Z A N Z IB A R .

AN ACCOUNT OF

ITS

PEOPLE, INDUSTRIES AND HISTORY.

Z A N Z IB A R :

The Local Committee of the British Empire Exhibition, (1924).

PREFACE.

Zanzibar, “ The Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa ” or, as it has been called, “ the Pearl of the Indian Ocean” is a name well-known both to the man in the street who remembers it chiefly as a musical-comedy name and secondly as vaguely connected with Heligoland, and also to the student of East-African affairs. In presenting this handbook to the public, the Zanzibar Local Committee hope to please both the former and the latter, for, within a necessarily small compass the bounds of which the writer of the historical article especially would fain have transgressed, are included not only a wealth of interesting accounts of strange customs but also a collection of reliable and up-to-date facts and statistics.

Those who wish to pursue their enquiries further are provided in Appendix I II with a bibliography.

The book is not a guide-book to the Zanzibar Court. I t is designed rather to remind the reader of what he has seen there, and as such it forms a pleasing sou venir; and it is also meant to enable those interested to gain a correct im­pression of our Island Sultanate.

Our two islands are indeed set like gems in the sea. There is no space here to enlarge on their beauties, but Pemba, the lesser known, is in beauty the greater gem,— T irth e ca p ita l itself, called, like the larger island, Zanzibar, there is an

Eastern atmosphere and glamour not possessed by any other settlement on the coast. The narrow streets thread their way between lofty houses of stone, many of which are adorned with those beautiful brass-bossed carved doors of which copies are to be seen in the East African Group Pavilion. The bazaar is reminiscent of the Mouski of Cairo. There is a lack, however, of those lofty minarets which are such a feature of the capital of Egypt, for, in accord with the ascetic tenets of the predominant Mahommedan sect, the mosques are plain and with little ornamentation.

Before the eyes of the visitor who arrives in February or March, when the North-East monsoon has fairly set in, is unfolded a unique panorama of the history of this romantic Arab isle. Wandering in the streets of the town he will find descendants of all the peoples who have helped to make its history; and, anchored in its harbour, he will see the very vessels whose prototypes, yearly and for years untold, have visited the shores of the islands.

The Committee take this opportunity of tendering their grateful thanks to the various writers who have been so good as to contribute articles and whose names will be found by the reader in the List of Contents.

W. HENDRY, Chairman, Local Committee.

Zanzibar, February 1924.

CONTENTS.

Section 1.E thnology.

by W, FI. Ingrams, F.R.G.S., F.R.A.I., M.R.A.S., E.Z.S., Membre Titulaire cle la Societe d’Anthropologic de Paris,

Assistant District Commissioner, Zanzibar.Section II.

Trade.

by G. D. Khsopp, Chief of Customs, ZanzibarSection III.

Agriculture.

by R. Armstrong, Acting Director of Agriculture, Zanzibar.

Section IV.H istory.

by W. H. Ingrams.

E conomic Minerals.by E. J. Wayland, A.R.C.S., M.I.M.M., F.G.S., M.R.A.S. (c.b.), F.R.G.S., Government Geologist, Uganda Protectorate.

Section VI.Native Industries and Occupations.

by W. H. Ingrams.Appendix I.

Agricultural Statistics.Appendix II.

Trade Statistics.Appendix III.

B ibliography.Part I. Books consulted in compilation of Section IV.Part II. Parliamentary and other official papers.Part III. Other literature,

P age.1.

23.

27.

35.

77. •

80.

ii

iv

vviixii

CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA.

Page Line For Read

1 6 680 6407 340 380

2 1 have been are10 (and elsewhere in the book) cocoanut coconut

5 5 Mohammed Mohammedan7 7 he she8 32 bao bau

35 methods moves13 5 mbiun mbiu *14 27 matelai matlai16 34 panga pan go17 8 mzimu mizimu

9 “ Z ” “ Z I”16 29 in of each in each of13 21-22 Pemba of the Pemba which are a

relic of the21-22 in which are a relic

picturesquein picturesque

24 27 has been is27 previous subsequent

27 6 74.60 72.0836 3 Weyland Wayland44 5 His ban Hi sham52 20 kuffk kufic •69 17 bvt and75 13 KHARIJB HAEUB

Mohammed is the most common spelling of the Prophet’s name and is recognised by the Oxford Dictionary. Muhammad, however, is the best transliteration of the Arabic and approximates most nearly to the correct pronunciation.

Page xiv, after line 29 insertMine. J . E.. "D ays gone by : being some account of past yeais, chiefly in Central Africa."

John Murray. London, 1924.Page xiv, after line 37 insert

Johnston, H. H ., "The Kilimanjaro Expedition" Kegan Paul, french & Co., London, 1886.

Page xv, after line 53 insertMcDermott, P. L ., "B ritish E ast Africa or I. B. E . A ." Chapman & Hall, London, 1893.

(Giv* s the history of the formation and work of the British Eas.. Africa Coy.)

Steere, Mad an and Johnston incorrectly spell this word “ Mbui” .

1

SECTION I.ETHNOLOGY.

1. Geographical Limitations.—The Zanzibar Protectorate as defined by the Zanzibar Order-in-Couucil. 1914,

comprises the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba and the islands in the territorial waters thereof. This definition is somewhat smaller than that in the Procfcs-Verbal of 9th June, 1886, defining the territories of the Sultan of Zanzibar, which includes all Islets within a 12 mile radius of Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar Island is 54 miles in length, and at its broadest part 24. Its area is 680 square miles Pemba Island is 42 miles in length and about 15 across ; its square-mileage is 340. Latham’s Island, known to the Natives as Fungu Kizimkazi or Shungi Mbili, lies 35 miles to the south of Zanzibar. It is one and three-quarter cables in length and nearly a cable wide. It is the property of the Sultan but is inhabited only by vast quantities of sea-birds. The only other island of any ethnological importance is Tumbatu : it is administratively included with Zanzibar island. It dies to the north-west of the bland from which it is separated by a channel about a mile wide. It is 6 miles long and 1 broad with an acreage of 3619.

2. I nhabitants.—The population of the Zanzibar Protectorate is composed of a large

number of nationalities which were shown in the 1910 census as being British, French, German, Portuguese, American, Norwegian, Italian, Greek, Hebrew, Goan, Swedish, Indian, Cingalese, Eurasian, Swahili, Parsee, Arab, Baluchi, Japanese, Arme­nian, Somali, Comoro, Abyssinian; and others can no doubt be added to this list. The European population in the 1921 Census, which was restricted mainly to European and Indian, was 178 males and 92 females. The Asiatic and African Census for 1910 showed 114,000 souls in Zanzibar Island and 83,000 in Pemba. Since then the population has considerably increased by birth and immigration. It would be out of place here to attempt to deal with the ethnology of any of these people save those who may be referred to as the Aborigines and who are generally and comprehensively included in the tenn Swahili. The term Swahili is generally used to comprise all the coast African3, but in Zanzibar it is chiefly applied to the old Slave Population and the mixed Native and Arab people. Those Natives who are considered as aborigines of the Islands arc usually divided into three tribes;— (1.) Waliadimu : the people who inhabit the Eastern coast of the Island from north to south and such of the Southern regiou as is habitable. (2) Wapemba : or the original inhabitants of Pemba island. (3.) Watumbatu : who live mainly on the island of Tumbntu. Some of the Natives

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also call themselves Washirazi, but these tribal names have been suflieiently dealt with elsewhere and in this chapter I shall devote myself to a study of the customs of the Native inhabitants of the Islands.

3. LIFE OF THE INDIVIDUAL.

(I.) the max (u.) Infancy'.—Customs observed on the birth of a child.

When the time comes for delivery of a child a midwife called Mkunga is summoned: the expectant mother is then seated on a low stool and the midwife sits in front of her and receives the child. When the child has been born the navel string is tied with a cord and cut, after which the child is taken aud washed in cold water and is then laid on a cloth in a flour sieve in which are placed at its head a lemon, a razor, a silver chain, and its mother’s waist beads. The mother is washed in very hot water and made to sit on a bare bedstead over a fire of cocoanut shells. The period of confinement lasts until the umbilical cord falls off, approxim­ately 7 days: but during this time neither mother nor child go out. After this the father obtains, in case of a boy, seven cocoanuts (or for a girl, three) and some rice: the cocoanuts are broken and some of the rice thrown in each direction with the words, •‘This is your share big people.” These words are addressed to the devils hovering around and are intended to appease them and keep them away from ibe child who is so susceptible to their baneful influences. A fowl is then killed fa cock if the child is a boy, a hen if a girl); the rice and cocoanut is cooked in the usual way. and with the fowl a curry is made in which ginger must be included. This is called Fuka. The food is then divided into four parts, of which one is the share of-the big man of the village, not necessarily the sheha; one is given to the Mwalimu; (Koran Teacher); the third is the portion of the father and mother and the last goes to the Maskini v\a Mungu (God’s Poor.) After this the father gives a rupee to the midwife and she returns the silver chain and the beads which, hke the child, have been in her custody during the period of confinement. When these ceremonies are over the Mwalimm goes every morning for forty days and pours water on the mother’s head and at the same time reads the Yasin from the Koran. Alter this period the child’s head is shaved and sometimes a feast is held. A spot is chosen behind the. house where successively, the afterbirth, the navel string, and the child’s hair are buried: a cocoanut is subsequently planted here which is referred to as the navel of the child and it is considered very bad luck if it dies. Seven different kinds of seed are also planted and the child is shown how to sow them. An Mche (wooden pestle) is also placedagainst the child’s threat and it is told not to tell tales.

. (b.) Childhood. Children are left much to their own devices to amuse them­selves, and, until they are 7 or 8, have little to worry them. They Occupy themselves with flying kites, whipping tops, sailing boats and playing with other toys. Round games are also indulged in; Tasa, much like the English “Touch;” Follow my Leader called “Tinge” and a species of rounders called “Tiahu.” Another game quite popular but rather violent is Mali va Ndimu, in which one boy puts his head down and another knocks it. If the knocked one guesses who did it, the knocker becomes the knocked. A form of Cat’s Cradle is also known. At the age of 7 or 8 the only education the child receives, commences; he is sent to a village Kuttab or Koran school where for several dreary years he is taught to become proficient in the parrot-like repetition of the Koran; in their spare time children are often employed by their parents in run­ning errands, herding oxen and goats and kindred small tasks.

(c.) Puberty. When the boy reaches the age of 14 or 15 he lias to be circum­cised; and this is as much a Bantu custom as a Mohammedan one. It is usual to wait until a number of boys are ready for circumcision before the day is fixed, and when the number have been collected a house is set aside for them and a fence built round it to prevent the boys being seen and to stop their running away. On the appointed day, the Ngariba or circumcisor, comes with his assistants. A low seat is placed ready and an assis’ant catches hold of each child and seats him there holding the child’s hands under his legs which he thereby keeps apart: the circum­cisor then catcher hold of the penis, pushes the foreskin back and cleans it: he then draws the foreskin right forward and holding it with an Mbano (forceps) cuts it with a small knife. A mixture of Antimony and Sim Sim Oil is then applied and the boy carried and placed on a seat called Chege la Mgomba which consists of a section of Banana palm. After the ceremony the foreskins are buried. Further treatment is accorded to the initiates until they are healed. A small triangle made of throe pieces of the. hollow stem of the Mhono tree threaded together is fas’ened to a string which is t ’ed round the waist and acts as a support to the penis: for three days oil and antimony are applied to the sore to make it soft -for a washing with water stained with mangrove which follows each morning, after which some more medicine is put on. The boys stay in the Kurnbeor bouse and yard and some cocks are kept there which during this period are called by the special name Maymnbp', the duty of these cocks is to awake the hoys every morning and a curious magic medicine is given to the birds to make them stay there. During these days of circumcision booths are built in which ngornas are played, the principal dance used being called Manvago.

(d.) Cuurtii.ip and Marriage. Marriage usually takes place at the age of about IG, and the boy or his parents then cet about making a ma* eh with a suitable bride When one lias been decided on, the young man’s father interviews the prospective

4

father-in-law and obtains his consent to the marriage and fixes the Mahari which the bridegroom or his parents are prepared to pay. M ihari is generally interpreted as Dowry and is given not by the bride’s parents but by the prospective bridegroom or his family: it ranges from 5 rupees up to about two or three hundred among the Natives according to the youth, beauty and occupation of the bride. Part of the Mahari is paid at once and part after the marriage, but in practice the balance is often not paid at all. The payment of this money is not the only pecuniary obligation attached to the ceremonies of courtship, as presents must also be given to the bride’s parents. That given to the father is called Kilemba, which literally means turban, and is also used in a figurative sense to denote a present given on almost any special occasion. The bridegroom also gives a present to the girl’s mother called Mkaja. In ad­dition to the Native ceremonies there are also parts of the Sheria or Mohammedan Law which must also be observed; but these need not be enumerated here. After the religious ceremony of marriage the bridegroom must produce Halwa (sweatmeats) and Coffee, which are partaken of by the friends of both parties, and the cus­tomary (now statutory) fee of 2 rupees to be paid to the Mwalimu. The omens must now be consulted for a suitable day for the consummation of the marriage, referred to as Kuingia Nyumbani; on the day in question the bridegroom or his parents provide a feast at their house after which he proceeds to his bride’s house or sometimes she is brought to his, but before he enters the house she is in, a goat or a fowl is sacrificed, over the blood of which he must cross. On getting into the house he finds in the ante-chamber women who are guarding ihe bridal door: these he must pay money called Kifunguo Mlango before he is allowed to pass. On entering the bride's room he finds her swathed from head to foot in coloured cloths called Kangas. With her is an old woman who, having told him to remove his clothes and given him a new Kanga, receives a small present and departs. The man then proceeds to his bride whom he must uncover; but she will resist this until paid a present of anything up to 300 rupees. If the gill is a virgin an old woman is sometimes kept under the bed to wash the bride after the husband has had intercourse: if the bride is recalcitrant the assistance of the women in the house is resorted to in overcoming her resistance. Outside the house music and dancing is kept up all night and if the man is wealthy he will remain in the bride’s house 7 days during which feasting and dancing take place every day; if he is poor, one feast only suffices and he remains in the house for 3 days. The period of 7 days is known as Mfungata: at the end of this period the man goes to his house, and if he likes he may take his wife with him, though she is generally left with her parents for about a month. A new custom which has sprung up in the last few years, is that the bridegroom^ before the marriage,

0

sends a Trousseau to his bride consisting of a number of Kangas containing ear- papers, waist-beads, combs or other ornaments, which is carried by women bearers dancing to the bride’s home. Wednesday, if the last day of the month, is unlucky for marriages, as is the whole of the month of Mfunguo Tano or Safar. Divorce is easy of accomplishment and is controlled only by the Mohammed Sheria.

Death.—When it is known that a man is near death, the medicine man (Mganga) is usually called in as a last resort, but on his pronouncing that a patient is beyond earthly help, death is immediately prepared for. All the women sit round silent while the Mwalimu reads the Yasin from the Koran until death supervenes, after which they go outside and commence wailing. The bed is laid from east to west and a hole, called Ufuo, is dug beneath it. The corpse is then laid on the bare cords and washed,—the water running down into the hole.

After this operation a new mat is placed in the bedstead; the corpse is placed on it and again covered. News is then sent to all friends and relations; the grave is dug and the money for the work paid. When this is completed and the people are gathered together and served with refreshments, the corpse is again washed, and during this operation the Mwalimu reads the Kul huwa Allahu (“Say he is one God”) from the Koran; the body is then dried, every aperture being stopped up with cotton-waste, and wrapped in a shroud (Sanda) which is fastened by a cord round the neck and waist including the arms and feet. The grave is about G feet long 3 feet deep and 4 wide and runs from east to west. On the north side of it the depth is increased to a cavity of about 18 inches and a foot in width and is provided with a board to cover up the body. This cavity is known as Mwana wa Ndani. The body is then placed on a mat in the bier which is covered with kangas: and carried to the graveside followed by the mourners: arrived at the grave it is taken from the bier and handed to 3 men, who descend to the first level of the grave: and lay it on its right side in the cavity referred to, head to the East, face to the North and the arms at the sides. The shroud is then loosened and the cords undone The right ear must touch the ground and the left be uncovered. The board is then laid over the cavity and plastered up with clay. The grave is filled and on it above the place where the head lies, the mwalimu pours water which is supposed to reach the left ear. After this everyone reads the Yasin. Wailing takes place from death to burial but is increased as the body is brought to the grave. After the interment the relatives subscribe money which is given to the nearest relation to buy food, and for 3 days the members of the family sleep in the deceased’s house the men outside and the women in. This period is known as Matanga. On the 4th day all the country-side comes to a large feast and service called Hitima. First the whole Koran

()

is read through in the shortest time possible. There are thirty readers each of whom takes one of the 30 separate “Juzu” or parts of the holy book, and all read simul­taneously. Then *they fall to on the food. When this is over all intone the following prayer:—

“Praise be to God the Lord in whom we trust”“May God give rest to the dead.”

The wife remains in mourning for a period of 5 months during which time she does not appear at all.

2. The Woman—.

Under this heading I shall deal only with the actual differences and customs observed which make the life of the woman different to that of the man.

(a.) Childhood'.—The differences observed in birth ceremonies between boys and girls have already been referred to. The early life of a girl differs from that of a boy ; her games are not so rough and her spare-time occupations are more domestic; when old enough she is employed by her mother on such tasks as minding the baby and helping to pound flour in the large wooden mortars, to sift it and generally to assist in the preparation of food. When the millet or rice is ripening girls share with boys the duties of driving away birds and monkeys. As a general rule girls receive no education and are not taught the Koran.

(b.) Puberty'.— When a girl perceives her courses coming for the first time she gives warning of her condition by crying o u t: her mother or grandmother then verifies the girl’s diagnosis by examination, and shuts her up away from all people. The mother then purchases two new plain Calico cloths (Kisutu) and searches for a Sumo (Female teacher or confidential adviser) who comes and taking the girl with head covered on her back, carries her to a washing place ; here the Somo removes the girl’s clothes and washes her all over : all the women of the village follow and pour a ladle of water over her; the Somo then carries her back and seats her on a white mat. The women bring a wooden platter and on it a cup of Sim Sim oil and then make a floury mixture of Sandalwood and some other ingredients ; the girl is then rubbed with oil and the flour smeared on a little at a time by each of the women present. After 7 days the girl now known as Mwari may go out of the house but may not speak to old and barren women unless first paid by them or until she gets a child.

Before they are mariied, girls receive some instructions as to the relations of husband and wife.

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Ngomas called Msondo and Onyago in which women imitate, for the benefit of the novices, the sexual relations of men and women, are performed with the greatest secrecy for their instruction. Girls about to be married are often sent for a short course of instruction with an old married pair.

There arc many of the usual taboos as regards a woman in her courses: her husband may not have intercourse with her, neither may she prepare his food ; and should he come to court as a witness she may not touch the Koran but must hold her hand above it and swear.

4. VILLAGE LIFE.Native villages vary considerably ; those of the Swahilis ape the Arabs and even

the Europeans, having streets and houses in rows facing each other. The Watumbatu build their houses very close together with no idea of streets and little of sanitation : a large village is a complicated maze.

The villages of the Wapemba are airier and more picturesque, and generally consist of a number of small or family groups of houses all in a certain radius. Those of the Wahadimu consist of large roomy huts well scattered about with no suggestion of cramping and are usually clean and pleasant places. Very often the Wahadimu live in solitary houses in the bush with no more than two or three neighbours. All these types of villages have a common feature in certain public buildings usually a Mosque, a Market, a Reception Booth for visitors, and several Coffee shops (Mkahawa); in a few villages dance-band as or theatres are to be found.

The Native paths are proverbially crooked and they seem incapable of making them straight even when there are no obstacles ; if a tree falls across a path, a new one is made round it, and even when the tree has decayed the path still bends. Some­times near streams are built platforms of wood on which the traveller may pray. Very often when the owner of a house dies the house is deserted, and in this way many small villages have disappeared. When a new hut is built, a sacrifice of goat or fowl is made outside the door and the blood allowed to fall there : the owner does not eat the flesh, but it is given to the poor ; the same sacrifice is made when a well is dug.

The official head of a village in Zanzibar is a Shelia who is endowed with certain statutory powers:'the institution of masheha is of considerable antiquity, and they are usually appointed on (he recommendation of the elders of the . village. Each is provided with a silver or bronze badge of office and a red flag which he flies outside his house from sunrise to sunset.

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Among the Wahadimu, there is to be found in each village a person knovn as Mwana Vyale or Mwana Zali, who is descended from the original founder of the vil­lage; these persons have no official standing hut are consulted on anything that concerns the life of the village: they are also charged with the care of the sacred places though not the mosque which is in charge of a Mwalimu. The daily life of the village is much as follows:—

The day may be said to commence when the crow of the first cock is heard at which time the rule of the witch-doctor and spirits ends, and man may be about his ordinary business: on the appearance of the “false dawn” the village Muezzin calls out to the drowsy worshippers to remind them, that prayer is better than sleep and those that are piously inclined hurry from their huts for the dawn prayers. The only other people awake before sunrise are the Milkmen who have to journey to the town with their produce. As the sun rises, smoke rising from the eaves of the huts betrays the presence of the women who are early astir to prepare breakfast which consists of the remnants of the last night’s meal heated up. The African realises that the early morning is the best part of the day for work and the men are soon off’ to the fields or to their occupations. After a visit to the well and sweeping up the house and yard in front, the house-wife may repair to the fields to hoe, to the shore to catch white bait or shell fish or to follow whatever her calling is. At noon men and women come back, the former to sleep and the latter to grind maize or millet or to pound flour and prepare the food for the evening meal; later perhaps to collect firewood, and at 4 or 5 again to the well where as much time is spent in talking as in drawing water. At 10 or 11 oclock in the morning the market begins to fill and sellers come in with their wares: women are rarely seen in the Market: the purchase of food is carried out to the accompaniment of much gossip and talk by the men; at 4 oclock the men change their workaday clothes for spotless white Kanzus and call upon their friends: about dusk the evening meal is ready and served on trays on the baraza, after which those piously inclined perform the sunset prayers; after this more visiting or an adjournment perhaps to the house of the Sheha to discuss the affairs of the village or to tell stories; at 10 or 11 to bed, and so ends the day.

a. GAMES.There are two kinds of games which find special favour, “Mankala” and Cards.Mankala is known in Zanzibar as “B a o” and there are three forms

of it known there. The Mankala board, with its 40 holes or “houses,’ is of course well known, but considerations of space preclude a description of the methods of those forms known to Zanzibar. One form is called Kiswahili and is more difficult than the others, another, Kiarabu, is an importation from Oman. A

9

A debased form of Kiarabu is also played.

There are four games of cards known to the Natives of Zanzibar called Chanis Wahid-ou-Sitini, Nakshi, and Kamari.

6. Land Tenure.—Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as land tenure, the value of land being

determined not by the soil, but by its accessibility and the economic trees planted on it. The quality of the soil only counts in an indirect way as it causes the value of the trees to vary. Communal tenure is known among the aborigines but no Native has any right to anything but the crops on the land which is all the property of the Sultan. Prescriptive right cannot be acquired unless 60 years continuous and undis­puted ownership can be proved.

7. The Agricultural And Nautical Year.—In addition to the Mohammedan year, the months of which have all native

names, the old Persian Solar year is also in use among the aborigines. It consists of 365 days, undivided into months, and is known by the day on which the first of the year falls. Thus a year that begins on Monday will be known as Mwaka Jumaa Tatu, i. e. Monday Year : the first of the year is a great Native festival and is called Naoroz or Siku ya Mwaka. On the night of New Year’s day, the fires are extingui­shed with water and rekindled with the aid of fire sticks (pekecha). The old ashes are carried out and deposited on the crossroads and the floury ash is sprinkled against the backs of the houses. Ngomas are played all night and at 10 oclock next day the Ngomas all assemble near the shore each with their flags, when dancing and donkey racing are indulged in as well as many other harmless snorts. Thereafter everyone proceeds to the shore, the Ngomxs moving in a long line : those who have not attended the festival before wash in the sea for luck. At midday a feast is cooked, women preparing the rice and men the relish which is given to all : small cakes are made ( in Pemba ) and presented to everyone.

It used bo be a saying that there was no law on Now Year’s day, and free fights took place, often with fatal results. It was a great day to settle old scores and until the practice was stopped Indians used to be thrown into the sea.

8. Languages.—Zanzibar and Pemba are of course the mother home of the great Swahili tongue

and text-books usually deal with the language spoken in Zanzibar. However, outside the town, there arc several dialects spoken of which space forbids more than mention

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The Wahadimu speak several dialects, two of which at least are well marked. The oii^ is confined to the south-eastern portion of the island and the other is generally intelligible in the other villages inhabited by these people : but these two divisions, can only be considered as rough for almost all the settlements up the East Coast of the Island have small differences in their dialect and method of pronunciation. The south-eastern dialect is practically unintelligible to one who speaks Swahili only owing mainly to the peculiar pronunciation. The dialects of the Wahadimu are generally called “ Kihadimu” or “ Kikae ” or “ Kikale” (the last two words mentioned meaning “ Archaic” ). These dialects are in fact dying out as communications improve and the country is opened up.

The dialect of Tumbatu is called “ Kitumbatu ” : it has words peculiar to itself but in a great degree assimilates to “ Kihadimu ”.

The dialect of the Wapemba called “ Kipemba ” is ver^ different to any of the Zanzibar dialects, but is far more homogeneous than “ Kihadimu”. In addition to these ordinary dialects of everyday, there are a number of dialects included in the term “ Kipepo ” which means the language of spirits and which is used in communi­cating with beings of the other world. Pemba has three of these dialects Robamba, Umunde, and Kumbwaya : the words of the three are much the sam? but the pronunciation varies ; the wrords used are quite different to ordinary Swahili or other dialects of the Island.

Zanzibar has also a “ Kipepo ” dialect of Umunde, the vocabulary of which does not appear to be extensive but is different to the Pemba Umunde. The medicine men of Zanzibar and Pemba as opposed to the witch doctors have also a dialect used mainly in making their prescriptions. Pemba and Zanzibar words are different but are confined mainly to the names of trees.

There are several enigmatical dialects known as “ Kinyume ” : the feature of the easiest of these is that the last syllable of a word is taken off and prefixed to the remainder.

9. P roverbs.—Proverbs are as plentiful in Swahili as in other languages : they are known as

Mifano. The following are specimens of this form of wisdom :-A house of earth won’t stand a shock.The medicine for fire is fire.When the drum sounds loud it is neir to burst.A lover has no scruples.

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There is no water without waves.Every vessel has its waves to meet.If one fish rots so does the whole string.

The following are a few proverbs from Pemba recorded from the original Pemba dialect

If a dog is fierce, he will bite his tail.If a thing is good, it delays on the road.If a man is in a hurry, he eats his meat raw.If the near road is bad, it is better to go round.

10. P iddles.—The Natives, especially children, are very fond of riddles and the variety is

endless. They are propounded in this w a y T h e proposer says “ Kitendawili ” ( a riddle ) and the one asked says “ Tega ” (trap) : the following are specimens

My house is big but it has no lamp. Answer — A grave.My chickens are all wearing waistcoats; if one has no waistcoatit is not mine. Answer. — A crow. (The African crow is black with a whitewaistcoat).Two useful things very alike. Answer. — Cocoanut juice and milk.

11. Tales.—Tales also are endless: several books have been published on them. The

Natives 'are particularly fond of stories about one Kibunwasi who corresponds in Zanzibar to the Rabbit which is known as Sungura. Kibunwasi’s real origin was Abunawas the famous poet of Bagdad.

All stories begin with a small dialogue : he or she who has to tell the tale says “ Pnukwa” and tho other replies “ Pakawa.” Some other words may now be used but it is usual for the teller then to start with “ Palikuwa” which is the way that all fairy tales begin and means “ Once upon a time there was.”

12. Art.—The art of the Swahili is not to be found among his drawings for very few can

draw any sort cf a picture, and, when asked to, their efforts are most crude. The most interesting 'form of art in Zanzibar or Pemba is probably that to be found in the “ poker-work ” on the large wooden spoons which are made in most villages ; to the uninitiated, the patterns thereon have little meaning, but each of them has its nime and they are all derived from natural objects such as leaves, fishes, and lizards.

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The rope or chevron pattern which is of considerable antiquity is also popular. Interesting patterns are also embroidered on the beautiful caps worn by natives all of which are called by separate names. Popular patterns are also evolved by the wood-carvers most of whom display consummate skill.

