ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION, RECLAMATION, AND COMMUNITY MONITORING OF ARTISANAL
AND SMALL-SCALE MINING (ASM) IMPACTS TO SURFACE
WATERS IN SURINAME
Travis Borrillo-Hutter
A thesis submitted to the Faculty and the Board of Trustees of the Colorado School of
Mines in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
(Environmental Engineering Science)
Golden, Colorado
Date __________________ Signed: _______________________________
Signed: _______________________________
Golden, Colorado
Date __________________ Signed: _______________________________
Travis Borrillo-Hutter
Dr. Jonathan (Josh) O. Sharp Thesis Advisor
Dr. John McCray Professor and Head Department Civil and Environmental Engineering
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ABSTRACT
Mining operations and other extractive industries are a necessary component of the global
economy, providing the materials necessary for the manufacture of numerous products. Although
global mineral holdings have become increasingly concentrated among a few large mining
corporations, artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) are ubiquitous in rural areas of developing
countries. It is estimated that over 13 million individuals practice ASM worldwide corresponding
to direct and indirect livelihood dependence for as many as 100 million people (ILO 2003).
Small-scale miners regularly engage in environmentally damaging activities, are often subject to
poor safety conditions, and may utilize inefficient mineral extraction technologies such as the
excessive use of mercury. The contents of this document describe a field study conducted in May
2015 to explore the environmental impacts to surface waters from several ASM sites within the
concession of a large-scale mining operation in the interior Amazon rainforest of Suriname.
Further, transport pathways for dissolved phased metal(loids) and free mercury complexed with
suspended particles in the water column will be discussed to address the environmental concern
associated with ASM activity. Additionally, reclamation strategies will be discussed to reduce
the environmental impacts identified in this study. Building upon the reclamation strategies, a
brief discussion will be dedicated to community development in the form of a participatory
community monitoring, whereby indigenous communities near this field study will be involved
in the environmental monitoring process.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT………………………...……………………………………………………………iii
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………….….. v
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………..vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………..viii
CHAPTER 1: PAST AND PRESENT: SMALL SCALE MINING IN SURINAME ................... 1
CHAPTER 2: IMPACT OF ASM ACTIVITY ON STREAM WATER QUALITY .................. 10
CHAPTER 3: TOTAL SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS AS A TRANSPORT PATHWAY FOR
MERCURY MIGRATION ................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER 4: EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS TARGETING RECLAMATION OF SMALL-
SCALE MINING SITES ...................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER 5: PARTICIPATORY COMMUNITY MONITORING ........................................... 48
REFERENCES CITED ................................................................................................................. 62
APPENDIX A: SITE LOCATION MAP ..................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX B: MINE’S SITE RECONNAISSANCE ICP-MS METAL ANALYSIS ............... 69
APPENDIX C: HISTORICAL ALKALINE METAL AND NON-METAL ANALYSIS……. .54
APPENDIX D: MANGANESE METAL ANALYSIS………………………………………… 56
APPENDIX E: ALUMINUM & MANGANESE HISTORICAL TREND ANALYSIS………. 57
APPENDIX E: SPLP RESULTS (May 2015) .............................................................................. 74
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Suriname Overview…………………………………………………………………...1
Figure 1.2 Suriname Interior Monthly Rainfall Averages…………………………………….. 2
Figure 1.3 Guiana Shield Aerial Distribution…………………………………………………….3
Figure 1.4 Greenstone Belt in Suriname…………………………………………………….........4
Figure 2.1 Merian Project Boundaries………………………………..………………………….11
Figure 2.2 Merian Concession and Environmental Monitoring Points………………………….12
Figure 2.3A Nonlinear Regression Turbidity versus Precipitation Correlation.……………….. 19
Figure 2.3B Linear Regression Turbidity versus Precipitation Correlation……………………. 20
Figure 2.4 Total and Dissolved Aluminum and Iron at Surface Water Sampling Locations…... 22
Figure 2.5 Monthly Averaged Dissolved Iron Trend Analysis (2006-2012)……………………25
Figure 3.1 Mercury Content in Sediments (May 2015)………………………………….……... 31
Figure 3.2 Total Mercury in Fish Tissue (May 2011) ………………………………………..... 32
Figure 4.1 White Sands Project Area [Lat: 778,000, Long: 561,500]………………………..... 39
Figure 4.2 Sediment Pond Concept Design……………………………………………..……… 42
Figure 4.3 Hydroseeding Application in Merian…………………………………………….…. 43
Figure 4.4 Existing access road in Merian……………………………………………….………44
Figure 4.5 Community Lead Procurement Stakeholder Map…………………………………... 46
Figure 5.1 IFC 3D Approach………………………………………………………………........ 50
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 May 2015 Surface Water Field Parameter Readings………………………………..17
Table 2.2 Historic Surface Water Field Paramter Readings (2014-2015)…………………… 18
Table 2.3 Total and Dissolved Metal Analysis (May 2015)…………………………………. 21
Table 3.1 Merian Concession Water Quality Parameters (2014-2015)………………………. 35
Table 4.1 Pros and Cons of the Community Lead Procurement Plan………………………… 46
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ASM Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining
CVAA Cold Vapor Atomic Adsorption
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon
EC Electrical Conductivity
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
IFC International Financial Corporation Newmont Newmont Mining Inc.
NRWQC National Recommended Water Quality Criteria
CSM Colorado School of Mines
Merian Merian Gold Project
MeHg Methylmercury
PCM Participatory Community Monitoring
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
Surgold Suriname Gold Company LLC
3D Three-Dimensional
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TOC Total Organic Carbon
SDW Secondary Drinking Water
SLO Social License to Operate
SPLP Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
SR Social Responsibility
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
USGS United States Geological Survey
WSP White Sands Project
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by Newmont Mining Inc. and the Colorado School of Mines
Foundation. I thank my colleagues from the Colorado School of Mines who provided insight and
expertise that greatly assisted the research, although they may not agree with all of the
interpretations/conclusions of this paper.
I thank Dr. Jonathan O. (Josh) Sharp for assistance with helping me formulate this thesis
and providing excellent guidance. Further I would like to thank my committee members Dr. John
McCray and Dr. Jessica Smith for comments that greatly improved the manuscript.
I would also like to show my gratitude to Allison Coppel, Cynthia Parnow, Jacob Croall,
and Jim Lorenzo from Newmont Mining for sharing their pearls of wisdom with me during the
course of this research. I am immensely grateful to Ben Teschner and Dr. Nicole Smith for
selecting me for this exciting project and keeping me alive in Suriname. And special recognition
to Dr. Thomas Wildeman for providing advice for proper environmental sampling. I would like
the following senior design team members for their support in developing the reclamation
chapter of this thesis: Cameron Colley, Frances Marlin, Jessica Matthews, Xiojian Guo, Emma
Ely, Chris Marks, Michelle Lynn Bonfanti, Megan Peterson, Audra Agajanian, Jess Zielinski,
and Graham Cottle.
viii
1
CHAPTER 1: PAST AND PRESENT: SMALL SCALE MINING IN SURINAME
This chapter describes the natural environment and geologic setting of Suriname with a
specific emphasis on the interior Amazon forest. Further an historic and current review will be
provided for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) in Suriname to bring attention to the
importance of extractive practices to Surinamese culture and an understanding of its associated
impacts to the environment.
1.1 Suriname Background and Geological Setting
The country of Suriname is located in South America and shares borders with Brazil to
the south, Guyana to the west, French Guyana to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north
(Figure 1). The land mass of Suriname is approximately 163,820 square kilometers (roughly the
size of Georgia), which is 90% covered by tropical rainforest (Countryreports.org). Suriname is
situated in the densest portion of the Amazon forest and contains a rich abundance of flora and
fauna species.
Figure 1.1 Suriname Overview (Google Maps ®)
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1.1.1 Climate and Topography
Suriname has a tropical climate that is characterized by four meteorological seasons: a
minor rainy season from early December to early February, a minor dry season from early
February to late April, a major rainy season from late April to mid-August, and a major dry
season from mid-August to early December (Naipal et al. 2006). Rainfall is highest in the central
and southeastern parts of the country. Average annual rainfall in the interior is 2.4 meters (Naipal
et al. 2006). Refer to Figure 1.2 for monthly rainfall averages for the interior rainforest. Along
the coastal areas, temperatures can range from 21 to 32 oC.
Figure 1.2 Suriname Interior Monthly Rainfall Averages (Naipal et al. 2006)
The northern coastal area of Suriname is approximately 364 km long. It consists of
sandbanks and mudbanks deposited by the southern equatorial currents that discharge from the
mouth of the Amazon River. Further south of the coast begins the New Coastal Plain also
developed by prolonged sand and clay deposition from the Amazon River and covers an area of
4,000 square km near the coast. From the New Coastal Plain there is an immediate transition into
swampland. Swampland consists of mostly developed clays and peat, which covers
approximately 17,000 square km (EB 2015). Further to the south and into Brazil, is the vast
tropical Amazon rainforest that covers the rest of Suriname. The interior forest of Suriname
consists largely of a central mountain range with various branching waterways and scattered
hilly areas. The highest summit is Juliana Top in the Wilhelmina Mountains, which lies at 1,230
3
meters above mean sea level. Although most of this area is covered by tropical rainforest, there
are some swamplands and areas of savanna grassland.
1.1.2 Geology
Suriname lies entirely within the Guiana Shield geologic formation, which is estimated to
be 1.7 billion-year-old (Figure 1.3, UNDP 2015). It is hypothesized during the Archean age
(>2,500 million-years ago, Ma) based on contiguous fault lines that the Guiana Shield was united
with the West African craton, and together were a single tectonic plate forming a portion of the
supercontinents Gondwana, Pangea, and Columbia (Lujan et al. 2010). Then between 2,050 and
1,960 Ma the Trans-Amazonian orogeny occurred resulting in continental migration and
collision with other cratons that make up present day South America (USGS 1993). Over several
million years the northern Amazon Platform that includes Suriname accumulated up to 3,000 m
of river deposited sediments (Lujan et al. 2010).
Figure 1.3 Guiana Shield Aerial Distribution (UNDP 2015)
The underlying bedrock that composes the Guiana Shield can broadly be divided into two
older terranes formed during orogenic events and two younger sequences of sedimentary and
igneous rocks (USGS 1993) The oldest terrane comprises the Imataca Complex, which underlays
the majority of Suriname. The Imataca complex is comprised of greenstones belts, which are
zones of variable metamorphosed igneous rock that are closely associated with gold
mineralization that occurred during the latest stage of regional metamorphism (Misra 2012). In
4
Suriname, the greenstone belt covers approximately 24,000 square km in the east portion of the
country (Figure 1.4, Gemerts et al. 2013).
Figure 1.4 Greenstone Belt in Suriname (Gemerts et al. 2013)
1.1.3 Biodiversity
As previously mentioned, Suriname contains the highest percentage of forest cover of
any country in the world at nearly 90% forest coverage. Further, Suriname contains a rich
biodiversity of flora and fauna species. Roughly nine-tenths of Suriname is covered with
heterogeneous forest consisting of over 4,000 species of ferns and herbaceous plants, and more
than 1,000 species of trees. The majority of the flora species are restricted to the interior of
Suriname and the swamplands (Lanjouw et al. 1975). Boasting several wetland habitats,
waterways, and a high proportion of forest cover, Suriname provides habitat for numerous
identified fauna species, including; 192 mammals, 720 birds, 175 reptiles, 102 amphibian, 370
freshwater fish species, and hundreds of thousands of invertebrates (Husson 1978). In western
interior rainforest lies the Central Suriname Nature Reserve, which was established in June 1998
as a protected area, covering a total of 21,383 square km (13.5% of the country’s territory). The
Central Suriname Nature Reserve is one of the largest protected areas of rainforest in the world
and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2000.
5
1.1.4 Demographic and Culture
Al though the population of Suriname is relatively small with a populace of approximately
566,850, it is ethnically very diverse. Suriname was a Dutch settlement from 1667 to 1975.
During the 17th and 19th century under Dutch colonial rule, several hundred thousand African
slaves and later Eastern Indian, Javanese, and Chinese indentured emigrants were brought to
Suriname to meet the labor demands for Dutch controlled plantations, primarily tobacco
production. Slavery of Ameridians (native South Americans) and Africans existed from 1630
until 1873. During this groups of slaves of African descent periodically escaped into the interior
Amazon forest, who referred to themselves at the Maroons (also known as “Djukas” or
“Bakabusi Nengre”). To this day, the Maroons still exist in the interior rainforest of Suriname
and continue to practice their ancestral African traditions. Presently, Suriname is a pluralistic
society consisting primarily of Hindustani (locally known as “Eastern Indians”) 37%, Creole
(persons of mixed African and European heritage) 31%, Javanese 15%, Maroons 10%,
Ameridians 2%, Chinese 2%, Other 2%, and Caucasian 1% (CIA 2014). Along with having a
rich diversity of ethnic groups, there are also several religious groups that include primarily:
Hindu 27%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 23%, Muslim 20%, and indigenous beliefs 5%
(CIA 2014). Although there are several ethnic groups within Suriname, the official language is
Dutch; however in the interior rainforest amongst the Maroons the primarily language is Sranan
Tongo (creole language that is a fusion of English, Dutch, Portuguese, and West African
languages). Approximately 85% of Suriname’s population lives in the coastal region with the
majority in the capital city of Paramaribo (CIA 2014).
1.2 Historic Mining Practices
According to historical records, gold exploration and mining was first established in 1736
by a Dutch company that had exported 150 grams of gold to the Netherlands (Gemerts et al.
2013). However, in 1743 a mine tunnel collapsed killing several miners, which effectively ended
mining endeavors for several decades. It was not until 1876, shortly after the emancipation of
slavery, was there a revival of the gold mining industry. At its height in 1907, the industry
produced about 1,200 kg gold annually in Suriname. However, this mining boom abruptly ended
shortly after 1910 when production declined to about 200 kg per year (Bosma et al. 1973). A
subsequent gold rush in Suriname was triggered in 1979 by the discovery of a large goldmine
6
called Serra Pelada in nearby Brazil, which produced 90,000 kg gold from a single open pit
(Viega 1997). This recent revival of gold mining in Suriname can also be explained by the
continued rise in gold prices over the past four decades, the deterioration of the local economy,
immigration of several Brazilian miners into Suriname, and the presence of large-scale foreign
prospecting mining companies.
1.3 Current Mining Practices
Presently, the per capita Gross Domestic Product (GPD) of Suriname is $6,973 billion
USD (IMF 2015), which ranks Suriname as a middle income country. However, Suriname has a
large inequitable distribution of wealth with approximately 66% population in urban areas living
below the poverty line (CIA 2014). In the interior forest, the majority of the population is below
the poverty line. For the better part of the last two decades, mining has been the cornerstone of
Suriname’s economy; specifically bauxite and gold have collectively represented more than 50%
of the country’s GPD (IMF 2015).
