation: An Example of the Code for Sustainable Homes (CHS)’ 2011 In: Egbu C & Lou; E.C.W (Eds) Process 27th Annual ARCOM Conference 1065-1074 www.arcom.ac.uk/-docs/proceedings/ar2011-1065-1074_lu_sexton.pdf accessed on October 14, 201436 Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)37 ibid38 The Oil Industry Experience. Technology Cooperation and Capacity Building. Contribution to Agenda 21. UNEP/IPIECA. London (1995)39 Partnerships for Sustainable Development. The Role of Business and Industry. UNEP/PWBLF/TUFTS University. London (1994)40Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)41 Jedrzej G. Frynas, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility or Government Regulation? Evidence on Oil Spill Prevention’ 2012 Ecology and Society www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art4/ accessed on October 14,2014
6
into a) Unilateral commitments by oil and gas firms; b) Public
voluntary schemes whereby oil and gas firms agree to standards
established by environmental agencies and c) Negotiated agreements
reached as a dialogue between government authorities and industries
and contain a manual to reaching the target.42
The media, public and other social organisations could also
influence the upstream oil and gas companies to comply wilfully with
the most suitable standards of production. In a bid to implement its
commitment to the Kyoto Protocol, Canada has adopted this approach.43
Other important international instruments include: the Montreal
Protocol aimed at the phase out of ozone depleting substances; and
the Basel Convention on Trans frontier movement of hazardous waste.
The international E & P industry has impacted on the principles of
goal setting and self-regulation at the international level by
taking independent action to promote a high level of environmental
performance through the institution of industry guidelines and
business charters44 such as International Chamber of Commerce,45 E & P
Forum,46 etc.
It is believed that for voluntary undertakes like this to be
successful and efficient, they must have a clear and measurable
environmental objective, a statutory base and a substantial
financial objective.47 The efficiency of this approach is therefore
determined by the extent of threat, social cost of fund, as well as
42 P Lyon & John Maxwell, ‘Voluntary Approaches to Environmental Regulation:A Survey’ 1999 SSRN www.papers.ssrn.com/so13/papers.cfm?abstract_id=147888 accessed on October 14, 201443 Barry Barton (n34) p31744 Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)45 Environmental Auditing. International Chamber of Commerce Paris.( June 1989)46 Environmental Principles. EUROPIA/E&P Forum (1991)47 W Junjie & B A Bruce, ‘The Relative Efficiency of Voluntary vs Mandatory Environmental Regulations’ 1999 38 Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 158-175
7
an allocation of bargaining power. It is further understood that
under the self-regulatory approach, the oil companies wilfully
accept strict liability for pollution damage and the cost of
remedial measures.48
An argument has been put up by scholars that the operators possess
high technical, economic and informative strength beyond the
regulator’s capacity49and on this grounds, the industry can
effectively manage their activities than outsiders.50 However a major
draw-back of the Corporate Social Responsibility under this approach
has been the unreliability of self-reported data provided by
companies asserted to be most proactive in self-regulatory
environmental pollution management.51
3.0 HOW HAS THESE APPROACHES FARED IN CHINA
Official environmental protection was first stimulated by the 1972
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) held in
Stockholm, Sweden, upon which the United Nations Environmental
Program (UNEP) was launched.52 Subsequent to this, China began
establishing environmental protection agencies and also sanctioning
controls on some of the environmental wastes.53 As a move towards its
bid to implement a sustainable development strategy, the state
council in 1983 announced environmental protection as one of China’s
national policies.54 This led to the formation of the National
Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) in 1984.55 As a result of the
48 International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (2004)49 Barry Barton (n34)50 ibid51 Jedrzej G. Frynas (n41) 52 Ross Buss, ‘United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE)’, 2007 Encyclopaedia of Earth http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156774 accessed on October 12, 2014 53 T Jennifer & J Kim, ‘China’s Environmental Policy’ in John Feffer(ed),(Foreign Policy in Focus 2007)54 ibid55 www.epa.gov/ogc/china/legal_resources.htm accessed on October 14,2014
8
flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, NEPA was upgraded to
the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)56 and finally in
2008 it became the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the
Peoples Republic of China (MEP).57China has pledged to reduce its
carbon emission intensity namely emissions per unit of GDP, being
40-45% by 2020 compared to its 2005 level.58It further aims to raise
the proportion of non-fossil fuels to about 15% of its total primary
energy consumption.59
Tabular Approaches China Has Undertaken60
Command-and-