13. Music Songs And Dances.—

To unsophisticated ears, the noise made by Zanzibar Ngoma players can scarcely be dignified by the name of music, but prolonged acquaintance with it gives at any rate, the key to its monotony. The whole idea of the Ngoma is to induce a state bordering on the hypnotic. Ngomas or dances usually start in the evening about 6. p.m. and continue all night until next evening : for the first few hours there is often little “ go ” about the performance but the players soon get warmed up and can continue for hours the movements of the dance which may be either fast or slow. Ngomas are of two kinds : those which are played simply for the sake of amusement and those the object of which is to exorcise the devil by whose name the Ngoma is known. The medicine man in his diagnosis of a case tells which devil it is that has to be reckoned with, and arrangements are then made to call in the “ fundi ” or leader of that particular dance. A wide variety of instruments is used in Zanzibar and Pemba, there being at least 10 different drums, 3 kinds of tambourines and various wird, stringed, and miscellaneous instruments. Each dance demands its ovn particular orchestra and one drum cannot be used in place of another. Apart from their uses in Ngomas two drums are used for signal purposes, though there is no extensive code of signals at the present time. These two signal drums are of the same pattern being shaped somewhat like a wine glass and called respectively “ Tutu” and “ Rewa’h The latter is a very large edition of the former and was formerly used for the purpose of calling the slaves together. “ Vumi ” and “ Chapuo ” are barrel drums with skins at both ends: they are of the same pattern but the “ Vumi ” is very much larger. “ Msondo ” is the name of the drum used in the women’s initiation dance: it is a tall thin drum covered with ox hide at the top : the comple­mentary drum is much of the same pattern but is covered with goatskin. The “ Mshindo ” is hollow inside with no bottom and stands on three legs. The skins of oxen,, goats, and two species of the gazelle are used for drum hides : custom prescri­bes which should be used. Tambourines are of the usual pattern some with bells and some without.

The most common wind instrument is the “ Zomari,” a kind of clarionet which sounds like the bagpipes ; a high degree of skill is required in its use. The players get high fees and are trained from youth to distend their cheeks to an enormous

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degree. Other instruments used in dances are the •“ Kayamba ’’ which is a flat rattle made of thin bamboo sticks fastened together in bookshape with seeds inside : th e “ Upatu” 'which is a brass gong: the “ Miwali ” made of flat pieces of the midrib of the Raffia palm and used as cymbals : the “ Oherewa ” a tin rattle and the Mbiun and “ Lelimama ” which are the horns respectively of the Buffalo and the Ox and are used in special dances. In addition to these, various forms of rattles and bells are often worn on the legs

Apart from instruments used in Ngomas, the Mandolin, called “Kinanda“, copied from the Arab “ Ood ” is made with great skill and played with some charm. The “ Marimba ” is an ingenious Xylophone and the “ Zeze ” a kind of banjo made from a calabash. The baragumu is a large shell with a hole in one side which is used to announce the approach of fish to the shore.

The number of dances that are played are almost endless, as new ones are often invented. Recently a large buoy was washed ashore "on the south-east of Zanzibar Island. Emitting a hollow sound when tapped, it soon gave the natives the impres­sion that it was the dwelliug place of a devil, and as it was quite a new species, a new dance was invented in its honour. Other dances are of considerable antiquity and some are played with considerable secrecy, but it is impossible to refer to them in detail here. In addition to the tune prescribed by custom, each dance has alsoa song the words of which are often dialectical and the meaning generally metaphorical.

Amongst native entertainments must also be included the bull-fights of Pemba of the Portuguese occupation. The arena is usually set on an open sandy place in which are a relic picturesque so r roundings among palm and mango trees: at one end is a large cage within which numbers of women clap hands to the rhythm of the drum and the “Zomari” : all around are stands on which the spectators sit-the women on the left and the men on the right of the cage justdescribed: the cage is known as “Bigili” and the stand as “ Madungu.” Before the start young Wapemba run from point to point uttering curious cries-a series of sharp short staccato barks called “ Kiapilio,” and the matadors line up and salute the principal visitor present—a relic probably of the “ Morituri te salutant ’ of the Roman gladiators. When the orchestra strikes up, the bull is brought to the ring: it has round its neck a long thick rope called “Ngoweo,” the end of which is passed through the corner of the cage where the women are: it is then pulled short and the bull thrown : a fiendish din is then made in the ear of the bull which, becoming thoroughly bewildered, is loosed and charges its tormentors. Some of the matadors are very skilful in enticing the bull and sidestepping to avoid its rush. It is said that the bull takes no notice of them if they sit on the ground

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and it certainly is the case that they often kneel or lie near the bull without any harm; if the bull shows any tendency to leave the ring it is checked by a pull on the rope: each bull’s turn is about 20 minutes. At a bull fight three to six bulls are usually played for about 20 minutes each: certain bulls become very celebrated and the fees for their hire may be as much as Rs. 20. and a matador often gets the same amount. Bull-fights are regularly played each year in Pemba at the end of the * hot season to expedite the approach of the rain.

Another beautiful performance is that known as “Maulidi.” The “Maulidi” is usually a recitation in honour of the Prophet’s birth but it has been adapted by the Natives to a choral performance. Double rows of up to 50 men kneel facing each other and clad iu snow7y linen. Their movements are all in unison and their singing extraordinarily tuneful and beautiful: the accompaniment is soft on tambourines and gongs and the singing all in unison and of a Gregorian type in a minor key. The women also sing behind a grille: the smouldering incense and the flickering lamps make a wonderful scene. Carried away by religious fervour the Mullahs perform wonderful feats. They swallow burning incense, or stick a long nail through both cheeks and draw it out without any hurt, or plunge swords against their chests.

The Watumbatu are much addicted to singing while they row and have many adapted to the swing of their oars. The native police men on the march are also as fond of singing as our own troops : even “Tipperary0 is well known to them. Pickers of cocoanuts and cloves also carry on a kind of dialogue in song during their tasks. In addition, sailors sing in a soft monotone the word “Kuru“ to call up the wind.

RELIGION AND SCIENCES.1. Nature.—

(<7.) The Elements. The winds are well known in Zanzibar, as indeed they must be to so nautical a people. The two most important are the north-eastern Monsoon known as “ Kaskazi” and the south-western known as “Kusi.” During the time of the former Monsoon, from December to March, the wind usually drops at about 12 noon and an easterly winds blows up, known as “ Matelai” . The winds are known generally under the word “Upepo” ; rain as “Mvua” which is the name of the-rain spirit: thunder as “Nguruma” (onomatopaeic) which is said to be the direct voice of God. The stars are not much known to the African element. The Pleiades are associated with cultivation and called “kilimia,” which is derived from the word “lima” (cultivate). It is said that if they set in fine weather they will rise in wet. Shooting stars are called “Kimwondo” and are said by the Arabs to be missiles thrown by the angels at the Djinns.

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The natives believe that the earth is carried on the horns of an ox which in its turn is borne on the back of a stingray swimming in the sea: the sea is carried by the wind and the wind by the will of God; a variation of this is that the ox is carried by a mosquito. When the ox tires of its burden, it tosses it a little and this causes earthquakes.

As regards the daily rising and setting of the sun, they say that there are 360 holes in a circle and that on the first morning of the year the sun rises from the first and sets in the second, on the second morning it rises from the second and sets in the third, and so on, although it always appears that it rises the same place each day. The distance that the sun travels daily would take a man 500 years to do on foot. The moon in similar fashion has holes to rise and set in and some say that eclipses are caused by the sun and moon getting accidentally in each others holes but it is generally considered that, if the eclipsed sun or moon is black, it is being eaten by an eel; if red by a crab or an octopus this at any rate is the belief of the Wapemba though in Zanzibar I have been told that the monster is a snake. The Wapemba say that one can tell which animal it is by looking at the reflection in w7ater. During an eclipse the natives gather in large crowds on the shore, beat drums, trays, and anything else that will make a noise and sing:— “Eel, eel, give us our moon and go to the shore and eat little fish.” The mcon is said to pray on the 15th of each month and for this reason gets fatter at the thought of it: after the 15th it wanes and quietly reflects on its sins.

The tides are said to he caused by a whale swallowing water and disgorging it, though seme people say that it is an oyster or a big fish called “Chewa.”

(b.) Natural History. The natives are, generally speaking, extraordinary good naturalists in that they readily indentify and know the names of every creature and plant, but they do not usually associate, for instance, the caterpillar with the butterfly: all larvae are spe3ifically known under the word “Mafunza” : there are several superstitions connected with animals, and owls md chameleons are considered

unlucky: it is said that the wizard flies with the owl.

Certain harmless animals such as the small burrowing lizard called “Kiuma- mbuzi” and the chameleon are considered as poisonous in the same way that blind worms are in England, and are always destroyed when encountered. Many of the names of birds are onomatopaeic, for example, the Cuckoo Shrike which is called ‘‘Tipi Tipi” and the Sandpiper known ss “Kitvitwi.” 'The cries of some birds ar© also translated to words, for instance, the half collared turtle dove is said to say “Mother is dead, father is dead, I am left alone to mvself” or “the fowl is only bone but I have plenty of meat.” The male owl cries “Brother-in-law, lend me a chain”

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and the female replies “Tonight, tonight.” A small yellow bird called “Kiru- mbizi” is noted for its inquisitiveness. And it is said that if it sees a man talking to a woman it hops round saying “Mtu anasema na mke” (A man is talking to a woman): the pigeon known as “Mwigo” holds conversations as follows:—

• “Kuu” says the bird., one answers “Mwigo” “Kuu” says the bird., “Prophesy for me,” says the traveller., “Kuu.” says the bird., “Is it well that I should go on?” ‘Kuu.” if it answers no “kuu” to the last question it is a bad omen.

2. Religion.—Nominally, every native in Zanzibar and Pemba is a Mohammedan but often the

veneer of Islam is but a slight covering to the simpler beliefs of the African.All natives believe in a number of kinds of spirits which may be classified as

follows:—Firstly the ghosts who live in the “Kuzimu” which are the ghosts of the dead:

they do not appear to man, and those manifestations which we should ascribe to ghosts are by the native attributed to “Shetani” or devils; many powerful men of the past such as the “Mwenyi Mkuu” of the Wahadimu or “Mkame Mdume,” the chief­tain of Pemba are credited with keeping in control large numbers of devils which even now appear in their former haunts. Then there are the “Pepo” a group of spirits of many different names which may be known as personal spirits as they are the kind which possess people: they are not really harmful and may even be called up if the occasion warrants it to take possession of a person for his or her good: if they become obstreperous they can be exorcised by the use of their particular ngoma. In the fasting month of Ramadhan these spirits are enclosed by the medicine man in bags.

Thirdly there are the Djinns or imported spirits (Genii of the Arabian Nights) which can travel by sea and are mostly harmful. They are Moslem in belief and certain sheikhs are credited with leading them in prayer.

Forthly, there is another family of important devils called “Mizimu” who have their abodes in trees and caves in of each which is their seat or alter to which flags are tied and offerings made and incense burnt: they are far more common in Zanzibar than in Pemba, and among the Wahadimu the Mwana Vyali is especially charged with the sweeping of their habitations and with the respons­ibility of seeing that the proper offerings are made.

There is then a class of what may be called local and personal spirits which are known as “ Panga ” meaning also a cave or cleft in a rock : these are common in Pemba and manifest themselves through the witch-doctors who, on sitting down at

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the seat of the devil become immediately possessed by him in a most uncanny way the voice is changed, the eyes are strange and unseeing and the witch-doctor usually ends his trance frothing at the mouth and finally collapses to wake up as out of a deep sleep. In Zanzibar many spirits dwell at the cross-roads and at almost every place where one path crosses another. In the more distant villages will be found a pile of various valueless offerings: a handful of grass is enough to propitiate the spirit-- an unripe fruit, a piece of tobacco a stick of cassava or anything that is to hand.

It maybe surmised that Mzimu were originally vegetable spirits. The word “zimu” is probably derived from the Sumerian “ Z ” and “ zimu ” is the opposite of-tu : thus we have “ Mtu ” plural “ Watu ” which means a man, “ M ” being the live or animal prefix and derived probably from the Sumerian “ MU” or “ PA” e. g. “Adamu” signifying animal and then more specifically man. “ M” plural “ Mi” is the vegetable prefix to be found in the names of all trees and plants. ( “ Mwitu ” means forest. Mti, a tree ) “ Ki” is the dead or thing prefix e. g. “ Kitu ” thing. “ U ” is the abstract e.g. “utu“ humau nature an 1 “Ku,” the form of the infinitive, ‘‘the state of being” prefix. We have “ Wazimu ” which is madness and therefore means the kind of affliction on live or animal or human beings caused by spirits. “ Mizimu” or vegetable spirits, and “ Kuzimu ” state of being a spirit i. e. the place where the ghosts live.Thus “ tu ” contains essentially the idea of this world and “ zimu “ the idea of the spirit world.

3. Superstitions.—In Zanzibar as in other countries, there are a great number of customs arising

from superstitions and the use of salt particularly is attended with various prohibitions. No salt, incense, needles, thread, ginger or eggs may be sold after dark on peril of very bad luck; should one want salt at night the only way to get it is to be given it, but the giver must either go out and throw some on the roof or throw some in the fire. It is bad luck, on going out of the house in the morning, to meet a one-eyed man or a hunch-back and fishermen in particular always return to their house should they meet with such mishaps. If, on the other hand, one meets twTo men together or a man carrying a load, good fortune is betokened. It is bad luck to hand scissors to anyone: they should be laid down and taken up. No fishermen would take up a fish by its tail as this is sure to bring misfortune on him.

4. Surgery.—Native surgery in Zanzibar is in a far more primitive state than the other so-

called sciences which we shall consider. Cupping is performed by a “Muumishi” (Cupper) with a cupping horn called by the Wahadimu, “Chuku.” The cup is the

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top end of the cow’s horn. Through the thin and there is a hole round which is placed a lump of bees-wax. The knife is a small locally-made instrument with a square point. The operation is performed by making a number of small incisions on the back while the patient lies on his stomach. A horn is then put over each and sucked vigorously : when all the air is drawn out the Muumishi closes the hole up by biting the wax with his teeth. After a time the horns are removed or allowed to fall off and are then full of congealed blood. A simpler operation consists of making gashes with a razor on the back and when sufficient blood has been let, the bleeding is stopped by an application either of the cut leaves of Cajanus Indicus and lime or the sap of Jatropha Curcas. The operation of circumcision has already been described and the only other operation which may be termed surgical is the rem­oval of that unpleasant parasite the SarcopsiUa Penetrans with the aid of a needle made from orange-wood.

e5. Medicine.—

The word for doctor or medicine man is “Mganga” and includes the dealer both in medicine and in white magic. The practice of the Mganga is hereditary and is handed down from father to son. Native doctors often specialise in herb recipes for certain diseases. Few prescribe for all ailments. None will communicate their recipes to each other and there is, therefore, considerable difficulty in compiling a Native Pharmacopoeia, and considerable care is necessary in checking. I have already referred to the fact that the herbs used in medicine have special names among medicine men. It is impossible here to give a list of the various recipes used for medicines, but it is safe to say that there is hardly a disease which the medicine man is afraid of tackling and they claim to effect remarkable cures. It is almost certain that no native, at any rate in the more distant villages, will try European medicire except as a last hope.

6. P ossessions and E xorcisms.—Illness is often said to be the result of possession by a devil, and, as a general

rule, the use of various dances has to be invoked. In some cases it is desired to call a devil to possess a person and for this purpose, among the “Wahadimu” portions of the roots of two trees are boiled together in a new pot., when the pot boils a pad is placed on the patient's head and the pot is put on top; though the patient may shake her head it is said that the pot will not fall down; the medicine man then gives the patient some of the mixture to drink: the devil will now enter and though it may take spells off will always come back again. One of the roots is then thrown down a ruined well so that it may be out of the way of mischief makers, and the other is fas­tened to the leg of the possessed person where it will stay seven days.

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Prior to exorcism of a devil by dauce the patient has to be prepared for the operation in this manuer:—

Seven leaves and seven seeds of Ficus Sycamorus are boiled in water in a clay pot over which the patient has to stand while he or she is covered fiom head to foot with cloths : after this operation the dance may be proceeded with.

Some devils may be exorcised by the use of the Daica ya Pepo which is a long seme-religious rocitaton read by the medicine man over the patient who sits before him covered writh cloths while a gong is beaten : this continues unceasingly until the devil is expelled from the patient who gives a loud cry and falls down.

An important instrument fur exorcising devils is called “Pini” which consists of a cow’s horn with two bells fastened through a hole at the end and is rilled with a variety of roots and a dog’s nose.

7. White Magic.—White Magic is magic that has no harm for its object but is designed to combat

Black Magic or to make such medicines as love charms : all this is within the province of the “Mganga” and certain charms are used purely in a medicinal way to cure sick­ness or disease. Some of them are of purely native origin but the use of the Koran is often involved in writing charms for sick people to wear.

There is a large variety of love charms the object of which is to attach the affec­tions of some lady often the wrife of someone else and even to bring her to the house of the man who desires her. Other charms are designed to give general invisibility or invisibility in particular cases. It may be interesting to give here the various recipes for procuring invis bility as used among the Watumbatu, the Wahadimu and the Wapemba:—

(a.) Watumbatu. Take the potato of Gassy tha filiformis and shred it : add hair from the back of the neck of a black cat and feathers from the back of the neck of a black cock and roast in a new cooking pot over the fire : powder the result into a mixture .and place s? me on the back of a mirror : make a small vertical cut one inch above the nose and rub the powder in: reverse the mirror and if you are still visible, rub again.

(b.) Wahadimu. Walk along a path where is growing andswallow seven of its white buds one after another; you will be invisible.

fr.) Wapemba. Cut the throat of a black cock and *’ ab the roots of a tree

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called “Mwaka Mwaka” in the blood and then smear it on your face: repeat the operation until you find yourself invisible.

An interesting form of White Magic is that used for catching thieves: it is not native but an importation and is performed in Zanzibar exactly as described in “Lane’s Modern Egyptians’’ (“Everyman’s Edition.” p. 274 s q q).

Conjuring tricks suoh as those performed at “Maulidi” as previously described may also be included in “White Magic.” Then there are a large class of charms intended to ward off evil. Most of these are Koranic in nature and great use is made of suras (chapters) 113 & 114. Of purely native charms, one called “Koma ’ is interesting: it is used to keep enemies away from a dance ground and to stop the players from quarrelling. A small section of bamboo filled with pieces of the roots of 35 different trees is sealed at both ends with incense and gum copal and then buried in the middle of the ground to the accompaniment of incense burning and the following incantation:—

“Thou, Koma, we place thee here in the dance ground: if there comes an enemy from the south, make him fall here, let him not get away: if he comes from the east make him fall here, let him not get away: if he comes from the north, make him fall here, let him not get away: if he comes from the west, make him fall here, let him not get away: if the enemy be female, let her fall; if the enemy be male, let him fall; if he be black, let him fall: if he be red, let him fall; and thou O Koma stop the players here on the dance ground from quarrelling and fighting, and content them with the joy of the dance alone.”

Another interesting charm is one called “Koja” which is a string of wooden beads worn by children: in each of the long beads are inserted pieces of a reed called ‘‘Ndago” : if anyone of evil intent approaches a child wearing this, the child will vomit, and thus disclose the presence of malignant influence.

Finally there are a large series of charms employed to combat Black Magic and these are all of a protective nature; certain of them are intended to enable one to see the witch-doctor who, when engaged on his nefarious occupation, is usually invisible: others to paralyze him, and still others to make evil intended rebound on the person conceiving it.

8. Black Magic.The medicine and magic that we have considered heretofore are mainly practised

by medicine men who are considered useful members of society and practice their ailing openly. Black Magic falls within the province of the “ Mchawi” or wazard

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whose work is wholly evil : all sorts of wonderful powers are attributed to witch doctors; they can be invisible at will, pass through a ring, or ride on a millet straw.

Pemba has got a reputation in East Africa as being the home of instruction for budding wizards and the magic of Pemba is characterised by what is known as the guild system. These guilds are organised^ secret societies which have terrorism as their object. As every single one of the population firmly believes in magic it is impossible to say what results have been achieved, for, as a general rule, a native would be far too terrified to give them away. Entrance to a guild is to be purchased by the offering of a goat and a bag of rice and the initiate is also asked if he can provide a man (“kutupa mtu”) : it is said that the offering of an infant has to be made and that the child is eaten by the guild. It may be said at once that there is a good deal of doubt as to whether this actually takes place and most people con­sider it wholly improbable as Pemba is well organised and administered but in view of the secrecy observed by all classes in this respect it is difficult to state definitely that this practice does not take place as no inspection of dead bodies is required but only a registration of the death.

The magic of Zanzibar is characterised chiefly by the use of potent poisons and by the fact that witch doctors are credited with the powers cf being able to keep leopards under control and to send them at will to do harm. On exploring a cave in the south of the island I was shown a dish with the remnants of food inside in one of the inner entrances and was told that this was placed there by the leopard’s master.

Many stories are current concerning these practices though it is impossible to give them here : it will be sufficient to say that nob only the natives, but also the Arabs believe that the witch-doctors have these powers.

The magic of the Watumbatu as contrasted with that of the Wahadiinu shows much less trace of foreign influence.

Homoeopathic and contagious magic are both practised, and such customs as, the making of images of bees wax and damaging them to harm your enemy: or wrapping a live fowl in your enemy’s clothes and burying it to cause his death are common practices. Some t me ago during the war the Government wanted porters for the mainland: in a Pemba village which had been told to provide men the Wacha- wi (Wizards') were consulted and they advised the sewing up of the lips of a goat with proper invocations and as the goat could not speak it would prevent the Govern­ment speaking; however, the Government apparently was not sufficiently like the gont to stop talking but continued to demand the men. It is said that then a baby’s lips were sewn up and the .child buried alive. This was investigated with the result

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that the decomposed remains of a child were discovered buried beneath the eaves of a house, but there was not enough evidence to convict anyone.

Charms can be buried on the road to harm only the person for whom intended. If considerations of space allowed it would be possible to give many recipes used for doing harm.

Forms of natural affliction such as Albinoism and malformations, are put down to the work of wizards. Haircuttings, nail parings and even one’s name may be used to work evil against one . Among the poisons used in Zanzibar by the Wachawi none is more famous than that known as “Punju” which is made from the dried and pounded stomachs of the chameleon and a large skink-like lizard called “gura guru.” The “guru guru” does not exist in Pemba where “Punju” is made of the tail of the chameleon, the tail of a green whip snake called “Ukukwi,” and the stomach of a small burrowing lizard known as “Kiumambuzi” or “that which harms the goat.” A Pemba antidote of this poison consists of the tendrils of Gassytha Filiformis, and another tree called “Mchinja Uthia” ground together and mixed with ghee. Amagicpoison known as unga wa ndere is said to be prepared by hanging a corpse by the heels over a bowl; on decomposition a juice drops from the neck which is dried and used as poison.

9. Numbers.—

Many books of magic are in use in Zanzibar but they are almost all of Arabic origin. In these the use of magic squares is much resorted to and the “fifteen” square is most popular: it is as follows:—

4 9 23 5 78 1 6

It will be seen that whichever way the figures in the above square are added up the total is fifteen. Magic squares are generally written in Kabalic form, each of the letters of the alphabet having a given value.

In the Medicine of the Wahadimu which appears to have been much affected by Semitic influence the numbers 3 and 4 and their total 7 are very popular.

10. D ivination.—

Anyone having any important undertaking on hand will not fail to cunsult a fortune-teller first: the systems of forecasting good or evil are too complicated to relate here. The stars are largely consulted and two methods of geomancy are resorted to; one called Kibuzi and the other winch is of Arabic origin called Ramli.

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SECTION II.

TRADE.

The foreign trade of the Zanzibar Protectorate consists (1) of the exportation of Domestic Products and the importation of foodstuffs and Manufactured Articles for local consumption, and (2) of an entrepot commerce maintained by the distribu­tion of imported Foodstuffs and Manufactured Articles to the neighbouring mainland territories, and the collection of African Raw Products from the ports by which these territories are served.

The trade falling within the former category is dependent upon the Agricultural prosperity of the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba which, apart from oil-crushing and the manufacture of soap on a small scale, boast of no industrial activities of commercial importance. The entrepot trade referred to originated in the political supremacy which made Zanzibar, until within comparatively recent times, the com­mercial metropolis of Eastern Africa, and is largely maintained by the agency of dhows, which are still able, by virtue of the geographical position of the port of Zanzibar, and the nature of the prevailing winds of these latitudes, to play an im­portant part in the Maritime traffic of the East African Coast.

Although the two branches of Zanzibar’s trade described above are to a great extent independent of each other, it is to be noted that, with regard to Imports, no important distinction exists between the classes of goods locally consumed and those intended for re-distribution, and, with regard to Exports, the only commodities of domestic production concerned are Cloves, Copra and Soap. It will therefore be convenient, in a brief survey, to present the trade of the Protectorate under the simple classifications of (1) Imports (including goods for re-distribution) and (2) Exports (including goods re-exported).

During the year ended 31st. December, 1923 the total foreign trade of Zanzibar was valued at Rs. 6, 33, 50,945, of which Rs. 2, 91, 44, 767 represented Import trans­actions, and Rs. 3, 42, 06, 178 Export and re-export transactions. These figures are rather in excess of the average trade figures for the last few years, but may be regarded as reflecting the immediate business potentialities of Zanzibar.

Imports. The comparative statement shewn in Appendix II A shews the princi­pal articles imported into the Protectorate during the quinquennial period 1919-1923. It will be noted that by far the most important article imported is Cotton Piece Goods, the principal varieties comprised under this head being Cotton Dyed, Cotton Printed

in the Piece, Cotton Bleached, and Cotton Unbleached. While the United Kingdom supplies the great bulk of the first three varieties, the imports of Unbleached Cotton come from India and Japan. Formerly India held what was practically a monopoly in the supply of this grey cotton sheeting, known locally as “Americani,” but during recent years what is generally described as Japanese “0” sheeting, has gradually been superseding the corresponding products of the Bombay Mills.

Next in importance in the list of imported articles are Bice and Grain, which together with Flour and Jute Bags for packing produc , represent the bulk of India’s Imports into the Protectorate. As both Rice, and to some extent the different varieties of Grains which are imported for the consumption of the local Indian population are being successfully cultivated in the neighbouring Tanganyika Territory, a reduction of Indian tra-le in this direction is also to be anticipated.

With the exception of a line of cheap shag tobacco which is popular with the African Native, and is supplied by Holland, the Tobacco and Cigarette impoits are mostly from the United Kingdom, which also supplies in considerable quantities such articles as Iron and Steel Manufactures, Electrical goods and Apparatus, Agricultural Implements, Chemicals and Cement.

Imports of Sugar originate in Java and Mauritius ; ghee which is consumed by the Indian population is supplied, for the most part by the neighbouring mainland territories of Tanganyika Territory, of Kenya Colony and Italian Somaliland ; Motor Spirit and Petroleum imports are mainly from Uuited States of America and Sumatra.

Exports. The comparative statement shewn in Appendix II. B shews the principal articles exported (including goods re-exported) from the Protectorate during the quinquennial period 1919—1923. As already explained Exports being the domestic produce of the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, are confined princi­pally to Cloves and Clove Stems, Copra and Soap.

Gloves. It has been pointed out in a previous section of this’ publication, that the Clove Crop is not only the chief source of Revenue of the Zanzibar Government, but is also the basis of the Protectorate’s trade and prosperity The entire Clove Crop whether of Pemba or Zanzibar is assembled at the Port of Zanzibar where its 25% Revenue tribute is collected, and where it is sorted and packed for shipment. Its ultimate world-wide distribution-see Appendix I A— is mainly affected through the Produce Markets of London, Bombay and New York.

Although the Zanzibar Clove Industry, by virtue of its producing 90% of the world’s Cloves, is usually referred to as a monopoly, it should be understood that the Clove Trade has few of the characteristics of a syndicate monopoly. The Clove in

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its painful progress from the plantation to the Distillery or the retail grocer, yield a profit to a host of Brokers and Middlemen, not only in Zanzibar but in the Overseas Markets referred to, and few commodities can be subject to more persistent specu­lation than this product of the Bast.

The values of the Exports relating to the quantities shewn in. Appendix I A were as follows:—

1917 Rs. 65, 43, 635.1918 Rs. 89, 28, 522.1919 Rs. 1,13, 89, 431.1920 Rs. 58, 58, 377.1921 Rs. 1, 14, 83, 330.1922 Rs. 1, 14, 64, 056.

During 1923, as the result of an abnormally large crop and a high price level, Exports amounted to 2,00, 646 cwts. valued at Rs. 1, 59, 26, 592.

Oopra. The Zanzibar Copra trade consists of the annual importation of some 5,000 tons of good-quality Copra from the island of Mafia and the Tanganyika Territory mainland, part of which is used locally in the soap-manufacturing industry, and part for bulking with the inferior Zanzibar-Grown Copra—amounting to about 8,000 tons annually-in order to produce a fair quality for exportation. Most of the Copra exported is shipped to Marseilles for French consumption.