Currently, small-scale mining is the largest source of land disturbance in the interior
rainforest area. Between 2008 and 2014, approximately 53,668 hectares of forest has been
cleared for small-scale mining. The current gold rush began in 1993 and presently is estimated to
employ 25,000 to 35,000 people (Mol et al. 2001). Annual gold production in Suriname from
ASM activity is projected to be 200 kg, which is typically sold illegally to foreign black markets
(Viega et al. 2009). The basic method used is placer mining, which mining of fine gold deposits
within stream bed. This is often done with large equipment such as excavators and high-pressure
pumps. This activity is usually focused in the creek bottoms and near-by hillslopes, which results
in large-scale hydrological and land surface disturbances (Cremers et al. 2011).
1.4 ASM Environmental and Social Concerns
This section provides a discussion and literature review of identified environmental and
social risks associated with ASM practices.
7
1.4.1 Water Quality Concerns
Due to ASM practices, improper disposal of trash and human waste into waterways, and
river dredging activities, the water quality within both major rivers and tributary streams is
typically poor. The constituent of concern in circumneutral waters is typically associated with
total suspended solids (USDA 1998). Total Suspended Solids or TSS, refers to matter suspended
or dissolved in water or wastewater, and is related to both specific conductance and turbidity.
TSS can include a wide variety of material, such as silt, decaying plants, industrial wastes, and
sewage (Mitchell et al. 1992). High concentrations of suspended solids can cause many problems
for stream health and aquatic life. High TSS can block light from reaching submerged vegetation
(Wood 2014). As the amount of light passing through the water is reduced, photosynthesis slows
down. Reduced rates of photosynthesis causes less dissolved oxygen to be released into the water
by plants. If light is completely blocked from bottom dwelling plants, the plants will stop
producing oxygen and die. As the plants are decomposed, bacteria will consume the remaining
oxygen in the water column. Low dissolved oxygen can lead to fish kills. Further, high TSS can
increase surface water temperature as suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight. Increased
temperatures can reduce dissolved oxygen levels as warmer waters hold less dissolved oxygen
(Mitchell et al. 1992).
A study by Mol et al. (2003), estimated that 95.6% of suspended sediment in waterways
near mine sites is sourced from eroding ASM sites. The majority of streambeds in proximity to
ASM sites are characterized by deposited sediments that cover most structural elements of the
river bottom, such as leaf-litter banks, gravel beds, and tree roots. Crevices and holes that may be
used for spawning and habit are typically filled with sediments (Mol et al. 2003). Suspended
sediment can also clog fish gills, reduce growth rates, decrease resistance to disease, and prevent
egg and larval development. These streams affected by high turbidity had low habitat diversity
and low species diversity with fewer young fish and predominately fish adapted to low light
conditions. Deposited sediments can interfere with fish reproduction by impairing gas exchange
of developing eggs or clogging the spawning beds (Berman et al. 1987; Chapman 1988). This
has detrimental impacts for downstream human communities that depend on fisheries for their
livelihood and food source.
8
High TSS in a water body can often correlate with higher concentrations of bacteria,
nutrients, pesticides, and metals in the water (USDA 1998). These pollutants may attach to
sediment particles on the land and be carried into water bodies during precipitation events. In the
water, the pollutants may be absorbed into aquatic lifeforms and travel up the food web through
biomagnification.
1.4.2 Mercury Use and Pollution
Beyond physical impacts to hydrological and terrestrials systems, another significant
environmental and social concern associated with ASM activity is mercury pollution. Elemental
mercury is frequently used to collect free gold particles from fine sediment to create an amalgam.
Miners are able to isolate the gold by heating the amalgam to vaporize the mercury to obtain
friable gold. The mercury vapors are either released into the atmosphere or directly inhaled by
miners, exposing them and others in the mining communities to serious health risks. Previous
studies on ASM processing methods have found that miners use approximately 1.3 kg of
mercury for each kg of gold recovered, sometimes even as high as 20 - 50 kg of mercury to
recover one kg of gold when mercury was added to ore stockpiles before gravity concentration
(UNEP 2008, Hinton 2003). The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) estimated that
ASM uses 640 to 1,350 tonnes of mercury a year, averaging 1,000 tonnes a year, which is
roughly one third of total global use (Telmer et al. 2008). Unlike power generation and other
industrial uses of mercury, all the mercury used by ASM is released to the environment.
Approximately, 55% of the volatilized mercury is released into the atmosphere by ASM miners
actively burning off the mercury to recover the gold; the remaining 45% enters local waterways
and soils (Telmer et al. 2008). Once in the atmosphere, mercury can travel globally contributing
to mercury pollution worldwide.
There are serious long-term environmental health hazards in populations living in, near or
downstream/wind of mining operations. Mercury is a potent neurological toxicant that interferes
with brain functions and the nervous system. At one of the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization’s (UNIDO) Global Mercury Project sites, almost 50 % of ASM gold
miners showed unintentional tremors (UNEP 2011). It is particularly harmful to babies and
9
young children. Low-level exposure to infants during gestation is associated with reduced
attention span, fine-motor function, language, visual-spatial abilities (such as drawing) and
verbal memory (WHO 2008). The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that the
incidence rate for mild mental retardation is as high as 17.4 per 1000 infants born amongst
subsistence fishing population near gold mining activities in the Amazon (WHO 2008). In adults,
mercury can cause numbness, vision abnormalities, and memory problems (WHO 2008).
In surface water systems, mercury is susceptible to transformation from elemental
mercury to methylmercury when complexed with organic material and anaerobic bacteria.
Methylmercury is highly toxic to mammals and causes a wide variety of adverse effects. The
degree to which it is transferred up a food web through bioaccumulation and biomagnification is
dependent upon many site-specific factors such as water chemistry and food web complexity
(USGS 2000). While there is not a direct conversion factor for total mercury values to
methylmercury values, the amount of methylmercury is dependent upon the amount of total
mercury available for methylation. Factors such as low pH and high dissolved organic carbon
content can increase the rate at which total mercury is methylated (USGS 2000). In the case of
fish though, 90% of mercury in the tissue has already been made biologically available and is
found as methylmercury (USEPA 1997). The human health water quality criterion for mercury
based on fish tissue has been set at 0.3 mg/Kg.
10
CHAPTER 2: IMPACT OF ASM ACTIVITY ON STREAM WATER QUALITY
This chapter describes the components and results of an environmental characterization
of ASM impacts located within the concession of a large-scale mine, referred to as Merian Gold
Project (Merian). The overall objective of this study is to define the nature and magnitude of
environmental impacts resulting from ASM activity within the Merian concession and the
ambient environment, with an emphasis on surface water quality and land disturbance.
2.1 Materials and Methods
This section provides a discussion of the study site and sample collection methodology.
2.1.1 Field Site
The Merian Gold Project is located in the northeastern part of Suriname, near the border
with French Guiana. It situated between the Marowijne and the Commewijne watersheds, in an
undeveloped part of the country (Figure 2.1). The Merian Gold Project is a proposed gold mine
wholly owned by Surgold Mining Inc., which is a subsidiary of Newmont Mining Inc. At the
Merian mine there is planned production of about 5 million ounces (141,750 kg) of gold over a
14-year mine life. The proposed development will result in processing of approximately 150
million tonnes (Mt) of ore and generation of 680 Mt of waste rock (Golder 2012).
Active and former ASM activity within the concession has the potential for short and
long-term impacts to local and downstream waterbodies. Downstream of the Merian operation
there are several Maroon communities who depend on a healthy watershed for drinking water,
agriculture, and fisheries. A baseline study conducted by Tetra Tech in 2011, identified
methylmercury levels from fish captured in the concessions were 0.01 – 1.05 ppm above the 0.3
ppm US EPA Criterion for Human Health consumption of fish (Tetra Tech 2011) and suggested
that downstream populations are likely ingesting and bioaccumulating significant levels of
methylmercury.
11
Figure 2.1 Merian Project Boundaries (Google Maps ®)
2.1.2 Sampling Sites
Currently, ASM activity is the largest source of land disturbance in the region. In
recognition of the extensive land disturbance resulting from small-scale mining in the concession
area, Surgold started sampling surface water and sediment in 2003, and conducted an initial
cursory inventory of land disturbance in 2002. Figure 2.2 shows the location of Surgold’s
environmental monitoring points within the Merian concession. Compliance points are shown in
blue dots as sites where Surgold conducted weekly environmental monitoring, herein referred to
as “environmental points” (EP) and “surface water points” (SW). The two background sampling
points that are representative of sites unimpacted by mining activity are shown in green dots as
“background points” (BG). Sampling locations within ASM sites are shown in red dots.
Much of the small-scale mining is occurring in Merian and Tomulu Creeks of the
Marowijne drainage, though some activities in the Commewijne drainage have also been
observed. These active and former ASM sites with the Merian concession have negative
implications for Surgold’s commitment to maintaining environmental compliance for surface
water quality. Several of Surgold’s environmental monitoring points are located within close
12
proximity to active or former ASM sites. The purpose of these monitoring points is to
assess the impacts of Surgold’s mining activity has on water quality. These ASM sites within
Surgold’s concession may incorrectly represent water quality parameters that are influenced by
ASM activity rather than Surgold’s operations.
Figure 2.2 Merian Concession and Environmental Monitoring Points (ArcGIS ®)
2.1.3 Colorado School of Mines Field Reconnaissance
In an effort to address the impacts of ASM activity on water quality and understand the
social issues between the ASM community and Surgold, the Colorado School of Mines (CSM)
initiated a field reconnaissance to the Merian site from May 18th through June 5th, 2015. This
field study was led by a team of one academic faculty member, a post-doctorate in cultural
anthropology, and two graduate students from CSM. During their stay at Merian, the team was
housed at Surgold’s camp and traveled with Surgold personnel to conduct interviews and visit
13
sampling sites. Water and sediment samples were collected at Surgold’s existing monitoring
locations and two undisturbed sites. Conducting this environmental study at existing monitoring
sites allowed for comparison with Surgold’s historic data. The background sites were used to
assess the difference between ASM impacted sites to undisturbed sites with no historic mining
presence. A site map of sampling locations is provided in Figure 2.2.
2.1.4 Field Measurements
Collecting in-situ data with respect to stream channels dimensions, stream flow, and
water quality parameters has important applications for designing engineered systems to improve
water quality (further discussion of reclamation strategies is provided in Chapter 4). This section
describes the in-situ field methods used to characterize the physical properties of each sampling
site.
2.1.4.1Physical Parameters
Stream dimensions and stream velocity measurements were recorded at all sampling
sites. Stream dimensions were recorded using a measuring tape to measure the channel width and
a meter stick to measure the stream height. Stream velocity was recorded at 0.25 m intervals
along the width of the stream channel using an electronic flow meter. Stream velocity values
were recorded from one-third the depth of the stream from the bottom. The average stream
velocity was recorded.
2.1.4.2 In-Situ Water Quality Parameters
In-situ water quality parameters were measured using Surgold’s HACH HQ40d multi-
meter. Field measurements included pH, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), and dissolved
oxygen concentration (DO). Turbidity was measured using a HACH 2100Q Portable
Turbidmeter. TSS was measured both in the lab using gravimetric methods and in the field using
a HACH DR890 Colorimeter. However, since gravimetric analysis is the only method approved
14
by the US EPA for determining TSS, the data collected from the HACH DR890 was not utilized.
All electronic equipment was properly calibrated prior to use.
2.1.5 Sample Collection Methodology
This section describes the sampling procedures used to collect water and sediment
samples for chemical characterization.
2.1.5.1 Surface Water Samples
Surface water samples were collected by directly filling 500 mL polypropylene bottle
from the surface water body being sampled. Clean bottles and lids were used for each sampling
site and further rinsed three times with sample water before filling. Water samples were collected
facing upstream to avoid contamination and identified by the date, UTM location, and site
identification number. Duplicate samples were collected for every 10th sample to identify
variability in the sampling. Two field blanks were prepared using deionize water to quantify the
bias introduced by contamination during sampling and transportation.
Collected surface water samples were filtered at Surgold’s on-site lab to expedite cation
and anion analysis once samples had arrived at Newmont’s analytical lab in Denver, Colorado.
Water samples intended for anion analysis were filtered using a 0.45 µM Whatman filter paper
and filtration assembly using a 12V, oil-free vacuum pump and a filtration flask. Filtered anion
water samples were transferred to 50 mL plastic vials. All samples were filled to the meniscus to
reduce gas transfer then capped and sealed with parafilm. Samples prepared for cation analysis
were prepared similarly, however these samples required the addition of 0.1N nitric acid prevent
metal precipitation. Water samples intended for total metal analysis were acidified to pH < 2
prior to filtration to release metals sorbed to suspended particles. Water samples intended for
dissolved metal analysis were acidified to pH < 2 after filtration. All vials were sealed with
parafilm and refrigerated at 2 oC until shipment under chain-of-custody to Newmont’s analytical
lab in Denver, Colorado. Samples were stored at the Merian facility for 2 months till shipment to
Newmont’s analytical lab in Denver, Colorado.
15
2.1.5.2 River Sediments and ASM Processed Waste Samples
River sediment samples were collected to measure mercury in the riverbed. Since nearly
all of Surgold’s monitoring points were in active or former ASM sites, sediment samples were
also collected from ASM waste piles, sluice box areas, and stockpiles to assess contents for
mercury and the potential for leaching metals into adjacent water systems. For this study
scientifically recognized sampling protocols were followed (Hageman et al. 2005, Wildeman et
al. 2007). At each sampling location, approximately 20 grab samples were collected using a
trowel and placed into a 5-gallon zip lock bag. The contents of the zip lock bag were thoroughly
mixed for one minute to ensure homogeneity. For mercury analysis, sediment samples were
immediately transferred to a 50 mL plastic vial to reduce loss of mercury due to volatilization.
Samples intended for Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP) were oven dried and
sieved in a 10 minus sieve prior to being transferred to a 50 mL plastic vial. All vials were sealed
with parafilm and refrigerated at 2 oC till shipment under chain-of-custody to Newmont’s
analytical lab in Denver, Colorado.
2.1.6 Analytical Methods
Characterization of a material’s chemical composition is fundamental to understanding its
environmental behavior. The results from solid-phase chemical analysis can be used to infer
which elements are of potential environmental concern, although it should be understood that a
high concentration of a particular element does not necessarily imply that this element will
indeed be mobilized in concentrations that may lead to environmental impacts. The results of
short-term leach tests tend to be sensitive to the methodology used (e.g., solid to solution ratio).
This section describes the analytical testing methods used to determine TSS and
characterize the chemical properties for aqueous and sediment samples. The TSS analysis was
conducted at Surgold’s on-site lab. All of the geochemical characterization for the collected
water and sediment samples was performed in-house by Newmont’s analytical lab in Denver,
Colorado.
