A PROFFERANCE TO NEW OIL AND GAS NATIONS ON THE IDEALS AND DEMERITS

OF APPROACHES ADOPTED TOWARDS THE CURBING OF ENVIRONMENTAL RISK IN

UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS. AN ANALYSIS OF THE CHINA APPROACH.

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION...................................................1

2.0 APPROACHES TO MANAGING UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS ENVIROMENTAL RISKS. 2

2.1 THE ECONOMIC ORIENTED STRATEGY...............................2

2.2 CONTROL AND COMMAND STRATEGY.................................3

2.3 SELF/VOLUNTARY REGULATION STRATEGY...........................4

3.0 HOW HAS THESE APPROACHES FARED IN CHINA........................5

4.0 CONCLUSION.....................................................8

5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................8

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Oil plays a vital role in our society today. Oil represents much

more than just one of the main sources of energy used by man. It is

a mixture of different hydro-carbons existing sometimes as liquid

(crude oil) and at other times as vapour (natural gas).1

It has however been asserted that the extraction of these hydro-

carbons is a very hazardous activity with great potential risk to

the general environment.2 It has further been opined that the

impacts of oil and gas exploration and production (E & P) activities

depends on the stage of the process, the size and complexity of the

project, the nature and sensitivity of the environment and the

effect of planning, pollution, prevention, mitigation and control

techniques.3

It is therefore the general opinion of most oil and gas scholars

that the environmental woes of the oil and gas industry occur more

notably during the upstream stages of operation inclusive of water

and land pollution during seismic survey as a result of accidental

spill.4 Air pollution during exploration and appraisal due to

atmospheric emissions as well as soil and water contamination due to

waste disposal. This impacts further go for the production phase and

abandonment.5

1 Energy For Me, ‘Petroleum-Oil and Natural Gas’ 2006-2014 www.energy4me.org/energyfacts/energy-sources/petroleum/ accessed on October3, 20142 Patson W Arinaitwe, ‘Environmental Regulation of Upstream Sector of Oil and Gas Industry’ 2013 Academia.edu www.academia.edu/2573032/Enviromental_Regulation_of_Upstream_Oil_and_Gas_Industry accessed on October 5, 20143 Joint E&P Forum/ UNEC Technical Publications, ‘Environmental Management in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: An Overview of Issues and Management Approaches’1997 4 Zhiquo Geo, Environmental Regulation of the Oil and Gas Industries (Kluwer Law International 1998) 1035 ibid

1

Certain environmental issues observed at this stage include

accidental spills and blow out during the development stage6 and

operational discharge and atmospheric emissions such as the gas

flaring during the production stage.7 Few incidents that can be used

to buttress these include the Piper Alpha offshore explosion of

1988, the Macondo blowout of 2010, the Montara accident of 2009, and

the Niger Delta gas flaring and water pollution in Nigeria among

others8

However despite the potential environmental effects associated with

the oil and gas industry, the sector plays a major role in societal

development, job creation and revenue source to government hence can

be even more viable if proactive environmental approaches are

adopted.9 This work therefore proffers to the government of emerging

nations into the oil play field, a general view to the ideals and

demerits of the approaches adopted by countries such as China to

curbing the environmental risks of upstream activities as well as

analysing how China has fared in this approach.

2.0 APPROACHES TO MANAGING UPSTREAM OIL AND GAS ENVIROMENTAL RISKS

It is notable that chapter 2 of the Brundtland Report of 198710

provides that at a minimum, sustainable development must not

endanger the natural systems that support life on earth: the soils,

6 ibid7 Alexandra S Wawryk, ‘International Environmental Standards in the Oil Industry: Improving the Operations of Transnational Oil Companies in Emerging Economies’ 2012 www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/vol13/article13-3.pdf accessed on October 5, 20148 B Mariano Jacqueline, ‘Environmental Impacts of the Oil Industry’ Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/co8/E6-185-18.pdf accessed on October 7, 20149 ibid10 1987 Brundtland Report: Our Common Future. DAC & Cities updated on January 21,2014 www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/historic-milestones/1987-brundtland-report-our-common-future accessed on October 6 ,2014

2

atmosphere, waters and living beings and that free goods such as air

and water are also resources and that the raw materials which are

converted to useful products during energy of production process.