Soap. The soap manufactured in Zanzibar is of a cheap variety, popular with the native population both of the Protectorate and of the mainland. The industry is of re­cent growth and the exports for 1923 amounted to 17,611 cwt., valued at Rs. 5,12,526.

Re-Exports. A number of the articles appearing in Appendix II B have been dealt with under the head of Imports, but special reference might be made to such articles as Millet or Mtama-included in the classification “ Rice and Grain”-Sesame or Sim Sim, Bees, wax, Raw Cotton, and Sisal all of which are collected by dhows from the neighbouring ports of Tanganyika Territory. Most of the Millet and Sesame is re-shipped to Arabia and the Banadir Coast by means of Arabian dhows, which, sailing southward during the North East monsoon and returning to Arabia at the setting of the South West Monsoon, maintain a trade connection which, if now commercially unimportant, is 'of unusual historical interest. The other articles enumerated are re-exported to India and Europe.

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Mention might also be made of the Zanzibar Ivory Trade which has long provided a lucrative business to the port of Zanzibar. The Ivory is purchased chiefly in the mainland markets of Mombasa, Lamu and Dar-es-salaam, and is re-exported after having been carefully cut and graded to meet the requirements of India, Japan, China and the United Kingdom.

Distribution of Trade. It is satisfactory to be able to record that 60% of the Protectorate’s trade is within the Empire. It will be seen from the statement given in Appendix II 0., which shows the distribution of trade in 1923 in relation to the principal countries concerned, that the United Kingdom claimed the largest share with 22.47% of the total trade, aud India and Burma the next largest share with 21.42%.

Customs, Shipping and Port Facilities. The Customs Tariff in force in Zanzibar imposes a uniform ad valorem duty on all manufactured articles, foodstuffs etc. at the rate of 10% of their landed cost, with the exception of Spirits on which the duty is Rs. 15/-per gallon.

The Port of Zanzibar enjoys excellent steamer connections with the main European, African, and Indian ports and direct transhipment facilities by way of London, Marseilles, and Genoa, for the American Atlantic ports, and by way of Bombay and Durban for the ports of the East.

A Harbour undertaking which will provide Zanzibar with the most modern facilities is nearing completion. In the meantime a well-equipped lighterage organization serves the Port, which is provided with cheap and ample storage accommodation.

General. The trade of Zanzibar is essentially a native trade operated by an organization which is largely in the hands of Indian Merchants. The defects of this organization are evident in the manner in which Produce is bulked and shipped by the periodical over—stocking to which wholesale dealers are 'prone, and by a general predilection for long credits. Post war re-organisation has, however, done much for the general improvement of business methods, and there is every indication that this movement towards efficiency will continue.

The Zanzibar Bazaar, by virtue of its financial resources, enjoys a high reputa­tion for stability-and although the potentialities of the Protectorate’s trade may not be large, there is every reason to believe that Zanzibar will continue to play an important role in. the commercial development of the East African Coast.

SECTION III.AGRICULTURE,

Climate.Rain fall. Reliable records of rain-fall have been kept for about 20 years. The

average annual rain-fail for the last 15 years (1908 to 1922 inclusive) in Zanzibar Town is 55.74 inches and for 1923 it was 57.35 inches, During this period the haviest annual rain-fall was in 1909 when 85.14. inches was registered. The smallest amount of rain was in 1914 and was 43.35 inches.

In Pemba during the same period the average annual rain-fall was 74.60 inches, and last year (1923) it was 76.32 inches. The heaviest fall was for 1922 and was 104.72 inches, and the lightest in 1914 was 53.22 inches. Pemba has a const­antly heavier rain-fall than Zanzibar.

The period of heaviest fall is during April and May, just before the setting in of the S.W. monsoon. The lighter rains occur during rhe months of November and December and are somewhat variable in amount. A varying amount of rain falls in July, and although there is not much of it, it is of great benefit to the Agriculturist.

The planting season for both cloves and coconuts is during the light rains which precede the “Masika” or heavy rains in April. It is usually carried on, in Zanzibar particularly, even during the fairer periods of the “Masika,” (heavy rains in April— May), and in Pemba where there are fewer dry spells, after the heavy rains which generally end in showery weather of two or three weeks’ duration.

Temperature. Owing to its insular position and to the fact that none of the prevailing winds blow from the direction of the African continent, Zanzibar enjoys a “Marine” climate. Very few places in the world could possibly have such an equ­able temperature. The average mean maximum temperature for the last 14 years (1909 to 1922 inclusive) is 84.8 degrees and the mean minimum during the same period 76.5 degrees. For 1923 the mean maximum was 85.0 degrees and the maxi­mum 76.9 degrees. The figures for Pemba during the same period are much the same as Zanzibar, mean maximum being 83.6 degrees and the mean minimum 73.2 degrees. It is no doubt owing chiefly to this evenness of temperature that Zanzibar owes its prosperity, as soil and rainfall suitable for its growth could possibly be found elsewhere for the clove tree.

Land T enure and Values.

With very few exceptions all plantations both large and small are worked by the actual owners. The landlord and tenant system as known in England is not under­

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stood here, and would not be applicable to local conditions. Ownership is centred in the trees and not in the soil, therefore if these are neglected or damaged the owners actual capital is lost. It is very difficult to enforce complusory clauses in leases for keeping plantations clean and free from undergrowth and difficult also to bring people to book for damaging trees during the clove harvest. In fact a tenant has little interest in preventing his pickers from breaking branches, as by doing so they get him more cloves and make the work easier for themselves; whereas if he interferes with them, they will in most cases leave him for another owner who is less exacting.

The question of boundaries is one of considerable difficulty owing to the Moha- medan laws of inheritance by which properties are constantly being subdivided; and to give each of the heirs an equitable share of the trees necessitates the boundary lines taking on the most complex forms, Through long experience however profes­sional delineators become quite expert. Recognised types of trees or shrubs are usually planted at the salient points along boundaries, which of course are liable to be interfered with. It would rarely pay to erect marks of a more permanent nature as these would all be changed after the death of each owner. For these reasons deeds of conveyance are difficult to prepare and boudaries as described therein are often of a very sketchy nature and vendors sometimes endeavour to embrace some of their neighbours’ trees.

The actual value of both clove and coconut trees naturally varies with the age and condition of the trees and situation of the plantation. The present day value of be ar- ing clove trees varies from Rs. 7 to Rs. 14 per tree and for bearing coconut trees from Rs. 6 to 10 per tree. The standard distance adopted by the Arabs when they planted their cloves was 21 feet apart. This is now recognised as being too close, as on good soil the trees live to a grert age and get very tall and as a result of too close planting only bear a few cloves at the tops which are extremely difficult of access. This rate of planting gives 93 clove trees to the acre, but few plantations are complete with all trees of an equal age and sales do not take place according to areas. Formerly all the plantations were in the hands of Arab owners and many were of very large extent. After the abolition of slavery the owners were unable or in some

• cases unwilling, to adapt themselves to the new conditions. The result has been somewhat general neglect of the larger plantations, particularly in Pemba. The owners have become increasingly involved with Indian money-lenders with the result that many estates have been broken up and the present day tendency is for the Wahadimu and Wapemba (the natives of Zanzibar and Pemba respectively) and members of different mainland tribes who have come to these Islands for employ-

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meat, to acquire varying numbers of trees which they themselves can keep clean, and pick. This is a healthy sign and is receiving encouragement.

L abour and Rate of Wages.—

At the time that the clove trees were planted in Zanzibar, there was practically no free labour. After the freeing of the slaves the Sultan and other large plantation owners made an arrangement with them whereby they worked 3 days a week on the land upon which they were allowed to live and to cultivate a plot of sufficient area to provide the family with food. The descendants of these people took up a much more independent attitude and would not work except for direct payment which was only to be expected under the new conditions. But the Arabs would not pay wages and of course could not force the men to work, with the result that many of their plantations have suffered severely. The young generation began to leave the plantations for the more attractive town life where they could get better wages and more constant work. At the present time practically the whole of the work of cultivation on the plantations is done by labour coming from the mainland. At this particular type of work these mainland people, and specially those belonging to the Wanyamwezi tribe, are very much better than the Wahadimu and Wapemba. After having accumulated some money, some of these mainland people purchase small plantations and settle in the Protectorate ; but the majority return to their native land and remain there until their supply of money is exhausted.

Practically all labour is paid on a piece-work basis and the standard is the area between 4 clove trees and these trees being 21 feet apart the unit is 441 square feet. This area is loyally callel a “pengele” and on the Government plantations the day’s work of a man consists in hand-hoeing 10 pengeles or 4410 square feet, for which, they get Rs. 18 per month of 26 working days. The plantations are kept free from undergrowth and tall grass something after the style of an orchard in England. It is not possible nor even advisable to do deep cultivation amongst the clove trees, as it would damage their surface roots, and owing to the heavy tropical rains, these would become constantly more and more exposed as the soil above them got washed away. When there is a lot of undergrowth and the work is heavy the number of pengeles worked per day is reduced. The same rate and method of payment is adop­ted for cultivation on the coconut plantations.

Clove picking is paid by measure and the rate of payment varies very consider­ably according' to the demand for the services of the pickers ; and during a heavy harvest there is severe competition amongst plantation owners with the result that

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the rate of wages is sometimes such as to leave the owner no profit unless the price of cloves reaches a fairly high figure. A fair average day’s work is 25 to 30 lbs of green cloves per picker'; and at the rate of 9 pice per pishi (1 pishi equals 4 lbs) he would receive 67 pice or just over a rupee ; an expert picker during a heavy, harvest could earn nearly twice this amoufffc.

CROPS.

Gloves. This crop is by far the most important as it forms the chief source of the revenue of the Government, and the whole prosperity of the Protectorate is based thereon. The first clove seeds were brought to Zanzibar in 1818 by the Arabs from the island of Reunion. Prom the first the Sultans took a keen interest in the crop and not only planted extensively themselves but used their power to stimulate others to do the same. Slavery then being in force was a great factor in favour of the planting, as it enabled land owners to get exactly what labourers they required and to retain them, with the result that they became experts, and the old plantations are beautifully planted and aligned. At the present day Zanzibar produces about 90 per cent of the world’s cloves. Many of the original trees are still alive and bearing in Pemba and have reached a large size. Iu fact so large are they that their branches overlap and form a dense shade with the result that they only bear cloves on their tops where they get the sun. The cloves on such trees are very difficult to pick. The crop ripens usually in two sections, the first in August and September, and the second in December and January ; and is one of the most variable that could be imagined.

In the absence of the more modern banking facilities the financing of the crop is done by Indians whose business houses are in Zanzibar and who operate through their agents and sub-agents in Pemba. Except in the very few cases where producers have both the money and the bulk of cloves to make it worth their while, those in Pemba sell their produce locally. It passes through so many hands, each taking his share of profit, that the grower has to be content with very little.

The crop is all hand picked, the pickers climbing the trees for that purpose.

All picking is paid for by measure, the local standard being called a pishi. It is equivalent to 4 lbs. On the Government plantations and those of the more progressive planters the weighing machine has supplanted the actual measuring, although the original pishi standard is adhered to for payment, conversion tables having been worked out, one pishi being equal to 4 lbs. This is much the quicker and more accurate method. Since 1913 the prices paid for picking have increased one

hundred per cent bub the price of cloves having increased within the same period the grower has not been affected, except that he requires more money from the Indians with which to pay his pickers.

During the process of drying, and under the best condition, cloves lose about 65% of their weight. The price of the dried cloves varies greatly ; at the presen- time (January 1924) it is Rs. 30 per frasila (one frasila being equal to 35 lbs) for the best Zanzibar cloves, and two or three rupees less for Pemba cloves. The latter contain more moisture and are not so well prepared.

The market price of cloves vraies in inverse ratio to the size of the crop. The price in January 1924 is very high owing to there being such a poor crop. Public sales take place at the Customs House in Zanzibar.

In 1872 the industry suffered a severe setback owing to all the plantations having been destroyed by a cyclone. The island of Zanzibar only was affected, and the trees were at once replanted. Consequently one finds trees in Pemba much older than any in Zanzibar. In accordance with the latest returns the total number of bearing clove trees in the two islands is 31 millions.

It is difficult to say at what stage the trees are at their best, as this depends upon the conditions under which they are growing. Some trees in Pemba planted in very deep and well-drained sails look healthy and are still bearing though now 100 years old ; others which cannot be more than half their age have passed their bsst; and many have died.

The average annual yield of cloves on a well-kept plantation where eaxehd picking and drying is the rule, based on the statistics of the last ten y is 6 lbs. per tree.

When the cloves are picked they are still attached to the stems. They am then “stemmed,” the stems and cloves being weighed and dried separately. During a heavy harvest the whole space available for drying is occupied by the cloves and the stems get neglected. Their market value is somewhere about a quarter that of cloves, but they are more bulky.

Drying is best done on large concrete floors faced with cement but these are expensive to construct and for small plantations would of course not pay. Most of the drying is therefore done by exposing the cloves to the sun on grass mats which are imported for that purpose.

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The Government lias at present two schemes in operation, both designed to benefit the clove grower. The one is a bonus on all bearing trees of such an amount as will pay for one clean weeding a year. The other is to encourage replanting and besides giving seedlings free, the Government makes a money payment to all who can show7 young clove trees growing under proper plantations condition.

COCONUTS.

As a crop coconuts are a fairly recent introduction. The old Arabs planted a few7 around their houses for food and their dependents did the same. They did not dry the nuts or prepare copra. Large quantities of nuts are still used for food, but plant­ing for commercial purposes is now universal in the twro islands. Large plantations have sprung up and copra is being prepared everywhere. During the dry wdieather, especially in Zanzibar, it is possible to prepare quite good sun-dried copra, but during the wet season and almost always in Pemba, it is not possible, and smoke-drying is resorted to. A very inferior type of copra is usually the result.

In these islands the cocouut tree is much freer from disease than in most other places where it is grown. The rhinoceros beet e is present but it does little harm except on young plantations and when the trees are not doing very well, owing prob­ably to the soil or situation not being favourable to them. Trees of 5 to 6 years old when attacked under such conditions often die. Old trees although frequently attack­ed rarely die. It may be that they have developed a certain amount of immunity to bud rot, or that the true and highly infectious type does not exist.

Within the last 10 years 150,000 nuts have been planted on the Government plantations alone; practically the whole of them on land which will not bear clove trees. This example has been very extensively followed by Arab and native planters. Tne coconut gives a much steadier yield than the clove and requires very little attention and the price of copra does not vary very much. For these reasons this crop has become popular as supplementary to cloves, as they can be grown on land which was formerly growing nothing, and as food crops cau quite well be grown beneath them. Ihe trees are planted from 28 to 30 feet apart and come into bearing at from 7 to 10 years of age according to the soil and situation.

A small amount of copra is pressed locally and the oil so obtained is used for the manufacture of soap. The bulk is shipped to Europe.

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Cocoa. This has been grown experimentally on the Government plantations for many years. The trees are healthy, bear well and require very little attention. Nobody seems to be interested in cocoa otherwise it would seem to give every prospect of successful cultivation as a subsidiary crop. The trees are wonderfully free from disease.

Kola. Like cocoa this crop is also being grown experimentally most successfully. The trees are extremely healthy and bear very well indeed. They require no special attention and the nuts are easily dried but there is no demand for them.

Chillies. Formerly chillies formed quite an important crop but their importance has gradually diminished, the cultivation having apparently become unpopular or unprofitable. The value of the last year’s exports is just over Rs. 31000. The high quality of Zanzibar chillies has long been recognised on the London market, but owing to its being such a disagreeable crop to handle, it has become unpopular. A considerable amount of chillies is used in the green stage locally.

Rice. During the War when imported rice was very expensive and difficult to obtain there was a considerable increase in its cultivation locally. Now that things have become normal its cultivation has again decreased. It is cultivated chiefly in Pemba in small patches in the valleys after the rains andon hill sides during the rains. It is apparent that its cultivation is not very profitable; and there ate no ’large areas which could be put under this crop. There are several different varieties of local rice grown but many of them are very much mixed. Over 17000 tons of rice are imported into the Protectorate annually.

OTHER CROPS.

Of other crops grown locally maize, millet, some of the pulses and ground-nuts are cultivated by the natives around their huts for their own food but only to a comparatively small extent as large quantities are imported annually.

Most of the fibre plants do well in Zanzibar; but areas of sufficient size for cultivation on an extensive sjale are not available.

Sugar cane also does well and is found in a wild state in many of the damp valleys. A certain amount of crushing is done in Zanzibar from which crude, unre­fined sugar is produced. During the slave days Zanzibar used to produce a consider­able quantity of sugar and there was even a certain amount of export trade; but at the present day the amount of sugar produced is very small indeed. Most of the canes are cut up into cubes aboutan inch square and sold to the children as sweets.

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Cassava and sweet potatoes are grown extensively by the natives as food crops; and so far as the rural population are concerned, play a most important part in their dietary. These crops are easy to cultivate and in suitable positions give very good yields.

O J

SEC TIO N IV .

HISTORY.

[ The author of this chapter wishes to acknowledge the great, advantage ho has derived through having it read through by Mr. A C. Hollis, C.M.G., C.B.E., British Resident.. Mr. Hollis has made a number of corrections and additions zvhich have materially added to its accuracy and completeness as a brief record of Zanzibar.

INTRODUCTORY.

Until recent times very little of the history of Zanzibar has been chronicled in writing and, with the exception of occasional glimpses vouchsafed to us in the writings of ancient and mediaeval authors, the history is largely a matter of conjecture to be drawn from comparisons of customs etc., with those of other peoples. The history of Zanzibar is therefore to be compiled from the following sources: -

(fl.) Speech (A) Customs (c.) Archaeological remains and antiquities (df Legend and tradition (ef The writings of various historians and travellers (/.) Native written records where such exist and, in the case of the latest period, (y.) Official documents and printed books.

It is practically impossible in an article which is necessarily short to give one’s reasons for various conjectures in full; the most that can be done is to record those which are most probable and to give a list of the authorities consulted. Zanzibar owes its history mainly to its insularity, to its convenience as a jumping-off place for the East Coast of Africa, to its proximity to Asia, and to the trade winds or Monsoons which account to a large extent for its close political and commercial connection from the earliest times, with India, the countries bordering on the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. It should be noted here that in writing the history of the Zanzibar Protectorate as at present constituted it is impossible to avoid reference to the other parts of Eastern Africa for, until recently, they have oil been closely associated.

I. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE HEJIRA.

(<«;) Geological History. It would appear from geological research that, in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic age, Zanzibar had not yet emerged from the sea, but that in the early Eocene the country first emerged from the sea as partof a reef oflimestone which stretched right along the East Coast of Africa. This reef, of which Zanzibar and

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Pemba were parts, broke up into islands of which, apparently, Zanzibar formed three. These “cores” then sank again beneath the ocean and arenaceous and argillaceous deposits were formed over them which Mr. Weylarid the well known Uganda geologist has termed the Mazingini beds; during this period also the coral insects built over the submerged islands. Thereafter the Zanzibar we know began to be formed emerging again from the ocean; and as it did so calcareous deposits, termed the Azanian beds, formed over it, probably-in Miocene times. When this was taking place Zanzibar and Pemba were not separate islands but were joined up with the mainland. Zanzi­bar and Pemba presumably remained joined to the mainland after the separation of Madagascar: Pemba was apparently the first to break away and Zanzibar much later,facts which are apparent from the difference in depths of the Zanzibar and Pemba channels. It may be noted also that the fauna of Zanzibar are more modern and more varied than those of Pemba. As regards the vegetation of these islands it may be noted that, wdiile the flora include many species indigenous to the country and to Africa, others have been sea-borne from Asia, e.g. the casuarina, the screw pine and possibly a species of Borassus and some of Mangrove.

(6.) The Stone Age. Zanzibar and Pemba were uninhabited during both Stone Ages. Palaeolithic weapons have been found in Somaliland, Cape Colony, and the Zambesi valley. Neolithic weapons have been found much nearer to Zanzibar, at Naivasha in East Africa and in the Congo and on the West Coast. _

The early Bantu people were formed by an admixture of Ilamites who came across India and Arabia and mixed with the Negro people whose cradle was probably in the region of the great lakes. Passing over the “Horn of Africa” where they met s and mixed with Negroes the Hamites found their way down South and mixed with the Bushmen to form the Hottentots. This Southern way was soon closed by the Negroes and mixed tribes and unrecognised by the pure Hamites to whom purity of breed was of importance these mixed tribes were forced more and more to the society of the Negroes and thus the early Bantu tribes were formed of Negro people with a smattering of Hamite blood.

(c.) Heliollthic Cult. It would be unwise to say that this cult, wThich spread all over the coasts of India, Africa and Arabia, touched Zanzibar itself at the time the cult flourished, but there is no doubt that certain of the practices of this Age affected the people who were afterwards to colonise the Islands. It was a coastal cult, never reaching far inland. The Heliolithic Culture included the following practices:—

(1.) Circumcision (2.) The Couvade (3.) Massage (4.) Making of Mummies (5.) Megalithic Monuments (6.) Artificial deformation of the toes and the hands

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(7.) Tattooing (8.) Religious association of the sun and serpent. (9.) Swastika.

Of these customs circumcision and massage definitely obtain in Zanzibar: mum­mified blood is used in magic and a debased form of Tattooing is known: the Swastika occurs in decoration though no meaning is attached to it. Sir Norman Lockyer states that the geographical distribution of Rag Offerings coincides with the existence of monoliths and dolmens, and the use of the Rag Offering is prevalent everywhere in Zanzibar particularly in caves arid at prominent rocks. These rocks and the stalactites and stalagmites approximate in form very closely to dolmens and are now considered to be the abode of the Mizimu: (see section I p. 16) : it may be also pointed out that monoliths have been found in places not far distant from Zanzibar such as Egypt and Arabia and there are extensive stone circles in West Africa. There is no stone in Zanzibar suitable for the making of dolmens. The dug- out canoe which has been a feature of Zanzibar for thousands of years was also an integral part of the heliolithic culture.

(d.) The Sumerians. It is thought that the Sumerians may have known the East Coast of Africa; they we~e very much a people of the sea and their symbol for river means “ watery deep.’’ During the time that they flourished, they evolved the fore­father of the dhow which is shown in a picture as moving by a sail and not by oars. The Swahili language shows many traces among its words of affinity with Sumerian, and

here are also striking grammatical similarities between the two languages.

(0.) The Assyrians. In the year 2750 B.C., Sargon defeated the Sumerians, bub the Assyrians absorbed their civilisation. It may be noted that the horn which ig common iwEastern Africa, as a sign of chieftainship, is of Assyrian origin and is probably derived from the feat of the Assyrian Hercules, Nin, who is depicted on a Babylonian cylinder as a giant, attacking and killing a bull. Later crowned with the horns he is shewn attacking and killing a lion.

(/.)' The Chaldeans, Medes and Persiaos. The Assyrians were defeated by these peoples in 6o6 B.C.: this empire lasted bub a short time, but the period of the last Chal­dean king Nabonidus, who was defeated by Cyrus in 539 B.C., is,interesting as he gave much encouragement to seagoing trade and dhows used to trade between Babylon, India and China.

These explorations soon led to others and it was not long before there were very large settlements of Hindus in Arabia, East Africa and China. The Hindus not only made settlements on the coast but apparently penetrated inland towards the region of the 3reat lakes, which they called “country of the moon,’ an area inhabited today by people

38

/till calling themselves Wanyamwezi (“People of the moon/’) There are many striking similarities between the magic of the Chaldaeans and that practised in Zanzibar today.

[Apart from other customs borrowed from these peoples, Mr. Harris, the Government Architect in Zanzibar, has pointed out to me that the traditions of Architecture learnt in Arabia and inherited through thousands of years from the Ghaldaeans and Assyrians were transplanted to Zanzibar where arose the same problems of construction ivhich had before confronted a people accustomed to the use of the nearest material to hand and ivhere the same difficulty of adapting their architecture to the nature of the materials available occurred again. 2hus much of the architecture in Zanzibar shews traces of Ghaldaean and Assyrian origin-

It should be made clear that the Omani Arabs in Zanzibar have contrilutecl little toI'm Customs of the people-, a comparison of Omani customs in Zanzibar and Muscat shews ti at these Arabs have borrowed more from Zanzibar customs than they have added to

(^.) The Ancient Egyptians. Leaving the Persian Gulf the possible association of the ancient Egyptians with the East Coast may be noted. The square sail which is a-feature of Egyptian ships, was the fore-father of the lateen sail which has been of the same form since 360 B.C. The association of the Egyptians with “Punt’’ is well known and “Punt” is generally identified with Somaliland and was, like Zanzibar, a coastal emporium. The first of the Egyptian kings to trade with Punt was Sankhara about 5000 years ago. Queen Hatasu (1700 B.C.) also had extensive relations with this depot. Hyksos or shepherd kings conquered Egypt and ruled from 2214 B.C/ to 1703 B.C. They came from Canaan and were first called Aamu and later Arapin. Arapin means Arabs and Arabs were first mentioned in the time of Solomon about 1000 B.C. Of these conquerors some wandered inland and others followed the coast. It has been suggested that those who wandered inland were the ancestors of the -Hamite.s; those who followed the coast became Arabs. It has been thought that an expedition of Remeses II, about 1400 B.C. reached Madagascar, hut it is fairly certain that about 600. B.C. Necho sent a fleet down the East Coast of Africa, which rounded the Cape and sailed back to Egypt via the West Coast and the straits of Gibraltar. If this story of Herodotus is true the expedition must have passed Zanzibar and Pemba, and this may be taken as the first historical record of visitors on the East Coast. There are also traces of Egyptian magic in that of Zanzibar.’ An Egyptian idol has been discovered at Mogadishu and the royal house of Malindi claims Egyptian origin.

(A.) The P hoenicians. The Phoenicians also took to sailing and trading and it was either through the Egyptians or the Phoenician?, hut almost certainly through t)ae latter, that the people of the East Coast learnt the art of sailing.

(•/.) Jews. The Jews, like the Egyptians, were associated with the Phoenicians in their travels. Solomon, as wTe are told in the Bible, made an alliance with the Phoenician king Hiram and sent ships to Ophir, often identified with the modern Sofala. There were settlements of Jews in the Grand Comoro and Madagascar in very early times, for the people there have many Jewish customs and know the names of Abraham, Lot, Moses and Gideon: they do not know the names of the later prophets which seems to indicate that they left their homes at a very early period. Hebrew magic has also left its traces in East Africa. The Queen of Sheba, with whom Solomon contracted a matrimonial alliance, claimed that the southern boundary of her empire was the “Sea of Blacks and Naked men” which means the ocean which washes the Zanzibar coast. Solomon lived about 1000 B.C. and it is certain that at a later date these islands were under the domination of Saba.

(j.J Greeks. I only mention the Greeks to note that under the leadership of Alexander the Great they conqured Egypt and the Persian Empire between 336 and 323 B.C. Alexander sent Greeks to occupy Socotra and it is recorded that he intended to visit East x\frica. A Greek coin has been found at Dar-es-Salaam.

(7c.) South Arabian States. The possession of the coast fell definitely to Arabia in the seventh century B.C. when the state of Ausan conquered and held it. Of this state we know but little; but that its control was considerable is shown by the fact that in the first century A.D. the coast was referred to as “Ausanitic” though it had at that time passed to the rule of Kataban and from that state to Saba and then to Himyar. The Sabeans and Himyarites were probably the first Arabs to settle on the coast, The trade from Sofala passed through Saba and that state controlled the land trade routes from India to Mecca. Its power declined when the trade to India began to go by sea in the first century, when the balance of power fell to the Himyarites. Their fleets set forth from the great trading states of Yemen, Aden and the Had- ramaut along the East Coast of zlfrica. They must have made an Emporium of Zanzibar, and possibly occupied Lamu, Mombasa, Tanga, Mbangata, Kilwa, Mozambi­que and other coast ports. * It was they who opened up the gold works of Zimbabwe in Rhodesia, The final collapse of these South Arabian states is attributed to the bursting of the dyke of Marib about the end of the 3rd century A.D.

(/.) The Begininng of the Christian Era. With the exception of the Periplus, there is little about the East Coast of Africa to be gleaned from contemporary Webern writers of this period. Eratosthenes (Circa 276-191 B.C.) testified to the great trade of the South Arabian States, but it was thought in his time that the Southern ocean began below Cape Guardafui.