16
2.1.6.1Total Suspended Solid Analysis
Total suspended solids were determined following the USEPA Method 160.2 gravimetric
procedures (ASTM D5907-03). In brief, the basic procedures include using pre-washed, dried,
and weighted 1.5 micron Whatman filter paper and a filtration assembly (includes vacuum pump,
filtration flask, clamps, and tubing). Approximately 500 mL of collected surface water was
poured in a pre-weighted 1000 mL beaker to determine the initial weight of the water. Next the
sample water was poured into the filtration system with clean filter paper. The pump attached to
the filtration system draws the water through the filter into the filtration flask. The leachate is
cycled through the filtration system approximately three times. The filter paper is then removed
from the filtration assembly and placed into a weighing dish at 103 -105 oC to dry for an hour
and then transferred to a desiccator to cool to room temperature. After the filter and dish have
cooled, the filter paper is weighted three times (then averaged). The weight of the residue or TSS
is calculated by subtracting the weight of the filter paper with the residue from initial weight of
the clean filter paper. The detection limit for the USEPA 160.2 method is 0.5 mg/L (ASTM
1997).
2.1.6.2 Elemental Chemical Composition
Characterization of the elemental composition of the water samples was a two-step
process that included an acid digestion, as performed at Surgold’s site lab, followed by analysis
of the elements in the resulting digestion. Methods of elemental analysis for this study for
aqueous samples included inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis
(Elan DRC II ICP-MS) for cations and ion chromatography (IC) (Perkin Elmer ICP-OES 7300)
for anion samples. The detection limit for both analytical instruments is 0.1 ppb.
Characterization of sediment sample elemental analysis included (1) synthetic
precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP) leach test followed by ICP-MS analysis and (2) cold
vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (CVAAS) for mercury screening. The SPLP leach test
(USEPA Method 1312) simulates the short-term interaction between meteoric water and fresh
mine waste (USEPA 1994). This test is performed at a 20:1 solution to solid ratio. The US EPA
17
has set a limit for mercury in drinking water of 2 µg/L or 2 ppb. The cold vapor technique is the
only EPA approved method for determining mercury at this level (USEPA 1979).
2.2 Environmental Results
This section provides the surface water field parameters measurements and the analytical
cation and anion measurements submitted to analytical laboratories. Results are presented as a
synthesis of both CSM’s site reconnaissance conducted in May – June 2015 and historic data
collected and archived by Surgold’s environmental staff from February 2007 – December 2011.
2.2.1 Surface Water Field Parameters
In the assessment of potential environmental impacts, water qualities are compared to
relevant water quality standards and guidelines. Surface water quality data for sampling locations
collected during CSM’ field reconnaissance is presented in Table 2.1. This analysis revealed
water quality impairment at monitoring locations EP-A1, EP-CO, and SW-26 with respect to
turbidity and TSS. Samples derived from BG-1 and BG-2 are representative background
sampling locations from undisturbed sites. BG-1 is located upstream from ASM impacted sites.
BG-2 is located downstream from ASM impacted sites. Historic water quality results for key
parameters from Surgold’s monitoring locations are presented Table 2.2 as a range of
measurements collected from 2014 to 2015.
Table 2.1 May 2015 Surface Water Field Parameter Readings
Sampling
Location
Width
(m)
Depth
(m)
Velocity
(m/s) pH
Temperature
(oC)
Conductivity
(µS/cm)
Turbidity
(NTU)
BG-1 2.1 0.2 0.3 6 27 30 6
BG-2 1.6 0.8 0.3 4 26 63 14
ASM-6 3.2 0.7 1.5 6 29 64 NA
EP-A0 3.7 0.2 1.3 6 27 78 146
EP-A1/ASM-1 2.8 0.5 1.4 6 29 96 635
SW-21 3.0 0.4 2.4 6 27 19 135
SW-39 3.7 0.2 1.3 6 27 78 146
EP-B0/ASM-3 - - - 7 26 79 174
SW-26 5.6 0.2 3.0 6 29 105 981
EP-CO/ASM-2 6.2 0.2 2.5 6 32 74 1,026
*Values in bold and shaded in grey express exceedance of US EPA Water Quality Standard for TSS
18
Relatively high values for turbidity were observed as part of this sampling effort.
Turbidity values were provided by means of a Hach 2011Q Handheld Turbidity meter, which
uses an optical interface to measure turbidity within glass vials, contained sampled water. Values
for turbidity ranged from 6 NTU up to 1026 NTU. The two lowest turbidity readings came from
the background samples collected from undisturbed areas (BG-1 and BG-2). The background
sample locations were one to two orders of magnitude less than all the other sampling locations.
In addition to the high turbidity levels high total suspended solids (TSS) were observed from
those samples submitted to the analytical laboratory and correlated with the high turbidity levels
observed. The highest TSS value recorded was 473 mg/L from SW-26, but all sites where high
turbidity was observed, high TSS values were observed. High TSS values can interfere with
other surface water constituent analyses.
Table 2.2 Range of historic Surface Water Field Parameter Readings (2014-2015)
*Average values are shown in parenthesis
Reviewing surface water field parameters collected from 2014-2015 revealed a high
degree of seasonal variability. Higher turbidity and TSS values were closely associated with high
recorded precipitation and stream velocity measurements as presented in Figure 2.3A/B using
Monitoring
Point
Velocity
(m/s)pH
EC
(µS/cm)
Temp.
(oC)
Turbidity
(NTU)
SW-21 NA6.0 - 7.5
(6.8 ± 0.8)
19 -40
(24 ± 10)
19 -35
(28 ± 4)
20 - 205
(68 ± 48)
EP-A00 - 6.3
(0.4 ± 1.0)
5.5 - 8.0
(6.7 ± 0.6)
8 - 102
(29 ± 17)
25 - 35
(30 ± 2)
25 - 370
(73 ± 63)
EP-B10 - 14
(0.5 ± 1.5)
5.0 - 8.0
(6.5 ± 0.5)
12 - 80
(27 ± 12)
20 - 35
(30 ± 2)
19 - 475
(63 ± 63)
EP-B00 - 14.4
(4.1 ± 6.9)
6.5 - 8.0
(7.0 ± 0.6)
18 - 24
(21 ± 3)
23 - 30
(28 ± 3)
447 - 908
(600 ± 217)
EP-A30 - 0.6
(0.2 ± 0.2)
6.0 - 8.0
(6.7 ± 0.8)
30 - 73
(45 ± 14)
9 - 32
(27 ± 7)
234 - 1318
(555 ± 372)
SW-390.1 - 0.4
(0.2 ± 0.2)
6.0 - 6.5
(6.2 ± 0.2)
28 -78
(47 ± 17)
27 - 34
(30 ± 3)
146 - 1,812
(636 ± 610)
EP-CO0 - 2.7
(0.2 ± 0.3)
4.0 - 8.0
(5.7 ± 0.7)
9 - 90
(24 ± 14)
25 -35
(31 ± 2)
54 - 4,000 (+)
(4,140 ± 3,051)
19
turbidity and precipitation data collected from EP-CO in 2014. There was a tighter fitting
correlation when turbidity values were restricted to 8,000 NTU (Fig. 2.3B). Greater turbidity in
relation to higher precipitation is to be expected, during a rainstorm, particles from the
surrounding land are washed into the river. Also, during high flows, water velocities are faster
and water volumes are higher, which can more easily stir up and suspend material from the
stream bed, causing higher content of suspended material in rivers. Values exceeding 4,000 NTU
were observed for EP-CO, but may have been higher since the equipment threshold was 4,000
NTU. All samples were not diluted. Further, analytical error may be present in the TSS
measurements since values were measured using a digital handheld Hach meter (HACH DR890
Colorimeter). Although portable meters allow for rapid determining of TSS, there is inherent
error associated with these methods with respect to accuracy and precision of measurement
samples. Currently approved methods by the US EPA for determining TSS include: US EPA
160.2 Method (written in 1971), US Geological Survey Method I-3765-85 (1985), Method 2540
D 19th Edition (1991), and Standard Method 2540 D 20th Edition (1997).
Figure 2.3A Nonlinear Regression Precipitation versus Turbidity
20
Figure 2.3B Linear Regression Precipitation versus Turbidity
2.2.2 Mine’s Surface Water Metal Analysis
Surface water samples from the Merian area collected in May 2015 were sent to
Newmont’s analytical laboratory in Denver, CO for ICP-MS analysis for dissolved and total
metals concentrations. Due to access restrictions and distance between sampling locations,
sediment and water samples were collected over the course of five days between May 22nd to
May 27th.Total and dissolved metals analysis was conducted for 25 metal analytes (Ag, Al, As,
B, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Li, Mn Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sr, Ti, Tl, U, V, and Zn). All the
analytes were found above the analytical detection threshold of 0.1 µg/L except mercury,
beryllium, thallium, and uranium. Refer to Appendix B for complete listing of all analytes and
measured concentrations. Currently, the US EPA only has recommended water quality or
drinking water criteria for dissolved phased metals. Only three of the of the analytes in the
dissolved phase were found above US EPA water quality standards, which included aluminum,
iron, and manganese (Table 2.3) . These three metals are listed as secondary pollutants by the US
EPA, which affect drinking water aesthetics, such as taste, color, and odor (USEPA 2015). High
levels of lead were recorded in the dissolved phased for water samples collected from EP-A0 and
21
EP-B1 (Table 2.3), which were in close proximity and downstream of an active ASM site (ASM-
3) that may have had a release of leaded diesel fuel (Appendix B). Since water samples were
collected on different days, sampling error may have been introduced into this study due to
variability in precipitation and water flow.
Table 2.3 Total and Dissolved Metal Analysis (May 2015)
*Values highlighted in red exceed USEPA Water Quality Standards ** Values highlighted in blue exceed Aquatic Toxicity Limits (Solomon 2008)
*Values highlighted in red exceed USEPA Water Quality Standards ** Values highlighted in blue exceed Aquatic Toxicity Limits (Solomon 2008)
Element Al Cu Fe Mn Pb
EPA DRINKING WATER (µg/L) 200 1300 300 50 15
Ecological MCL (µg/L) 200 17 300 50 8
Total Metals
Al Cu Fe Mn Pb
µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/LBG-1-AQ-TM 463.4 54.3 1,215.0 24.7 2.9
BG-2-AQ-TM 668.7 55.0 <1 11.9 8.8
EP-A0-AQ-TM 609.8 76.3 2,913.0 72.6 5.7
EP-A2-AQ-TM 276.3 44.7 <1 42.8 1.3
EP-A3-AQ-TM 1,205.5 553.1 2,891.0 76.0 27.8
EP-B1-AQ-TM 428.8 47.2 1,022.0 37.4 4.9
EP-C0-AQ-TM 450.3 43.3 3,374.0 104.3 3.8
SW-21-AQ-TM 316.8 40.8 1,602.0 23.0 6.7
SW-26-AQ-TM 315.1 33.3 2,021.0 123.0 5.0
SW-39-AQ-TM 186.7 59.3 <1 18.8 7.6
ASM-1-AQ-TM 413.3 42.0 <1 23.2 5.2
ASM-4-AQ-TM 397.4 71.6 1,774.0 34.4 2.6
ASM-5-AQ-TM 766.6 123.4 20,960.0 61.8 9.8
ASM-5-AQ-TM (sluice) 4,631.5 341.1 3,083.0 198.4 98.5
ASM-5-AQ-TM DUP 1,377.3 132.5 4,708.0 123.8 12.4
ASM-6-AQ-TM 202.3 54.1 <1 36.0 2.1
Site
Dissolved Metals
Al Cu Fe Mn Pb
µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/LBG-1-AQ-DM 316.60 172.20 <1 20.40 2.70
BG-2-AQ-DM 514.00 78.50 <1 12.50 9.80
EP-A0-AQ-DM 196.20 263.00 <1 60.60 3.20
EP-A2-AQ-DM 208.70 78.60 <1 36.20 1.80
EP-A3-AQ-DM 191.10 23.80 <1 50.10 0.60
EP-B1-AQ-DM 398.70 99.60 <1 36.90 10.70
EP-C0-AQ-DM 109.30 54.20 <1 67.10 4.40
SW-21-AQ-DM 440.00 45.10 2,560.00 72.90 3.30
SW-26-AQ-DM 164.10 40.50 <1 86.70 4.70
SW-39-AQ-DM 244.30 77.30 <1 48.80 4.10
ASM-1-AQ-DM 113.90 37.60 <1 16.70 3.30
ASM-4-AQ-DM 128.90 165.20 <1 23.70 2.20
ASM-5-AQ-DM 279.10 148.70 <1 38.40 4.60
ASM-5-AQ-DM (sluice) 286.70 334.60 <1 26.90 5.40
ASM-5-AQ-DM DUP 228.50 279.20 <1 99.20 7.00
ASM-6-QA-DM 295.60 96.30 <1 41.70 4.50
Site
22
The US EPA National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation (SDWR) for dissolved
aluminum is 0.2 mg/L. The analytical detection threshold for aluminum was 0.1 µg/L (ppb).
Total and dissolved aluminum was detected above US EPA’s SDWR for 10 of the 14 sample
locations. Total aluminum values ranged from 0.19 mg/L at SW-39 to 1.21 mg/L at EP-A3.
Dissolved aluminum values ranged from 0.11 mg/L at EP-CO to 0.51 mg/L at BG-1. All
measured values for total and dissolved aluminum are presented in Figure 2.4. The US EPA
national SDWR for dissolved iron is 0.3 mg/L (EPA 2002). The analytical detection limit
threshold for iron was 0.1 ppb. Total iron was detected in 9 of the 14 sampling locations. Total
iron value ranged from 1.0 mg/L at EP-B1 to 21.0 mg/L at ASM-5. Only one sampling locations
provided a dissolved iron measurement above the detection threshold, which was SW-21 at 2.6
mg/L. The detection threshold for iron was 0.1 ppb. There may have been an error in analysis
since the sampling locations below the USEPA SDWR were also below the detection threshold.
Similar to the aluminum results, total and dissolved iron is likely in exceedance of the USEPA
SDWR for all sampling locations. Measured values for total iron can be seen in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Total and Dissolved Aluminum and Iron at Surface Water Sampling Locations
The US EPA national SDWR for dissolved manganese is 0.05 mg/L. The analytical
detection limit for manganese was 0.1 ppb. Total and dissolved manganese was found at
23
detectable levels at all surface water locations. Total manganese levels ranged from 0.012 mg/L
at BG-2 to 0.123 mg/L at SW-26. Dissolved manganese levels ranged from 0.012 mg/L at BG-2
to 0.087 mg/L at SW-26. All measured values for dissolved and total manganese are presented in
Appendix D.
Total and dissolved mercury concentrations were not detected in any of the surface water
samples; the detection threshold for total mercury was 0.1 ppb. Mercury may have volatized
during shipment. Mercury has been classified as a priority pollutant by the US EPA which has
established recommended water quality criteria of 0.0014 mg/L for acute exposure and the
drinking water criterion of 0.002 mg/L (USEPA 2002).