The remaining is released as waste. According to the report,11

sustainable development therefore includes the mitigation of the

adverse environmental effects of energy production to enhance the

integrity of the ecosystem whilst balancing this with economic

development. The approaches that have been adopted towards the

maintaining of a sound environment during upstream activities of oil

and gas include:

2.1 THE ECONOMIC ORIENTED STRATEGY12

This approach is based on an assumption that an economic loss will

discourage operators on excessive emissions and an incentive will

spur a reduction.13 When a price is placed on pollution either

through the establishment of a cap-and-trade system (setting a

maximum allowable cap on total emissions), the setting up of charges

and levies on undue emissions or the levying of pollution tax,

operators will be forced to make decisions that are anti-pollution

oriented.14 An example of this is the United Kingdom Landfill tax

under the Financial Act of 1996.

In this approach, incentives are made available to the upstream

operators as a reward for incorporating pollution reduction and

control in their production decisions. Policy and commitment alone

cannot provide assurance that environmental performance will meet

industry practise thus the need for an incorporation of these

11 ibid12 W Patson (n2)13 www.yosemite.epa.gov/ee/epa/edd.nsf/pages/economic/incentives.html accessed on October 7, 201414 G Ted and H John, ‘Market Based Approaches to Environmental Regulation, Foundation and Trends in Micro Economics, 2006 http://www.faculty.are.umd.edu/jhorowitz/mic013.pdf accessed on October 7, 2014

3

policies into the formal management activity15 and an address of all

sectors of desired environmental performance.16

Some of the economic mechanisms that have been suggested for the oil

and gas industry include: Performance Bonds,17 Environmental Trust

Funds,18 Environmental Lien19 and Environmental Taxation.20

Certain scholars have however argued that environmental tax does not

create incentive to reduce emissions but only limit purchase of

goods linked with emissions, and does not guarantee a total desire

to cease purchase of this emission prone goods by the operators.21

This approach has further been criticised for its failure to create

adequate motivation for upstream oil and gas players to go beyond

compliance.22

2.2 CONTROL AND COMMAND STRATEGY23

In this approach, the government ‘commands’ pollution reductions

(for instance setting emission standards) and ‘controls’ how such

reductions are achieved. The government can make statutes which set

standards and provide mechanisms towards the enforcement of

sanctions and civil penalties on defaulters.24 This control covers

15 Environmental Principles. EUROPIA/E&P Forum (1991)16 Environmental Guidelines UKOOA (1991)17 A B Rosenfeld et al, ‘Reinvesting the Well: Approaches to Minimising the Environmental and Social Impact of Oil Development in the Tropics’ 1997 Policy Paper Vol 2 Conservation International p5018 ibid19 The US CERCLA20 Rosenfeld (n17) p5121 B Allen & H Winston, ‘The Use of Economic Incentives in Developing Countries: Lessons from International Experience with Industrial Air Pollution’ 1999 Resources for the Future www.rff.org/rff/documents/rff-dp-99-39.pdf accessed on October 9, 201422 A J William & G F Tuurlough, ‘Environmental Self-Regulation and Sustainable Economic Growth: The Seamless Web Framework’ 1999 Journal of Eco management Audit 61-75 www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.10002 accessed on October 10,201423 W Patson (n2)24 Richard B Stewart, ‘United States Environmental Regulation: A Failing Paradigm’ 1996 15J.L & COM 585,587

4

numerous oil wells. In the USA, the essential laws regulating

upstream operators include the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act,25

Clean Water Act,26 and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).27The