Strabo the. traveller, about 21 B.C. was aware of Somaliland which be thought

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wag a. cinnamon bearing country and that Cape Guardafui (Notu Ceras) was the last promontory of Africa on the East. Pomponius Mela (43 A.D.) showed the Ethopia11 sea as below the horn of Africa, but the vague ideas of another country beyond he embodied in a shadowy continent of the Autoeci, showing Taprobane at its extremity and describing it as either a great island or the first part of another world. Hippalus, a Roman navigator, in about 45 A.D. was the first westerner to observe the changes of the Monsoons in the Indian ocean though they had long been known to the Arabs Phoenicians, and Hindus. Pliny 23-79 A.D. wrongly thought that the Atlantic Ocean began at Mossylum (probably Ras Hantara Lit. 11° 28’ north) but his work is very valuable where it deals with the products of countries. We now come to the Periplus which was probably written in the second half of the first century A.D. It is of particular importance because it not only gives a description of East Africa, but confirms for us the dealings of the ancients with the coast. We are informed that from cape Guardafui to Ras Hafun the coast was not subject to a king, but that each market town was ruled by a separate chief: the author then goes on to say:

“Beyond Opone, the shore trending more toward the south, first there are the small and great bluffs of Azania; this coast is destitute of harbours, but there are places where ships can lie at anchor, the shore being abrupt; and this course is of six days, the direction being south west. Then come the small and great beaches for ^nother six days and after that in order, the Courses of Azania, the first being called Sarapion and the next Nicon; and after the several rivers and other anchorages, one after the other, separately a rest and a run for each day, seven in ail, until the Pyra- laae islands and what is called the channel; beyond which, a little to the south of south-west,after two course of a day and night along the Ausanitic coast, is the island Meuuthias about three hundred stadia from the mainland, low and wooded in which there are rivers and many kinds of birds and the mountain tortoise. There are no wild beasts except the crocodiles; but they do not attack men. In this place there are sewed boats and canoes hollowed from single logs, which they use for fishing and catching tortoise. In this island they also catch them in a peculiar way, in wicker baskets, which they fasten across the channel opening between the breakers.

Two days’ sail beyond, there lies the very last market-town of the continent of Azania, which is called Rhapta; whieh has its name from the snvcd boats (rhapton ploiarion) already mentioned; in which there is ivory in great quantity, and tortoise shell. Along this coast live men of piratical habits very great in stature, and under Separate chiefs for each place. The Mapharitic chief governs it under some ancient right that subjects it to the sovereignty of the state that is become first in Arabia. And the people of Muza now hold it under his authority, and send thither many large ships; using Arab captains and agents, who are familiar with the natives and inter­

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marry with them, and who know the whole coast and understand the language.”The Pyralaae islands are probably Pate, Manda and Lamu. These islands

were at that time of no importance-beyond the name no mention is made of them. The channel referred to behind Lamu is called today “Mlango Kipungani” and is said (by the African Pilot) to be deep enough for large boats at low water.

It is by the way interesting to compare the earliest and latest pilots of this coast of Africa: the latter throws much light on the' former. The expression “Ausanitic” has already been referred to. (Vide p. 39)

We now come to Menuthias, which is generally identified with Pemba, Zanzibar or Mafia, in which last it is supposed that the name is still perpetuated; until recently, Mafia was called Monfiyeh. For the following reasons an identi­fication with Pemba seems most probable:— (a.) because of the distance from Lamu to north Pemba which is two “dromoi nuchthemeroi,” which is correct for a dhow today though rather fast (&.) because of the sailing direction “ a little to the south of south west,” which is also more correct for Pemba, (c.) because of the distance from the mainland; the stade of Eratosthenes, which was probably the one used, was 520 ft. and the distance is therefore 3d miles 830 yards: and this is a better approximation for the distance of the mainland from Pemba (35 miles,) than from Zanzibar (25 miles), (d.) Pemba was more colonised than Zanzibar in mediaeval times and these settlements were probably Jihe result of earlier occupation. (0.) It is the first island one reaches from the north and Msuka Bay is very inviting to dhows from the north. '(/.) Pemba, though hilly, is low, and the forests which were of long standing still survive in the north. The northern parts of Zanzibar and Tumbatu are too rocky ever to have been forest land. (^.) There is a river flowing into Msuka Bay.

Little can be adduced from the description of fauna given, though of the two islands Pemba only boasts a tortoise to-day even though it be small and aquatic. (Sternothaerus sinuatus). That there were no wild beasts is also truer of Pemba than of Zanzibar. The mention of sewed boats, canoes, made from single logs and wicker fish-traps is extraordinarily interesting as it shows that the natives were well estab­lished on the islands and were pursuing the calling which they still pursue and with identical methods. Rhapta is probably Pangani where the sewed boats, now called Mtepe, used to be made-nowadays they are made at Lamu;

The discovery of a coin of Ptolemy X, 115-80 B.C., at Msasani near Dares salaam suggests an alternative site for Rhapta.

Tribes were found along the coast under separate chiefs. These must have been negroes as they were ‘‘very great in stature” and the Bantu invasion had not yet taken

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place. Ivory and tortoise-shell were plentiful: the former was one of the reasons of all this ancient trade; tortoise shell is still exported. The reference to the Maphaiitic chief who governed the coast under “some ancient right that subjects the coasts to the sovereignty of the state that is become first in Arabia,” is of the first importance, as it is confirmatory that Arabian influence over the coast had existed for centuries. Later on in the Periplus the chief’s name is given as Oharibael (Kariba-il) an Arabic title meaning “God blessed him”. This king Kariba-il Watar Yuhamim was one of 33 Sabean kings whose names have been culled from the South Arabian inscriptions. He lived at Saphar, modern Zafar, and the Peri plus mentions that he was king of the Himyarites and Sabaeans. He ruled about 40 to 70 A.D. Tne Mapharites (Maafir), a tribe located in the southern Tehama, owed a kind of allegiance to him. Their chief was Cholaebus (Kulaib), and the people of Muza the modern Mocha held it in his authority. It is to be noted that our author was aware that the Arab captains knew the whole coast and then, as now, intermarried with the natives. These intermar­riages had been going on for centuries before, and the customs of the people of those days have left their mark on the customs of today. Also traces of their words are pre­sent in tne language of the Swahilis. A reference to coconut oil shows that the.coconut palm had already been introduced probably by the Indians; the word “nauplios” being derived from the Sanskrit “Nargil” : incidentally the Swahili “nazi” is probably of the same origin, particularly as a similar word “nawasi” is the Singalese for coconut.

After the Peri plus the information given by Claudius Ptolemaeus between 127 and 151 A.D. brings the knowledge of the coast down to Cape Delgado known to him aft Prasum Promontorium. So much for the early colonisation and trade with the Azanian coast; the reason of it all was a desire for ivory, gold, slaves and other luxu­ries. Mr. Wells has picturesquely summed up the trade of the period thus:- “Galleys and lateen sailed-ships entered and left crowded harbours and m ide their careful way from headland to headland and from headland to island keeping always close to the land. Phoenician shipping under Egyptian owners was making its way into the East Indies and perhaps even further into the Pacific. Across the deserts of Africa and Arabia and through Turkestan toiled the caravans with their remote trade.. Silk was already coming from China, ivory from central Africa and Tin from Britain, to the centre of Lhis new life of the world.”

From the emporia of Punt, of Ophir and of Azania these luxuries came to dock the temples and to adorn the women of Babylon and Nineveh, of Egypt, of Tyre, and Sydon, of Jerusalem, of Greece, and of Rome.

The first seven centuries A.D. We have very little to go on about the coast during this period. Cosmas Indico Pleustes writing in the 6th century took a

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retrograde step in refuting the idea of the ancients that the world was round. He Uiade a journey as far as the gulf of Aden but in view of the storms raging at that time of the year, returned and reported that the end of the world was close there. The possession of the coast passed from the Himyarites in the 3rd century to the Abyssinians who held it till the 6th century when they were defeated by the Persians under Nushirwan the Just. The best known Abyssiniau viceroys, during this period, were Aryat and Abraha, placed in command by the Negus, who at the request of Justinian had subdued the Yemen. Apart from these few facts, we learn little about qhe coast for two reasons:- in the first place, troubles in the Roman Empire were too extensive for the Western world to take much interest in the Southern East, and in the second place during the first 500 years of the Christian Era, the second Bantu invasion was taking place. Starting from the interior the Bantu reached the coast of the Indian ocean somewhere opposite Zanzibar and after occupying these Islands spread northwards till checked by the gallas on the Tana River. These Bantu were much better armed than the simple negroes they displaced, and were a much more serious proposition than the negroes for traders audslavo raiders to tackle. Despite th.s it is well to remember that once Africans began to settle in Zanzibar and once Asiatics began to trade and found colonies there, this trade and colonisation never stopped whatever vicissitudes of fortune may have overtaken the countries concerned.

The seventh century was marked by the rise of Mohammed, an event which was destined to have far-reaching results on the East coast of Africa.

a. i m n attons from the east and conversion of the coast.

(«.) Tfw Flight of Suleiman, ami S.iid. During the reign of Abdul-Malik bin Marwan in the year 681 A.D, Oman rebelled. Abdul-Malik sent his general El Hajjaj to reduce it. The Omanis were led by their chiefs Suleiman and Said, descendants of Azd, the ancestor of the Sultans of Zanzibar, the sons of Abbad and probably grandsons of Abdel-Julanda, a former chief of Oman. These two brothers led their people most gallantly and repeatedly resisted the invaders who had an army of forty thousand men. They were, however, finally defeated by El Hajjaj’s forces under the command of Mujjaah with five thousand cavalry. Suleiman and Said then fled to the land of Zinj taking their families and a number of their tribe with them. This is the first record of Oman Arabs coming to the East Coast: it is not known where they settled though Pate has been suggested.

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(b.) 2/z6 People of Zaid. When the fourth Shia Imaam, Ali Zainu’l-Abidin son of Husain, grandson of the Prophet died, there was a split among the Shiites, some following his son Mohammed Baqir and others his son Zaid. The latter were there­fore called the Ammu Zaid or people of Zaid. Zaid was conquered and slain by the Oaliph Hishin bin Abdul-Malik in 739 A.D. and his son Yahya fled to Khorassan. The tenets of the Shiites spread through that country and Yemen. Some of the people fled to East Africa arid settled on the Banadir coast and possibly at Shangaya: here they soon attained some power.

( c.) The Seven Brothers of El JTasa. It is not exactly known where El Hasa is : central Arabia and Persia have been suggested. We are told that there lived their seven brothers of a chieftain’s family who, being driven out by the oppression of a neighbouring Sheikh, crossed over to Africa in three boats and finding their way down the coast founded Mogadisho and Brava about. 90S A.D. These people found the Ammu Zaid on the coast, and as the latter were Shiites and the people of El Hasa Sunnis, they fought them and drove them into the interior where they became wande­ring traders mixing with the Africans collecting the products of the country and conveying them to the coast for sale. It is conceivable that the “El Hasa” people were of the “El Harth” tribe of Arabs who are known to have settled on the Zanzibar coast very early. (Colonel Eigby states : A.D. 921).

(if.) Hissan bin Ali and his Six Sons. Hassan bin Ali was the son of the sultan of Shiraz by an Abyssinian slave woman: he had six brothers of purer breed than himself, and had also six sons, His story is told by many coast historians but with minor differences. One says that he could not get on with his brothers because they despised him as the son of a slave. Another says he was the sultan himself and saw in a vision a rat with an iron snout nibbling the walls af Shiraz, from which he foretold his Country’s fall. Whatever may have been the case, he determined to leave Shiraz and, setting forth with his six sons in seven different ships, sailed for the East Coast of Africa. xAll stopped and settled at different places: the fourth ship stopped at Mombasa the fifth at Pemba, the sixth with Hassan himself at Kilwa and the sevent h at Johanna n the Comoros. Hassan therefore founded the state of Kilwa, destine I t.o become the bead state of a large coastal empire.

(e.) 77/r Bajuns or Wagunya. It is not known when these people first came to East Africa : the name Bajuni is probably derived from Bani Juni a tribe first heard of about 50 ATI. when they were driven out of their country near Medina by Benn Omeya of the Koreish. The tribe is said to have sprung from one Juni Katada. His descendants left Arabia and passing through the straits of Bah-el-Mandeh settled

at Mogadisho and spread as far as Birikau. About 300 years ago, the kings of Pate gave them permission to settle at Faza.

(A) 7 he Conversion of the Go ist to Islam. We have now to estimate from the data given above the approximate date of the conversion of the coast to Islam and we must remember that the natives of the Zanzibar coast are mostly Shafite Sannis, the Sultan and the chiefArabs being Ibathi. Mohammed bin Idris Es-Shafi, the founder of the Shafite school lived from 767 A.D. to 822 A.D. and started his mission in 813. Abdulla bin Ibadh is known to have been living in 711-749. Legends on the coast say that Jaffar, son of Abdul-Malik was th? first to bring Islam to the coast at Faza; that he lived there and died at Kiwayu: his other sou Hamza is also credited with this mission. But in any case it was not Hamza or Suleiman and Said (who were driven to the land of Zinj by the instrumentality of Abdul-Malik) who caused any extensive conversion of the coast, for Abdul-Malik reigned from 681 to 705 A.D, and Es-Shafi’s mission did not take place till 813; neither were Sulei­man and Said Ibathis, though they cam e from Oman, as they fled to the coast in 681 A.D prior to the mission of Abdulla bin Ibadh.

The Ammu Zaid were Shiites, and we know also that Shiraz was Shia in 952 so that Hassan bin Ali (975) was probably a Shia and if the coast had not been converted in his time it would have become Shia as the power of Kilwa reached far. We can therefore safely say that the coast became followers of the Shafite school between 813 and 975 A.D. It is probable that the El Hasa or El Harth people brought tne doctrines to the cocist for they were Sunnis and, whether El Hasa was in the Persian Gulf or Central Arabia, Es-Shafi preached both in the Hedjaz and in Bagdad.

Ibn Batuta tells us that the people of Mogadisho, Mombasa, and Kilwa were Shafites in the 13 bh century. The earliest records of mosques in the Zanzibar Sultan­ate aie Kizimkazi 1107 A.D. and Msuka (already ruined) 1411 A.D,

I

3. THE ORIGIN OF THE N A TIV E TRIBES OF ZA N ZIB A R AND THE VISITORS FROM THE FAR EAST.I. The Origin of the Native Tribes.

It is impossible to say at what date the tribes of Zanzibar and Pemba as at present constituted were formed, but it will be convenient here to state their origin.

The culture of the Africans can be divided into three groups; the Desert, theParkland and the Forest, all .marked by different modes of living; in the Forest group clothing is of vegetable material, basket work is of the woven type and the

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houses are rectangular : the food is chiefly manioc. As these distinctions apply to the native inhabitants of Zanzibar and Pemba there can be no doubt that they are of Forest origin. The following differences in methods of cultivation may also help to trace the area from which these people came. In Pemba manioc is planted in small hoed up patches, in Zanzibar in long heaped up ridges. (But manioc was introduced to Africa by the Portuguese.) The natives of Zanzibar transplant their rice and those of Pemba do not. It may also be noted that true Pemba houses have no end slopes to their roofs, only a back and a front.

The people of the islands are fisher-folk and agriculturists and it is almost certain that it was in the former capacity that they came to Zanzibar.

The Wahadimu are the inhabitants of Zanzibar Island itself. They are a quiet and shy people and engaged mainly in the cultivation of native crops and fishing, and rarely move from their homes except to go clove-picking in Pemba. The word Wahadimu is generally derived from the Arab “Hadim” (a freed slave) but the Wahadimu have never been slaves. Canon Dale gives the meaning as “the manu­mitted” but they themselves derive it from the word “Ahadi” ( a promise ) as they made- promises to the conquerors of the land to perforin work for them and to pay taxes as a condition of retaining their independence otherwise .In article by Miss Werner in the Journal of the African Society for 1916 records a story of their having originally come from Wind! on the coast between Saadani and Bagamoyo.

The Wapemba are the inhabitants of Pemba and are chiefly engaged in agriculture thougn they grow a lesser variety of native crops than the Wahadimu. Many of them own ciove and coconut plantations and to some extent breed cattle. They are not so shy as the Wahadimu and many of them engage in trade. The chief strong" hold of the Watumbitu is Tumbatu island, They are a very exclusive people bub by no means shy. They are chiefly sailors and man most of the boats plying in Zanzibar waters.

From traditions and investigations into the native Customs and written histories of these peoples it is apparent that they have both an Asiatic and an African origin. Their African origin is probably traceable to the Wasegeju and Wadigo both by tradition and by the fact that their cusfcon^are very similar. Both these two peoples look with pecnliar reverencelon the sultan di the Wavumba tribe aud treat, him as the Mwinyi Mkuu of the Wahadimu and the Diwanis of the Wapemba were treated. The royal horns and drums are of the same pattern in all cases.

The Wasegeju may be said to have had some part in the history of the coast.The name Wasegeju, derived from kusega “to draw up the clothes” and juu

“high,” was given to the tribe by their Bantu neighbours as they were in the habit of

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wearing their loin skins higher than usual, but they were originally called Kilio and were undoubtedly of Hamitic origin.

They were driven from their country, which was probably on the upper reaches of the Tana river, and in the year 1571 arrived in the neighbourhood of Malinde. In 1589, when the Zimbas (see chapter 5. 6) had sacked Mombasa and were threatening Malindi, a force of three thousand Wasegeju, referred to by the Portuguese, in con­temporary records as “Mosseguejos,” was allied to the sultan of Malindi and the Portuguese under da Vasconcellos in resisting the barbarian hordes. In 1592 the tribe again came to the help of Malindi killing its enemy the Sheikh of Kilifi; and when Shahat, the last Shirazi Sultan of Mombasa, wishing to avenge his relations, had raised a force of 5000 to take Malindi the Wasegeju defeated and slew him and three of his sons, capturing also Mombasa.

Later the Wasegeju were driven south to Vurnba, where they and the Wadigo paid homage regularly to the local di wan.

The Wadigo are one of the nine clans of the Wanyika or desert people who inhabit the part of the coast between the Tana and Umba Rivers and were already settled in the country when the Wavumba first set up a king. They claim to have come originally from Shingwaya, behind Port Durnford.

As regards Asiatic origin, the royal house of the Wahadimu, the whole of the Watumbatu and many o; the Wapemba claim descent from thaShirazis of Persia, and there can be no doubt that many of them are so descended, on account of the continuous occupation of the country by these Persian settlers, particularly in Pemba an i Tumbatu.

II. V lSfT O R S FROM THE FAR EAST.

(a) Wadebuli. From legend in Zanzibar and Pemba, particularly the former wo learn, that before Shirazis came to these islands some people called Wadebuli settled extentsively in the islands. This tradition is so prevalent that there can be no doubt that these people did come, but there is doubt as to where they came from. Most of the natives suggest India and their home was probably the modern Dabhol, formerly written Dabul. It is a port' on the west of India and is of great age and of considerable {historical importance.

It used to do a great deal of trade over the sea in the old days and from the 14th to the 16th centuries it traded with the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Fast Coast of Africa.

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It was probably the Palsepatmae of the Periplus and the Baltipatma of Ptolemy.

b) Malayans. It is generally accepted on account of linguistic affinity that Malayo-Polynesian peoples spread to Madagascar at a very early time, and that about four centuries ago Malayans or Javanese landed on the East Coast of the island and moving inland formed a tribe known as the Antimerina. Idris referred to the empire of these people which probably had its seat at Java, as the empire of Mihradj, and said that its traders, who used to come to Sofala, were well received by the inhab itants and had many dealings with them. They were a great sea-faring people, and at an early date dominated the Ear East and had settlements and colonies in Java, Sumatra, Borneo and other places to the very borders even of Australia.

In much of the magic practised in Zanzibar an affinity to Malay Magic is notice­able, and some of the customs observed on the birth of a child are practically identical with those observed in Malay. I t may be mentioned also that in Pemba traditions the people of “Jawa” are spoken of as having come to the islands. Areca, betel and sugar cane, are indigenous to Malay and much cultivated in Zanzibar though there is no evidence that the Malays were responsible for their introduction. The habit of betel-chewing which started in Malay is prevalent in Zanzibar. Capt. Stigand states that there used to be an ancient pottery on the coast said to have come from Malay. The speculations of Father Torrend with regard to the relations of the Malays and Javanese with the Bantus refer to a very early date. After mentioning Bleek’s con­nection with the Fiji and Bantu languages, said to have many similarities in common, Father Torrend says that he notices, that according to Idris, it was the southern part of Sofala that was mostly frequented by the Mirhadj traders close to what he calls the Island of Djalous or Djulus and considering that the Zulus in custom closely resemble the Borneans, that the Zulus who have removed to Nyasaland are known as Maviti (viti being the proper pronunciation of Fiji) and that Zulu, which he renders ‘children of the deep,’ reminds one of the Sulu Sea and Archipelago, he is led to suspect that the first rulers who organised the Zulu nation were men who came from Mirhradj.

( c.) 7%?? Chinese. It is well established that the Chinese had relations with the East Coast of Africa from very early times: to begin with numerous Chinese coins have been found at Magadisho, Kilwa and Mafia. These -belong to several periods. Sc me are of the Emperor K’ai Yuan (A.D.713-742), others date from 845 A.D, others are of the Emperor Shen Tsung (1068-1086) and others of Shan Hing (1131-1163.; It is recorded that Abu Zaid Hassan returned from China via East

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Africa sometime after 851 A.D. and these makes it obvious that the Chinese inter­course was of an early date. ' Idris remarks that when great troubles arose in China the Chinese transferred their trade to the islands of Zaledj or Zanedj which face the coast of Zinj, where they came to intimate relations with the inhabitants on account of their mildness and accommodating ways. One of these islands may well have been Mafia where many Chinese coins have been found: fragmentary china identified as cream coloured Ting ware of the Sung dynasty, has been found in Pemba. Marco Polo records an expedition in the time of Kublai Khan to Madagascar.

We learn from Chinese records that a Chinese fleet visited Mogadisho for the purposes of trade in A.D. 1430 and a family at Lamu (the Famao) claim descent from some Chinese or malayans who were wrecked there. The word “Zanzibar” was by the Chinese adapted to Tseng-Pat or Tseng-Po and by the Japanese, who may also have had relations with the coast (vide Father Torrend) the Zinj were called sengu,

III. The records of the Arabian geographers.

Zinj slaves were captured on the coast and taken in large numbers to Baghdad and other places from a very early date. It is recorded that there were 400 Zinj slaves in the army of Abu’l Abbas in the year 749 and that they increased in numbers and became a power in the land is shown by the fact that in 850 they revolted under the leadership of a negro styled “lord of the blacks” : this revolt was felt all over Arabia.

In 869 a Persian nicknamed A1 Khabith (the Reprobate) raised a rebellion at Bazra promising freedom to all the Slaves: thousands flocked to his side and for the two years following they spread themselves all over the Euphrates delta: In 871 they captured and sacked Bazra and their numbers were "said to have reached 300,000. A1 Khabith was not finally defeated until 883.

Cap*-. Stigand records many native legends concerning the dealings of the Ummeyd and Abbasid caliphs with the coast.

Masudi who died in 956 A.D. visited the land of Zinj. he travelled, he says, several times from Sohar in Oman to Kambalu and never knew a more dangerous sea than that of Zinj. He states that the Arabs had colonised tnis island of Kambalu about 730 and that there were both Moslems and unconverted Zang cn the is and; that the former had reduced the Zang to slavery but had adopted their language. He remarks that the trade was chiefly in the hands of Oman and Shiraz. The time of this description is generally placed at about 915 as Masudi left Baghdad in 912.

There has been, considerable controversy as to the location of Kambalu but it

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seems possible to me that it may be identified with Mkumbuu generally misnamed Ndagoni, the principal and earliest of the ruined towns of Pemba, the date of the foundation of which Major Pearce has fixed as approximately the 10th century. When written in Arabic the “M” of Mkumbuu disappears and “1” is frequently elided (e.g. Muungu for Mulungu).

Idris, writing from hearsay in 1154, refers to the slave trade of the Zanzibar coast, and states that the king of Zinj lived at Mauisa (Mombasa) : he says that in his time the inhabitants of Mogadisho, Marka and Brava were Moslems, but those of other places were infidels. He mentions Malindi and Mombasa and the gold produc tion of Sofala.

Yakut (1179-1229,) visited Tumbatu, where the people were moslems. He calls it Timbat,and by the mention of the word “Languja” shows that Zanzibar Island was known as Unguja (the present native name of the Island) even in those days: he mentions also Sofala and the Juba.

Ibn Said who lived in the 13th century makes only vague remarks gathered from hearsay about the coast. Ibn Batuta left Tangiers in 1324 and afterwards visited Mogadisho, Mombasa, and Kilwa of which he gives interesting descriptions.

Marco Polo never visited Zanzibar and so his account lacks historical value. It may be mentioned however, that the first crossing of the African Continent by a European is said to have been made by a Genoese, Leone Vivaldi, who crossed from the west and reached Mogadisho about the end of the 11th century.

4. rlH E Z E N J EMPIRE.

Prom time to time during its history the coast has been either collectively under the rule of some Asiatic or European power, or welded together by some outstanding figure as a separate Empire. In bobii cases the final result has often been the dis­solution of the whole into small parts: a result generally achieved in old times by the rise of some petty chief whom the parent state could not keep in check, owing to the scattered nature of its dominions and the difficulties caused by lack of speedy and efficient transport and communications.

The first coastal “Empire” was that of Kilwa founded by Hassan bin Ali. It is difficult to say if it ever had : ny real unity, but it soon broke up into separate inde­pendent states, no doubt in alliance, of which the most important were Kilwa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Tumbatu, Vumba, Utondwe and Mombasa: their independence finally disappeared with the conquest of the c-'ast by the Portuguese.

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(«.) Tlisbory of Kiliv i. It is unnecessary here, to refer at any length to the history of Kilwa. We have read the story of its foundation, and its written history was published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1895, and gives an account at some length. The first sultan was Ali bin Al-Hussein who reigned in the middle of the 9th century of our era. There were twenty-nine sultuns in all-the last being Pudayl bin Suleiman who acceded in the year 991 A.H. after the state became subject to the Portuguese. It is interesting to - note that the old title of sultan is still kept up by the natives and Mr. Hollis tells me that he was introduced a few years ago to the latest of the line, Sultan Hassan, a small boy of eight or so.

(J>.) History of Zanzibar. The first mention we have of Zanzibar during this period is that Hassan bin Suleiman bin Ali, Sultan of Kilwa, fled there about the 11th century, to avoid the attacks on Kilwa of some Bantu savages. The latter were sub­sequently repelled and the sultan was recalled. The next date we have to go on is the founding of the Kizimkazi mosque in A.H. 500 or A.D. 1107.

The Kufic inscription in this Mosque has been deciphered as follows, by Monsieur Pabricolo:—

“Ordered es-Sheikh es-Seyyid Abi Amran Mfaume el “Hassan Ibn Mohammed, may God grant him long life “and destroy his enemy; the building of this mosque “on the day of Sunday in the month of El Keda in “the year 500 H.”

Professor Elury reads “Musa bin” instead of “Mfaume.” Mfaume means king. Nothing more is known of this prince. The Mosque was restored in 1770. A.D.

Kizimkazi was a walled city, the extensive ruins of which still stand. Legend says that it was built by a king named Kiza, the principal niasonbeing called Ki;i (whence the name Kizi m kazi).* Little is told about Kiza save that when an attack was made on the city from the sea by strangers who sought to capture Kizi, he repelled it with Divine aid opportunely sent in the form of clouds of bees, who drove th ? invaders from their anchorage under the lee of Vend we Island to the North < f Kizimkazi. Later thereinvadeis are said to have made another landing elsewhere and attacked by laud. Kiza obtained warning too late and cutting of the hand of Kizi, prayed the Deity for supernatural concealment. He enteied into a cliff on the shme which opene d for him and closed after him, and the invaders retired disappointed. The spot he disappeared into is shown to this day.

Kizi—he’s a Work'd.”

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Near the Mosque are the graves of several Sherifs and old rulers, little save their names being known of them. They were Sheikh Ali bin Omar, said to have been one legged, and one armed but pious withal, Seyyid Abdalla bin Seyyid Ahmed and Sherif Hassan. Mwana Mwatima binti Mfaume Mmadi was nob a Sherif but Shirazi. Her son, Mfaume Ali bin Omar who was also buried there, was given a drum and a large milk gourd by one of the Kilwa Sovereigns to whom he was related. The drum is still in existence at Kizimkazi, where there is also a genealogy of the Sherif.

We learn from the chronicles of Kilwa that in the 13th century the king of Zanzibar was one Hasan bin Abubaker and that he undertook to aid the pretender Said bin Hassan in his designs on the throne of Kilwa helping him with an army under the command of one of his Amirs named Zubayr: from this it may be inferred that at the time Zanzibar was independent and of some importance. This being so it is hard to reconcile with it a statement in the history of Pate (see chapter 4. g.) that in the reign of Sultan Omar (1331—48) Zanzibar was too unimportant to have a king.