2.2.3 Surface Water Metal Trend Analysis
Utilizing historic water quality data provided by Surgold from 2006 to 2012, this data
was incorporated into a trend analysis with respect to dissolved phased aluminum, iron, and
manganese. This was done to offer a more complete picture of the seasonal variability with
respect to metal concentrations. These metals were the only analytes present above US EPA
water quality or drinking water standards for both historic and CSM field analysis. Data from six
sampling locations was collected and averaged for each month. However, the data provided was
highly variable with respect to infrequent sampling across sites. Most of the sampling locations
did not have monthly values for the entire six year period. Average annual precipitation
measured by Surgold was overlain each data set to identify possible correlations between
precipitation and metal concentrations. The trend analysis for iron is presented in Figure 2.5 and
suggests that while precipitation may play a role, it is not the sole driver for iron release in these
systems.
Dissolved iron levels have ranged from a monthly average minimum value of 0.02 mg/L
for December at SW-26 to a maximum recorded value of 1.7 mg/L for June at EP-C0. Mean
dissolved iron values for all sampling locations and sampling events has been calculated as 1.1
mg/L; which, on average is well above the 0.2 mg/L SDWR and slightly above the National
Recommended Water Quality Criteria (NRWQC) of 1.0 mg/L for freshwater aquatic life
(USEPA 2015).
24
Figure 2.5 Monthly Averaged Dissolved Iron Trend Analysis (2006-2012)
Dissolved aluminum levels have ranged from a monthly average minimum value of 0.08
mg/L for March at SW-26 to a maximum recorded value of 0.23 mg/L for June at EP-B0. Mean
dissolved aluminum values for all sampling locations and sampling events has been calculated as
0.12 mg/L; which, on average is well above the 0.3 mg/L SDWR and above the NRWQC of 0.09
mg/L for freshwater aquatic life (USEPA 2015). The trend analysis for aluminum is presented in
Appendix E.
Dissolved manganese levels have ranged from a monthly average minimum value of 0.01
mg/L for November at SW-21 to a maximum recorded value of 0.28 mg/L for March at SW-26.
Mean dissolved manganese values for all sampling locations and sampling events has been
calculated as 0.11 mg/L; which is above both the SDWR and NRWQC set at 0.05 mg/L (USEPA
2015). The trend analysis for manganese is presented in Appendix E.
All the dissolved phased metals of interest expressed highest measured concentrations
during the major rainy season from late April to mid-August, which coincides with greater
25
turbidity and TSS measurements. This is consistent with introduction associated with sediment
loading into waterways with increased dissolution of dissolved phased metals. Through limiting
ASM activity, reducing TSS, and improving bank stabilization within heavily disturbed ASM
sites, these dissolved phased metals will likely decrease.
2.2.4 Historical Surface Water Alkali Metal and Non-Metal Analysis
Utilizing Surgold’s historical data from 2006 to 2014, monthly averages for alkali metals
and non-metals were calculated for SW-21, SW-23, SW-26, EP-A0, and EP-C0. Non-metals that
were measured above their associated detection thresholds include total potassium, total sodium
and total phosphorus. Total potassium was detected at all surface water locations and ranged at
values from 0.51 mg/L for September at SW-21 to 2.66 mg/L for May at SW-23. Total
phosphorus was only detected during the wet seasons with values from 0.014 mg/L for March at
SW-21 to 0.112 mg/L for July at EP-A0. Sodium levels remained relatively constant at 3.27
mg/L throughout the year as a monthly average. Currently, USEPA NRWQC does not exist for
any of these alkali metals, nor within the USEPA drinking water standards. Historical surface
water results for each month are summarized in Appendix C.
Non-metal analytes that were reported above the detection thresholds at more than one
sampling location include ammonia, bicarbonate, chloride, nitrate/nitrite as N, sulfate as SO4,
total alkalinity, total dissolved solids, and total organic carbon. All of these analytes were on
average below the US EPA water quality standards. Additionally, surface water samples were
analyzed for total cyanide, which was not found at levels above 0.01 mg/L at any of the sampling
locations. Historical surface water results for each month are summarized in Appendix C.
2.2.5 Sediments from ASM Sites and River
Seven ASM sites and ten monitoring sites were selected from within the Merian
concession for mercury and SPLP metal analysis. Five of the ASM sites located within flowing
river were selected for SPLP metals analysis. Twenty-three soil samples were collected from a
combination of river sediments located within both monitoring sites and ASM sites, along with
sediment samples collected from sluice box areas, and processed waste rock piles within ASM
sites.
26
The soil pH amongst the ASM site was slight acidic with an average pH of 5.4 using
deionized water. The SPLP test results indicate a potential for aluminum and manganese
leaching (Appendix F). The remaining metal analytes were either below the detection threshold
or had very low leaching potential. Surprising iron was not detected above detection threshold at
any of the sample sites; however it was measured at high concentrations in the dissolved phase
within surface water samples. Aluminum was detected in the dissolved phased at high
concentrations across all the sampled sites.
The leach test results are generally consistent with geochemical principles that dictate
that aqueous cationic species (species having a positive charge in dissolved form, such as Cd,
Co, Cu, Zn) tend to become more soluble when conditions become more acidic, while anionic
species (species having a negative charge, such as Mo, Sb, As, Se) tend to become less soluble in
acidic environments or show little effect from pH. For some of these parameters (i.e. Al, Co, Cr
and Cu), the reporting limit is above the lowest water quality standard. Arsenic, molybdenum,
and selenium occur as oxyanions in solution and are known to be mobile under circumneutral pH
conditions, while the mobility of aluminum increases at pH levels greater than 8 (Adriano 2013).
Mercury concentrations were consistently below its reporting limit of 0.0001 mg/L.
2.3 Environmental Implications
Surface water quality within the Merian concession is slightly acidic with low alkalinity
and variable TSS. The turbidity and TSS measurements from sampling locations near or within
ASM-impacted sites were 2 to 3 orders of magnitude greater than sites. High sediment content in
waters will have direct negative implications for aquatic life due to clogging fish gills, reduced
oxygen availability, and increased metal loading (Mol et al. 2003; Berman et al. 1987; Chapman
1988). Reported electric conductivity (EC) values for Tomulu Creek (EP-C0) are slightly higher
than the EC values measured at the Las Dominicanas watershed (EP-A0) monitoring locations.
EC is closely correlated with metal content of waters since most metals are good conductors of
electricity (Lide 2004). Nutrient and metal concentrations were generally below United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) National Recommended Water Quality Criteria
(NRWQC). This is to be expected since the sediment deposits at Merian are primarily composed
27
of highly weathered saprolite, which has little remaining unleached metal content. During the
wet season (late April through mid-August), dissolved aluminum, iron, and manganese
concentrations at some locations, typically ASM-impacted sites have consistently exceeded US
EPA SDWR and NRWQC for freshwater aquatic life. Thereby reducing TSS within waterways
will provide long term benefits to the local ecology and downstream human communities which
depend upon a healthy fish population for their dietary needs, specifically piscivores.
28
CHAPTER 3: TOTAL SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS AS A TRANSPORT PATHWAY FOR
MERCURY MIGRATION
The mining industry has been traditionally criticized for lack of effective environmental
monitoring and determining whether expected impacts have materialized (Arts et al. 2001). This
may be true amongst junior level mining companies; however amongst large scale mining
company’s environmental management is typically a major component of their corporate
portfolio (Franks et al. 2014). In principle environmental monitoring activities serve the purpose
of verifying project impacts predictions, determining the effectiveness of impact mitigation
measures, supporting environmental management systems, and provide information in support of
future assessments (Nobel and Birk 2010). Traditionally, institutional mandates with respect to
environmental management within mining industry are focused on permitting and regulatory
approval (Joyce and MacFarlane 2001). In some cases, environmental monitoring exercises may
be viewed as a nuisance and a legal obligation required to doing business (Buckley 1997).
However, recent development in the last decade has imposed stricter environmental regulations
upon the mining industry, largely due to stakeholders and lending sources demanding mining
companies to be more environmentally responsible (Franks et al. 2014). Although ASM impacts
are not associated with Surgold’s activities, their legacy will have a negative influence on
Surgold’s long term monitoring efforts (specifically to address Surgold’s environmental impacts
to downstream areas). This study hopes to provide a more in-depth discussion of downstream
ASM impacts associated with mercury use and bring attention to mercury (Hg) migration by
suspended sediments. This information can be used to support Surgold’s environmental baseline
assessment.
In Suriname it is estimated that approximately 20,000 kg per year of mercury (Hg) is
released into the environment as a direct result of ASM activity (Viega 1997). This is value is
orders of magnitude larger than the two other largest sources of Hg emissions, which include
bauxite refining at 150 kg/ year and deforestation at 30 kg/year (SuriMerc 2008). Therefore, the
main source of mercury found in the environment directly related to ASM activity. Within ASM
operations, previous studies estimate 55% of Hg is lost to the atmosphere and 45% is held up in
terrestrial systems, such as sediments, groundwater, and streams (Telmer et al. 2008). Several
29
studies have been dedicated to atmospheric transportation of mercury and methylmercury uptake
in aquatic organisms (Ouboter et al. 2012, Mol et al. 2000, Peplow et al. 2011). However, little
is known about the transportation and transformation of Hg within streams under high sediment
loading conditions as evident in ASM impacted areas.
3.1 Properties of Mercury and Health Risks
Elemental mercury is a unique heavy metal that exists as a liquid at ambient
temperatures. In its liquid state, elemental mercury does not readily volatilize into the
atmosphere since it has a high boiling point of 357 OC. However, within ASM practices the
refining of amalgam into a sellable gold product (containing impurities such as silver and
copper), typically entails burning off the mercury without a retort over an open flame (Ouboter et
al. 2012). Here, all of the mercury is evaporated and released into the atmosphere.
Approximately, 45% of the mercury released into the atmosphere is believed to settle back to
land means of atmospheric cooling and wet deposition after rainfall. Once on land, the mercury
will condense back to a liquid state to settle into terrestrial system (sediments, water systems,
urban areas) (Ouboter et al. 2012).
The three principle forms of mercury found in the environmental are elemental mercury
(Hg (0)), methylmercury (MeHg), and mercury cation (Hg (II)), such as HgCl2. MeHg can
bioaccumulate rapidly through the food chain to top predators and is highly toxic to aquatic
animals and vertebrates, such as humans (Mol et al. 2000). The mechanism by which elemental
mercury converts to MeHg is through a metabolic process utilized by anaerobic bacteria (Pak et
al 1998). The bacteria may be consumed by organisms higher in the food chain or excrete the
MeHg into the water for rapid adsorption to plankton, which are consumed by the next level in
the food chain. Top predators such as piscivorous fish can bioaccumulation MeHg rapidly, which
ultimately ends up in fish-eating animals and people (Mol et al. 2000). From previous studies,
approximately 90% of the mercury found in Amazonian fish species is in the form of MeHg
(Akagi et al. 1995). Piscivors are the predominate kind of fish consumed by local Maroons (Mol
et al. 2000). As previously stated, the primary source of elemental Hg within the Suriname is
largely attributed to ASM activity, therefore the methylation of elemental mercury must be
occurring within organic rich riverbeds downstream of ASM sites.
30
The adverse human health effects from prolonged mercury exposure include reduced
neurological function (blindness, slower motor skills, and impaired consciousness), gonadal
development, and paresthesia (numbness and tingling sensation on the skin) (ATSDR 1999).
Oral ingestion of MeHg through fish has been closely linked to significant developmental effects
on the fetus, such as mental retardation, ataxia, blindness, and cerebral palsy (ATSDR 1999).
Evidence of these neurological impacts is consistent with mercury poisoning that has been
documented in clinical examinations amongst several human communities within the interior
rainforest of Suriname (Peplow et al. 2014).
3.2 Mercury in Merian
While the water sampling to date has not indicated significant issues with mercury within
the concession area, it is well-known that mercury is widely utilized by the small-scale miners,
and its use has been observed in the concession area for amalgamation of fine grained gold in the
placer operations. Mercury is likely present; however, it is very difficult to find using the
sampling methods employed by this study. One of the difficulties in measuring mercury lies in
its unique physical properties where it may volatize into the atmosphere due to its low vapor
pressure (0.002 mm Hg at 25 oC) or migrate vertically down through the soil profile due to its
high specific gravity (13.6 at 25 oC) (CAS 7439-97-6). Further the speciation of mercury offers
additional challenges in measuring mercury where it may exist as methylmercury in the water
column bind to suspended sediments or as inorganic mercury complex with minerals and organic
material within sediments (Gao et al. 2012). All of the collected samples had mercury content.
The highest mercury concentration was found at the undisturbed sampling locations, which
contained noticeably greater organic content within the streambed.
3.2.1 Mercury in River Sediments
Utilizing Cold Vapor Atomic Adsorption (CVAA), total mercury was found at detectable
levels at all sediment sampling locations. Due to the long holding time between shipments of
samples from Suriname to Newmont’s analytical lab, some of the mercury content in the samples
may have been lost due to volatilization, hence represent a conservative measurement and likely
underestimate actual concentrations. Within the Merian site mercury levels ranged from 0.002
mg/kg to 7.24 mg/L within sediment samples. Most mercury values were below 0.03 mg/kg
31
within sediment samples which is within normal mercury levels in soil of 0.01 to 0.05 mg/kg
(Anderson 1979). The highest mercury reading was at BG-2 from the river sediment.
Surprisingly, this site is a background site from an area that appeared to be undisturbed from
ASM activity. USEPA mercury screening levels for residential and commercial exposures within
soils are 10 mg/kg and 43 mg/kg, respectively (USEPA 2015). BG-2 is the only site with the
potential to exceed residential exposure limits. All measured values for total mercury are
presented in Figure 2.9.
Figure 3.1 Mercury Content in Sediments (May 2015)
3.2.2 Mercury in Fish
In May 2011, 19 fish specimens from within the Merian concession were collected and
analyzed by a third party consultant (Tetra Tech). This sampling effort was mainly directed
towards piscivores because they are good indicators for monitoring mercury pollution as the
highest mercury levels are expected in top predators in the food chain and piscivores species are
an important food source for Surinamese communities. Total mercury values found in fish tissue
ranged from 0.183 mg/kg to 1.35 mg/kg (0.485 mg/kg ± 0.34) where 14 of the 19 of the fish
32
collected exceeded maximum permissible mercury concentration in edible fish tissue as set by
the US EPA at 0.3 mg/kg (Figure 3.2). Since there is extensive ASM activity both upstream and
downstream of the Merian concession and fish are able to migrate into the concession from
connecting tributaries, it is difficult to determine the areas where the fish may be bioacculating
mercury. However, these values were approximately five times higher when compared with
previous sampling efforts conducted in May 2008 prior to the expansion of ASM activities into
the Merian concession where mercury in fish tissue ranged from 0.038 mg/kg to 0.42 mg/kg
(Avg: 0.097 mg/kg ± 0.069). Since there was a large increase in mercury content within fish
from 2008 to 2011 in correlation with increased ASM activity in the Merian concession, this is
indicative that mercury bioaccumulation within fish is largely attributed to anthropogenic
activity.