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ensures the compliance with

set standards.28

Environmental regulations may be situate in variety of national

laws.29 In certain cases, they are included in clauses inserted into

petroleum laws and planning laws, while in others, specific

legislations has been made for issues bothering on pollution, water

and air quality, environmental assessment, environmental health and

safety, etc.30 The regime for granting rights to conduct petroleum

can operations may place certain requirements on an operator with

regards to environmental protection and it is usual that the

consents will be required as the operations develop.31

This strategy has been criticised for creating a friction between

the regulator and the industry as operators are only bound to comply

with prescriptions of statutes and might not see a reason to

wilfully comply.32 According to critics, this approach prevents the

operator’s choice to analyse and adopt the most effective approach

and replaces it with one that places a high administrative cost on

the government.33 This therefore entails that the strategy is

25 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 43 U.S.C.A 133 et seq26 Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C (1972) www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws accessed on October 10, 201427 National Environmental Policy Act 42 U.S.C.A 4321 et seq28 Rebecca M. Bratspies, ‘A Regulatory Wake-Up Call: Lessons from BP’s Deep Water Horizon Disaster’ (2011-2012) 5 Golden Gate U. Envtl.L.J.729 Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)30 ibid31 ibid32 A Bruce & S Richard, ‘Reforming Environmental Law: The Democratic Case for Market Incentives’(1987-1988)13 Column.J.EnvH.L 17133 K E Armstrong & W E Fraizer, ‘Environmental Law for the E & P Industry: AModel for the Future’ (Society of Petroleum Engineers Conference Paper 1996) http://www.onepetro.org/mslib accessed on October 10, 2014

5

expensive to maintain. Scholars have further criticised this

approach on the grounds that the host governments and its agencies

as a regulator might not even possess the necessary technical,

economic and informative strength to supervise these companies or

implement sufficient environmental guidelines that can best regulate

a technically sophisticated industry like the ‘oil and gas’.34 It is

asserted that the environmental policy in the UK is shifting from

this approach to the innovation-oriented environmental governance

arrangement which encourages maximum compliance and innovation.35

2.3 SELF/VOLUNTARY REGULATION STRATEGY36

In this approach, the operator analyses the possible risks involved

in the upstream activities with an aim to managing it.37 Through this

approach, the Health, Safety and Environmental Policies of the

operator is defined and documented along with the company’s

strategic objectives.38 These policies are not only implemented and

maintained but is also be communicated to the company’s employees.39

It then entails that individual companies are increasingly adopting

policies and codes to guide their personnel, contractors and

suppliers.40 This has led to the growth of the Corporate Social

Responsibility among oil companies.41 This approach is categorised

34 Barry Barton et al, Regulating Energy and Natural Resources (2edn OUP 2006) 40835 Shu-Ling & Martin Sexton, ‘New Governance Approaches to Environmental Regulation: An Example of the Code for Sustainable Homes (CHS)’ 2011 In: Egbu C & Lou; E.C.W (Eds) Process 27th Annual ARCOM Conference 1065-1074 www.arcom.ac.uk/-docs/proceedings/ar2011-1065-1074_lu_sexton.pdf accessed on October 14, 201436 Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)37 ibid38 The Oil Industry Experience. Technology Cooperation and Capacity Building. Contribution to Agenda 21. UNEP/IPIECA. London (1995)39 Partnerships for Sustainable Development. The Role of Business and Industry. UNEP/PWBLF/TUFTS University. London (1994)40Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)41 Jedrzej G. Frynas, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility or Government Regulation? Evidence on Oil Spill Prevention’ 2012 Ecology and Society www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art4/ accessed on October 14,2014

6

into a) Unilateral commitments by oil and gas firms; b) Public

voluntary schemes whereby oil and gas firms agree to standards

established by environmental agencies and c) Negotiated agreements

reached as a dialogue between government authorities and industries

and contain a manual to reaching the target.42

The media, public and other social organisations could also

influence the upstream oil and gas companies to comply wilfully with

the most suitable standards of production. In a bid to implement its

commitment to the Kyoto Protocol, Canada has adopted this approach.43

Other important international instruments include: the Montreal

Protocol aimed at the phase out of ozone depleting substances; and

the Basel Convention on Trans frontier movement of hazardous waste.

The international E & P industry has impacted on the principles of

goal setting and self-regulation at the international level by

taking independent action to promote a high level of environmental

performance through the institution of industry guidelines and

business charters44 such as International Chamber of Commerce,45 E & P

Forum,46 etc.