The Kilwa chronicles state that an ambassador was sent from Zanzibar in 1495 to make peace between the Kilwa rivals Hasan and Fudayl. If we consider that in 1503 very small tribute was exacted by the Portuguese from Zanzibar it would appear that about the 16th century the importance of Zanzibar as a power in East Africa was waning.

In 1866 gold coins were found at Unguja Kuu with Kuffk inscriptions 600 years old. Unguja kuu was possibly a former capital of Zanzibar though the inhabitants deny this story; there are few remains there except a well and some earthen mounds which once were possibly buildings; they are attributed by the inhabitants to the Wadebuli.

As it is unusual for natives not to take a pride in and glori’y their towns, it seems very possible that Unguja Kuu was not of the importance it has been stated to be. The people there and at Kizimkazi say that the Portuguese arrived at the latter place and that many lived there. They also say that in old days the dhows from Muscat used to anchor there.

There is little real evidence save the name for saying Unguja Kuu was the capital of Zanzibar; the inhabitants story of the meaning of the name, which is probably merely legendary is as follows:—a man named Mpururu came from Shiraz and arrived at Shangani, Zanzibar town. Another stranger arrived at Malindi, another quarter of the town. Later they journeyed round the Island, one to the north and the other to the south. Tne Malindi man met the Shangani man at Unguja K’iu and said “Zanzibar is great (Unguja Kuu), I have searched for you in each of its harbours and only found you here. Indeed Zanzibar is great.”

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(c) History of Pemba. Legend tells us that in the time of the Shirazis, before the Portuguese, Pemba was divided into five districts, each under a separate chief and each containing seven towns. In most of these towns ruins have been discovered of dates probably varying from the 10th to the 15th centuries. The most important of them were- Mkumbuu at the head of a long peninsula on the west coast, Pujini a fortress on the east coast and Chwaka in the north on what may have been once the site of the original Monuthias. Oa the ruins of Msuka mosque in the north of Pemba is to be found an inscription scrawled in the inside of the kibla, with date 816 H (1414 A D) which was apparently written when the edifice was already in ruins.

The only chieftain whose name survives to this day is that of Mkame Mdume ( “ he who draws milk from a male” ) , a name known throughout the length and breadth of Pemba, and used even now as a bogey to frighten wayward children. It is said that his real name was M shammed bin Abdurehman and that be was a Persian prince. He earned his nickname by the inhuman cruelties in which he indulged and the impossible tasks he set the people to perform. He built and lived in the fortress of Pujini and his sway is said to have extended all over Pemba. Mkame Mdume’s end, like his origin, is wrapped in mystery. Some say he was killed by the Portuguese ; others, that he died and was buried in a secret grave; but that so great was the power of his name that men worked in fear of it for 40 years after his death. He had two wives, both kept at Pujini; they are said to have been so jealous of each other;that a high wall was built between them and a well dug for each. He left three children-bwo sons and a daughter; of the former one was a pious man and the other his father’s viceroy at Chwaka. The name of the elder son was Mjawili: he is buried at Kidonge in Pemba, and to this day his grave is supposed to possess peculiar sanctity. The second son’s name was Haruni; he was buried in a pillared tomb at Chwaka. Of him it is related that he had a jealous wife who, noticing his predilection for another lady, whom he used to meet daily when going to the great mosque to pray, determined to put a stop to these clandestine meetings, and built a small mosque near the palace where she could hereself superintend his devotions. This mosque is known is Meskiti Shooko, as choroko peas are said to have been used in the mortar to harden it. The mason who built it came from Tanga and it was so beautiful that the lady, fearing lest her husband’s lover should wish to make another like it, cut the mason’s right hand off and drove him away. Legend then has it that he went back to the mainland and brought back his tribe who destroyed Chwaka town by fire in a night. On the walls of Chwaka is a spot called Ukuta wa Damu, or the bloody wall, where the victims of Mkame Mdume and his son are said to have been beheaded. The third of Mkame Mdume’s children was a lady named Mwana

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Mtoto who, like her elder brother was noted for piety : she outlived them both and thinking thao the glory of Pemba had passed, away is said to have prayed to God to take her, and that her grave might not be known: on this the ground before her opened, she entered, and was no more seen. The spot is called Mwana Mtoto to this day.

(d) The History of Tumbatu. The history of Tumbatu gives the date of its foundation as 1204 A.D. The founder is said to have been one Sultan Yusuf of the Alawi tribe who is said to have comefrom a spot called Tusi-a twelve day journoy from Bushire. Seyyid Ali, the brother of Yusuf is said to have been the second sultan of the Island and he was succeeded by his nephew Abdulla eldest son of Yusuf, who had two other sons Bwana Pate and Ibrahim. We know little else of Tumbatu at this early period except that when Yakut visited it in the 13th century it was a powerful town to which the inhabitants of the main island fled when they were in danger. When the Portuguese visited Zanzibar about 1500 A.D. they made no men­tion of Tumbatu which by that time had apparently faded into insignificance. Thus the rise and fall of Tumbatu occupied a period of 300 years approximately, and that time also represents the period of the genesis of the Watumbatu. Extensive ruins still stand at Tumbatu and there appears also to be no doubt that there was a garrison stationed on the main island facing the city. There is no water on Tumbatu island but an excellent spring exists at this place: near to the spring is a port called Shangani meaning “where the beads are.” Large quantities of beads are picked up to this day which may indicate that the place was a Customs depot as the beads we’e almost certainly used for trading purposes many specimens being found fused together. The channel is too deep for the beads to have been washed over from Tambatu.

(e) The History of Mombasa. The authorities for the history of Mombasa are the history of Kilwa before referred to, and an Arab chronicle of Mombasa published in the voyages of Capt. Owen. From the first we learn that the people of the fourth ship from Shiraz landed at Mombasa and also that the first Sultan of Kilwa estab­lished his son Mohammed bin Ali as ruler of the island. From the Arab chronicle of Mombasa we only learn that the name of the last Shirazian sultans was Shahat bin Masham, ca.led Shahat or Miftah. The Portuguese arrived in Mombasa in the reign of Shahat, and the chronicle goes on to describe the rule of the later chiefs who came from Malindi. There is a footnote which remarks that when Shahat bin Masham died there was seat after him a chief from Shiraz: “but after him the chiefs came from Malindi the first of whom was Sultan Ahmed, then Salim Mohamed, then Suleiman Yusuf. He had been brought up among the Portuguese and used to eat pork and all other food: and his Government began on Saturday 7th Muharram at the 10th hour in the year 1040 after the Hapra and there was not after him any Sultan but chiefsonly. But God knows best”

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(/) History of Vumba. The foundation of the state of Vumba, which took place rbout 1204. A.D, or approximately at the same time as Tumbatu and Pate, has already been referred to.

Its principal written history, a record of the years 1204 to 1688, was destroyed at Vanga in 1895 when the place was looted during the • rebellion of Mbaruk bin Rashid. Its story however has been collected and recounted by Mr. Hollis in the journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of 1900.

The chiefs of Vumba Kuu were known as Mwana Chambi until about 1554 A. D. Of these chiefs there were six, the first, nicknamed Zumbura, being elected about 1204. A. D. After 1554 the chiefs were called Mwana Chambi Chande. Only three held this title, and the designation was again changed to Diwan about 1700, which it will be remembered, was also the title of the Pemba chieftains.

The capital of Vumba was at first Vumba Kuu, near the River Umba, but was changed by Ruga, the first of the Diwans, to Wasin Island, owing to fears of attack from the mainland. In 1744, when one Hasan was elected Diwau, the people of Kigo- meni, an Island soubhof Wasin broke away andon two occasions elected separate chiefs.

Later, in 1821 when Seyyid Said started his campaign against the Mazrui, the Diwan Sheikh retired from the Island of Wasin to the Mainland at Vanga. This incident was the cause of another split as the peopleof Vanga on the death of the Di wan in 1824 disputed the succession. On the award of the Liwali of Mombasa each section therefore elected its own Diwan. There reigned altogether six Diwans at Wasin, two at Kigomeni and thr?e at Vanga, the last being Ukungu of Wasiu ( ob. 1878) and Maritina, recognised during the latter years of his life as Diwan of all Vumba (ob. 1897)

(g.) History of Pate. Pate was not a state of this empire: its written ihistory is well known and has been published in the Journal of the African Society. It was founded in 1204 A.D. by the Benu Nebhani who bad ruled Oman from 1154-1406 A.D. The dynasty was founded by Suleimanbin Suleiman bin Muzzbaffir, and there were thirty -one kings and one queen before the record comes to an end in the 1305th year after the flight.

(/?.) History of Mogadisho. As we have seen Mogadisho was founded in 908 A.D., but legend attributes its foundation to Abdu’l Malik in 696 A.D. It is said to have been governed by twelve elders descended from the seven El Hasa brethren. It was an earlier foundation than Kilwa and never dominated by that state apparently. It was powerful when Ibn Batuta visited it about 1330 A.D. and ruled by a Sheikh, who lived in great splendour. His name was Abu Bakar bin Omar. The mosque was

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dated 1238 A.D. and the. last sultan was called Fikar ed Din. In his reign the Abgal tribe invaded the state. The Pate history claims it came under the rule of that state at the end of the 14th century.

5. THE RISE AND FALL OF 7HE PORTUGUESE.

(a.) Rise of Portuguese. On the 4th of April 1498, Vasco da Gama sighted Mafia island and on the 5th “again beheld the land” - probably the northern portion of Zanzibar Is and. About 4 a.m. on the 6th the St. Raphael ran ashore on the Kara- nga reef, opposite Mtangata, due west of Chake Ohake, the capital of Pemba. On the nest day Saturday, April 7th, “they ran along the coa-t” and “saw some small islands about L5 leagues fiom the mainland and about 6 leag'-es in extent. They supply the vessels of the country with masts and are inhabited by Moors.” These islands w7ere Pemba which, owing to the many indentations of the West Coast appears in the distance to be several islands. These are the first references we have of this Sultanate in Portuguese records.

On his way back from India, on January 29th 1499, Vasco da Gama “came close to a large island called Jamgiber which is peopled with moors and is quite 10 leagues from the mainland.” According to this account Vasco da Gama did not stop at Zan­zibar, but Burton says “Goes declares that da Gama, after touching Makdishu arrived at Zanzibar on Feb. 28th (presumably Jan. 28th) and was supplied with provisions and specimens of country produce. The island is described as large and fertile with groves of fine trees producing good fruit: two others, Pemba and Mafia lying in its vicinity. These settlements were governed by Moorish Princ. s of the same caste as the king of Malindi doubtless hereditary Moslem sheikhs and seyyids. The population is represented as being in no great force bat carrying on a good trade with Mombasa for Guzerat calicoes and with Sofala for gold.” Joao De Barros states that the "king of Zanzibar was “of the line of the kings of Mombasa, our enemies.” The inhabi tants were white Moors and black Moors. Buy Lorenco Ravasco leaving Lisbon in1503 visited Zanzibar, where he captured twenty rich ships laden with ambergris, ivory, tortoise shell, wax, coir and other commodities. The king sent a remonstrance but icceiving no satisfaction, maimed all his canoes with 4000 men. Ravasco how­ever, armed two boats with cannou and killed 34 men on the first discharge putting the rest to Right - among those killed being the son of the king. After this the Portuguese landed and were met with resistance which they soon overcame: the king sued for peace which was granted on an agreement to pay tribute which consisted of yearly payment of 100 mt ticals of gold and 30 sheep - a small amount compared with that exacted from the other coast states. It appears therefore that Zanzibar became definitely subject to Portugal in the year 1503 or 1504. In 1508

Dom Duarte de Lemos, governor of the provinces of Ethiopia and Arabia set out to collect arrears of tribute from Mafia, Zanzibar and Pemba. Mafia submitted, and the people of Pemba escaped bo Mombasa leaving nothing in their houses. Zanzibar, however, resisted, but the town was captured and given over to looting. The King retired northwards and rest of the people fled to the bush “after being well pierced in the flesh with the sharp points and sword blades of our men.”

In 1512 we have a description of Zanzibar given by Duarte Barbosa in which he states there was rice, millet, meat and fruit in large quantities and also mentions the sewed boats.

In 1519 the Arabs of Zanzibar captured and massacred certain ship wrecked sailors belonging to the expedition of Dom Jorje d’ Albuquerque and three years later the king complained to the Portuguese of the revolt of the Kerimba Islands, which were under his domination, as they refused to pay tribute. The Portuguese, therefore, duly reduced the islands to the subjection of Zanzibar again. In 1628, Mombasa became more unruly than usual and as Nuno da Cunha calfed at Zanzibar on his way to assume the Governor Generalship of India, the king approached him and he determined to subdue Mombasa. With the aid of Zanzibar and Malindi and other places, he took it and reduced to entire subjection causing the town to pay tribute. With this victory the Portuguese rule over the whole of the coast was consolidated and it became one of four Governments depending on a vice-royalty, the others being Malacca, Ormuz and Ceylon.

After these events Zanzibar made an alliance with the Portuguese and ceased to be tributary: many of the Portuguese occupied plantations and a church was established in which a brother of the order of St. Augustine officiated.

(b.) The Zimba invasion of East Africa. About the year 1570, two hordes of Barbarians appeared opposite Tete north east of the Zambezi: they came from South Africa and were of the same origin as the Zulus. The second of these hordes reached the coast in 1585 and ravaged the country from opposite Mozambique to the north. In 1587 they invaded Kilwa where they ruined the town and killed and ate 3000 Arabs. Passsing northwards they attacked Mombasa where the people, oppres­sed by the Portuguese from the sea, made an ill-advised alliance with the Wazimba who turned on them and again killed and ate a large number. About 1589 these hordes reached Malindi where they were defeated by the Portuguese in cooperation with the inhabitants of the town and a . force of 3000 Wasegeju. Our two islands and that of Mozambique were safe from the ravages of these people who were not provided with transport but were a considerable thorn in the side of the Portuguese.

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(f.) Brief Turkish Domination of the Coast. In 1585 Ali Bey, claiming the autho­rity of Murad III, Sultan of Turkey, made piratical progress down the east coast where, being a Moslem, he received in many places enthusiatic welcome from the inhabitants, who were being oppressed by the Portuguese. He captured a Portuguese vessel and after Mogadishu, Brava, Kismayu, Faza, Kilifi, and Lamu, had readily agreed to sub­mit to the Turks, returned to the Red Sea in April 1585 with rich plunder of about £600,000 in value together with 50 Portuguese prisoners.

Dom Duarte de Menezes viceroy of India wishing to restore the authority of the Portuguese then dispatched from Goa a fleet of 18 ships which burnt the town of Mombasa and again reduced it o subjecti >n. In 1539 Ali Bey again set sail from Mocha with a fleet of 5 ships wishing to subdue Malindi which hid always sided with the Portuguese. In this he .was unsuccessful but was again warmly welcomed at Mom­basa. He was defeated on 5th March 1539 by Thomas de Souza Coutinho, brother of the viceroy of India, with a fleet of 20 ships. The Zimbas also attacked the Turks and Ali.Bey was captured and taken to Lisbon where he became a Christian.

(d.) The First English Visitors. The year 1591 is marked in Zanzibar history by the visit of Sir James Lancanster in the “Edward Bonaventure”iwhich sailed from Ply­mouth “to the East Indies, to the isles of Comoro and Zanzibar, on the backe side of Africa.” At Zanzibar he abode from 7th November 1591 to 15th February 1592.

The narrative of his voyage gives an account of the country as the English found it and describes certain incidents that occurred during their stay. On their arrival a Portuguese boat came out of the harbour and sent a canoe with a native Christian on board bringing a letter to ask who they were and what they sought: to this they replied that they were Englishmen coming from Don Antonio upon business to his friends in the Indies.

It appears that the natives then had traffic and the English captured an Mtepe (sewed boat,) which had an Arab priest on board, called a “Sherife.” (Sherife means a descendant of the prophet.) .

The Portuguese anxious to discourage fresh visitors from the country had infor­med the natives that the English were cruel people and man-eaters and advised them not to go near them. Later they captured a small Portuguese boat which was armed with ten firing pieces. They were very wary of the Portuguese and were warned against them by Moor who came from the King to negociate the delivery of the priest, they had captured and while they lay there the Portuguese Admiral of the coast from Malindi to Mozambique came to view the ship with the object of seeing if he could capture it. For the delivery of the priest, the king, furnished them with two months victuals, and was well pleased by their courteous use of him as he held bis priest “in great estimation.”

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The products of the country are described las being much as they are today: plentiful fish; coconuts; other fruits, oxen and fowls. They also referred to the presence of the Casuarina which was and is used for making the masts of ships.

The next mention of the islands by an English ship was in 1608 when the East Indiamen “Dragon” and “Hector , sighted Pemba. At the end of the same year the “Ascension” of which Capt. Alexander Sharpleigh was general, touched at Pemba. At first the people seemed, friendly, but afterwards made a treacherous attack on a party eng­aged in filling watercasks, when one man was killed, another Abounded and another missing of whom no details could be obtained when a force landed the following day to seek for him. The “Ascension” then put to sea.

The next visit we have to record is that of .the “Union” to Zanzibar in 1609. This ship was companion to the “Ascension” and sailed with her from Woolwich on 14th March 1607-8 but was separated from her after leaving Table Bay. Our know­ledge of what happened on this occasion is gleaned from the Journal of the “ Trades Increase ” which found the ship at Madagascar in 1610. She had on board one merchaut, Mr. Bradshaw-“ the rest of the merchants with the captain having been betrayed at Zanzibar,” or “Zanzabar’’ as they described it, “an iland bordering of the xAbexin Coast, where the Portugals made shew of favour and trade, inticing them to land wth there boat, where they betrayed and tooke three of there men.”

There is an island to the west of Pemba called Mesale which has been known for a long time as “ Capt. Kidd’s Island,” and legend has it that he buried his treasure there. There is today still current, a story of treasure which, it is said, has been removed, though the fragments of the jars and the holes in which they were buried are still visible. Burton states that the people have found pots of nuggets theie, and through it is obvious from the journal of Capt. Kidd that he passed the islands of Zanzibar and in 1697 there is no mention of his having called at Mesale. It may be that in the hope of calling at some future time for the treasure, no mention was ever made of it.

(6.) The Decline of the Portuguese. In about the year 1587 the people of Pemba rebelled and rid themselves of the Portuguese yoke: they massacred in one night the Portuguese settlers, men, women and children, and as their chief was pro-Portuguese they endeavoured to murder him too, but he succeeded in getting away to Malindi accompanied .by a few Portuguese and was soon afterwards restored by De Souza Coutinho. Shortly after 1594 he was again expelled and deposed: he went to Mombasa where he married a Portuguese womau and became a Christian, afterwards visiting India with Franscisco DeGama who promised to restore him-a promise which it appears was kept.

The definite decline of the Portuguese was started by the loss of Ormuz in 1622. In 1627 a serious insurrection took place among the coastal states and though the Portuguese were victorious in the end, this rebellion shook the foundation of their

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rule. Yusuf bin Hamad, the chief of Mombasa was responsible for a massacre there, after which there was a general rising in which Pemba was deeply involved. The result of this rebellion is recorded in the lengthy Portuguese inscription over the gate­way of Mombasa Fort which states that in 1635 Francisco da Seixas de Cabreira» amongst other states, “chastised Pemba and its rebellious people, putting to death on his own responsibility the rebel kings and all the principal chiefs.”

In 1598 Francisco De Gama viceroy of India gave orders to Ruy Soares de Mello, captain of Mombasa, to put down an insurrection in Pemba as it was from that island that ail movements were made against the fortress (Mombasa) : he was in­structed to arrange that the new king should be placed on the throne and supported in everything.

In 1635 we learn from de Rezende’s account of the {Portuguese possessions in Africa that Zanzibar was no longer tributary, and that several Portuguese with Iheir families owned plantations in the islands : Pemba was said bo be thickly populated, to contain 14 villages and to be able to provide at least 5000 fighting men. The natives supplied the Portuguese with 600 makanda of rice annually. Wild| pigs, introduced originally by the Portuguese were already plentiful.

About 1652 a force of Arabs arrived from Omau and attacked Zanzibar killing a large number of Portuguese including one of the Augustine brothers: this again spread into a serious revolt so tha: Da Seixas de Oabreira was again sent to subdue the rebels. The latter reported on the 30th August 1653 that the ruler of Zanzibar and Pemba and Utondwe had asked for help from Muscat.

He gathered together a force of 120 Portuguese, 40 Indians, and 120 Natives from Malindi and attacked Zanzibar, driving out the queen and her son the King of Otondo and releasing 400 Christians from captivity.

In 1697 the pro-Portuguese queen, Fatima, of Zanzibar, addressed a letter to the authorities at Goa, but in the following year the Imam-Seif bin Sultan of Oman drove the Portuguese from Kilwa, Mombasa and Pemba failing only before the fortress of Mozambique which has remained in Portuguese hands to this day. Zanzibar and Malindi apparently still adhered to their alliance with the Portuguese, but the power of the latter was now broken broken for ever.

In 1727 th^ Governors of Mombasa and Zanzibar quarrelled and the latter fled to Pate where the king of Pate, not wishing to be involved in trouble with the Oman Arabs, placed himself under the protection of Portugal. The Portuguese sent forward an expedition under De Mello with 6 ships tofre-subdue East Africa.7

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This they succeeded in doing for a short period, but in 1729 the Arabs were invited to return to Mombasa, and on August 29th of that year r 3 Portuguese wort driven from Pate and on November 29th from Mombasa.

A local history recently discovered in. Pemba tell3 us that on Monday April 21th 1606, *30 Portuguese ships arrived in Pemba to claim the tribute under the command of one Captain John. The story goes on to relate that the expeditions returned at different periods until 1656 when the tribute was paid for the last time.

(/*.) Omani 'domination of the Coast. Eight years after the Arab expedition of 1652 the Imam Sultan bin Seif I. of Oman, having created a navy, besieged Mombasa and defeated the Portuguese: he won other signal succeesses over the Portuguese but unfortunately, owing to dissensions at home could not keen up his hold. It was left therefore to his son Seif bin Sultan, whose name if, still famous in Zanzibar and Pemba as Keid el Ardhi, to drive the Portuguese from all their possessions north of Mozambique. (1698 A.D.)

It is unfortunate that Wr know so little about t’lis noteworthy prince. He had a great deal of property-one third of all the date palms of Oman - and undertook a great many public works; he had a fleet of 23 ships the largest being the “El Falak,” said to contain 80 guns, f

It is stated that he made one of the Nebhani tribe Liwali at Pate, a Mazrui at Mombasa, and an El Harthi at Zanzibar. Pemba was placed under the Liwali of Mombasa and was therefore under Mazrui domination. He established garrison in Zanzibar and Pemba and we learn that in 1710 there was a garrison of 50 under one Said in Zanzibar and one of 30 in Pemba. lie died on 4th October, 1711.

In 1739 the Mazrui Governor of Mombasa threw off his allegiance to the Imam, Sultan bin Murshid, and declared his independence, an example w7hich was followed by Pate and other states.

Sultan bin Murshid the last of the Yaarubi dynasty, was followed by Ahmed bin Said bin Ahmed bin Mohammed Es Saidi El Azdy El Omany, the founder of the present Albusaid dynasty. In 1746 he appointed Abdulla bin Djad Liwa'ii cf Zanzibar wii h a garrison to protect it against the turbulent Mazruis. In 1753 the Mazrui under Ali bin Athman sent forces to invade Zanzibar which, however, came to nothing as Ali bin Athman had been assassinated.

It will be seen therefore that Seif bin Sultan the First, should be regarded as the first joint Imam of Oman and Zanzibar, as Zmzibar never threw off her allegiance to the Omani sceptre, though Pemba followed Mombasa in 1739 and did not again come under Oman rule till 1822.■'>' The dale in the original is either 1014 or II40H. The cate given above depends on 'the former reading. If it is the

latter it wo.ild oe 1727 A.D. and 1656 would be 1777 A.D.•j- So Salil ibn Razik, but Barton took it tha; the 83 guns were distributed over the 28 ships—which is more probable.

4.2

6. THE ZANZLBARI-O M ANI EMPIRE.(1.) Local dynasties of P emba and Zanzibak.

(a.) Diwanis of Pemba. It appears from legend that the rulers of Pemba were ci lied Diwani since the time of the Persians: the names of these chiefs prior to about 1 50 years ago have been lost, though the “king” of Pemba ordered by the Portuguese to report at Mombasa with other coastal monarchs in 1728 is called in Portuguese records, Ben Sultan Manya. About the time of the expulsion of the Portuguese from the coast, there came to the country a Persian dynasty, the family of one Makame bin Abubakr bin Salim. The first .of the family to hold supreme power was his son Ngwachani who was the fourth of his nine children. Many stories are told of the Diwani and he is credited with the same sorb of cruelties as Mkame Mdume. It was the custom of the Diwani on succeeding to the chief power to give an ox and 20 pishis of rice to each of the five districts and it was a prerogative of his that all v.rgin girls should be brought to him before marriage. Whenever the Diwani walkel out, any ox the t was found on the road was slain and eaten and it said that whereever he sat dvwn a mango tree was planted. Having persuaded the Mazrui to expel the Portu­guese it was not long before their oppression led the people of Pemba to wish to rid themselves of their deliverers and a mission was sent to Muscat to Seyyid Said to ask him to aid them.

The written histories and traditions of Pemba vary as to the composition of the delegation , but it appears certain that the Diwani Ngwachani accompanied by his brother Athman, who subsequently succeeded him, went in person, probably also an Arab of the Israaili tribe, named Nassor bin Suleiman: as this Arab’s mother was a Mazrui he undertook this service at some considerable personal risk, apparently witli the hope of furthering an ambition of becoming Liwali.

On arrival at Muscat they laid their petition before the Seyyid and he agreed to help them on condition that they paid an excise duty of 5 per cent on 111 their pro­ducts and a poll tax of two dollars a head with an additional undertaking that they would do work for the Government free. Seyyid Said then sent orders to his Gover­nors at Zanzibar, Mahommed bin Nassor, to expel the Mazrui from Pemba and in the year 1822 the Seyyid’s army commanded by Salim bin Suleiman, brother of Nassor bin Suleiman landed in Pemba, where the Diwani Ngwachani had been arrested and imprisoned for 12 months by the Mazrui on his return from Muscat.

Seyyid Said’s army landed at Matangatwani on the west of Pemba and made for the enemy stronghold at Chwaka on the north where the Mazrui had built a fort,- the ruins of which still remain together with the grave of their paramount chief whose name was Sheikh Mbaruk bin Rashid, who had died in 1806. At the time of Seyyid Said’s

(53

invasion his son Riziki had succeeded him. The Mazrui were defeated and fled te Mombasa: but returned a short time afterwards to Pemba under Riziki. They built a fort at Birikau on the northern side of the Mkumbuu Peninsula of Pemba and the Liwali Nassor bin Suleiman prepared to give battle to them.

Despite the fact that Nassor bin Suleiman does not appear to have been a hero the Mazrui were defeated and returned to Mombasa but returned the next year building a fort at Wesha where they were finally defeated by Salim bin Suleiman and their leader Riziui killed: thus the power of the Mazrui was finally broken. Diwani Ngwachani died shortly after these events, an old man of 72. He was succeeded by his brother Athman who lived only for a short time and during the reign of Seyyid Majid a man named Ebrahimu became Di wani to be succeeded in the same reigri by Kihanuni, another brother of Ngwachani who was the last of the Diwanis of P^mba.

(b.) T/ie Mwenyi Mkuu af Zmzibar. The word “Mwenyi Mkuu” means “great holder” or “great chief.” We have seen several references to these chiefs during the period of the Portuguese occupation. It will be remembered that in 1653 Cabreira had driven out the queen of Zanzibar and her son the king of Otondo, now an unim­portant fishing village due west of Zanzibar town : it appears possible that this queen’s name was Mwana Mwema, and according to legend she may have married an Arab from Yemen: she is said to have been the elder sister of two brothers and was even­tually persuaded by them to abdicate.

The Mwenyi Mkuu who succeeded her was called Yusuf and at his death he divided the kingdom into two portions : the southern, with capital at Kizimkazi, was allotted to his son Bakari, and the northern, including the modern city of Zanzibar, was inherited by his daughter Fatima. This lady was reigning in the year 1697 for she addressed a letter to the Governor-General at Goa in tnat year: sh© had married Abdulla the king of Obondo and their son was called Hassan.