Interestingly, the highest mercury levels observed in the collected fish were from areas
that were not directly disturbed from ASM activity (SW-21, SW-23, and SW-26). During CSM
site reconnaissance in May 2015, the highest mercury level in river sediments was also observed
in an undisturbed area (BG-2).
*The points circled in red are the compliance points where the highest Hg levels were observed. Figure 3.2 Total Mercury in Fish Tissue (Tetra Tech May 2011)
33
These findings are in agreement with previous sampling efforts conducted in Suriname.
ASM activities are generally concentrated along waterways, which has negative effects on the
aquatic ecosystem by diverting, limiting, or impeding the natural flow and saturating the streams
with suspended matter. Past studies with Amazonian fish indicate that background levels for Hg
in fish tissue are 0.04 to 0.24 mg/kg, which are significantly lower than the mercury levels found
in fish collected from the Merian site (Mol et al. 2001). In a study conducted by Ouboter et al.
(2012), 330 fish were collected from 53 localities in Suriname to include gold mining areas and
areas with no historic mining. During this study, 80% of the mercury found in fish tissue
exceeded 0.3 mg/kg. Highest Hg concentrations were found in freshwater piscivores. High
mercury content has also been found in Surinamese gold miners (de Kom et al. 1998) and in the
Maroon communities along the Marowijne River (Cordier et al. 1998)who depend on fisheries as
a large component of their diet (Peplow and Augustine 2012).
3.3 Mercury in Undisturbed Areas
Previous studies in mercury migration to undisturbed areas have largely been attributed to
atmospheric deposition as the primary transport mechanism (Ouboter et al. 2012). However,
there is no published data that shows a correlation with respect to distance from the mining
operation and atmospheric deposition of Hg. Further, based on interview with ASM gold miners
and site observations, whole ore amalgam appears to be the primary means for gold recovery.
This method employs pouring and mixing elemental Hg into the stockpile prior to gravity
concentration (i.e. sluice box). This method releases large amounts of Hg into the environment,
which is largely bound to unconsolidated fine sediments. Usually no tailing pond is constructed
and the sediment slurry that discharges from the sluice box freely enters adjacent streams without
treatment. Therefore, it is likely that much of the Hg utilized in ASM practices is bound to
sediments and released into rivers. As shown in Chapter 2, the water within ASM areas is very
turbid from sediment loading throughout the year due to frequent high intensity rainfall events.
Since little organic material exists within the riverbed of mining impacted areas, the Hg
bound to the drifting sediments is not available for methylation and bio-accumulation in aquatic
biota (Morel et al. 1998). However, when these Hg bound sediments eventually drift into
undisturbed areas with rich organic content and high concentration of microbial activity, the Hg
is available for methylation and bio-accumulation. This may explain the high mercury content
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measured from the undisturbed site (BG-2) that was identified during Mine’s site visit. Other
studies in central and western Suriname from pristine, undisturbed areas with no historic gold
mining have observed high mercury levels in fish and river sediments. In the study previously
discussed by Ouboter et al. (2012) all 53 sampling localities across Suriname indicate the
majority of mercury found in rivers is anthropogenic with concentrations rising due to deposition
of new sediment layers. For instance, the Brokopondo Reservoir, which is a reservoir located
downstream of several ASM sites, had reported fish tissue mercury levels that were five to seven
times greater than the acceptable limit for human consumption as set by the US EPA at 0.3
mg/kg.
High Hg levels in undisturbed areas can be explained by a combination of factors that
favor high rates of Hg methylation: 1. Natural sedimentation and accumulation of heavy metals
in undisturbed areas (Ouboter et al. 2012); 2. High concentration of either iron or sulfur-reducing
bacteria activity within the bottom anoxic water layer (Boudou et al. 2006); 3. Acidic water with
low conductivity and fast turnover (Lacerda et al. 1989); and high concentrations of organic
matter found in undisturbed streams (Morel et al. 1998). Although elemental Hg is not soluble
(5.6 x 10-5 g/L at 25 oC), methylmercury (MeHg) is considerably more soluble in water (1.0 g/L
at 21 oC) (NRC 2000). Within the ASM sites, the form of mercury that is mostly likely present is
elemental mercury since there is little organic material to sustain microbial activity and the
methylation of mercury. Further the desorption rates of elemental mercury from fine sediments is
10-3 to 10-5 times the rate of sorption, which supports the hypothesis that elemental mercury
released from ASM sites is carried away downstream by means of suspended sediments (Stein et
al. 1996). This allows fine sediments from gold mining areas to act as a sink for mercury until
sediments are deposited in areas favorable for Hg methylation, such as undisturbed areas with
rich organic content to support microbial activity. Further, deposited mercury may slowly desorb
from sediments into the water or bioaccumulate in bottom feeding fish. Therefore, within ASM
sites where mercury is released as elemental Hg, it will likely either sink vertically though the
soil horizon or adsorb to suspended sediments within the waterway to migrate downstream,
whereby it may become metabolized by microorganism and biotransformed into MeHg.
However, dissolved oxygen content and microbial phylum of sediments in streams was not
assessed during the field reconnaissance to determine whether anoxic conditions existed.
However, based on field observations showing rich organic content in the river bed of
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unimpacted areas and the high concentration of dissolved iron, there is convincing evidence to
support the presence of iron-reducing microbes to sustain methylation of elemental mercury.
3.4 Water Quality Linked to Mercury Levels
Physiochemical water quality analysis expressed variability in all parameters especially
TSS. The water for the streams within the Merian concession was characterized by low
conductivity (<50 µS/cm), low hardness (<10 mg/L CaCO3), low to neutral pH (4.2-8.3), high
dissolved oxygen (7.0 – 9.9 mg/L), low to moderate dissolved organic content (DOC) (2.2 – 12.6
mg/L) in the wet season, and much lower oxygen concentrations (1.3 – 1.7 mg/L) and slightly
higher DOC (2.3 – 18.3 mg/L) in the dry season (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 Merian Concession Water Quality Parameters (2014-2015)
Factors such as low water pH and high dissolved organic carbon content can increase the
rate at which total mercury is methylated (USGS 2000). The dry season is more conducive for
mercury methylation since the dissolved oxygen concentration in the streams is low and there is
moderate DOC in the system. However, the lack of suitable organic substrate to provide habitat
for anaerobic bacteria is typically low in gold mining areas (Mol et al. 2003). Further, during the
dry season the forest creeks are fed by springlets and measureable flow is often times too low to
36
provide adequate water levels for fish migration and MeHg transport (Ouboter 1993). During the
wet season within undisturbed waterways, considerable autotrophic activity has been observed
due to increased organic content and nutrient inputs from the local watershed, as evident by the
presence of algae blooms within undisturbed sites (Perez et al. 2011).
3.5 Conclusion
Mercury contaminated sediments coupled with high TSS will continue to pose a pollution
problem for downstream undisturbed areas long after artisanal gold miners abandon an area. As
previously noted, the richly diverse fish communities within these freshwater streams are
threatened by siltation related to gold mining, and some rare species are at risk of local and
range-wide extinction (Wantzen and Mol 2013). Based on studies by Rodrigues and Lewis
(1997) and Odinetz Collart et al. (1996), ASM activity is directly correlated to reduction in fish
diversity and shifts in assemblage structure towards fishes adapted to low light conditions. This
has farther reaching impacts to altering the predatory-prey interactions and reproductive behavior
of the entire freshwater ecosystem. Further this reduces the abundance of food for fish-eating
animals and indigenous human communities who depending on fisheries for their diet and
financial stability. The deterioration of water quality has forced some indigenous villages to
become displaced from their ancestral lands. For instance, the village of Kawenhakan previously
located on the Suriname side of the Lawa River, had to be relocated to the French Guiana side
due to excessive pollution of their traditional water source due to gold mining (Vinding et al.
2005).
Small-scale gold mining practices have farther reaching impacts beyond the boundaries
of a cleared forest. In this study, downstream undisturbed areas such as nature reserves were
found to have high levels of mercury in streambeds and fish. Laboratory analysis for total
mercury in fish and streambeds were higher compared to samples collected from ASM areas.
Although existing literature states only 45% of mercury released by ASM activity has been
attributed to water systems, there is evidence to believe rivers are receiving higher loads of
mercury due to reported whole ore amalgam practices in Suriname. Due to extensive disturbance
of waterways from ASM activities either adjacent or within rivers, these waters may be heavily
laden with suspended sediments that contain mercury. This hypothesis is supported by a study
conducted by the United States Geological Survey on mercury in stream ecosystems, they
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identified “methylmercury dissolved in water and bound to sediment” as one potential pathway
for mercury migration (USGS 2003). During the wet season, frequent and intense precipitation
events allow for further discharge of processed sediments into waterways to be carried
downstream to undisturbed forest. Within undisturbed areas mercury bound sediments may settle
to the streambed, which are typically overlain with a thick layer of organic material and nutrients
capable of supporting microorganisms that can methylate this inorganic phase. Methylmercury is
a highly toxic contaminant and analysis of fish in the region suggests bioaccumulation to human
communities. In a study conducted by Peplow and Augustine 2014, mercury levels within
indigenous communities within the interior forest of Suriname was highest amongst populations
located downstream of active ASM sites. By reducing the transport of processed sediments from
ASM sites to downstream undisturbed areas, the proliferation of mercury into the food chain and
human communities could be reduced.
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CHAPTER 4: EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS TARGETING RECLAMATION OF SMALL-SCALE MINING SITES
Utilizing the findings from the environmental assessment of ASM impacts within the
Merian concession, two Senior Design teams from CSM were created to develop remediation
plans for the purpose of addressing the observed environmental impacts. This was a combined
effort that included client oversight and feedback from Newmont’s Social Responsibility (SR)
and Environmental departments, project management and weekly lecturing from CSM faculty
(Ben Teschner and Nicole Smith), and ongoing cross communication between the Senior Design
teams with Newmont (Cynthia Parnow and Allison Coppel) and CSM’ personnel (Dr. Josh
Sharp). Travis Borrillo-Hutter acted as the interface between Newmont and CSM and provided
analytical results and relevant research material to student groups. The objectives of this project
were three-fold: (1) re-establishing hydrological flow for a heavily impacted ASM site within the
Merian concession, (2) reduce TSS levels within this ASM-impacted site, and (3) develop a
community engagement plan to promote local employment and improve the relationship between
Surgold and the downstream Pamika community.
4.1 Formulating Senior Design Teams
Senior Design is a two-semester course that requires students to apply the skills learned
during their undergraduate experience into a culminating capstone experience. At CSM, students
in or near their final year of study are formed into teams of 6 persons. These teams are based on
student interests, as expressed in their project bids and their academic background. The two
Senior Design teams involved in this project were composed of eleven Environmental
Engineering students and one Civil Engineering undergraduate. Both teams were provided
ERM’s Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and the environmental data
collected during CSM’ reconnaissance to the Merian site in May 2015. Teams were encouraged
to work independently to promote development of unique strategies to address the three
objectives of this project. Further teams were advised to develop reclamation plans that
emphasized stream channel re-contouring, bank stabilization, and promotion of natural
revegetation.
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4.2 White Sands Project
The site selected for the Senior Design project is located in the Merian concession on
Tomulu Creek. For the purpose of this project, this site is referred to as the White Sands Project
(WSP) area, which covers approximately 2.5 square kilometers. This region is defined by the
Tomulu Creek stream channel, which is heavily impacted by recent ASM activity (Figure 4.1).
One of Surgold’s surface water monitoring locations (EP-C0) is located in the WSP area. The
long term water quality data from EP-C0 can be used to determine baseline conditions and to
assess the overall effectiveness of implemented reclamation plans.
Figure 4.1 White Sands Project Area [Lat: 778,000, Long: 561,500] (ArcGis ®)
4.3 Reclamation Plans
Several reclamation plans were considered by both Senior Design teams. Below are the
top four design concepts that appeared to be most promising to address the environmental
objectives of this project. Each of these design concepts should be used in union to re-establish
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natural hydrologic flow conditions, reduce TSS, promote revegetation, and discourage future
ASM activity in the area.
4.3.1 Channel Recontouring & Bank Stabilization
Since ASM-impacted sites are typically located adjacent to waterways, this allows for
rapid discharge of sediments into waterways during precipitation events. Within the Tomulu
Creek there are several areas along the channel where natural water flow has been impeded by
ASM activity, resulting in ponds and meandering streams. Bank stabilization is able to address
sediment loading and would incorporate sediment excavation and channel recontouring to re-
establish hydrologic flow. By stabilizing and redefining the banks of the river, sediment loading
can be reduced by manipulating stream dimensions and increasing frictional resistance to reduce
stream velocity. Reducing stream velocity translates directly to decreasing energy of the system
through frictional head loss. The effect can be modeled by Manning’s equation (4.1):
V = Velocity Rh = Hydraulic gradient (wetted perimeter P divided by area A) S = Slope n = Manning coefficient (roughness factor) k = Metric conversion factor By increasing the roughness of the riverbank n, and altering the shape and size of the
channel, the velocity is reduced. Now, considering the energy equation where the calculated
velocity is now V2 (4.2):
y = Elevation V = Velocity g = Gravitational constant α = Correctional factor (1 or 1.05 for open channel) S = Slope ∆x = Distance hL = Head loss
4.1
4.2
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The loss in energy to hL, or friction can be attributed to the vegetative cover established
on the banks. Establishing vegetation along the banks will stabilize sediments and increase the
frictional losses within the wetting perimeter. As the energy of the system drops, material being
carried drops to the creek bottom due to sheer force of the water and the failure of particle
buoyancy to overcome the gravitational forces on the particle (Crone 2004). Different size
particles will settle differently, and further calculations are necessary to determine the desired
velocity to reduce the suspended solids to the desired levels. As previously stated in Chapter 2,
reduction in suspended solids directly reduces metal loading and turbidity in the waterways.
Stabilization work will include using heavy machinery to excavate sediments out of
streams to re-establish water flow. Newly stabilized banks will be covered by seeded erosion
control blankets staked by locally sourced branches to reduce bank failure. Riprap support will
be used for toe protection on the bottom of the bank where the erosion control blankets meet the
water. At the top of the banks, revegetation will aid in the structure and protection of the bank
primarily as understory plants and tree saplings.
During bank restructuring, mercury may be disturbed and mobilized due earth moving
activities. Prior to reclamation work, on-site workers should be provided proper personal
protective equipment (PPE) to reduce inhalation risk of mercury vapors. This work should be
completed during the dry season (February through April) for workers safety.