It is believed that for voluntary undertakes like this to be

successful and efficient, they must have a clear and measurable

environmental objective, a statutory base and a substantial

financial objective.47 The efficiency of this approach is therefore

determined by the extent of threat, social cost of fund, as well as

42 P Lyon & John Maxwell, ‘Voluntary Approaches to Environmental Regulation:A Survey’ 1999 SSRN www.papers.ssrn.com/so13/papers.cfm?abstract_id=147888 accessed on October 14, 201443 Barry Barton (n34) p31744 Joint E&P Forum/UNEC Technical Publications (n3)45 Environmental Auditing. International Chamber of Commerce Paris.( June 1989)46 Environmental Principles. EUROPIA/E&P Forum (1991)47 W Junjie & B A Bruce, ‘The Relative Efficiency of Voluntary vs Mandatory Environmental Regulations’ 1999 38 Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 158-175

7

an allocation of bargaining power. It is further understood that

under the self-regulatory approach, the oil companies wilfully

accept strict liability for pollution damage and the cost of

remedial measures.48

An argument has been put up by scholars that the operators possess

high technical, economic and informative strength beyond the

regulator’s capacity49and on this grounds, the industry can

effectively manage their activities than outsiders.50 However a major

draw-back of the Corporate Social Responsibility under this approach

has been the unreliability of self-reported data provided by

companies asserted to be most proactive in self-regulatory

environmental pollution management.51

3.0 HOW HAS THESE APPROACHES FARED IN CHINA

Official environmental protection was first stimulated by the 1972

United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) held in

Stockholm, Sweden, upon which the United Nations Environmental

Program (UNEP) was launched.52 Subsequent to this, China began

establishing environmental protection agencies and also sanctioning

controls on some of the environmental wastes.53 As a move towards its

bid to implement a sustainable development strategy, the state

council in 1983 announced environmental protection as one of China’s

national policies.54 This led to the formation of the National

Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) in 1984.55 As a result of the

48 International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (2004)49 Barry Barton (n34)50 ibid51 Jedrzej G. Frynas (n41) 52 Ross Buss, ‘United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE)’, 2007 Encyclopaedia of Earth http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156774 accessed on October 12, 2014 53 T Jennifer & J Kim, ‘China’s Environmental Policy’ in John Feffer(ed),(Foreign Policy in Focus 2007)54 ibid55 www.epa.gov/ogc/china/legal_resources.htm accessed on October 14,2014

8

flooding of the Yangtze River basin in 1998, NEPA was upgraded to

the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)56 and finally in

2008 it became the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the

Peoples Republic of China (MEP).57China has pledged to reduce its

carbon emission intensity namely emissions per unit of GDP, being

40-45% by 2020 compared to its 2005 level.58It further aims to raise

the proportion of non-fossil fuels to about 15% of its total primary

energy consumption.59

Tabular Approaches China Has Undertaken60

Command-and-

controlEconomic oriented

Voluntary

instruments

Public

participation

Concentration-

based pollution

discharge

controls

Pollution levy

fee

Environmental

labelling

system

Clean-up

campaign

Mass-based

controls on total

provincial

Fines on Non-

compliance

ISO 14000

system

Environmental

awareness

56 K Zhang & R Wen, ‘Review on Environmental Policies in China: Evolvement, Features and Evaluation’ 2008 Environ Sci Engin China 2(2): 129-141 www.link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11783-008-0044-6 accessed on October 14, 2014 57 ibid58 World Nuclear News, ‘China’s Climate Plan’ added 22 September 2014 www.world-nuclear-news.org/EE-Chinas-climate-change-plan-2209144.html accessed on October 18,201459 ibid60 K Zhang & W Zong guo, ‘Review and Challenges of Policies of EnvironmentalProtection and Sustainable Development in China’ 2008 Journal of Environmental Management 88:1249-1261 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0301479707002435 accessed on October 15, 2014

9

discharge campaign

Environmental

impact

assessments (EIA)