Hassan succeeded to the throne on the death of his mother and his name occurs in Portuguese records in 1728 when he was ordered to report himself as Mombasa. Being excused from a personal appearance, he sent his second son Musa. Hassan started to build the present city of Zanzibar and on his death was succeeded by his elder son Sultan, aboutwhom nothing is known. Sultan was succeeded by Ahmed: he flourished before the Arab conquest in 1744, and was the last indepen­dent sultan of the Wahadimu.

After his death he was succeded by his son Hassan who married Mwana wa Mwana the queen of Tumbatu Island. Hassan II. not caring to live with his Omani overlord made his capital at a village called Mbweni: he does not appear to have b9?n a person of any great imporbmcc: hg was given limited authority

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ovcr the Wahadimu and made an undertaking with Seyyid Said similar to that made by the Wapemba.

On his death he was succeeded by Mohammed bin Ahmed. his brother, who lived at Dnnga where he had considerable power over tee Wahadirnu. This Mwenyi Mkuu was born in 1785 and spent 10 years (L845-1856) in building a palace suitable to his position at Dunga, in which were kept the sacred drums and horn of the Wahadimu. Many stories are current concerning this palace which is said to have been haunted and has only recently been demolished. Sultan Moham-m d only lived to enjoy his palace for 4 years and died in the year 1865 being suc­ceeded by his son Ahmed who wis confirmed in his appointment by Seyyid Majid in the 15th Rabbia-el-Awal 1282. A.H. Sultan Ahmed was the last Mwenyi Mkuu of the Wahadimu.

The Wahadimu all paid a poll-tax of two dollars a year to the “Mwenyi Mkuu” of which one was retained by him and the oilier paid to tbs Seyyid.

Many curious customs were observed in paying respect to the Mweryi Mkuu: no one might remain up a tree when he was in the vicinity, and when people came into his presence they might only do so on their knees -with uncovered heads exclaiming “Shikamuu” ( I clasp your legs).

(c.) The Shelias of Humbatu. The chief of Tumbatu was known as Shelia, possibly derived from the Persian Shah, though more probably from the Arab Sheikh: beneath him was his prime minister ol\ Waziri and below the Waziri an officer called the Makata. Tumbatu was nominally subject to Mwenyi Mkuu, but the Sneha was allowed by him a good deal of freedom in his administration.

We have seen that Mwana wa Mwana, queen of Tumbatu, married Hassan the Mwenyi Mkuu, and legend has it that for her sake the Wahadimu were excused pay­ment of the taxes.

Mwana wa Mwana was succeeded by Ah bin Hassan, brother to the Mwenyi Mkuu, Ali was succeeded by his daughter Fatima who was in. her turn succeeded by her nephew Vuai bin Mkadam. Vuai was succeeded by his second cousin Mwana Kazija bint Ngwale bin Kombo bin Ali, and she, by her brother Ali. This was the end of the royal house of Tumbatu. Little is known of these people but the names are interesting as showing that a women could freely succeed to supreme power: such a thing would be unlikely to happen nowadays.

II. Reion of Seyyid Said.Considerations of space make it impossible for me to devote more than a little

room to the history of Seyyid Said whose name towers out above those'of all men who have been associated with the island kingdom. His life, however, is fairly well-

6 5.

known, and as it is my object hero to avoid- giving information which may be easily obtained elsewhere in convenient iorim it will be impossible to mention more than the outstanding features of his reign.

Said bin Sultan, grandson of the Imam Ahmed, was born in 1790, and ruled jointly over Oman wit a his brother Salim until the death of the latter in 1821. Con­tinual troubles in that most turbulent of Arabian states, Oman, ushered in the reign of the prince: these troubles were to continue with very little interruption until his. death. His first connection with Zanzibar was in the year 1822, but he did not make his first visit in person to the coast until 1828, when, with a large fleet in his flagship “The Liverpool” he fought with the Mazrui and defeated them at Mombasa after which a treaty was entered into by which the Mazrui acknowledged his supremacy. Leaving a garrison, there of 300 Baluchis he proceeded to Zanzibar and at once started on improvements, but was later ca'led back to Muscat by rebellion there. In 1837 troubles again occured in Mombasa and proceeding to the coast, he captured Rashid bin Salim, the chief of the Mazruis and sent him and twenty four oth?rs t > starve in Bunder Abbas. It may be noted that in 1821 they had concluded a covenant with Capfc. Owen of H.M.S. Leven whereby they were placed under British p ’otecbionl but this had been disallowed on the remonstrances of Seyyid Said. In 1832 he made Zanzibar his capital though he had to pay frequent visits to Muscat, where he returned on the 10th of September o" that year. After settling the tr mble there be re-embarked for Zanzibar leaving his third on Tnwain as Wall of Muscat. Seyyid Said had not been long in Zanzibar before he was again recalled by the rebellion of

*Seyyid Hamoud bin Azzan who c insed him continu d trouble until the tim: of hisdeath in 1819.

In 1833 Seyyid Said entered into a treaty of Amity an 1 Comm rce with the United States of Ameiica and an American consulate was opeued at Zanzibar in 1S37. The British Consulate was established in 1811 and thefirst consul was Colonel Hamer- Ion who became a great friend of the Seyyid’s. He maintained excellent relat ons with Britain and entered into the first treaty directed against the abolition of slavery (1822) which cost him a loss of 100,OoO crowns ann a lily and for which lie declined compensation. He gave his ship the “Liverpool” t> Great Britain and it w.is re­named the “Imaum.’’

In 1811 he signed a Commercial Treaty with France and generally encouraged commerce and recognised free-trade. In April 1856 he was compelled to enter into a humiliating treaty with the Pirsirms in respect of the territories of Bunder Abbas and other dependencies which he leased from them. In the same year Seyyid Slid sailed from Muscat for the last time on biard the “Victoria.” Deeply humiliate] by

the affronts of Persia and worn out in health he was destined ne ’er to see Zanzibar again - the Decree of Fate overtook him in the sea of Seychelles on the 19th October, and though he directed that in the event of the death he expected he should be thrown overboard, his body was taken to Zanzibar and buried. His last words were a call for his friend Colonel Hamerton.

At his death his dominions included the whole of Oman with certain islands in the Persian Gulf, and the coast of Africa from Guardafui to Cape Delgado, with the exception of Lamv, a distance of 960 miles. In addition his sway was acknowledged in the interior from the coast to beyond the great lakes. He conceived the idea of a series of trading stations starting on the coast opposite Zanzibar to end in the Congo.

This one man by his own strength of character built up an Empire which any power might have envied: had he been better served this empire might have survived till today: as it was it fell to pieces on account of internal dissension and the great rush for Africa which the powers of Europe were soon to start. It may be said that it is owing to Styyid Said and Seyyid Barghash that Zanzibar today still has its own Sultan and its own flag.

Personally Seyyid Said was a “tall, stout, honourable looking man with a bene­volent countenance, clever, intelligent, sharp eyes and a remarkably pleasing and agreeable manner: he combined in a high degree majesty of figure, nobleness of countenance and perfect grace of gesture.” He was a distinguished diplomatist, a great sailor, a brave soldier, and withal, highly religious. He laid the foundations of Zan­zibar’s prosperity by insisting on the cultivation of the clove, which was introduced as early as 1818. When he died Zanzibar and Pemba had many clove plantations.

“First in War, first in peace, first inthe hearts of his fellow countrymen,” he was a ruler any country might be proud of.

III . The Reign of Seyyid Majid.On the death of Seyyid Said his son Majid, who was in Zanzibar, immediately

took up the reigns of Government; but it was not long before his brother Thwain, the Wali of Muscat, laid claim to the whole empire. Majid was perfectly content that Oman should fail to Thwain but was not prepared to give up Zanzibar, and Thwain in 1860, prepared to send an expedition against him. In addition to this another brother Turki claimed Sohar. The British Government now deemed it expedient to interfere and the Governor-General of India appointed a Commission to enquire into the claims of the rivals. It appeared that it was Seyyid Said’s wish that Muscat should go to Thwain, Sohar to Turki and Zanzibar to Majid. The Governor General’s decision now khown as “Lord Canning’s award” was made on April 2, 1.861, and by it Majid

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was to retain Zanzibar on paying 40,000 crowns annually to Thwain who was to retain Muscat. The li.oney was not to be considered as making Zanzibar dependent on Muscat but to compensate the ruler of the latter place for abandonment of ail claims on the richer ccuntry of Z inzibar. Majid paid the money until Thwain’s death and in 1871 the arrears were paid by the Indian Government: since the death of Thwain the money has not beer, a charge on the Zanzibar treasury. From 186L the fortunes of Oman ,vere no longer mingled with those of Zanzibar and from that dato we can devote ourselves to the history of Zanzibar alone.

The independence of Zanzibar was recognised by England and other powers in 1862: the rest of Seyyid Majid’s reign was uneventful but he paid a state visit to Bombay in 1866 and in the the same year Pate and Siu submittd to disarms. Seyyid Majid died in 1870.

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IV. Reign of Seyyid Barghash.Seyyid Barghash who had twice endeavoured to supplant his brother Majid

succeeded to the throne on the latter’s death. The Clove Industry of the Island received a serious set-back in 1872 when a cylone occurred which destroyed practically all the cloves in Zanzibar, though Pemba luckily escaped.

It was Seyyid Barghash who instituted the export duty on cloves which be fixed at 30 per ce.it a-figure reduced by his brother Seyyid Khalifa to 25 per cent. In the year of the cyclone, owing to the encouragement of Seyyid .Barghash who was anx­ious to help trade, the British India Company started a service between India and Zanzibar. The next year the Sultan entered into a treaty with Sir Bartle Frere to abolish the slave trade, and the or aty was finally signed on the 5th of June. The same year Zanzibar Treasury ceased to pay the subsidy of forty thousand Crowns to the Sultan of Muscat who received it from the Political Agent there yvith the sanction of the Viceroy of India. It is interesting to note that the Sultan offered France the Protectorate of his dominions but the proposal fell through as Great Britain and France had agreed to respect his independence indefinitely. The following year he made overtures to Germany which were again refused by Bismark.

In 1875 Seyyid Barghash paid a state visit to England at the invitation of the British Government. He was attended by a numerous suite and accompaincd by Sir Jond Kirk.

In the same year Egyptian warships under McKillop Pasha, sailed down the Coast of Africa and attempted seizure of the mainland ports dropping anchor at Kis- mayu. They finally eft under the orders of the Khedive to whom representations had been made by the British.

Another step was taken by the Sultan towards the abolit on of slavery by a decree ordering the confiscation of slaves brought to Zanzibar a id prohibiting slave traffic by land.

In 1877 he offered a lease of the customs administration of the Zanzibar East Coast to Sir William Mackinnon which was refused asM ackinnon could not obtain Foreign Office support.

Two years later another link (of Zanzibar) with the outside world was forged by the laying of the cable and Seyyid Barghash ceded the smali island of Bawe outside the terrirorial waters of Zanzibar to the Eastern Telegraph Company to land the cable. In the same year German attempts at a protec­torate over Zanzibar, which had been mooted by Vice Admiral Livinous in 1875, were renewed and for the next five years the Germans were very active in East Africa. The notorious Dr. Carl Peters concluded treaties with the chiefs of Mbuzini and Usagara in 1 884 which caused some uneasiness to the British Government. The next year Peters obtained an Imperial Charter of protection and some of the terri­tories of the Sultan were put under German protection in spite of Barghash’s protest. He (Barghash) prepared to send -an expedition to subdue Witu but the German Government protested and declared a protectorate. The result of this was a . .Com­mission appointed by Britain, Erance and Germany to delineate the Sultan’s boundaries which resulted in the Proces-Verbal of the 9th June 1886, which defined his possessions as the island of Zanzibir end Pemba and the islets within twelve miles thereof; the Lamu Archipelago, a ten mile belt along the coast from Tungi to Kipini at the mouth of the Ozi River and the ports of Kismayu, Barawa, Marka, Mogadisho and Warsheik.

In 1886 the Sultan accepted the Berlin Act but excepted h s territory from the free trade articles, continuing to levy a 5 per cent duty on impoits as well as certain export duties, On 25 January 1887 Portugal demanded, a rectification of the frontier between Zanzibar and Portuguese territory stating that Germany recognised Rovuma as the northern limit of Mozambique colony : Germany, however, stated she would not interfere if Portugal came to an agreement with the Sultan concerning Rovuma.

In Eebruaty the Portuguese demanded the cession of this territory and as the Sultan declined to yield, broke off diplomatic relations with Zanzibar: Portugal stated her intention was only to occupy Tungi but rumours of hostile Portuguese action at Zanzibar and tne capture of PI. H. Ship “Kilwa” by the Portuguese, led the English Government to make enquiries and demand explanations.

Portugal, however, now continued to commit acts of war, and in addition to cap-

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G9

hiring a ship of the Sultan’s, occupied Minengani and Tungi which l-.tter town they bombarded on 18th February. Some retaliation was made in Ap.il by the Governor of Tungi contrary to the orders of Seyyid Barghash.

A Commission was then appointed to investigate the matter which sat on the arrival of the Portuguese Commissioner on July 10th. But before this had happened Seyyid Barghash was taken seriously ill and died on March 26th 1838 at the age of 55. Sir Euan Smith,-who was acting Consul General at the time, stated that his “death seems to have called forth *but very limited expressions of sorrow and regret from any section of the community” and while it must be admitted that Seyyid Barghash had acted often in an arbitrary manner towards his subjects, frequency seizing their property, it must be remembered that he suffered severely from consump­tion and elephantiasis and that the gradual and inevitable stripping of his territories caused him considerable disappointment and humiliation. At this distance of time the verdict of history is more merciful and Seyyid Barghash can be seen as a great ruler.

He was a remarkable man and possessed many of the qualities of his father: he was exceedingly ambitious but energetic but withal honourable and had a knowledge of the world exceeding that of his father and his brother.

Before closing this chapter, reference must be made to Sir John Kirk whose name is even now a household word in Zanzibar and who retired from the position of Consul General in 1887. Sir John Kirk was a man of marvellous energy and his uniform successes were undoubtedly the result of a long practical acquaintance with native manners and methods : “the pre-eminence of his work entitles him to be reme­mbered as one of the greatest pioneers of the Africa of today, and when other names are buried in oblivion not always undeserved, his will stand out pre-eminent as that of a wise and powerful ruler and successful administrator.

V. Tippu Tin.

One can hardly write of the Zanzibari Empire in the times of its prosperity without mentioning the great traveller, trader and ruler Hemed bin Mohammed sur- named Tippu Tib.

The son of adventurous parents, he commenced his career at the age of 18 with a journey to Ugangi north east of Lake Nyasa. After this he undertook to journey on his own declining to have any supervision or protection and set out into the interior at the head sf a n^mproua band of followers. After some years of trading

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and adventures in the interior during which, in 1867, he encountered Livingstone to whom he rendered considerable assistance, Tippu Tib made for the coast and alter a few incidents reached Daressalaam wheie he found Seyyid Majid and his Court assembled. The Sultan realising that the mainland furnished him with most of his wealth had determined to build a palace and transfer his Government there. The coming of Tippu Tib’s caravan excited the greatest interest and the Sultan loaded him with high honours and entertained him as his guest: Tippu Tib returned with him to Zanzibar but soon wished to set out again. The Sultan encouraged him and supported him in every way knowing that it would increase his political influence if his subjects should achieve importance in the interior and would bring as well rich produce to his country.

Tippu Tib met with a reverse at the hands of the Wangoni but followed it with a success over Sultan Taka at Ugalla and a considerable victory over the Kasembe king­dom of Lunda in 1867. The fame of Tippu Tib as a conqueror now spread and no resistance was offered to his progress. He passed on to Irande and subsequently to Utetera where he was made Sultan and spent several years as ruler in his territory with expeditions to the country around. In 1874 he met Cameron and rendered him assistance. Two years later when engaged on peaceful work at Nyangwe and Kwakosongo Stanley appeared. Stanley and Tippu Tib did not agree and there can be no doubt that the Englishman had treated the Arab unfairly as he seems to have ignored the terms of any agreement made : however, they set out together and had it not been for Tippu Tib, Stanley would have been deserted by his people. In December of 1876 they agreed to part.

In 1879 Seyyid Barghash summoned him to return at once to Zanzibar to settle his affairs with his banker, and a year after Tippu Tib set out for the coast. He reached Tabora but not without incurring hostilities on the way in which, as usual, he came out successful.

On September 7th 1882 he was joined by Wissmann who accompanied him to the coast and they reached Zanzibar on November 13th of that year,

There he saw Seyyid Barghash who told him that he had intended to make him Liwali of Tabora but considered it more advisable that he should return at once to his dominions. However, Tippu Tib remained sometime in Zanzibar and held con­sultations with Sir John Kirk who was very interested in the state of affairs at Ugogo and proposed that Tippu Tib should, in concert with the Sultan, bring the whole country under his control.

Had the Sultan taken this hint, as he could easily have done, he would have averted the loss of his great possessions in Africa, but Barghash had less inclination

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lor extending his political influence than for commercial undertakings and desired first and foremost to secure the monopoly of trade forq is subjects in the new regions He promulgated a decree that no one should enlist carriers until Tippu Tib was sufficiently supplied. More favours were heaped by Barghash on the famous travel­ler and with an unlimited credit he started off for the interior again. At Tabora he heard that the people in Manyema had become refractory, so he pressed ou to Kwako- songo which he reached in June 1883 and soon restored order.

Shortly afterwards Seyyid BarghasM wrote to him to use every means in his power to keep the country under his influence: Tippu Tib thereupon replied that the Sultan must first supply him with arms and Barghash called him back to talk it over in person.

On his arrival in wfiat is now Tanganyika Territory he found that the Belgians and the Germans were threatening more and more to force back the Arab sphere of influence, and as Tippu Tib had to force or purchase his ways through the Coast, there were clear indications that the Sultan’s power was not in the least feared by the Natives.

At Zanzibar, Barghash realised from Tippu Tib’s accounts that he had indeed lost his hold in the interior and could only hope to keep the island of Zanzibar, which even then the Europeans wished to wrest from him.

Tippu Tib’s next undertaking was in 1886 when he rendered assistance in the rescue of Emin Pasha.

King Leopold, desiring peace with the Arabs, offered Tippu Ttb the post of Governor in the provinces wrested from the Congo state by the Arabs. Tippu Tib therefore set sail with Stanley and journeyed inland after having passed through Cape Town in 1887. He eventually took up his duties as Governor of Stanley Falls where he lived on the best of terms with the Europeans, especially the Belgians. At this time he heard of the death of his old patron who had died on March 27th 1S88 and he at on.ce sent an embassy to convey greetings to Khalifa and assure him of his allegiance : however, he had shortly to return to Zanzibar as the king of the Belgians informed him that Stanley had brought a case against him for breach of contract and he started in March 1890, despite all the protests of his fellow tribesmen who wished him. to evade justice. In the Arab text of the summons the plaintiffs were given as “Emin Pasha and his people’’ meaning the relief committee.

Emin Pasha was most indignant at the misuse of his name as it might give rise to the idea that he was on unfriendly terms with the “am-crowned ruler of Central Africa” and publicly denied his association with the suit. The case never came into court; Stanley apparently failed rn his accusations and as it was shown that he bad

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made false accusations against another European, opinion now turned against him. After that time Tippu Tib did not journey again into the interior. After his depature there trouble was in Congo the Arabs rising against the Belgians, but it could hardly be said that Tippu Tib was to blame for this, for as soon as his personal influence was removed there was bound to be trouble.

He himself suffered considerable loss as all his goods were lost. He spent his last years in Zanzibar, an important person in the Council of the island and always on good terms with the ruler for the time being. He never lost his attraction for the Europeans. He died in June 1905.

7. THE REIG N OF SE YY ID KHALIFA B IN SAID TO THE PRESENT DA Y

1. The reign of seyyid khalifa bin Said.Seyyid Khalifa bin Said succeeded his brother on 26th March 1888. In October

he offered a concession of his mainland territories to the British East Africa Company. It will be remembered that this was offered by the last Sultan to Sir William Mackinnon but refused as the British Foreign office wouldnot support the company : on this occasion however, the concession was signed in 1889 and the Sultan surrendered all control over the company’s territory in return for an annual payment. This concession was probably expedited by the action of the Germans. In June 1887 the German Consul-General demanded the concession of all the port and island ofLamu : this was refused by the Sultan, and the Belgian Foreign Minister to whom the case was submitted for arbitration, decided that the Sultan could cede the island where he chose. The Sultan took another step towards the abolition of slavery by decreeing that all slaves born after the 1st January 1890 should be free; he later, fe aring for his safety at the hands of the Arabs, never published this decree and it remained a dead letter. Seyyid Khalifa died after a brief reign on the 13th ^ebruarv 1890.

II. The Beign of Seyyid Ali bin Said.Seyyid Ali bin Said was recognised as Sultan on the 17th February, and June of

the same year agreed to the assumption by Great Britain ol a protectorate over Zanzibar. This was recognised by Germany in exchange for the island of Heligoland and by France on recognition by Great Britain of her protectorate over Madagascar. Thus the last remnants of independence passed from the proud Empire built up by Seyyid Said, though legally certain islets, unimportant and few in number, which lie outside the territorial waters of Zanzibar and Pemba are not within the British Protectorate

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It must be remenabsied that if this had not Been declared other powers, for instance Germany, would have been but too ready to absorb the weak and power­less state.* At the same time the actual territory between the rivers Umba and Rovuma, including the island of Mafia, was ceded to Germany on payment of four million marks.

The disposal of slaves was declared illegal in August of the same year by a decree of the Sultan and in the following year constitutional government was established, Sir Lloyd Matthews becoming First Minister.

In 1892 the import duties were abolished and Zanzibar was declared a free port, and in the same year the Benadir coast was leased to Italy. Seyyid Ali who had been sickening for some time, died oa the 5th March 1893.

III. The Reign of Seyyid Hamed bin Thwain.On the death of Seyyid Ali bin Said Seyyid Khaled, a young and ambitious youth,

the son of Seyyid Barghash, attempted to seize the palace but was expelled at once owing to the prompt action of Sir Rennell Rodd, the Consul General, and Sir Lloyd Matthews. There were two other claimants to the throne; Mahmud,a cousin of Seyyid Ali’s and Seyyid Hamed bin Thawin : of these t̂he latter, a man of 4 years, was selected and proclaimed sultan within a few hours of Seyyid Ali’s death.

In July 1893 the Benadir ports and territory were leased to Italy for a further period of 3 years.

In 1895 the Imperial British East Africa Company surrendered their charter, for which they received|a compensation of £250,000, a sum save £50,000, paid out of Zanzibarjfunds. Zanzibar and Great Britain entered into an agreement for the administration by the latter of the Sultan’s mainland possessions. The Kenya Gov­ernment pay annually a sum of £11,000 as rent for these possessions and £6000 as interest at 3 per cent on the £200,000 paid to the company.

Seyyid Hamed bin Thwain died after a short reign of 3 years on the 25th August 1896: he was a man of high culture and literary taste and a profound student of Arabic literature. Sir Rennell Rodd credits him with a remark which shows him to have been of a liberal turn of mind.

“ The wise men who made the Law, Christ and Mohammed, lived a very long time ago and made the Law according to their lights, but they did not know many things that we know now and the world has moved on further since their Law was made.”

# Germany’s attitude towards Zanzibar, may be judged from the activities of Karl Peters. See also Chap. XVU vol. I of Sir George Arthur’s life of Lord Kitchener, which describes the way the Germans where instrumental in cutting down the Sultan’s Territorries at the Boundary commission of 1886.

74

IV. Seyyid Khaled bin ESaeghash.On the death of the Sultan, Seyyid Khaled again at once seized the palace,

and proclaimed himself Sultan :* however, a British'fleet arrived soon after, in the harbour under Bear Admiral' Rawson : a two hour ultimatum Xvas sent to him at 7 a.m. on the morning of the 27th August to which he vouchsafed no reply ; it is said that the sooth sayers had foretold that the British .guns would spout only water. At 9 a.m. a bombardment commenced and when itjfinished, 49 minutes later, the , palace had been reduced to. a shambles, over 500 Natives had been killed and the.. Sultan’s ship of war, “The Glasgow,” sunk; Khaled himself fled to the German Con­sulate and was given sanctuary in Daressalaam. On the capture of the latter place in. the late war, he was exiled to St. Helena; thence in 1921 he was removed to the Seychelles, and is now allowed to live in Mombasa.

V.- The Reign of Seyyid Ham'oud bin Mohamed.; ' On the deposition and flight of Seyyid Khaled, Seyyid Hamoud bin Mohamed

bin Said was proclaimed Sultan (August 27th 1896.) In September of the same year' more direct British control was assumed over the Official, Military, and Executive, departments of the Government. The final abolition of slavery by a decree of the Sultan, took place on the 6th April 1897.

The. 5 per cent ad Valorem duty which had beed abolished in 1892 was reim­posed in Decembor 1899 as it was recognised that Zanzibar could not control'the East African trade of which the German share kept increasing despite Zanzibar’s being a free port. . .

In 1901 the Government issued £100,000 3 per ©ent debentures in London at p ir the principal repayable not later than 1st October 1931.

To the great regret of all, the Sultan’s prime minister, General Sir Lloyd William Matthews K. C. M. G.,died on the 14th October 1901. Sir Kennel Rood has said of him “few men could possess so clean a record as was his; Soldier and sailor and Vizier, he was of the fibre of those simple, God-fearing mariners of the great days who laid the foundations of empire. If few of his own countrymen had had the opportpn ty of appraising him, no one was ever more sincerely mourned by those of an alien race and dusky skin.”

Sir Lloyd Matthews was succeeded as prime minister jby Mr. A. S. Rogers in November 1901, and Seyyid Hamoud died at the age of 51 on the 18th July 1902.

Ho was an intelligent and generous man, of a fine physique with a courtly and charming presence.

VI. The Reign of Seyyid Ali bin H amoud.Seyyid Ali bin Hamoud succeeded his father on the 20th of July 1905: but as he was

under age, the first minister, Mr. Rogers, was appointed Regent.' He attained his maj-

75

orifcy in June 1905 and assumed his powers: in the same year the Benadir coast was ceded to Italy for £144,000.

In 1906 the Government was again reorganised and the first minister given two colleagues, a financial member of council and a legal member of council.

The Zanzibar army was disbanded in 1907 and the defence of the country was entrusted to two companies of the King’s African Rifles. In January 1908 the Import Duties were increased from 5 to 7 | per cent ad Valorem. In June 1909 the emanicipation of Slaves was competed by a decree directing compansation to be given to slaves unable to support themselves, for the deprivation of their masters protection. No claims were to be considered later than the end of 1911. In 191 L; the Sultan left Zanzibar to attend the coronation of King George V. and whilst in' Europe decided to abdicate: he died in Paris in 1918.

VII The Reign op Seyyid Khalifa bin Kharub. .Seyyid Khalifa bin Harub acceded to the throne in- succession-to h:s brother-in^'

law on the 9th December 1911 and was formally installed on the 16tb of that month.On the 13th February 1913 Mr. Edward Clark, the last of the long succession of

distinguished Consuls-General, died iu Zanzibar. In the same year the control of the Sultanate passed from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office, legal effect being given to the change in 1914 by a new Zanzibar Order in Council which constituted the offices of High Commissioner, British Resident and Chief Secretary. In the same year the Zanzibar Protectorate Council was formed : it consists of His Highness as President, the British Resident as Vice President, three official and four unofficial members who represent various communities. The High Commissioner is the Gov­ernor of Kenya Colony and Protectorate. The British Resident combines the offices of Consul General and First Minister. Major F. B. Pearce C.M.G. was ap­pointed first Resident. Mr, J. H. Sinclair C.M.G. who had served for many years in the Protectorate was the Chief Secretary.

On the outbreak of war Zanzibar found herself in one of the theatres of war, and His Highness associated himself with the protecting power by a serie's of decrees the first being a declaration of war with Germany dated 5th August 1914, In connection with Germany and Zanzibar it is interesting to note that the German Chancellor, Von Bethman Holweg, states that in February. 1912 it was proposed that Zanzibar a >d Pemba should be handed over to Ger nany in addition to other considerations in exchange for German concessions in the Bagdad Railway question and, whatever other result the war may have had, it is satisfactory to thiuk that such a cont­ingency as thi3 is unlikely to occur again.

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The first act of war committed within His Highness’s dominions.by tho Germans was the sinking of his Majesty’s Ship “Pegasus” which had been in these waters some time, by the German cruiser “Koenigsberg” on Sept. 20th 1914.

Zanzibar’s contributions to the war, were, for her size, by no means negligible. Besides the formation of a European Defence Eorce and the enlistment of many Natives in the King’s African Rifles, some thousands of carriers under the Native Carriers Recruitment Decree of 1916, were recruited, and a sum of £70,000 was contributed to the Imperial Government as an aid to the carrying on of the war. In addition £245,000 were invested in war loan ahd £19,500 raised by Public subscriptions for the British Red Cross Society. Major Pearce has stated of His Highness that his steading influence not only over his own subjects within his dominions but over the Moslem populations of East and Central Africa, largely contributed to the maintenance of peace among the Mahommedans of mid-Africa during the critical periods of war in these regions.