4.3.2 Sedimentation Ponds
Sedimentation ponds (also known as sediment ponds, sediment basins, and retention
ponds) also reduce the energy within waterways and promote settling of suspended sediments. A
sedimentation pond is essentially a small reservoir built along a reach of river. By increasing the
depth and widening the river banks, a large pool is formed where the velocity of the river is
reduced. The constructed pond is designed to increase holding time of water so heavier
suspended sediments may settle in the pond before the runoff is discharged. For the purpose of
this application, a moderately sized pool can be assumed to be adequate as most constituents of
concern such as mercury are very dense and will sink with limited retention times.
For simplicity, it can be assumed that the velocity of the sediment pond reaches near
zero. This approach is more straightforward than bank stabilization calculations where stream
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velocity must be calculated. With this assumption, the energy of the system can be determined
using the energy equation (Eqn. 2). The left side of the equation represents the input to the
system, and the right side represents the output, or in this cases the sediment pond. If all else is
held constant, a reduction in V2 must lead to an increase in head loss, hL. Head loss is usually a
result of friction (i.e. vegetative cover), which is factored into the energy equation as loss of
energy. In a sedimentation pond the head loss is large enough to reduce the energy to the point
where sediments drop out. Figure 4.2 provides a graphical illustration of this concept as water
flows through the pond. If desired, the settling velocity of particles can be calculated using
Stoke’s law.
Figure 4.2 Sediment Pond Concept Design (Generated by Senior Desigtn)
4.3.3 Active Revegetation and Hydroseeding
The principle of active revegetation and hydroseeding is very simple. Active revegetation
entails sowing saplings and mature plants on cleared land. Hydroseeding is a planting process
that uses a slurry of seed and nutrients that are dispensed from a water tank using a handheld
applicator (Figure 4.3). Utilizing Surgold’s existing hydroseeding equipment, a native seed mix
complexed with nutrients will be broadcasted to cover the surface of ASM-impacted sites.
Hydroseeding will allow for rapid growth of grasses to promote stabilization of the top soil and
provide structural support for saplings and mature plants to take root. Once woody plants have
43
become established, passive revegetation will then take over to allow for the proliferation of
natural revegetation.
Figure 4.3 Hydroseeding Applications in Merian (Photo by: Travis Borrillo-Hutter)
4.3.4 Road Removal
Upon completing the reclamation project, an exit strategy must be implemented to
discourage ASM activity on site that may effectively negate reclamation efforts. Currently, the
roads leading up to the site are mostly compacted soil approximately 5 meters wide. They are in
poor condition for the most part, containing numerous potholes and significant erosion, as seen
in Figure 4.4. Due to past incidents, a security gate would be inefficient. The most effective plan
of action is to completely remove the road by excavating a significant segment of the road from
all access points, followed by reseeding and reclamation. Other diversion may include berms,
speedbumps, pits, and artificial hills. It would not be necessary to dredge up all the roads, but a
significant portion the main access road leading away from public roads to deter future use.
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Figure 4.4 Existing Access Road in Merian (Photo by: Travis Borrillo-Hutter)
4.4 Community Development Plans
Senior Design teams considered several stakeholder engagement strategies to foster a
beneficial relationship between Surgold and affected Pamika community. Teams were
encouraged to identify potential risks to Surgold’s social license to operate (SLO) and develop
community development plans to proactively address these risks. Below is one of the community
development plans proposed by Senior Design that has the potential to both improve Surgold’s
SLO and provided added benefit to the affected Pamika community.
4.4.1 Community Led Procurement
A community led local procurement plan would strive to improve Surgold’s SLO by
providing the local Pamika community an opportunity to become actively involved in Surgold’s
decision making process. This plan utilizes “self-mapping process”, which entails visually
displaying all the stakeholders including indigenous communities, government entities, and
business groups. This self-mapping process will also help strengthen the community and provide
them with the opportunity to develop a more cohesive group. Another significant benefit of this
45
plan is that it will provide vulnerable groups within the community the resources and education
needed to develop their own solutions to the problems they face.
In this plan, Surgold will hire representatives to head a local committee tasked with
leading the community in the process of self-mapping. As discussed in the concept overview this
plan would allow the community to become more influential over the project. Additionally, this
plan would provide capacity building for the community. One of the most significant challenges
to the success of this plan will be in the creation of a committee. In order for this committee to
be a success, it must be representative of the diversity within the Pamika community while also
fostering teamwork. Further research will need to be done in order to evaluate how this
committee will be effectively established. This committee’s role will be to survey the community
with the aim of collecting important data describing each family's individual circumstances. This
evaluation will include the following parameters: current source of income, living conditions,
household size, and improvements that they would like to see in their lives.
During this process, Surgold will provide capacity building opportunities for this
committee and the wider community. This capacity building will reduce the risk of adverse
effects to both the vulnerable groups and Surgold, shown in Figure 4.5.
Once a representative map of the community is developed, Surgold will then have the
option to design a mutually beneficial local procurement plan. Based on the results of the
community mapping, Surgold will further utilize the committee to develop a culturally
appropriate job application process to acquire employees from a variety of backgrounds. Further
research will need to be dedicated to develop a successful application process. This type of
procurement plan incorporates both temporary and long-term positions for the community
members, depending on the needs of both parties. Table 4.1 summarizes the potential benefits
and drawbacks of the Community Lead Procurement plan.
46
Figure 4.5 Community Lead Procurement Stakeholder Map (Generated by Senior Design: Duurzaam Development)
Table 4.1 Pros and Cons of the Community Lead Procurement Plan
Pros Cons
1. Significantly reduces the risks to Surgold’s SLO.
2. Allows the community to take ownership over their own development.
3. Aids Surgold in identify key ways of supporting the local community.
4. Provides the community with an opportunity to present their own needs and learn more about themselves.
5. Builds capacity within the community.
1. The time required to successfully implement this plan may be longer than Surgold plans to mine the Marian site
2. If the mapping process fails Surgold’s SLO would be at risk and internal tension within the community could grow.
3. The mapping process may not provide the necessary information to make a culturally appropriate job application and hiring process.
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4.5 Ongoing Developments and Conclusion
All of these concepts show the ability to be used onsite for this project. The reclamation
goals are to restore healthy stream flow through the WSP area and ensure that water exiting the
site meets US EPA water quality standards. The presented concepts exist on a spectrum of
passive to active energy-related options. The local procurement plan concepts similarly range on
scales of scope of people involved in the project and the level of involvement of those people.
The concepts as a whole have the advantage of being composed of discrete design elements
which allows them to be rearranged to fit the time and availability of Surgold staff.
Each Senior Design teams will build upon their pre-feasibility analysis to identify the
most effective reclamation and community development plans. For reclamation plans, the next
step will involve developing computer models to assess different channel reconfigurations and
sedimentation ponds designs. Design considerations will included depth/width dimensions,
inflow and outflow, retention time, and peak flow to identify the ideal design parameters to
reduce TSS to desired levels. Both the reclamation and community development plans will
incorporate decision making factors such as cost, timeframe, company risks, public opinion,
upkeep, and monitoring. Ongoing discussions between Newmont and the Senior Design teams
are being maintained to assure that Newmont’s expectations are meet. In May 2016, the Senior
Design teams will provide a written report and oral presentation of their recommendations to
Newmont for the WSP.
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CHAPTER 5: PARTICIPATORY COMMUNITY MONITORING
The design of a monitoring program should be based on clear and well thought out aims
and objectives and should ensure that the planned monitoring activities are practicable and that
the objectives of the program will be met. The principal reasons for monitoring water quality
within mining sites has been to define baseline conditions, verify standards performance, and to
ensure early detection of potential impacts, such that mitigation measures can be implemented
(US EPA 1995, Wilson 1996). However, in the case of the Merian Project, monitoring is
inclusive of ASM disturbance within the concession. The goal of this document is provide
insight into how to develop and implement an effective Participatory-Community Monitoring
(PCM) program that will incorporate the Maroon community situated near Surgold’s mining
operations.
5.1 Background on Participatory-Community Monitoring and 3D Approach
Members of the local community often feel they are not engaged during the decision
making process within the decision making process of environmental management. Participatory
Community Monitoring or PCM is a in which member so the local community may be engaged
and also introduces a means of build trust within the community (IFC 2014). PCM is a process
through which stakeholders at various levels engage in environmental monitoring, whereby the
local communities play an integral role towards evaluating the effectiveness of the environmental
controls taken by the mining company to reduce and/or avoid impacts to surrounding areas and
be part of the early identification of potential problems (Morrison-Saunders et al. 2003). It is
imperative that clear and open communication be maintained throughout the process between all
relevant parties, specifically Surgold’s Environmental and Social Responsibility teams with the
Pamika community. To this end, clear and open communication will likely improve transparency
and trust building between community-company and reduce the likelihood of societal anxiety
related to misunderstanding and actions against Surgold lead by fear rather then fact.
In order for the PCM program to be effectively integrated into Surgold’s existing
operation, it ought to follow the International Financial Corporations (IFC) three-dimensional
approach (3D) towards achieving a comprehensive plan towards improving downstream water
management and long term monitoring. Following this management style may improve
49
community engagement, improve trust building between the community and Surgold, and drive
corporate objectives towards earning social license to operate. The principle of the IFC 3D
approach involves internal alignment across company functions, employing strategic
communications, and co-management of knowledge and resources between all decision makers
(i.e. community leaders, regulators, and mining managers) (IFC 2014).
Beginning with internal alignment of the 3D approach (Figure 5.1), there needs to be a
shared vision with respect to water management across the company’s operational functions (IFC
2014). This entails having internal collaboration between mining managers, environmental
teams, and social teams that is united in understanding the purpose and objectives of their water
management plan. This includes having an understanding of cross-functional terminology,
practices, and plan of actions towards achieving water management objectives over the course of
the mine life cycle (IFC 2014). In the instance of this study, environmental monitoring of
downstream disturbances resulting from Surgold activity and continual engagement with the
local community ought to be a key component of Surgold’s water management strategy.
Employing strategic communication requires early planning and engagement of the local
community. Thereby, initiating awareness of technical aspects of mining and water management;
beginning conversations with the community towards understanding their local traditions and
beliefs; and developing a means for community-company communications (IFC 2014). This step
requires outreach, listening, and management of perceptions in order to facilitate ongoing trust
building and transparency between the community and Surgold.
Co-management of knowledge and resources instills a shared value approach to water
management for Surgold and local communities (IFC 2014). This process involves employing
strategic communications approach to facilitate a platform for knowledge sharing. One of the
criticisms of community involvement is local stakeholders do not have sufficient knowledge of
the water cycle and environmental processes to properly form and voice an opinion about key
policies and technical decisions (IFC 2014). Integration of a PCM program will help improve
knowledge building of technical concepts within the community so they may better voice their
opinions, while also building trust between the community-company.
50
Figure 5.1 IFC 3D Approach (IFC 2014)
5.2 Pamika Community and Health Concerns
Within the context of the Surgold concession, the nearest human community to the
mining operations is a Maroon tribe referred to as the Pamika. The Pamika tribe is composed of
15 distinct communities that are situated on different island positioned along the Maroni River
located a few kilometers east of Merian. The Pamika communities receive water from the
Maroni River and/or as imported bottled water. The Pamika population is approximately 5,000
people.
Drinking water quality amongst the Pamika communities is a present and on-going issue
largely due to the lack of regulations and enforcement on water quality. Due to ASM practices,
improper disposal of trash and human waste into waterways, and river dredging activities, the
water quality available to these communities is poor. Community members are aware of their
exposure to Hg, its link to gold mining, and the potential for neurological toxicity. However, the
majority of individuals remain poorly informed about the precise causes, symptoms and possible
remedies (Peplow 2007).
51
The historic water quality monitoring within Surgold’s concession shows extremely high
measurements for turbidity and TSS. Comparatively, the background water samples collected
from undisturbed waterways had low turbidity and TSS values within US EPA guidelines,
indicating the high sediment discharge into waterways is directly correlated to the active ASM
activity within Surgold’s concession.
5.3 The Value of Community Involvement
Mining and exploration activities usually take place on traditional aboriginal lands, as
witnessed within Surgold’s concession (PDAC 2006). However, indigenous peoples are typically
excluded from environmental management of resources on their ancestral lands (Baker and
McLelland 2003, Li 2015). Although mining usually brings economic benefits to a county, in the
form of jobs, income, tax revenues and foreign exchange, these benefits typically do not trickle
down to aboriginal peoples who historically suffer from inequitable distribution of resources
benefits and socio-cultural impacts of rapid development (Fidler and Hitch 2007). Further, as in
the case of Cajamarca, Peru where there was significant social unrest between a large mining
company and the local community, the local community may feel their concerns with respect to
mining impact to their natural environment and local knowledge of the land is not fully
appreciated by the mining company in which they interact (Li 2015). Developing a shared
understanding of terminology can help mitigate future miscommunications with respect to
scientific and technical terminology, and foster an environment that encourages local community
members to share their local knowledge of the land (Li 2015).
When indigenous people participate in environmental management, it’s usually stems out
of a conflict resulting from inadequate correspondence with the community (O’Faircheallaigh
2007, Li 2015). For the most part, indigenous people are alienated from the decision making
process and management of their ancestral lands (O’Faircheallaigh 2007). There is valuable
information to be garnered from indigenous peoples such as local knowledge of the land,
biodiversity, and local traditions (i.e. local hunting and foraging regions, sites of
religious/cultural importance) (Li 2015). Further engagement with the community will likely
mitigate future conflict and business costs associated with community unrest (i.e. riots, road
closures, litigation) (Fidler and Hitch 2007). Economic opportunities may arise that are in favor
of the mining corporation that are inclusive of local knowledge for design of engineering systems
52
such as water canals and diversions, and understanding seasonal changes in rainfall (an important
design criteria for tailing storage facilities) (Li 2015).
Incorporating a PCM program provides an avenue for improved communication and trust
building with local stakeholders, while also offering added value to a mining corporation by
means of supporting environmental monitoring activities and management practices (Nobel and
Birk 2011, Morrison-Saunders et al. 2003). Further, the process of facilitating indigenous
people’s participation will establish a basis for fostering trust, increase local awareness of mining
operations and impacts, and promote business transparency (Austin 2000, Fidler and Hitch 2007,
Galbraith et al 2007). At a local level, a PCM program provides a means for community
members to fulfil their desire and responsibility to be involved in minimizing the adverse
environmental impacts from both ASM and large-scale mining activities (O’Faircheallaigh and
Corbett 2005).
5.3.1 Formation of the Participatory-Community Monitoring Team
The Pamika community will be responsible for appointing local residents to participate in
monitoring and maintain an up-to-date list of PCM team members. Community members may
choose to have rotational participants for the PCM team or elect permanent candidates. The
selection of individuals will require more frequent training workshops and oversight for each
new cycle of participants; however this scheme provides the benefit of engaging a wider
audience and improved knowledge sharing. This selection process can be designed on a quarterly
basis to reduce workshop training sessions.