controlEconomic oriented
Voluntary
instruments
Public
participation
Concentration-
based pollution
discharge
controls
Pollution levy
fee
Environmental
labelling
system
Clean-up
campaign
Mass-based
controls on total
provincial
Fines on Non-
compliance
ISO 14000
system
Environmental
awareness
56 K Zhang & R Wen, ‘Review on Environmental Policies in China: Evolvement, Features and Evaluation’ 2008 Environ Sci Engin China 2(2): 129-141 www.link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11783-008-0044-6 accessed on October 14, 2014 57 ibid58 World Nuclear News, ‘China’s Climate Plan’ added 22 September 2014 www.world-nuclear-news.org/EE-Chinas-climate-change-plan-2209144.html accessed on October 18,201459 ibid60 K Zhang & W Zong guo, ‘Review and Challenges of Policies of EnvironmentalProtection and Sustainable Development in China’ 2008 Journal of Environmental Management 88:1249-1261 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0301479707002435 accessed on October 15, 2014
9
discharge campaign
Environmental
impact
assessments (EIA)
Discharge permit
system
Cleaner
production
Air pollution
index
Three
synchronization
program
Sulphur emission
feeNGOs
Water quality
disclosure
Deadline
transmission
trading
Environmental
compensation fee
Administrative
permission
hearing
Centralized
pollution control
Subsidies for
energy saving
products
Two compliance
policy
Regulation on
refuse credit to
high-polluting
firms
It is noteworthy that prior to the implementation of these
approaches, environmental pollution has caused severe economic
losses in China thus supporting the assertion that good
environmental policy shows a good economic policy and that the
10
nature of environmental problem shows a poor economic structure.61 In
2005, economic losses (mainly as result of air pollution) was rated
7.7% of China’s GDP.62 This increased to 10.3% in 2002 and the
economic loss from water pollution, 6.1%.63 China has been one of the
most performing countries with regards to GDP growth having one of
9.64% in the past ten years.64
Upon an implementation of the above stated approaches the following
results has been obtained:
a) China’s investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to
$15.6 billion, which accounted for 10% of the global
investment in that area.65
b) In 2008, expenditure towards the protection of the environment
was 1.4% of GDP being 3.4times what it was as of the year
2000.66
c) The emission of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide decreased
by 6.61% and a further 8.95% in 2008 compared to what was
obtainable in 2005.67
d) China’s protected nature reserves has increased to 2,538 in
2010 being a huge gap from the 34 it was in 1978.68
61 J Liu & J Diamond, ‘Revolutionizing China’s Environmental Protection’ Science 31962 K Zhang & W Zong guo (n60)63 ibid64 ibid65 W Chunmei & L Zhaolan, ‘Environmental Policies in China Over the Past TenYears: Progress, Problems and Prospects’ 2010 Society for Environmental Information Sciences 2:1701-1702 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187802961002148 accessed on October 15, 201466 ibid67 ibid68 ibid
11
4.0 CONCLUSION
The truth is that there are other approaches that has been adopted
by various oil producing nations towards environmental protection.
These have worked for nations such as the United States and Russia.
Countries like Romania has adopted the contractual approach by
inserting a separate article on environment, safety and insurance in
their 1996 model production concession agreement.69It has however
been observed as is the case of most of these countries, that one
single approach might not produce a substantial result.
Upon the implementation of the approaches listed by China, some core
viable results has been obtained thus establishing the fact that
whilst each approach mentioned might have a peculiar demerit, an
ability to utilise two or more of it can cover for the demerits
towards establishing not just a better environment but a more
productive economy.
It is therefore my submission to new oil players such as Angola,
Mozambique, Malaysia, etc. to adopt the China approaches to this
effect.
5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEXT BOOKS
Barry Barton et al, Regulating Energy and Natural Resources (2edn
OUP 2006) 408
T Jennifer & J Kim, ‘China’s Environmental Policy’ in John
Feffer(Ed), (Foreign Policy in Focus 2007)
Zhiquo Geo, Environmental Regulation of the Oil and Gas Industries
(Kluwer Law International 1998) 10369 Z Gao, ‘International Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation Agreements: A Comprehensive Environmental Appraisal’ 1994 12 JENRL 249
12
HARD COPY ARTICLES
A B Rosenfeld et al, ‘Reinvesting the Well: Approaches to Minimising
the Environmental and Social Impact of Oil Development in the
Tropics’ 1997 Policy Paper Vol 2 Conservation International p50
A Bruce & S Richard, ‘Reforming Environmental Law: The Democratic
Case for Market Incentives’ (1987-1988)13 Column.J.EnvH.L 171
J Liu & J Diamond, ‘Revolutionizing China’s Environmental
Protection’ Science 319
Joint E&P Forum/ UNEC Technical Publications, ‘Environmental
Management in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: An Overview of
Issues and Management Approaches’1997
Rebecca M. Bratspies, ‘A Regulatory Wake-Up Call: Lessons from BP’s
Deep Water Horizon Disaster’ (2011-2012) 5 Golden Gate U.