The principal event of economic importance following the war was the risein value of the rupee which was fixed by the Government fo India in 1920 at two shillings gold. The British sovereign which had been made legal tender at the rate of fifteen rupees to the pound in 1908 was demonetised. The import duty was raised from to 10% on the 10th of August 1921.

Since the war much has been done to make up for the years of unavoidable inact’ ivity. In 1920 the Government wishing to improve the state of education in the country, which had long been sadly neglected, appointed a Commission to enquire into its needs, and as a result of its findings, an ambitious programme has been adopted. This was followed in 1923 by a similar Commission to investigate the Agricultural industry which has for long been declining as a result of the apathy of plantation owners, induced probably by the serious debt many are involved in. Disease has also affected the clove trees, causing loss, though it may be remarked that the production of the actual commodity has been fairly steady at a high figure for many years. At the time these words are written no announcement has been made as to the policy to be adopted. Important undertakings now in hand are the construction of a Harbour Works in Zanzibar and a system of oads in Pemba.

Other events of importance have been the removal of the Kings African Rifles from Zanzibar and the filling of their place by an augmentation of the Zanzibar Police who were, in 1922, constituted to act either in a civil or military capacity as occasion demands.

The Laws were codified in 1922 and the Courts re-constituted in 1923 when the jurisdiction of His Highness’s courts was made similar to that of His Britannic Majesty’s.

The administration of the islandof Mafia-iced id to Germany in 1890 was placed in lh e ands of the Zanzibar Government in 1916 but was transferred to the Govern­ment of Tanganyika Territory in 1922.

Major Pearce retired in 1922 and Mr. Sinclair succeeded him as British Resident, Mr. E. Costley White O.B.E. becoming Chief Secretary, Mr. Sinclair was succeeded by Mr. A. C. Hollis. C. M.G., C.B.E. in January 1924.

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SECTION V.ECONOMIC MINERALS.

So far as the present writer is aware there has never ; been a complete mineral survey of Zanzibar and Pemba, but references to one or another aspect of the geology of these islands are scattered through many publications.

From an economic point of view the minerals of Zanzibar and Pemba are not very attractive, for apart from excellent water and coral limestones there is but little in the way of natural mineral resources that can be exploited, even for local consump­tion. The following notes may serve to give some idea of the known economic mineral resources of the islands.

1. Building Materials.(a.) Stone.— Limestones (locally known, somewhat ncorrectly as coral rag) fre­

quently of a rather cellular nature, but sometimes quite massive, ar: of very wide occurence in both islands, they provide by far the greater part of the building stone of the Protectorate. Materials of this sort which is by no means c mfined to Zanzibar and Pemba, has been largely used for building purposes along the East African coast. It has been utilised in the construction of the Mozambique fort, or its outer walls at any rate {Nature July 21, 1923 p. 99.)

In addition to this, however, a recent sandstone is found fringing the Zanzibar coast in some places, particularly near Bet-el-Ras where it has been quarried for use in reinforced concrete for the construction of the new breakwater. This sandstone is a fairly coarse-grained light buff coloured rock consisting of rounded quartz grains cemented by calcium carbonate. Seams of small pebbles occur in the rock here and there, and locally it is very fossiliferous : practically all the species represented are mollusca identical with those still leaving in the adjoining sea. At Bet-el-Ras the sandstone can be seen overlying the “coral rag.” It gradually passes inland into soft sand. Beds of similar composition and relationship can be found on several tropical coast belts as, for example, near Chilaw on the west coast of Ceylon. Some experi­ments undertaken by Mr. George Stewart, A.M.I.C.E., of the Civil .Engineering Department of the University of Capetown, apparently indicate that the maximum values of the ultimate crushing load for some,of the best of this material lie between 2 and 4 tons per square inch. The specific gravity of the stone is about 2.6 and the absorption, by weight, has been found to be 0.0049%.(£.) Brick Clays.—Some fairly good brick clays exist in the islands and are not very inconveniently situated, but the bricks produced, for which (in the presence of so

much easily uarried building stone) there is no veiy great demand, are generally rather underburnt, for a plentiful supply of good fuel is not easily and cheaply obtainable.

(c.) Limp and Cement.— Materials exist in plenty among the coral limestones for the manufacture of good lime, but a massive kind of coral (? Gonnoporti) is usually collected for this purpose, because it is easily burnt to a fine white gri -free lime. Materials, in the form of limestone, clays and pumice for the manufacture of hydraulic limes and cements also exist; but here again the difficulty is t’ e want of good fuel. Not only so, but production on a scale sufficiently large to constitute an industry can hardl) be entertained; not only because the initial outlay fur plant would probably run into five figures but also because the material produced would have to be high enough in grade to capture existing markets. At Chake-Cnake, in Pemba, cement stones, in the form of septarian nodules simdar to those dredged from Chichester ha’bour and from which the so-called Roman cement was at one time made, are to be found in a clay bed that is exposed at low tide. The extent of the bed is unknown,

Plaster of Paris.—Gypsum occurs in the clay beds of Pemba island near Chake-Chake but the supplies are local and probably of no great extent. Ill-formed crystalsof 6 inches in length can sometimes be obtained but the majority are very much smaller. It is possible that search might reveal sufficint well situated material for local use either for burning to plaster of Paris, or for grinding to “land plaster.”

2. Pottery Clays.Apart from the alluvial clays used by natives for pottery manufacture there is, in

the Masingini Ridge some beautiful pink kaolins strongly suggestive in appearance of bauxite or lithomarge. The production of porcelain from the material has, as far as I am aware, never been attempted ; experiments in this direction, however, might well meet with success. This pink Kaolin, of which there appears to be a large supply, could be used as a basis of a colour wash for walls.

3. Kyanite.This mineral, which is aluminium silicate, has a use in the arts as a refractory.

It exists in considerable quantity in the shore sands at Mazizini near Zanzibar town, and elsewhere in the island. Methods of separation would not be difficult to find, but no attempt has been made, as far as the writer is aware, to discover whether such separated material would be marketable or not.

4. Iron P vrites.This mineral in concretionary masses, reaching a foot or two in diameter,

occurs in some places in Pemba Island. It is probable that the deposits are sporadic and not very large. The mineral though useful in the arts does not appear to be exploitable here.

79

5. Peat.North of Zanzibar town a small deposit of peat is exposed on the sea shore. It

probably represents the site of an old mangrove swamp ; the extent and thickness of the deposit is unknown, it is probably quite small.

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SE C T IO N V INATIVE INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATIONS.

(a) Agricultural Although so may natives are engaged in the clove industry, it cannot be termed a native industry, as the introducti n o! toe clove onlj took place in 1818, and in any case it has beau elsewhere dealt with in this book. Similar remarks apply to the coconut and copra industry, though the intioduction of the coconut into Zanzibar is of very considerable j.ntiquity.

There are a considerable number of native crops grown, the most important of which are:—cassava, sweet potatoes, tobacco, rice, chickpea, maize, sorghum, millet, choroko and kunde beans, and sugar-cane. A quantity of simsim is planted in the S. E. of Zanzibar and the illicit cultivation of bhang is also fairly common.

By far the greater part of the native crops iu Zanzibar are grown by the Wahadimu : sweet potatoes and chickpea are practically unknown in Pemba, and sorghum and maize are scarce. Tobacco comes almost entirely from the northern district of Zanzibar; the cultivation of rice, however, is extensive in Pemba, and there are over fifty varieties of hill and valley rice known there. Captain Owen records that Pemba was in his time the gra ary of Eastern Africa.

The Wahadimu are much more enterprising than the Pemba natives both in methods of cultivation and the variety of crops grown: even on the eastern coral ledge of Zanzibar, where certain crops grow well, tney display their ingenuity in planting up the small pockets of earth in the rocks and in building extensive systems of v\alls to protect their precarious crop from the ravages of wild pigs.

The Pemba native goes in for cloves far more than the Mhadim of Zanzibar. The cultivation 01 crops by treed slaves is almost negligible and scarcely enough for their personal use. It may be observed that in the districts where they live cultiva­tion is very sparse though a fur number have small clove shambas.

The natives of both islands breed cattle and goats, but this must Le regarded more as a hobby than as an industry. Cattle are far more plentiful in Pemba tnan in Zanzibar, though Pemba was in 1923 afflicted by a bad outbreak of rinderpest.

Every native owns a variety of fruit-trees, of which the most important are bananas, mangoes, citrous fruits, pineapples and jack-fruit.

(d) Trapping and Hunting. There is little game in Zanzibar and so not much chance is afforded the native of developing his hunting faculties The Zanzibar Suni (gazelle) is trapped with nets in large numbers, and Neumann’s tree coney, common on Tumbatu Island, is a popular article of food. There are many ingenious

81

traps for catching such animals as leopards, pigs, monkeys, lemurs, birds, and rats; but space will not allow of their description here.

The only animal which is hunted both in Zanzibar and Pemba is the pig. The pig in Pemba is the European wild bear, a legacy from the Portuguese ; and in Zanzibar, the red African bush pig. In Pemba hunting always takes place by day, and in Zanzibar by night owing to the difference in the habits of the respective species of pig. A hunting party consists of men armed with knives, and a party of spearmen accompanied by dogs. The pig is tracked through miles of bush, the wav practically having to be carved out with knives : the dogs bring the pig to bay and he is despatched with spears which have a flat two-edged point for attacking at one end and at the other a round point for delivering the “coup de grace.”

(r) Fishing. Fish are caught in many ways and are very plentiful. They form the chief animal food of the natives. The use of hook and line is common, though bottom fishing only is employed. Traps consist of the “ndema,” common to both islands, and the “ mgono”-peculiar to Pemba. The former is roughly heart-shaped with either one or two entrances, though the latter are rare. Similar traps are used in places as far distant as Brazil (see Man, 1923, 9.). It seems possible that this wide distribution is a result of Portuguese activities. * It is baited with fish or other suitable medium, and weighted with stones tied to the outside: it is buoyed with pieces of wood. The “mgono,” which is cone-shaped, is fixed in “ channels between the breakers” (Periplus).

Another method of catching fish is by the “uzio ” which is made either of the midribs of coconut fronds, or of straight twig3 in long rolls plaited together with native cord. If made of the latter these traps are in Pemba called “ tando. ”

They are set up on the shore in a “V” shape, with the the opening facing the shore, in estuaries or on any shallow beach : the fish are left in the trap by fall of the tide. Seine nets, called either “ jarifu ” or “nyavu’’, according to the size of the mesh, are also used. Other methods of catching fish are spearing them at night with the aid of torches, or putting the creamy sap of the Euphorbia in the creeks. This stupefies the fish but does not harm the flesh. Whitebait are caught by women with the aid of pieces of calico. Catfish and tortoise are caught in the freshwater ponds in Pemba with a trap, called “ kibaba,” shaped like a parrot-cage and open top and bottom, which is jabbed on the mud.

It may be noted that in Pemba at any rate, there is a trace of totemism among the fishermen, some of whom will not catch certain kinds of fish, which they state will come to their rescue if they fall in the sea. Different fishermen have different protec­ting fish.

As this is being printed I learn similar traps occur also at Kilakarai in South India. (See Man, 1924,41. In this article also the Portuguese are credited with theii distribution, and India suggested'as their original home.)

82

(rf) Sailing. There are at least a dozen different kinds of dhows met with n Zanzibar waters, but only one kind, the “dau” is made in the Sultanate. This is used for fishing. There are two kinds of dug-oat canoes native to the place, though a third, the “ hori'” is a visitor on Indian dhows. Of the former the “ngalawa”, of Asiatic origin, has outriggers. It sails at a great speed and is almost impossible to upset. The other is known as “tntumbwi” and is broader but has no outriggers.

(e) Tailoring. The material for the clothes of the natives is all imported, but a gre-1 many natives are engaged in the tailoring industry and are provided with treadle sewing-machines. The'principal articles mid? are women’s clothes and “kanzus” (long white gowns worn by the men). Skilful embroidering is another feature of the native tailor’s handicraft and is displayed to the fullest extent in the little caps worn by all classes. Sewing is done only by men.

(/*.) Habitations. The houses of the Zanzibar natives are all rectangular and ar© built with a framework of wooden posts, with cuoss pieces tied on with coconut rope, plastered up with mud. The roofs are generally thatched with plaited coconut leaves known as “makuti;” Doors are generally made of mango wood aud are often beautifully carved; windows, which are now becoming fairly common, are an innovation.

(</.) Pottery. The art of the potter is one of the oldest ia Zanzibar and is in a very primitive state: potters in Zauzibar are usually men, but among the Wapemba many women potters are to be found, There is no potter’s wheel, and the only instruments used are a flat board and a piece of the cloth-like envelope of the young leaves of the coconut palm which is placed on the board on which the clay is worked and turned. A piece of wet rag and smooth shell to shape the clay with, complete the pouter’s outfit. Most of the work is done with the fingers, the clay being turned with the one hand and worked with the other into shape. After being completed the pot is left to stand for a day in the sun and the next day dipped in a fluid bath of the same clay that is used for the manufacture of the articles: it is then baked in a hole excavated in the ground from which a fir? is raked and over which a fire is again made when the pots have been placed inside. Various forms of cooking p?ts are the principal articles made, the small lamps on3e made have b?eo supplanted by cheap tin ones from-India and the waters-jars by cheaper imported articles

(h.) Baskets and Hatting work. This industry is entirely in the hands of the women: the chief material used, is strips of the dried leaves of the wild date palm cleaned and scraped, tied in bundles ind put in the sun until bleached white. To make a mat narrow strips about an inch in width are first plaited to a very consider­able length : these strips are of different colours and after they have been made they

83

are joined together side by side to form a long broad strip. This is then bound round and round into a spiral cylinder >pei at both ends to the length of the mat required: the cylinder is the cut down one side and the resulting mat bound wilh a black border-

Apart from mats, dish covers and smaT baskets are the principal articles made. Mats in Pemba are only black and white but thoseiin Zanzinar have a large variety of colours. In the South east of Zanzibar some beautiful mats are now made with a fringe called “ndevu” or beard, all round them. “Majamvi” are large mats used for drying cloves on: they are of coarse workmanship and made from thj leases of the, Borassus palm or the screw pine. They are generally made by men,

(i.) Carpentry and Carving. The implements used consist of a saw, a chisel an adze, knives, a hammer, pincers, a drill and a lathe. Except the last two they are all of the usual type.

The drill is called “ keke” and the iron point is fastened to a wooden handle which turns in the hollow of another handle, and is revolved with the aid of a bow. The lathe consists merely of a frame of fixed size between which two nails hold the piece of wood to be turned. On the wood a bow is fixed to turn it backwards an J forwards : it is chiefly used in Pemba; to make the stools which are a speciality of the place.

Chip carving is most usual, though deep carving is also known. Beautiful inlaid work is performed with the aid of a knife on coconuts and horns, the inlaying being done with lime. Morticing is known, of which examples are the “mbuzi” or instru­ment used for shredding coconuts, the bed and the chair, the last of which is eopied from European models. The woods chiefly used are mango and jackfruit. Drums are made from solid trunks hollowed out: canoes are hollowed from mango trees with the aid of an adze and then burnt over a fire to make them water tight and caulked with rags and bits of coir.

(y.) Metal work. Iron is, of course, not native to the country but has been imported for centuries. The tools used by the native blacksmiths consist of anvil, hammer, tongs and bellows and are all loyally made. The bellows consist of a goat­skin sewn up, except at the neck. One side is fastened to the ground while to the top is fastened a piece of wood to draw it up and push it down : to the neck is tied a pipe for the air to pass in and out, A large variety of knives is made and hasps fixed to chains are manufactured as door fasteners. Hoes, hammers, sickles, razors and other tools and agricultural implements are made with skill and expedition in the patterns used for centuries.

A few native in both islands are skilled goldsmiths and silversmiths.

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(7c) Miscellaneous Industries. Much lime is made in Zanzibar and Pemba. A large circular fire is built of alternate laye-s of mangrove wood and soft coral--the pieces of wood being laid like the rad i of a circle an 1 all close together. A pile is thus formed about io to 12 feet in diameter and 3 feet high, and on top of this again coral is heaped. This pile, then known as a “ tano’’ is burnt : tlie lime sold fetches about a rupee per bag.

The manufacture of coir rope is common iu many parts of Zanzibar and Pemba : the coconut husks are buried beneath high watermark for five months, when the coir is removed and cleaned by women who plait it into a two strand cord. For making bigger ropes several of these cords are twisted into a rope about one inch in circum­ference. Four of these ropes are then laid along the ground and at one end all of them are fastened to an axle on a trestle with a handle at the back. The other four ends are each fastened to a separate axle in another trestle at the opposite end of the rope walk. Each of these axles is also furnished with a handle. The five handles are then turned simultaneously-four at the one end in one way and the other in the opposite direction*

A number of natives are engaged in Cuarc.oal-burning.(I) The Palm Tree. It is fairly safe to say that if the coconut trees of Zanzibar

aud Pemba could be magically spiiited away, the Natives would be absolutely lost. The number of uses to which they ape put is almost endless A list of fifty articles compiled, is probably by no means exhaustive. Fo >d and drink are provided by the palm ; much of the house is made, and many household articles consist to a large extent, of different parts of it : even light is furnished by it. Besides these, many of the items which go to furnish the native orchestra to provide the music almost indispensable to the native, are got from the coconut tree.

(m.) Native Machinery. There is very little machinery in Zanzibar aud Pemba which can be said to be native. Pulleys, the common quern and other useful but simple contrivances are iu every day use.

The “pia” or top used for making threads and cords, consists of a large “crochet hook” over which is fitted a plaque with four notches at equal distances on its circum­ference. The threads of which it is desired to make the string, are fastened by the ends just bfelow the plaque. They are than passed over a notch and given a turn round the top of the hook. The threads are then held in the left hand about 3 feet from the “pia” which is spun against the right thigh with the right hand. When this length is twisted it is wound below the plaque and another length is started.

Wooden sugar presses used to be common in the islands and much sugar was exported, but this industry has now died out. The presses were of Arab origin.

i

APPENDIX I.This appendix should be studied in conjunction with Section III of the book.

'Tables A and B refer to the clove industry described at page 30 and Table G to the coconut industry, page 32.

TABLE A.

Exports of cloves to different continents from 1917 to 1923 in frasilas of 35 lbs. each.(km til lent 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923Europe 102,904 27,729 172,927 93,698 193,738 185,629 308,890America 51,946 45,834 42,699 29,225 104,208 120,266 102,938Asia 298,284 241,979 359,595 124,502 230,355 273,014 224,819Africa 35,609 160,042 39,982 4,321 4,550 12,662 4,210Australia 2,496 5,685 1,210

Total 488,743 475,584 615,203 251,746 535,347 597,196 642,067

TABLE B.Highest and lowest prices of cloves and stems.

HighestSeasmi. and

lowest.

Zanzibar cloves. Month. Price

Rs.

Pemba cloves. Stems.Month. Price

Rs.Month. Price

Rs.J 921-22 Maximum Januarv 33*00 January 32-47 . January 8-00

Minimum July ' 19*00 July 16.00 July 3-62.1922-23 Maximum June 27*25 June 26-75 August 6-50

Minimum December 9*00 November 11*25 November2 *84

TABLE C.'The following table shows the average price and amount of copra exported

from Zanzibar annually.Export of copra (produced in the Protectorate) for

average price of copra per frasila of 35 lbs..the past 10 years and

Year. lbs. Average price per frasila of 35 lbs.Rs.

1914 18,983,047 3.871915 19,231,521 3.731916 12,258,341 4.721917 14,746,075 7.101918 7,126,578 3.711919 31,756,528 5.311920 18,850,826 6.591921 26,529,664 6.601922 16,445,744 6.381923 21,038,864 4.72

11

APPENDIX II.

TABLE A.Statement shewing the principal articles imported during the five years

19 J 9-1923.Item . 1919

Ks.1920

Ks.1921

Ks.1922

Ks.1923

Ks.Cotton Piece Goods ... 87,07,844 63,17,450 67,77,098 69,24,044 84,97,679Kice and. Grain ... 31,95,231 41,54,499 47,38,677 48,56,974 39,61,770Copra ... 18,13,122 16,70,075 16,98,240 15,86,242 15,18,438Tobacco European (including (Lugars

and Cigarettes) ... 8,96,043 11,26,310 4,65,093 6,05,272 6,71,517Ghee ... 7,24,957 8,44,036 4,56,650 6,40,091 5,57,001M iscellaneous Food, Drink arid Tobacco ... 7,60,045 8,42.455 3,49,213 4.35,388 5,21,637Sugar ... 10,77,808 7,86,773 12.86.198 9.48,283 11,93,607Motor Spirit and Petrole nn ... 8.06.126 7,39,529 17,00,321 J 2.26,067 4,79,756* Hardware ... 4,71,323 6,47.179 1.32,281 89,143 87,088Flour. ... 6,79.245 5,89,720 6,19,537 5,77,921 5,67,344Ivory ... 2,98.669 4,38,382 8,01.918 9,39,394 9,41,056Bags ... 2,98,536 4,29,468 2,19,150 2,11,214 3,38,367Sesame (Sim Sim) ... 5,00,696 3,61,578 3.47.477 5,54,767 6,55,193Spirits ... 3,78,205 3,23,959 2,81,649 1,53,895 1,78,373Dry Fish and Shark Fins ... 3,03,685 2,19,734 1,77,965 1,13,045 91,733Coffee, raw 85,129 1,60,231 80,758 1,02,305 1,22,244Cotton, raw ... 12,38,222 1,50,428 6,77,921 3,81,735 10,669.Wax ... 2,27,921 1,06,740 35,526 67,877 46,660Soap ... 1,30,322 50,685 24,790 56,552 70,651

- *The figures quoted for th e years prior to 1921 include several items not now contained inthese classifications.

TABLE B.Statement shewing the principal articles exported—including goods re­

exported—for the five years 1919-1923.Item . 1919

Ks.1920

Ks.1921

Ks.1922

Ks.1923

Ks.Cotton Piece Goods ... 77,75,587 69,95,517 51.23,212 50,94,356 47,37,098Cloves ... 113,89,431 58,58,377 114,83,330 114,64,056 159,26,592Copra ... 66,31,720 53,54,338 54,79,624 40,93,089 49,04,964Motor Spirit and Petroleum ... 3,76,097 7,37,997 12,93,796 7,91,067 4,33,097Kice and Grain ... 8,70,224 6,12,980 10,20,490 11,02,013 2,76,974Ivory ... 4,57,312 5,85,323 8,80,619 11,70,626 9,92,504Tobacco Enropea.li (including Cigars

and Cigarettes 5,37,524 5,81,660 3,36,229 2,59,370 1,48,963Clove, Stems 3,70,182 5,40,036 7,69,753 3,59,841 9,81,387Hides and Skins 3.10,732 4,43,953 1,08,284 1,44,129 1,31,764Soap 3,46,088 4,43,175 5,44,331 5,75,835 5,31,503Sugar 2,98,703 3,14.622 3,93,107 2,60,989 2,42,739Sesame (Sim Sim) 3,93,421 1,72,867 2,26,522 4,01,741 4,20,150W ax 4,24,214 1,60,796 74,096 1,54,004 81,626Cotton, raw 10,31,586 1,60,601 4,37,145 6,83,218 18.590Spirits 3,60,817 1,52,469 1,09,901 49,294 41,909Chillies 31,224 27,813 32,318 46,322 12,419Flour 2,67,293 1,32,967 1,36,452 1,06,568 83,144

Ill

TABLE C.

Statement shewing the distribution of Trade by Countries.Countries. Imports

therefromRs.

ExportstheretoRs,

Total

Rs.

Percentage of Total Trade.

1923.United Kingdom 61,64,287 80,72,463 1,42,86,760 22.47India and Burma 73,17,178 62,50,229 1,35,67,407 21.42Tanganyika Territory 47,31,273 57,17,861 1,04,48,634 16.49France 1,50,114 43,06,517 44,66,631 7.03Kenya Colony 21,75,701 17,58,523 39,84,224 6.21United States of America 4,76,436 24,98,843 29,75,279 4.70Holland 15,34,600 9,59,664 24,94,264 3.94Germany 8,50,482 11,93,892 20,44,374 3.23J apan 10,81,348 1,20,803 12,02,151 1.90Java 11,32,994 11,32,994 1.79Italy 1,00,972 9,74,483 10,76,456 1.70Portuguese East Africa 5,96,969 3,25,231 9,22,200 1.46Italian Somaliland 5,01,248 3,21,772 8,23,020 1.30Other Countries 4,41,901 2,67,532 - 7,09,433 1.12

IV

APPENDIX III.

B ibliography of Zanzibar.

The works quoted in Part I have been used in the compilation of a manuscript history of Zanzibar of which Section IV of this book is an abbrevia­tion. The books, etc., marked with an asterisk have not been actually used in writing that section. •

Part I I comprises official' documents such as Parliamentary papers, reports, etc. It relates largely to the slave trade and has been compiled from the Bibliography in R. N. Dyne’s “ Zanzibar in Contemporary Times’’ and from the Secretariat Library in Zanzibar,

Part III includes all books, articles, etc., which are not included in Part I or J I. It includes any literature on Zanzibar rotating to Political questions, Laws, History. Native documents, Missions. Agriculture. Botany and Zoology as well as general literature. The compiler is indebted to Mr. A. C. Hollis, c.m.g . , c.b.e ., Bishop Neville, Archdeacon Hallet, Canon Spanton, Dr. A. H. Spurrier, c.m.g., o.b.e ., Mr. R. Armstrong and Dr. W. M. Aders, for much assistance in compiling this Bibliography.

It has had to be finished in Zanzibar and the compiler is therefore well aware that it is probably by no means exhaustive and would be very grateful for any further information which would he useful in the event of another edition of the book being required.

W. H. INGRAMS.

Abbreviations:J.R.A.S.—Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.J.A.S.—Journal of the African Society.J.R .A .I.—Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute.P.Z.S.—Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London.MAN.—Quotations as Man L9.?/. ;?0 means the 20th article in Man for

the year 1921.U.M.C.A.—The Universities Mission to Central Africa.C. Cd, Cmd.—Command paper.M S .— .A la nus c ri p I.

V

PART I.Africa, Parliament ary Papers relating to, See Part II.Africa Pilot Part I II . Loudon, Hydrographic Dept. Admiralty. 1915.★Arabian Nights. The, Translated by E. W. Lane. Edited by S. Lane-Poole. 4 Vols. G. Bell

and Sons, Ltd. London, 1919.Ball, N. “ Zanzibar Treaties." 1910.Barbcsa, Duarte. The Book of, Edited by M. Longsworth Dames, 2 Vols. Hakluyt Society, 1918. British Museum. Handbook to the Ethnological Collections, Printed at the University Press.

Oxford, 1910.Brode, Dr. H ., “ Tippoo Tib." Ed. Arnold. London, 1907.Budge, Sir E. A. Wallis, “ The Queen of Sheba and her only Son Menyelek." Medici Society,

Ltd., London, 1922.Budge, Sir E. A. Wallis, “ Egyptian Magic." Kegan Paul. London, 1899.Burton, Richard F., “ Zanzibar; City Island and Coast." 2 Vols. Tinsley Bros. 1872.*Burton, Richard F ., “ Camoen's L ife." Bernard Quaritch. London, 1881.Candolle, A. De., “ Origin of Cultivated Plants." Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1884, Cardinal!, A. W., “ A West African Monolith." Man, 1921, 82.Chatterton, E. Keble, “ Sailing ships and their Story." Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd., London, 1909. *Colomb, Capt. R. N., “ Slave-Catching in the Indian Ocean." Longmans, Green & Cp.,

London, 1873.Crabtree, Rev. W. A., “ Primitive Speech." S. P. C. K. London, 1922."('raster, Capt. J. E. E., “ Pemba, The Spice Island of Zanzibar." T. Fisher Unwin.

London, 1913.*Crawford, 0. G. S., “ Man and his past." Milford, 1921.

Dale, The Ven. Godfrey, “ The Peoples of Zanzibar." U.M.C.A. London, 1920.Dalton, Sir C. N., “ The Real Captain Kidd." Wm. Heineman. London, 1911.Darwin, Chas., " Coral Reefs." Smith, Elder & Co., London, 1889.

Dixon, Ainsworth, “ The Regalia of the Wa-Vumba." Man, 1921, 20.Eliot, Sir Chas., “ The East Africa Protectorate." Ed. Arnold, London, 1905.Fitzgerald, W. W. A., “ Travels in B. E. A. Zanzibar and Pemba." Chapman and Hall,

London, 1898.Flury, S., “ The Kufic Inscriptions of Kizimkazi Mosque, Zanzibar. 500 H. (A.D. 1107)."