Ideally, women within the community will be given priority for induction into Surgold’s
PCM program. Women within indigenous communities are typically afforded little economics
opportunities (Shanks 2006). Prior to the 1980s, Maroon women were afforded very little rights.
As a married women, they were not allowed to be associated with men who were not their
husband or relative, they could not travel alone without their husband, and were not allowed to
behave rebelliously towards their husbands (Polimé 2013). During the civil war of the mid-1980s
in Suriname, many maroon women fled to the capital (Paramaribo) and neighboring countries by
themselves, with their children, for protection as most of the men fought during the war or could
not leave their village. During this time and thereafter, women have since gained more
53
independence having had exposure to working in the costal markets within Suriname and
neighboring countries to support themselves and their children (Polimé 2013). Although to
western standards, maroon women are largely unemployed. Within the community, women are
typically responsible for the domestic sphere, such as the household, and are viewed as both life-
givers and the caretakers of life (Shanks 2006). As a result, women are responsible for the early
socialization of children and have a significant influence on their children’s education. The
selection and involvement of women within PCM will foster economic and educational
opportunities as well as provide an avenue for environmental education of their children and
imbed a culture that values environmental management. However, there are limitations as men
within the maroon community may not allow the women within the village to be away from the
village for extended periods of time as they may be expected to attend to the children. Conflict
has arisen in Surgold where maroon women were hired to work, which resulted in their husbands
issuing grievances with respect to their children not being supervised by their mother. A PCM
program may then require women’s involvement to be limited to half-day shifts or negotiated
with their husbands.
Funds to support the PCM program will need to be allocated by Surgold to provide
training and material as well as transport and wages for participants to enhance participation.
Surgold staff will lead the training workshops where participants will learn how the importance
of water quality, procedures for collecting environmental data, and proper calibration and
maintenance of monitoring equipment. Periodic short-term training sessions should be arranged
for reviewing, reinforcing or extending knowledge.
A PCM team should consist, at a minimum, of:
Captain (or Designated Official - who shall serve as team leader)
Community-Based Water Quality Monitor(s)
Surgold Environmental representative
Surgold Social Responsibility representative
Surgold Security representative
54
5.3.2 Roles and Responsibilities
The Captain (or designated official) and village council in collaboration with a Surgold
representative will be responsible for identify the selection criteria and electing members for the
PCM team, as well as the management and review of collected data.
Respective leaders for each Pamika community will work with Surgold towards planning,
organizing, and initiating the PCM workshops and field visits. A team may be composed of 1-5
water quality monitors, who have completed the initiation and training process. A member of
Surgold's security may accompany the CPM team to support transportation efforts and provide
insight on security risks (i.e. access limitations, adverse weather conditions, road closures). At all
times at least one Surgold employee will be present, who will likely be a field technician from
Surgold’s Environmental department to provide quality assurance, oversight, and collect copies
of field data forms from the PCM team. A representative from Surgold’s Social Responsibility
team may be present as well for general oversight and stakeholder engagement activities.
5.3.3 Training Requirements and Certification
The data collected should provide value to the Surgold. One of the main criticism
associated with PCM is the data collected by the community is of poor quality and does not hold
much merit for assessing industry impacts (Nobel and Birk 2011). In this regard, PCM programs
are described as “comfort monitoring”, which provides community members a sense of
ownership and alleviates community concerns associated with mining activity; however does not
add value to a mining company’s monitoring program (Nobel and Birk 2011). To ensure that the
results provided by community monitors are creditable and useful to Surgold, the PCM program
needs to be integrated into Surgold’s existing monitoring and impact management practices. For
instance, sampling locations should occur at Surgold’s environmental monitoring locations and
community monitors should be using the same equipment as Surgold’s staff for measuring water
quality parameters. Other opportunities exist within local communities to use smartphone
devices to assess water quality of their local supply (Evans 2013). This may foster education of
environmental stewardship and the importance of water quality management within the greater
local community as most adolescent and adults within the Maroon communities have access to
smartphones.
55
In an effort to facilitate understanding of monitoring methods and provide useful data to
Surgold, all PCM candidates will initially attend a workshop in which they are trained and
certified to use water quality test kits to perform specified measurements. Participants will be
trained in the principles of water quality monitoring, proper data collection techniques, and data
reporting by an employee of Surgold’s Environmental department. Emphasis should be dedicated
to assuring proper equipment calibration, correct sampling techniques, and accurate data
recording. Each trainee should be given a copy of a water sampling manual (produced by
Surgold) and instructed how to use it.
Training is not a one-time activity but should be a continuing process. Supervision of
monitors is essential and contributes to ongoing training in the field, thus reinforcing what was
learned in formal training sessions, while playing an active role within Surgold’s existing
monitoring program. Training should be flexible, responding to experience, feedback, and taking
account of the specific needs of individual community monitors. In-house training can provide
this flexibility and can be readily tailored to local requirements, but it requires experienced
community monitors or more frequent engagement with Surgold’s environmental staff.
5.4 Training Curriculum
The PCM monitors will join Surgold environmental team to visit compliance sites at least
quarterly throughout the year.
5.4.1 Site Selection
Each sample site is designated with a sample code for data logging purposes. All
information queries from Surgold’s environmental database are based on these unique site codes.
Monitors will be provided a map with sampling locations so they have a sense of spatial location.
The monitoring program should be scheduled at the same time of the day each month, to
standardize measurements.
5.4.2 Safety
Personal safety should be emphasized during certification workshops to encourage
monitors to let this be a primary concern in site selection and performing monitoring activities.
Monitors are instructed to be aware of being permitted to access sites, as well as being concerned
56
about ease of getting to a site. Special attention will be directed towards identifying hazardous
site conditions such as flooding, extreme temperatures, and dangerous wildlife. Monitors will be
trained how to preform basic medical responses actions, respond to a crisis, and report an
incident.
5.4.3 Sample Collection and Equipment Procedures
The water quality parameters measured are stream velocity and dimensions, water
temperature, pH, EC, dissolved oxygen, TSS, and turbidity. Along with these basic parameters,
the field observations noted include site location, time, weather conditions, stream/lake condition
(above or below normal levels), and stream appearance (e.g. odors, foam, debris, erosion, dead
aquatic organisms). Although these observations do not undergo QA/QC, they are carefully
checked and recorded because they may be important. Monitoring kits specifically designed for
the PCM program and supplied by Surgold are used to measure the parameters listed. Specific
instructions for each measurement are shown in the Water Quality Instruction Manual (Appendix
A). Monitors will be instructed on the importance of cleaning and calibrating their field kits
before and after their monitoring exercise.
5.4.4 Equipment Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is done in an effort to prevent the use of faulty equipment or
inadequate reagents. Special emphasis is given during training workshops on the regular
inspection of the kits in order to keep them in good working order. A supply of monitoring kit
replacement parts, glassware, titrators, and reagents is maintained at the Surgold environmental
office, and these items are sent to monitors upon request. Replacement of reagents is done
through recertification workshops, through group coordinators, or by way of individual monitors
contacting the Surgold Environmental office. On the PCM data form, monitors are required to
document their certification number (found on their PCM Certification Card) and the expiration
date of their field kits before their data will be accepted by the Surgold environmental office.
A training record should be maintained for each member of the PCM team. This should
contain a detailed account of all training completed, date of initial training and expiration,
certification number, and of authorizations granted for certain types of work.
57
Since it is a permanent record it should be in the form of a bound book and each new entry
should be signed by both the trainer and the trainee. A procedures manual should be prepared,
containing full details of SOPs for all program activities. A loose-leaf format is preferable
because SOPs are subject to revision and updating. The use of SOPs is an important element of
quality assurance.
5.5 Participatory-Community Monitoring Procedures
This section details the procedures for implementing a PCM program.
5.5.1 Sampling Procedures
Water chemistry data are accepted only from monitors who receive training and certification
from PCM Certified Trainers. The PCM program in Suriname will include potentially 15
villages.
Monitors will be given instruction on how the monitoring points were selected by Surgold for
regulatory compliance (based on international standards of best practices). The watershed
approach will be explained during the training sessions. Understanding the basic principles of a
watershed will provide insight into how changes in in one part of the watershed (such as heavy
rains) may affect the downstream portion of the basin and how this may influence monitoring
activities; such as increased turbidity after heavy rains from upstream locations.
As previously mentioned, monitors perform their tests for up to eight parameters – stream
velocity and dimensions, water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, EC, TSS, and turbidity. Each
parameter measured is considered to be critical to the overall effort of establishing trend data
about the monitored water bodies. The monitors also record information about date and time of
sampling, weather, and notable surrounding conditions (i.e. stressed vegetation, nearby small-
scale mining activity, adjacent legacy mines sites). Comments about color and odor may be
included. The data and samples should be processed and analyzed by an independent research
laboratory to support to validity of findings and reduce concerns associated with a mining
company manipulating results, thereby maintaining a level of transparency and trust.
58
5.5.2 Quality Control Requirements
It’s important the PCM program dedicate significant efforts to ensure data quality by:
Carefully checking techniques of monitors in annual recertification workshops
Maintaining freshness of reagents in monitoring kits
Introducing new techniques/materials as they are made available.
5.5.3 Documentation and Data Management
The data collected by the PCM team may be submitted to Surgold in two ways: 1) The
data may be recorded on data forms; or 2) the data may be submitted to Surgold online via email,
if applicable. The hardcopy data forms provide two carbonless copies: the original, white data
sheet is collected by the onsite Surgold environmental employee where it is retained on file; the
yellow copy is kept by the monitor’s group for their records; and the pink copy is retained by the
Captain (or designated official). The data is kept in three places for security and to facilitate
resolution of problems/questions that may arise. The data submitted to Surgold online is almost
identical to the hardcopy data form. Hard copies of the web-entered data are made, and kept in
the Surgold Environmental office. Final QA’d data are entered under the supervision of the
senior level management within Surgold’s environmental department, maintained within
Surgold’s database, and regularly archived on the mainframe computer. Following data entry, the
data forms are used to proof the entered data from printouts generated by the database.
Corrections are made immediately, if needed. The proofing and correction process is done by a
Surgold employee who has not entered the data.
5.5.4 Validation and Verification
Data needs to be careful screening for errors, such as missing data, dates, times, incorrect
units, illegible handwriting, improper decimal placement, nonsensical data or obvious outliers.
The Surgold’s Environmental employee assigned to the PCM program needs to be aware of
“typical” water quality ranges of the different physiographic regions within Surgold’s
concession. “Typical” ranges are based on long term which has been collected for the past 5
years. If outlier readings are found that are not “typical” for the region or that cannot be
59
obviously explained (e.g. high turbidity readings recorded after no rain fall), the PCM team will
be requested to test the parameters again, preferably using a different test kit. PCM teams will be
compensated with hourly wages for their time.
Another important process is the distribution of summarized data to Pamika community.
Each year, summary graphs and data tables should be given to the Pamika community for their
review. The summary graphs and data tables will display the monitoring data collected over the
course of the year. This is done for all sites that have at least 12 months of data. This is done
primarily to provide monitors with a graphical view of their data, but also to support the QA
process by allowing community members to identify errors. A two month period is allowed for
monitors to review the data tables and make any needed corrections. Corrected data tables and
graphs are returned to monitors.
5.6 Program Assessment, Response Action, and Reporting
This section provides discussion of PCM program assessment, improvement, and report
processes.
5.6.1 Program Assessment and Response Action
The lead for the Surgold’s PCM program will regularly review the performance of monitors
and data management activities through the Recertification Workshops. The recertification
process largely depends on the method selected for creating the PCM Team as either random
selection of members (every month to quarterly) or a permanent PCM team. The former strategy
will require more frequent workshops for each new PCM team or a large training session of all
potential candidates who may be selected to join the PCM team. If a permanent PCM team is
selected, then after the first year of monitoring, monitors will be required to complete a
recertification session conducted by a Surgold employee. A careful review of the sampling
procedures is done, and the monitors are observed by the instructor of the workshop as they
conduct each test. Following this initial recertification, if the monitors remain active,
recertification is required every year. A monitor is considered active if he/she submits data
records for 10 of the 12 months.
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Data needs to be regularly checked against project quality objectives at least once a month.
The Surgold employee responsible for PCM data needs to carefully review data forms submitted
by the monitors. Data outside acceptable ranges are not entered. For example, water quality
protocols require a difference of no greater than 0.6 ppm for the two measurements of dissolved
oxygen. If a larger discrepancy is submitted on the form, the data is not entered. Comparisons
with Surgold’s long term environmental data will provide good checks on data quality. These
comparisons of PCM data with Surgold’s data readily demonstrate the validity of the PCM data.
If data quality problems are suspected from a monitor, then contact is made, with discussions of
procedures and/or reagent problems. Occasionally a Local PCM Citizens Trainer may be asked
to visit with the monitor for a review of technique and/or kit viability. Surgold’s environmental
department’s phone number and email address are provided to all monitors to facilitate
communications regarding techniques, water quality problems, or other concerns.
5.6.2 Reporting
Report should include review of PCM program and Surgold’s environmental management
system, verify the accuracy of anticipated environmental impacts as documented in the EIA, an
assessment of impact measures, and an evaluation of indigenous people participation and
feedback. Results need to be disseminated and communicated to the Pamika community in a
meaningful way so it is understood and accessible to the local community.
5.7 Additional Considerations
In an effort to address the concerns with Hg accumulation with Pamika people. Communities
may elect to have their hair analyzed for Hg (as opposed to blood or urine) since it is less
invasive to collect and the best indicator of dietary exposure to Hg from fish. Supporting these
efforts may draw positive attention to local efforts to discourage or reduce Hg use within ASM
practices.
Further it should be noted that technical means of measuring environmental water quality
(i.e. turbidity meter, lab analysis, regulatory standards) do not necessary address local
community perceptions of water quality. As Fabiana Li 2015 discusses in her book, local
communities have a stronger reliance on visual indicators to determine adequate water quality
(i.e. color, odor, changes in surrounding landscape, and changes in animal mortality). Therefore,
61
a PCM program should integrate components that the local community deem important towards
determining water quality.
5.8 Conclusion
Incorporation of a PCM program into Surgold’s existing environmental monitoring program
will provide numerous benefits to the company in the form of fostering trust and open dialogue
with the indigenous peoples situated near the Merian project. Further this program will support
Surgold’s corporate values dedicated towards improving the lives of the people by providing
employment opportunities, specifically amongst Pamika women who are traditionally
underrepresented and are not afforded much financial opportunities. Further the employment of
women into the PCM program will encourage environmental education of their children and
potential reduce some of the negative impacts associated with ASM activity (such as operating
closely to waterways or using large quantities of mercury).