Discharge permit

system

Cleaner

production

Air pollution

index

Three

synchronization

program

Sulphur emission

feeNGOs

Water quality

disclosure

Deadline

transmission

trading

Environmental

compensation fee

Administrative

permission

hearing

Centralized

pollution control

Subsidies for

energy saving

products

Two compliance

policy

Regulation on

refuse credit to

high-polluting

firms

It is noteworthy that prior to the implementation of these

approaches, environmental pollution has caused severe economic

losses in China thus supporting the assertion that good

environmental policy shows a good economic policy and that the

10

nature of environmental problem shows a poor economic structure.61 In

2005, economic losses (mainly as result of air pollution) was rated

7.7% of China’s GDP.62 This increased to 10.3% in 2002 and the

economic loss from water pollution, 6.1%.63 China has been one of the

most performing countries with regards to GDP growth having one of

9.64% in the past ten years.64

Upon an implementation of the above stated approaches the following

results has been obtained:

a) China’s investment in renewable energy grew 18% in 2007 to

$15.6 billion, which accounted for 10% of the global

investment in that area.65

b) In 2008, expenditure towards the protection of the environment

was 1.4% of GDP being 3.4times what it was as of the year

2000.66

c) The emission of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide decreased

by 6.61% and a further 8.95% in 2008 compared to what was

obtainable in 2005.67

d) China’s protected nature reserves has increased to 2,538 in

2010 being a huge gap from the 34 it was in 1978.68

61 J Liu & J Diamond, ‘Revolutionizing China’s Environmental Protection’ Science 31962 K Zhang & W Zong guo (n60)63 ibid64 ibid65 W Chunmei & L Zhaolan, ‘Environmental Policies in China Over the Past TenYears: Progress, Problems and Prospects’ 2010 Society for Environmental Information Sciences 2:1701-1702 www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187802961002148 accessed on October 15, 201466 ibid67 ibid68 ibid

11

4.0 CONCLUSION

The truth is that there are other approaches that has been adopted

by various oil producing nations towards environmental protection.

These have worked for nations such as the United States and Russia.

Countries like Romania has adopted the contractual approach by

inserting a separate article on environment, safety and insurance in

their 1996 model production concession agreement.69It has however

been observed as is the case of most of these countries, that one

single approach might not produce a substantial result.

Upon the implementation of the approaches listed by China, some core

viable results has been obtained thus establishing the fact that

whilst each approach mentioned might have a peculiar demerit, an

ability to utilise two or more of it can cover for the demerits

towards establishing not just a better environment but a more

productive economy.

It is therefore my submission to new oil players such as Angola,

Mozambique, Malaysia, etc. to adopt the China approaches to this

effect.

5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT BOOKS

Barry Barton et al, Regulating Energy and Natural Resources (2edn

OUP 2006) 408

T Jennifer & J Kim, ‘China’s Environmental Policy’ in John

Feffer(Ed), (Foreign Policy in Focus 2007)

Zhiquo Geo, Environmental Regulation of the Oil and Gas Industries

(Kluwer Law International 1998) 10369 Z Gao, ‘International Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation Agreements: A Comprehensive Environmental Appraisal’ 1994 12 JENRL 249

12

HARD COPY ARTICLES

A B Rosenfeld et al, ‘Reinvesting the Well: Approaches to Minimising

the Environmental and Social Impact of Oil Development in the

Tropics’ 1997 Policy Paper Vol 2 Conservation International p50

A Bruce & S Richard, ‘Reforming Environmental Law: The Democratic

Case for Market Incentives’ (1987-1988)13 Column.J.EnvH.L 171

J Liu & J Diamond, ‘Revolutionizing China’s Environmental

Protection’ Science 319

Joint E&P Forum/ UNEC Technical Publications, ‘Environmental

Management in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: An Overview of

Issues and Management Approaches’1997

Rebecca M. Bratspies, ‘A Regulatory Wake-Up Call: Lessons from BP’s

Deep Water Horizon Disaster’ (2011-2012) 5 Golden Gate U.