Envtl.L.J.7
Richard B Stewart, ‘United States Environmental Regulation: A
Failing Paradigm’ 1996 15J.L & COM 585,587
W Junjie & B A Bruce, ‘The Relative Efficiency of Voluntary vs
Mandatory Environmental Regulations’ 1999 38 Journal of
Environmental Economics and Management 158-175
Z GAO, ‘International Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation
Agreements: A Comprehensive Environmental Appraisal’ 1994 12 JENRL
249
13
ONLINE JOURNAL
A J William & G F Tuurlough, ‘Environmental Self-Regulation and
Sustainable Economic Growth: The Seamless Web Framework’ 1999
Journal of Eco management Audit 61-75
www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.10002 accessed
Alexandra S Wawryk, ‘International Environmental Standards in the
Oil Industry: Improving the Operations of Transnational Oil
Companies in Emerging Economies’ 2012
www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/vol13/article13-3.pdf
B Allen & H Winston, ‘The Use of Economic Incentives in Developing
Countries: Lessons from International Experience with Industrial Air
Pollution’ 1999 Resources for the Future
www.rff.org/rff/documents/rff-dp-99-39.pdf
B Mariano Jacqueline, ‘Environmental Impacts of the Oil Industry’
Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) www.eolss.net/sample-
chapters/co8/E6-185-18.pdf
Energy for Me, ‘Petroleum-Oil and Natural Gas’ 2006-2014
www.energy4me.org/energyfacts/energy-sources/petroleum/
G Ted and H John, ‘Market Based Approaches to Environmental
Regulation, Foundation and Trends in Micro Economics, 2006
http://www.faculty.are.umd.edu/jhorowitz/mic013.pdf
14
Jedrzej G. Frynas, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility or Government
Regulation? Evidence on Oil Spill Prevention’ 2012 Ecology and
Society www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art4/
K E Armstrong & W E Fraizer, ‘Environmental Law for the E & P
Industry: A Model for the Future’ (Society of Petroleum Engineers
Conference Paper 1996) http://www.onepetro.org/mslib
K Zhang & R Wen, ‘Review on Environmental Policies in China:
Evolvement, Features and Evaluation’ 2008 Environ Sci Engin China
2(2): 129-141 www.link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11783-008-
0044-6
K Zhang & W Zong guo, ‘Review and Challenges of Policies of
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in China’ 2008
Journal of Environmental Management 88:1249-1261
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0301479707002435
Patson W Arinaitwe, ‘Environmental Regulation of Upstream Sector of
Oil and Gas Industry’ 2013 Academia.edu
www.academia.edu/2573032/
Enviromental_Regulation_of_Upstream_Oil_and_Gas_Industry
P Lyon & John Maxwell, ‘Voluntary Approaches to Environmental
Regulation: A Survey’ 1999 SSRN www.papers.ssrn.com/so13/papers.cfm?
abstract_id=147888
Shu-Ling & Martin Sexton, ‘New Governance Approaches to
Environmental Regulation: An Example of the Code for Sustainable
15
Homes (CHS)’ 2011 In: Egbu C & Lou; E.C.W (Eds) Process 27th Annual
ARCOM Conference 1065-1074 www.arcom.ac.uk/-docs/proceedings/ar2011-
1065-1074_lu_sexton.pdf
Ross Buss, ‘United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
(UNCHE)’, 2007 Encyclopaedia of Earth
http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156774
W Chunmei & L Zhaolan, ‘Environmental Policies in China over the
Past Ten Years: Progress, Problems and Prospects’ 2010 Society for
Environmental Information Sciences 2:1701-1702
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187802961002148
World Nuclear News, ‘China’s Climate Plan’ added 22 September 2014
www.world-nuclear-news.org/EE-Chinas-climate-change-plan-
2209144.html
1987 Brundtland Report: Our Common Future. DAC & Cities updated on
January 21, 2014
www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/historic-milestones/1987
-brundtland-report-our-common-future
www.yosemite.epa.gov/ee/epa/edd.nsf/pages/economic/incentives.html
STATUTES
Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C (1972) www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws
National Environmental Policy Act 42 U.S.C.A 4321 et seq
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 43 U.S.C.A 133 et seq
16
OTHER SOURCES
Environmental Auditing. International Chamber of Commerce Paris.
(June 1989)
Environmental Guidelines UKOOA (1991)
Environmental Principles. EUROPIA/E&P Forum (1991)
International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (2004)
The Oil Industry Experience. Technology Cooperation and Capacity
Building. Contribution to Agenda 21. UNEP/IPIECA. London (1995)
Partnerships for Sustainable Development. The Role of Business and
Industry. UNEP/PWBLF/TUFTS University. London (1994)
17
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