62
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69
APPENDIX B: MINE’S SITE RECONNAISSANCE ICP-MS METAL ANALYSIS
Table B.1 Total and Dissolved ICP-MS Metal Analysis (Detection Limit 0.1 µg/L)
Element Hg Ag Al As B Ba Be Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Li Mn Mo Ni Pb Sb Se Sr Ti Tl U V Zn
EPA DRINKING WATER (µg/L) 20 100 200 10 NA 2000 4 5 NA 100 1300 300 NA 50 NA 100 15 100 5 NA NA 2 30 NA 5000
Ecological MCL (µg/L) 20 10 200 10 NA 2000 4 2 NA 100 17 300 NA 50 NA 100 8 100 5 NA NA 2 30 NA 300
Total Metals
Hg Ag Al As B Ba Be Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Li Mn Mo Ni Pb Sb Se Sr Ti Tl U V Zn
µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/LBG-1-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 463.4 0.2 45.2 13.2 <0.1 0.1 0.9 3.0 172.2 1215.0 12.5 24.7 0.1 4.0 2.9 0.9 0.1 14.1 12.1 <0.1 <0.1 1.2 143.4
BG-2-AQ-TM <0.1 0.4 668.7 0.2 50.5 14.7 <0.1 0.2 0.2 2.7 78.5 <1 11.0 11.9 0.0 4.4 8.8 2.2 0.1 11.9 18.3 <0.1 <0.1 1.5 197.4
EP-A0-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 609.8 0.5 30.5 20.3 <0.1 0.1 0.9 5.5 263.0 2913.0 5.9 72.6 0.1 3.5 5.7 0.7 0.1 13.3 13.9 <0.1 <0.1 1.4 96.8
EP-A2-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 276.3 0.6 51.6 12.4 <0.1 0.1 0.7 1.5 78.6 <1 11.3 42.8 0.0 2.9 1.3 2.3 0.2 18.1 7.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.8 137.9
EP-A3-AQ-TM <0.1 0.9 1205.5 0.6 193.9 58.5 <0.1 0.6 0.9 4.8 23.8 2891.0 13.2 76.0 0.3 5.4 27.8 1.8 0.2 22.1 37.4 <0.1 <0.1 1.6 56.3
EP-B1-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 428.8 0.4 49.6 16.3 <0.1 0.1 0.5 3.1 99.6 1022.0 12.3 37.4 0.1 4.4 4.9 0.7 0.1 16.6 14.7 <0.1 <0.1 1.4 196.6
EP-C0-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 450.3 2.0 42.3 14.7 <0.1 0.1 0.8 4.2 54.2 3374.0 10.0 104.3 0.1 2.6 3.8 1.3 0.1 18.3 16.5 <0.1 <0.1 1.9 122.4
SW-21-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 316.8 0.3 45.4 13.8 <0.1 0.2 0.3 2.6 45.1 1602.0 11.8 23.0 0.0 2.8 6.7 0.7 0.1 16.3 18.9 <0.1 <0.1 0.7 110.2
SW-26-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 315.1 0.3 42.7 16.4 <0.1 0.2 0.4 2.3 40.5 2021.0 10.2 123.0 0.2 1.9 5.0 2.4 0.2 19.9 12.8 <0.1 <0.1 1.0 311.0
SW-39-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 186.7 0.2 58.0 12.0 <0.1 0.3 0.3 1.7 77.3 <1 14.2 18.8 0.0 3.7 7.6 1.6 0.1 15.9 12.8 <0.1 <0.1 0.5 194.0
ASM-1-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 413.3 0.3 48.1 13.5 <0.1 0.2 0.2 2.2 37.6 <1 9.9 23.2 0.1 2.8 5.2 0.8 0.2 13.5 13.7 <0.1 <0.1 0.7 125.3
ASM-4-AQ-TM <0.1 0.4 397.4 1.0 47.3 16.4 <0.1 0.0 0.6 3.6 165.2 1774.0 8.4 34.4 0.1 2.8 2.6 1.6 0.2 17.1 10.5 <0.1 <0.1 1.5 157.7
ASM-5-AQ-TM <0.1 1.6 766.6 1.9 94.9 31.1 <0.1 0.2 2.0 6.9 148.7 20960.0 11.3 61.8 0.4 5.3 9.8 1.5 0.3 23.5 26.0 <0.1 <0.1 3.6 98.3
ASM-5-AQ-TM (sluice) <0.1 0.1 4631.5 23.9 78.8 201.4 <0.1 0.7 25.7 50.2 334.6 3083.0 27.7 198.4 13.5 35.9 98.5 1.3 1.9 174.0 95.4 <0.1 <0.1 98.5 242.9
ASM-5-AQ-TM DUP <0.1 0.1 1377.3 6.0 53.2 57.5 <0.1 0.2 9.4 15.0 279.2 4708.0 13.3 123.8 1.8 8.9 12.4 2.1 0.6 43.4 26.6 <0.1 <0.1 15.2 271.5
ASM-6-AQ-TM <0.1 0.0 202.3 0.5 87.8 10.5 <0.1 0.1 1.5 1.2 96.3 <1 16.7 36.0 0.0 4.0 2.1 0.7 0.3 17.8 5.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 162.4
Dissolved Metals
Hg Ag Al As B Ba Be Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Li Mn Mo Ni Pb Sb Se Sr Ti Tl U V Zn
µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L
BG-1-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 316.6 0.1 54.4 14.0 <0.1 0.1 0.7 2.7 54.3 <1 13.4 20.4 0.1 3.5 2.7 0.9 <0.1 14.1 9.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.7 74.3
BG-2-AQ-DM <0.1 0.2 514.0 0.2 45.1 15.0 <0.1 0.3 0.2 2.5 55.0 <1 9.7 12.5 0.1 3.8 9.8 2.3 0.1 10.5 15.2 <0.1 <0.1 1.2 137.3
EP-A0-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 196.2 0.3 57.3 17.1 <0.1 0.1 0.6 2.1 76.3 <1 8.9 60.6 0.0 2.9 3.2 1.6 0.1 13.9 7.4 <0.1 <0.1 0.5 56.0
EP-A2-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 208.7 0.3 38.3 14.6 <0.1 0.1 0.6 2.5 44.7 <1 9.5 36.2 0.1 3.2 1.8 0.6 0.1 14.4 7.7 <0.1 <0.1 0.7 85.6
EP-A3-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 191.1 0.3 28.7 10.7 <0.1 0.0 0.4 2.4 553.1 <1 8.0 50.1 0.0 1.9 0.6 2.4 0.3 14.6 2.9 <0.1 <0.1 0.7 222.3
EP-B1-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 398.7 0.6 42.2 18.2 <0.1 0.3 0.9 3.0 47.2 <1 10.3 36.9 0.3 6.7 10.7 1.5 <0.1 17.8 15.3 <0.1 <0.1 2.0 101.0
EP-C0-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 109.3 0.7 33.8 9.5 <0.1 0.2 0.3 1.9 43.3 <1 8.0 67.1 0.0 2.7 4.4 2.2 0.1 13.6 8.4 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 70.4
SW-21-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 440.0 0.6 40.2 18.2 <0.1 0.1 0.8 4.2 40.8 2560.0 11.7 72.9 0.1 4.4 3.3 0.6 0.1 17.9 20.7 <0.1 <0.1 1.5 105.5
SW-26-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 164.1 0.3 46.5 11.2 <0.1 0.3 0.3 2.1 33.3 <1 12.5 86.7 0.1 2.6 4.7 2.7 <0.1 18.5 4.8 <0.1 <0.1 0.5 81.0
SW-39-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 244.3 0.3 52.7 16.4 <0.1 0.1 0.5 2.1 59.3 <1 15.2 48.8 0.1 3.8 4.1 1.4 0.1 17.4 13.7 <0.1 <0.1 0.5 167.8
ASM-1-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 113.9 0.2 40.2 9.2 <0.1 0.2 0.2 1.5 42.0 <1 7.9 16.7 0.1 2.1 3.3 1.7 0.2 9.8 2.9 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 115.2
ASM-4-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 128.9 0.6 67.4 14.3 <0.1 0.1 0.4 3.0 71.6 <1 13.4 23.7 0.1 3.7 2.2 1.9 0.3 17.0 5.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 118.7
ASM-5-AQ-DM <0.1 0.0 279.1 0.8 92.7 22.3 <0.1 0.2 0.9 3.8 123.4 <1 9.9 38.4 0.1 6.0 4.6 2.1 0.2 17.8 7.8 <0.1 <0.1 0.5 109.7
ASM-5-AQ-DM (sluice) <0.1 0.0 286.7 0.8 106.3 20.0 <0.1 0.1 2.0 2.9 341.1 <1 25.3 26.9 0.7 5.7 5.4 1.9 0.2 27.7 24.4 <0.1 <0.1 1.4 368.2
ASM-5-AQ-DM DUP <0.1 0.0 228.5 1.3 88.4 38.8 <0.1 0.3 5.0 3.2 132.5 <1 16.8 99.2 0.3 10.7 7.0 2.0 0.2 37.1 12.8 <0.1 <0.1 1.6 139.4
ASM-6-QA-DM <0.1 0.0 295.6 0.4 64.2 15.5 <0.1 0.1 1.5 2.7 54.1 <1 14.8 41.7 0.1 7.6 4.5 1.5 0.1 18.4 21.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.5 172.7
Site
Site
Ledgend Above US EPA Standard Above Ecological MCL
70
APPENDIX C: HISTORICAL ALKALINE METAL AND NON-METAL ANALYSIS
Table C.1 Historical Alkaline Metal and Non-Metal Analysis (2006-2014)
Sample Month
Sample ID SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0 SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0 SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0
Analyte mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Ammonia as N 0.14 0.43 1.67 0.39 2.31 0.67 0.29 0.31 0.50
Bicarbonate 5.10 19.20 5.10 3.10 7.30 6.00
Chloride 4.96 4.69 5.02 3.53 10.38 4.45 4.42 4.08 4.19
Cyanide (total) <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005
Nitrate/Nitrite as N 0.12 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.17 0.11 0.18 0.05 0.05
Phosphorus (total) <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.06 <0.05 <0.05
Potassium (total) 0.82 0.86 0.52 0.71 2.64 1.29 1.49 0.57 1.15
Sodium (total) 3.14 3.27 3.05 2.34 6.58 3.15 3.59 2.80 3.43
Sulfate as SO4 0.72 0.68 0.53 0.89 5.80 2.05 1.04 0.53 0.92
Total Alkalinity 6.70 9.00 6.80 5.10 19.20 5.10 3.10 7.30 6.00
TDS 452.00 64.00 <10 34.00 108.00 39.00 146.00 51.00 25.00
TOC 5.90 6.70 4.10 6.10 11.69 9.12 14.90 7.95 12.20
Sample Month
Sample ID SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0 SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0 SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0
Analyte mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Ammonia as N 0.23 0.94 0.43 0.25 0.15
Bicarbonate 6.30 6.80 <1 6.40 2.80
Chloride 3.66 5.91 5.08 1.02 2.86
Cyanide (total) <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005
Nitrate/Nitrite as N 0.14 0.20 0.09 0.07 0.16
Phosphorus (total) <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.08 0.11
Potassium (total) 1.06 2.66 1.82 1.11 0.73
Sodium (total) 2.65 3.65 2.63 2.85 2.54
Sulfate as SO4 0.56 1.97 2.34 0.96 0.86
Total Alkalinity 6.30 6.80 <1 6.40 2.80
TDS 20.00 52.00 200.00 60.00
TOC 5.60 8.46 4.93
February March April
May June July
71
Table C.1 (Continued)
Sample Month
Sample ID SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0 SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0 SW-21 SW-23 SW-26 EP-A0 EP-C0
Analyte mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
Ammonia as N 0.06 0.24 0.06 0.24 0.20 0.30 <0.03
Bicarbonate 7.50 6.80 6.80 6.70 7.20 8.40 <1
Chloride 4.44 4.54 5.67 5.67 5.43 5.19
Cyanide (total) <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005 <0.005
Nitrate/Nitrite as N <0.05 <0.05 0.08 <0.05 0.11 <0.05 0.10
Phosphorus (total) <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
Potassium (total) 0.51 <0.5 <0.5 0.80 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Sodium (total) 3.35 3.68 3.58 3.55 2.84 3.44 2.63
Sulfate as SO4 0.46 0.47 1.31 0.45 <0.3 0.39 2.55
Total Alkalinity 7.50 6.80 6.80 6.70 7.20 8.40 0.41
TDS 107.00 63.00 62.00 276.00 22.00 19.00 <10
TOC 4.27 3.80 2.82 8.10 3.95 2.95
September November December
72
APPENDIX D: MANGANESE METAL ANALYSIS (MAY 2015)
Figure D.1 Total and Dissolved Manganese Levels at Surface Water Sampling Locations (2006-2014)
73
APPENDIX E: ALUMINUM & MANGANESE HISTORICAL TREND ANALYSIS (2006-2012)
Figure E.1 Dissolved Aluminum Trend Analysis (2006-2014)
Figure E.2 Dissolved Manganese Trend Analysis (2006-2014)
74
APPENDIX F: SPLP RESULTS (May 2015)
Table F.1 May 2015 SPLP Results
Site Hg Ag Al As B Ba Be Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Li Mn Mo Ni Pb Sb Se Sr Ti Tl U V ZnASM-1 <0.1 0.01 46.7 0.2 6.0 2.0 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.6 3.8<1 <1.0 2.7 <0.1 2.0 1.0 3.4 0.3 1.4 0.4 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 51.1ASM-2 <0.1 0.01 32.7 0.2 4.8 0.8 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 <0.1 0.8<1 <1.0 12.7 0.2 0.9 0.2 <0.1 0.2 2.2 0.3 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 8.6ASM-3 <0.1 0.01 40.5 0.2 4.3 0.9 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 <0.1 0.5<1 <1.0 6.6 <0.1 0.6 0.4 3.2 0.2 1.8 0.5 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 2.9ASM-4 <0.1 0.01 215.9 0.2 6.3 1.3 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 0.5 1.8<1 <1.0 5.6 <0.1 0.9 0.7 2.0 0.2 2.5 0.8 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 2.9ASM-5 <0.1 0.01 25.0 0.8 1.4 1.4 <0.1 <0.1 6.8 <0.1 1.3<1 <1.0 4.8 0.3 3.7 0.2 <0.1 0.2 2.1 0.6 <0.1 <0.1 0.8 10.3ASM-6 <0.1 0.01 27.9 <0.1 2.9 4.3 <0.1 <0.1 0.2 <0.1 <0.2<1 <1.0 3.0 <0.1 0.6 0.5 <0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 0.2 11.6ASM-7 <0.1 0.01 20.5 0.5 4.2 0.7 <0.1 <0.1 3.8 <0.1 2.6<1 <1.0 6.0 0.1 2.7 0.7 <0.1 0.1 1.3 0.7 <0.1 <0.1 0.4 25.1
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