Envtl.L.J.7

Richard B Stewart, ‘United States Environmental Regulation: A

Failing Paradigm’ 1996 15J.L & COM 585,587

W Junjie & B A Bruce, ‘The Relative Efficiency of Voluntary vs

Mandatory Environmental Regulations’ 1999 38 Journal of

Environmental Economics and Management 158-175

Z GAO, ‘International Petroleum Exploration and Exploitation

Agreements: A Comprehensive Environmental Appraisal’ 1994 12 JENRL

249

13

ONLINE JOURNAL

A J William & G F Tuurlough, ‘Environmental Self-Regulation and

Sustainable Economic Growth: The Seamless Web Framework’ 1999

Journal of Eco management Audit 61-75

www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.10002 accessed

Alexandra S Wawryk, ‘International Environmental Standards in the

Oil Industry: Improving the Operations of Transnational Oil

Companies in Emerging Economies’ 2012

www.dundee.ac.uk/cepmlp/journal/html/vol13/article13-3.pdf

B Allen & H Winston, ‘The Use of Economic Incentives in Developing

Countries: Lessons from International Experience with Industrial Air

Pollution’ 1999 Resources for the Future

www.rff.org/rff/documents/rff-dp-99-39.pdf

B Mariano Jacqueline, ‘Environmental Impacts of the Oil Industry’

Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) www.eolss.net/sample-

chapters/co8/E6-185-18.pdf

Energy for Me, ‘Petroleum-Oil and Natural Gas’ 2006-2014

www.energy4me.org/energyfacts/energy-sources/petroleum/

G Ted and H John, ‘Market Based Approaches to Environmental

Regulation, Foundation and Trends in Micro Economics, 2006

http://www.faculty.are.umd.edu/jhorowitz/mic013.pdf

14

Jedrzej G. Frynas, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility or Government

Regulation? Evidence on Oil Spill Prevention’ 2012 Ecology and

Society www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art4/

K E Armstrong & W E Fraizer, ‘Environmental Law for the E & P

Industry: A Model for the Future’ (Society of Petroleum Engineers

Conference Paper 1996) http://www.onepetro.org/mslib

K Zhang & R Wen, ‘Review on Environmental Policies in China:

Evolvement, Features and Evaluation’ 2008 Environ Sci Engin China

2(2): 129-141 www.link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11783-008-

0044-6

K Zhang & W Zong guo, ‘Review and Challenges of Policies of

Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development in China’ 2008

Journal of Environmental Management 88:1249-1261

www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0301479707002435

Patson W Arinaitwe, ‘Environmental Regulation of Upstream Sector of

Oil and Gas Industry’ 2013 Academia.edu

www.academia.edu/2573032/

Enviromental_Regulation_of_Upstream_Oil_and_Gas_Industry

P Lyon & John Maxwell, ‘Voluntary Approaches to Environmental

Regulation: A Survey’ 1999 SSRN www.papers.ssrn.com/so13/papers.cfm?

abstract_id=147888

Shu-Ling & Martin Sexton, ‘New Governance Approaches to

Environmental Regulation: An Example of the Code for Sustainable

15

Homes (CHS)’ 2011 In: Egbu C & Lou; E.C.W (Eds) Process 27th Annual

ARCOM Conference 1065-1074 www.arcom.ac.uk/-docs/proceedings/ar2011-

1065-1074_lu_sexton.pdf

Ross Buss, ‘United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

(UNCHE)’, 2007 Encyclopaedia of Earth

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/156774

W Chunmei & L Zhaolan, ‘Environmental Policies in China over the

Past Ten Years: Progress, Problems and Prospects’ 2010 Society for

Environmental Information Sciences 2:1701-1702

www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187802961002148

World Nuclear News, ‘China’s Climate Plan’ added 22 September 2014

www.world-nuclear-news.org/EE-Chinas-climate-change-plan-

2209144.html

1987 Brundtland Report: Our Common Future. DAC & Cities updated on

January 21, 2014

www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/historic-milestones/1987

-brundtland-report-our-common-future

www.yosemite.epa.gov/ee/epa/edd.nsf/pages/economic/incentives.html

STATUTES

Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C (1972) www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws

National Environmental Policy Act 42 U.S.C.A 4321 et seq

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 43 U.S.C.A 133 et seq

16

OTHER SOURCES

Environmental Auditing. International Chamber of Commerce Paris.

(June 1989)

Environmental Guidelines UKOOA (1991)

Environmental Principles. EUROPIA/E&P Forum (1991)

International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (2004)

The Oil Industry Experience. Technology Cooperation and Capacity

Building. Contribution to Agenda 21. UNEP/IPIECA. London (1995)

Partnerships for Sustainable Development. The Role of Business and

Industry. UNEP/PWBLF/TUFTS University. London (1994)

17

18