. - J , R. A. S. 1922.*Frazer, J. G., “ The Golden Bough." 12 Vols. MacMillan & Co., London, 1920.Gamier, J ., The Worship of the Dead." Chapman & Hall, London, 1904.Hakluyt, Richard, u The Principal voyages of the English Nation." Vdl. 4. J. M. Dent.

London,Hall, R. N .,. ".Great Zimbabwe." Methuen & Co., London, 1905.Hall, R. N., “• Pre-Historic Rhodesia." T. Fisher Unwin. London, 1909.Hebrew Magic. “ The Sword of Moses." by M. Gaster. D. Nutt. London, 1896.*HobJe.y, C. W ., “ Bantu Beliefs and Magic." H. F. & G. Witherby. London,. 1922.*Hogarl l>. I). 0 .. “ Arabia." Oxford University Press, 1922.*Hogarth, D. G., “ The Penetration of Arabia." Laurence & Bullen, London, 1904.Hollis, A. C., “ Notes on the History of Vumba, East Africa." J. R. A. I. 1900.Hollweg, Bethmann von, “ Reflections on the World War." T. Butterworth, Ltd., London, 1920. Iloworth, Sir H. H., “ Buddhism in the Pacific." J. R. A. I. Vol. L I. 1921.Hughes, T. P., “ Dictionary of. Islam." W. H. Allen & Co., London, 1885.*Jaokson, .Capt. R. N., “ Principal Winds and Currents." Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton

Kent & Co., London, 1904.Johnston, Sir Harry H., “ A Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi Bantu-Languages."

Oxford University Press, 1919.Johnston, Sir Hiirrv H., “ The Colonisation of Africa." Cambridge University Press. 1905. Johnston, Sir Harry H., “ Britain Across the Seas. Africa." National Society’s Depository,

London.Jones, Neville, “ On the Implement-bearing Deposits of Taungs and Tiger Kloof in the Cape

Province of South Africa." J. R. A. I. Vol. L. 1920,

VI

’Keane, A. H ., “ Ethnology.'1 Cambridge University Press, 1896.Kenya Colony and Protectorate. Hand book of, H. M. Stationery Office, London.Lancaster's Voyages to the East Indies. Edited by Clements R. Markham, Hakluyt Society,

London, 1877.Lenormant, F ., “ Chaldean Magic." Samuel Bagster & Sons, London.Lockyer, Sir Norman, “ Stonehenge." MacMillan & Co., London, 1906.Lyne, R. N., “ Zanzibar in Contemporary Times." Hurst & Blackett, Ltd., London, 1905. Masudi, “ Muruju 'I dhahab".McTheal, G-., “ History of Africa South of the Zambezi." Geo. & Unwin, London, 1916. ’Muir, Wm., “ The Life of Mahomet." 4 Vols. Smith,Elder & Co., London, 1858.Muir, Wm., “ The Caliphate, Its Rise, Decline and Fall." Edited by T. H. Weir, John Grant,

Edinburgh, 1915.’Mohammed Abdulla bin Humeyyid bin Salim el Salimi, “ Serat Uman."’ Mohammed Abdulla bin Humeyyid bin Salim el-Salimi, “ Talken Sibian."Mohammed Amin el-Bughdadi, "Sebaike Dlieheb Kabaile el-Arab."’Morehead, A. E. M. Anderson, “ T*>e History of the U.M.C.A." Office U.M.C.A., London, 1897. ’Newman, H. S., “ Banani." Headly Bros., London.Nicholson, R. A., “ A Literary History of the Arabs." T. EiBher Unwin, London, 1907.Owen, Capt. W. F. W ., “ Narrative of Voyages." 2 Vols. R. Bentley, London. 1833. ’Palgrave, W. G., “ Travels in Central and Eastern Arabia." 2 Vols. MacMillan & Go.,

London, 1865.Pearce, Major F. B., “ Zanzibar, The Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa." T. Fisher Unwin,

Ltd., London, 1920.* Persian Gulf Pilot. Sixth Edition. Admiralty, London, 1915.Polo, The Travels of Marco, J . M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London, 1908.’Prichard, J. C., “ Physical History of Mankind." 5 Vols. Sherwood, Gilbert and Parker,

London, 1844.Rakowski, R. F ., “ On a Collection of Neolithic Axes and Celts from the Welle Basin, Belgian

Congo." J . R. A. I. Vol. L I, 1921.Rawlinson, Professor George, “ History of Ancient E gypt." 2 Vols. 1881.’ Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Pilot. Seventh Edition, Admiralty, London, 1921.’Ridley, H. N., “ Spices." MacMillan & Co., London, 1912.Rigby, Lieut.-Col. P., “ Report on the Zanzibar Dominions." 1860.Rodd, Sir J. Rennell, “ Social and Diplomatic Memories, 1884-1898." Ed. Arnold & Co.,

London, 1922.Salil-Ibn-Razik. “ Imams and Seyyids of Oman." Translated and Edited by G. P. Badger,

Hakluyt Society, London, 1871.Savce, Rev. A. H ., “ The Archceologu of the Cuneiform Inscriptions." S. P. C. K., London, 1908. Seligman, C. G., “ The Older Palaeolithic Age in Egypt." J. R. A. I., Vol L I . 1921.Schoff, W. H ., “ The Periplus of the Eruthroean Sea." Longmans Green & Co., London, 1912. Skeat, W. W ., “ Malay Magic." MacMillan & Co., Ltd., London, 1900.Steere, E., " Handbook of the Swahili Language." Revised Edition by A. O. Madan,

S. P. C. K. 1918.Stigand, Capt. C. H ., “ The Land of Z in j." Constable & Co., Ltd., London, 1913.’Stoddard, L ., “ The Rising Tide of Colour against White world Supremacy." Chapman and

Hall, Ltd., London, 1920.Strong, A. S., “ History of Kilwa." J. R. A. S. 1895.Thompson, R. Campbell, “ Semitic Magic." Luzac & Co., London, 1908.Torrend, J ., " A Comparative Grammar of the South-African Bantu Languages." Kegan Paul,

Trench and Co., Ltd., London, 1891.Wells, H. G., “ The Outline of History." Cassell & Co., Ltd., London, 1920.Werner, A., " A Swahili History of Pate." J . A. 8. 1915.Werner, A., “ The Wahadimu of Zanzibar." J . A. S. 1916.Wayland, E. J ., “ Report on the Geology of Zanzibar."Zanzibar and East Africa Gazette for, Various dates.Zanzibar Official Gazette, Various dates.

V ll;

PART II.16 Viet.Feb. 21, 1853.—A Bill for carrying into effect the Engagement between Her Majesty and

Syed Syf bin H aniocd. the chief of Sohar in Arabia, for the more effectual suppression of the Slave T rade.

1856.—The Persian Gulf. Bombay Selections No. 21.Class A. 1860.—Correspondence with the British Commissioner at Sierra Leone, Havana, the

Cape of Good Hope and Loanda and reports from the British Vice-Admiralty Courts and from British Naval Officers relating to the Slave Trade from April 1st. 1859 to March 31st, 1860.

Class A. 1 8 6 2 .- -The sam e from Ja n u a ry 1st to December 31st. 1861.Class A. 1863.- • The sam e from January 1st to December 31st, 1862.Class B. 1863.—Correspondence with British. Ministers and Agents in Foreign Countries and

with Foreign Ministers in England relating to the Slave Trade from January 1st to December 31st, 1862.

Class A. 1865.—Correspondence with the British Commissioner at Sierra Leone, Havana, the Cape of Good Hope and Loanda and reports from British Vice-Admiralty Courts and from British Naval -Officers relating to the Slave Trade from January 1st, to December 31st, 1864.

Class A. 1867.—The same from January 1st to December 31st, 1866.Class B. 1867.—Correspondence with British Ministers and Agents in Foreign Countries and with

Foreign Ministers in England relating to the Slave Trade from January 1st to Decem­ber 31st, 1867.

Class B. 1868.—Same from January 1st to December 31st, 1867.Class A. 1869.—Correspondence with the British Commissioner at Sierra Leone, Havana, the

Cape of Good Hope and Loanda and reports from British Vice-Admiralty Courts and from British Naval Officers relating to the Slave Trade from January 1st to December 31st, 1868.

A. D. 1869.—A Bill to regulate and extend the Jurisdiction of Her Majesty’s Consul, at Zanzibar. January 24, 1870.—Report addressed to the Earl of Clarendon by the Committee on the East

African Slave Trade.January 1st to December 31st, 1870.—Class B, East Coast of Africa. Correspondence respecting

the Slave Trade and other matters.Class B. East Coast of Africa, 1871.—Correspondence respecting the Slave Trade and other

matters from January 1st to December 31st, 1870.August 4, 1871.—Report Slave Trade (East Coast of Africa).1872- 1873.—Correspondence respecting Sir Bartle Frere’s Mission to East Coast of Africa.Class B. East Coast of Africa, 1873.—Correspondence respecting the Slave* Trade and other

matters from January 1st to December 31st, 1872.Slave Trade No. 2, 1874.—Treaty between Her Majesty and the Sultan of Zanzibar for the

suppression of the Slave Trade. Signed at Zanzibar, June 5th, 1873.Slave Trade, No. 5, 1874.—Reports on the present state of the East African Slave Trade.Slave Trade, No. 7, 1874.—Further reports on East African Slave Trade. (In continuation of

Slave Trade, No. 5, 1874.)Slave Trade, No. 8, 1874.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents, and reports

from Naval Officers, relative to the East African Slave Trade. From January 1st to December 31st. 1873.

1873- 74.—Administrative report of Zanzibar and its Dominions for the years, 1873-74.Slave Trade, June 1st. 1875.—Return to an Order nF the Honourable House of Commons.Slave Trade. 9th Tulv, 1875.—Return to an Order of the Honourable House of Commons. (Slave

trading vessels captured and details).Slave Trade, No. 1. 1875.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad and

reports from Naval Officers, relative to the African Slave Trade.Zanzibar. No. 1. 1876.—Treaty between Her Majesty and the Sultan of Zanzibar, supplementary

to the treatv for the suppression of the Slave Trade of June 5, 1873. Signed at London, July. 14th, 1875.

Slave Trade, No. 3, 1876.—Communication from Dr. Kirk, respecting the suppression of the. land slave traffic in the dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar,

V lll

Slave Trade, No. 4, 1876.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad and reports from Naval Officers, relating to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 5, 1876.—Instruction respecting reception of fugitive slaves on board Her Majesty’s ships.

Slave Trade, No. 2, 1877.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers relating to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 3, 1878.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers, relating to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 4, 1878.—Annual reports of the Commander-in Chief in the East Indies on the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1879.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers, relating to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 5, 1880.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1881.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1882.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slave Trade.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1883.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slave Trade. 1882-83.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1884.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slave Trade, 1883-84.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1885.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slale Trade, 1884-85.

Slave Trade, No. 1, 1886.—Correspondence with British Representatives and Agents abroad, and reports from Naval Officers and the Treasury, relative to the Slave Trade, 1885.

Africa, No. 1, 1886.—Correspondence relating to Zanzibar.Africa, No. 3, 1886.—General act of the Conference of Berlin.Africa, No. 1, 1887.—Treaty of Friendship. Commerce, and Navigation between Her Majesty

and His Highness the Sultan of Zanzibar. Signed at Zanzibar, April 30, 1886.Africa, No. 3, 1887.—Further correspondence relating to Zanzibar. (In continuation of

“ Africa, No. 1, 1886.’’ c, 4.609).Slave Trade, No. 1, 1887.—Correspondence relative to the Slave Trade, 1886.Slave Trade, No. 1, 1888.—Correspondence relative to the Slave Trade, 1887.Africa, No. 1, 1888.—Further correspondence relating to Zanzibar.Africa, No. 6, 1888.—Correspondence respecting suppression of Slave Trade in East African

Waters.Africa, No. 7, 1888.—Reports on Slave Trade on the East Coast of Africa, 1887-89.Africa, No. 8, 1888.—Correspondence respecting the expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha.

1886-87.Africa, No. 9, 1888.—Paper respecting the reported Capture of Emin Pasha and Mr. Stanley. Africa. No. 10. 1888.—F u rther correspondence respecting Germanv and Zanzibar.Slave Trade. No. 1, 1889.—Correspondence relative to the Slave Trade. 1888-89.Africa, No. 1, 1889.—F urther correspondence respecting Germanv and Zanzibar.Africa. No. 1. 1890-91.—Anti-Slaverv Decree issued hv the Sultan of Zanzibar, dated August 1,

1890.Africa. No. 3, 1890-91.—Correspondence respecting the Punitive Expedition against Witu, of

November, 1890.Africa, No. 4. 1890.—Correspondence respecting Mr. Stanley’s Expedition for the relief of

Emin Pasha.Africa. No. 5. 1890.—Despatch from Sir E. Male* respecting the affairs of East Africa. Command Paper 6310. 1890.—Declaration with France.Africa, No. 4, 1891.—Declaration between Great Britain and Zanzibar relative to the Exercise

of Judicial Powers in Zanzibar.Africa, No. 6, 1892.—Papers relative to Slave Trade and Slavery in Zanzibar,

IX

Treaty Series, No. 7, 1892.—General Act of the Brussels Conference relative to the African Slave Trade.

Treaty Series, No. 3, 1893.—Declaration between Great Britain and Zanzibar respecting the exercise of Judicial Powers in Zanzibar.

Africa, No. 4, 1893.—Reports on Zanzibar Protectorate.Africa, No. 6, 1893.—Paper respecting the Traffic in Slaves in Zanzibar.Africa, No. 9, 1893.—Correspondence relating to Witu.Treaty Series, No. 10, 1893.—Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal relative to Spheres

of Influence North of the Zambesi.Africa, No. 12, 1893.—Returns of Slaves freed in Zanzibar Waters through Her Majesty’s

Ships, 1892-93.Treaty Series, No. 14, 1893.—Arrangement between Great Britain and Germany respecting the

Boundaries in East Africa.Treaty Series, No. 17, 1893.—Agreement between Great Britain and Germany respecting

Boundaries in Africa.Treaty Series, No. 17, 1894.—Procotol between Great Britain and Italy respecting the

Demarcation of their respective Spheres of Influence in Eastern Africa.Zanzibar Indemnity, A.D. 1894.—A Bill for authorising the Treasury to indemnify the Bank of

England with respect to the Transfer of Consolidated Bank Annuities standing in the name of the late Sultan of Zanzibar.

Africa, No. 5, 1895.—Report on the Revenue and Administration of Zanzibar in 1894.Africa, No. 6, 1895.—Correspondence respecting Slavery in Zanzibar.Zanzibar, No. 1765.—Reports for the year 1895 on the Trade of Zanzibar.Treaty Series, No. 3, 1896.—Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal.Africa, No. 6, 1896.—Correspondence respecting the recent Rebellion in British East Africa. Africa, No. 7, 1896.—Correspondence respecting Slavery in the Zanzibar Dominions.Africa, No. 1, 1897.—Instructions to Mr. Hardinge respecting the Abolition of Legal Status of

Slavery in' the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.Africa, No. 2, 1897.—Abolition of the Legal Status of Slavery in Zanzibar and Pemba.Africa. No. 7, 1897.—Report by Sir A. Hardinge on the Condition and Progress of the East

Africa Protectorate from its Establishment to the 20th July, 1897.Command Paper 8282, 1897.—Commercial relations with Russia. Agreement.Africa, No. 1, 1898.—Report by Vice-Consul O'Sullivan on the Island of Pemba, 1896-97. Africa, No. 4, 1898.—Correspondence respecting the retirement of the Imperial British East

Africa Company.Africa, No. 3, 1899.—Report by Sir A. Hardinge on the B. E. A. Protectorate for the year

1897-98.Africa, No. 8, 1899.—Correspondence respecting the Status of Slavery in East Africa and the

Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.December, 1900.—Precis of information concerning the British East Africa Protectorate and

Zanzibar. Revised in the Intelligence Division. War Office.Africa, No. 3. 1900.—Correspondence respecting Slavery and the Slave Trade in East Africa and

the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.Africa.—Diplomatic and Consular Reports. Reports on the Island of Pemba for the year 1900. Africa, No. 4. 1901.—Correspondence respecting Slavery and the Slave Trade in East Africa and

the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.Africa. No. 9, 1901.—Report by His Majesty’s Commissioner on the East Africa Protectorate. Africa, No. 6, 1902.—Correspondence respecting Slavery and the Slave Trade in East Africa and

the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.Zanzibar.—Diplomatic and Consular Reports. Trade of Zanzibar for the year 1902.Africa, No. 3. 1903.—Report by Mr. A. Whyte on his recent travels nlo-yg the sea-coast be’t < r

the British East Africa Protectorate.Africa, No. 6, 1903.—Report by His Maiestv’s Commissioner on the East Africa Protectorate. Africa, No. 8, 1904.—Correspondence relating to the Resignation of Sir Charles Eliot and the

concession to the East African Syndicate.

X

Africa No. 10, 1904.—Memorandum on the State of the African Protectorates administered under the Foreign Office.

Command Paper 2330, 1905.—Slavery and Slave Trade.Command Paper 2685, 1906.—Extra Territorial Jurisdiction. Convention between U-K. and U-S. Africa, No. 4, 1909.—Zanzibar Protectorate. Beport on Administration, Finance and General

Condition.Command Paper 4732, 1909.—Slavery and Slave Trade.H. M. Stationery Office, 1909.—Beport of the Committee appointed by the Lords Commissioners

of His Majesty’s Treasury to consider the organisation of oriental studies in London with copy of minutes and letter appointing the Committee and appendices.

H. M. Stationery Office, 1909.—Minutes of evidence taken bv above Committee with list of witnesses examined and index.

Treaty Series, No. 7, 1911.—Treaty between the United Kingdom and Zanzibar abrogating the Treaty of April 30, 1886. Signed at Zanzibar, November 4, 1908. Ratifications exchanged at Zanzibar, April 3, 1911. Declaration abrogating, as far as regards Zanzibar, the Treaty of Mav 31, 1839, between the United Kingdom and Muscat. Signed at Zanzibar, April 3, 1911. “

Command Paper 6007, 1912-13.—Pemba Surveys.Africa, 1025. Colonial Office, 1914.—Beport on Sanitary matters in the East Africa Protectorate,

Uganda and Zanzibar by Professor W. J. Simpson. M.D., C.M.G., F.R.C.P.Bill 287, 1914.—Prize Courts Bill.1920.—Zanzibar Government. Report of the Education Commission.1922. —Zanzibar Protectorate. Beport of the Veterinary Adviser on Veterinary Matters in

Zanzibar.1923. —Zanzibar Government. Report of the Commission on Agriculture.

NATIVE LABOUR QUESTION.

The Native Labour question in Zanzibar can be studied from Miscellaneous No. 10, 1913. Circular Despatch to His Majesty’s Consular Officers respecting the employment of Native Labour.

Countersigned decree of II. H. the Sultan of Zanzibar, No. 5, 1917. The Native LabourControl Decree.

Gmd. 873 of 1920. Despatch to the Governor of the East Africa Protectorate, relating to Native Labour and papers connected therewith.

No. 29 of 1921. The Native Labour Control (Amendment) Decree.Cmd. 1509 of 1921. Despatch to the Officer administering the Government of Kenya Colony

and Protectorate, relating to Native Labour.Countersigned Decree of H. H. the Sultan of Zanzibar, No. 4 of 1923. The Employment of

Native Labour Decree.(A Pamphlet of the Bishop of Zanzibar entitled “ The Black Serfs of Great B rita in /' and

published in 1920, may also be consulted.)

XI

OFFICIAL PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS.

Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual Series, Zanzibar.Reports on the Trade and Commerce of Zanzibar.

(Note : The earliest number traceable locally is No. 982 of 1891, though they were many published prior to that date. The last published was No. 5176 for 1911-12.)

Documents relatifs a la Repression de la Traite des Esclaves publics en execution des Articles LXXXI et suivants de L ’Acte General de Bruxelles. Bruxelles, 1894-1918.

Reports of the Advisory Committee for the Tropical diseases research fund. Annually 1906-14. Colonial Reports—Annual. Zanzibar.

Commencing with No. 823 for 1913 and published annually.Zanzibar Protectorate. Blue Book.

Published annually from 1913 onwards.Zanzibar Protectorate. Administrative Reports.

Published annually from 1913 onwards.Zanzibar Protectorate. Annual Trade Reports by the Chief of Customs and Honorary corres­

pondent of the Board of Trade.Published annually from 1920 onwards.

Xll

PART III.(ANNOTATED W H ERE NECESSARY.)

Abdy, D. M., “ Witchcraft Amongst the Wahadimu." J.R.A.S. Vol. XVI, 1917.Abrahams, S. S., “ lie-organisation of the Zanzibar Courts." Journal of Comparative Legisla­

tion and International Law. Society of Comparative Legislation, London, 1924.Aders, W. Mansfield , “ An account of Insects injurious to Economic plants in Zanzibar."

Leaflet No. 1, Zanzibar Government Press, 1912.Aders, VV. Mansfield-, “ The blood sucking Arthropods of Zanzibar harmful to Man or Stock."

Leaflet No. 2, Zanzibar Government Press, 1912.Aders, W. Mansfield-, “ Report on East Coast Fever in Zanzibar." Leaflet No. 3, Zanzibar

Government Press, 1912.Aders, W. Mansfield-, " Insects injurious to Man and Stock in Zanzibar." Bulletin of Entomo­

logical Research, Vol. VII, 1917.Aders, W. Mansfield-, “ Insects injurious to Economic Crops in the Zanzibar Protectorate.".. ..Bulletin of Entomological Research, Vol. X, 1920.

Aders, W. Mansfield-, “ Notes cn the Identification of Anophelince and their larva; in the Zanzibar Protectorate." Bulletin of Entomological Research, Vol. X, 1920.

Aders, W. Mansfield-, “ Trypanosomiasis of Stock in Zanzibar." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Andre, Capitaine P. J ., “ L'Islam et Les Races." 2 Vols. Paul Geuthner, Paris, 1923.A rthur, G., “ Life of Lord Kitchener." Vol. I, Chap. XVII. MacMillan &• Co., London, 1920.

(Gives the inner history of the Boundary Commission of 1886.)Austen, E., “ New Genera and Species of Tabanida in the British Museum." Annals and

Magazine of Natural History Sec 8. Vol IX, 1912.Barros, Joao de, “ Decadas da Asia." Lisbon and Madrid, 1563-1615.Barton, J ,T. Juxon, “ Report on the Bajun Islands." Journal of the East Africa and Uganda

Natural History Society, March 1922.Baumann, Oskar von, “ Afrikanische Skizzen." Ernest Vobsen, Berlin, 1900. (Fiction, but

excellent sketches of Arab and Slave life in Zanzibar.)Baumann, Oskar von, “ Der Sansibar-A rclripel." Verlag von Duncker and Humbolt. Leipzig,

1896.Bissel, Lieut., “ Journal of the Leopard and the Orestes." 1799.Bohm, R., “ Skizzen ans Ost-Afrika I. Sansibar."Botanical Enterprise in East Africa." Kew Bulletin, 1896.Botelho, Sebast.iao Xavier, “ Memoria Estatistica sobre os Dominios Portuguezes na Africa

Oriental." Lisbon, 1835.Boulenger, C. L ., “ Sclerostomes of the Donkey in Zanzibar and East Africa." Parasitology,

Vol. X II, 1920.Boulenger, C. L ., " A Collection of Nematode Parasites from Zanzibar." Parasitology, Vol. XV,

1923.Bourne, H. R. Fox, “ The Other Side of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition." Chat-1 o and

Wmdus, London, 1891. (Throws light on the dealings of Stanley with Tippn Tib. See Section IV.)

Brode, H ., “ British and German East Africa— Their Economic and Commercial Relations." Edward Arnold, London, 1911.

Busse, W ., “ Zurkenntrisder Ostafrikanischen Landolphien." Bot. Jahrb. 1900.Biittner, C. G., “ Lieder und Geschichten der Suaheli." Emil Felben, Berlin, 1894.Childs, Mrs., Article on Zanzibar. “ Scribner's Magazine."Chiponde, S., “ Heka.ya za Abunuwas na Hadithi Nyingine." U.M.C.A., Zanzibar, 1915. Christie, James, “ Cholera Epidemics in East Africa."Christopher, Lieut. W ., Article on East African Seabord. Journal of the Geographical Society.

Vol. XIV, 1844."Clove Industry of Zanzibar". Kew Bulletin, 1893."Clove Leaf Oil from Zanzibar". Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. XI, 1913.

X lll

“Cloves from Zanzibar and the Straits Settlements." Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. X, 1912.

Conde and Ficalho. “ Plantas uteis de Africa Portugueza." Lisboa, 1884.Coquerell, “ Galago agisymbanus." Rev. Mag. de Zool. 1859.Courmont, Mgr. de, “ Notre Dame des Anges ou un Hopital a Zanzibar." E. Paris, Philipona

et Cie., Lyon, 1886.Couto, Diogo do, Continuation of “ Decadas da Asia ” by J. de Barros. 24 Vols. Lisbon,

1778-1788.Crofton, R. H ., “ Statistics of the Zanzibar Protectorate, 1893-1920." Eastern Press, London,

1902.Crossland, C., “ Desert and Water Gardens of the Red Sea."Crossland, C., “ The Coral Reefs of Zanzibar." Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical

Society, 1902.Crossland, C., “ Some Nudibranchs of Zanzibar and Mombasa."Dale, Godfrey, (Translator) “ Tafsiri ya Kurarri." S.P.C.K., London, 1923. (Swahili Transla­

tion of the Koran.)Delafosse, Maurice, “ Les Noirs de L 'Afrique." Payot & Cie., Paris, 1922.Devic, L. Marcel, “ Le Pays des Zendjs ou la Cote Orientale D'Afrique au Moyen Age apres

les ecrivans arabes." Hachette, Paris, 1883.Dobson, “ Vesperus grandidieri." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1876.Dollman, Guy, “ A neio Elephant shrew from Zanzibar." Annals and Magazine of Natural

History. Series 8, Vol. X, 1912."Doreen Coasting" (contains an account of a visit to Zanzibar made during a voyage from

London to Durban.)Drumkey, J. A., “ Year Book for East Africa." The Times Press, Bombay, 1908. (contains

lists of the names of Plants and other valuable information.)Drummond, II., “ Tropical Africa." 1888.Dunderdale, G., “ Notes on the incidence of Filarial infection in the neighbourhood of Lamu,

British East Africa." (Includes filarial incidence for Pemba) Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

"E ast African Red, Book". (Annual). East African Standard, Nairobi."E ast Africa, Uganda and Zanzibar, Handbook for," (Annual to 1907). Mombasa. (Contains

valuable Historical notes.)"E ast and Central Africa, Memoir of the Chart of," compiled by J. Erhardt and J. Rebmann,

1856."Economic Products of the Zanzibar Protectorate". Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. Vol. X II,

1914.Engler, A., “ Die Pfanzenwelt Ost-Afrikas und der Nachbargebiete." Geographische Verlags-

handlung Dietrich Reimer. Berlin, 1895.Enoch, C. R., “ The Tropics, Their Resources, People and Future." Grant Richards. London,

1915..Erhardt, J ., and Rebmann, J ., “ Chart of East and Central Africa."Federation of East African Territories.This has been advocated and scheme suggested by Sir F. Lugard in “ The Dual Mandate in

British Tropical Africa."; Sir A. Sharpe, in “ The Backbone of Africa " ; Lieut.-Col. R. F. Cottrell, in “ The X IX th Century " for December, 1922; Mr. Iver McIver, in “ The Fort­nightly Review." for June, 1923, and Major W. Fletcher in the " English Review," September, 1923. Mr. Churchill also referred to it in a speech at the East African Dinner in London, January 30th, 1922.

I have not been able to trace anything published against Federation.A inotion was adopted in the House of Commons on 8tli April, 1924, to despatch a commission

to East Africa to report on the practicability of coordinating the policy and services through out Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Nyasaland and North Eastern Rhodesia, and to advise on a programme of further economic development.

Ferguson, Lieut., Report on Zanzibar. (In India Office). 1852.

3QV

Fischer, G. A., und Ant. Reichenow, “ Uebersicht der von Dr. G. A. Fischer aw/ Sansibar und wahrend eitier Reise durch das Kustenland von Mombassa bis Witu gesammelten und sicker beobachten Vogel." Journ, f. Ornith. XXVI, 1878.

"Flora of Tropical Africa?' Edited by Staff of Boyal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Published by Reeve & Co., under the authority of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Vols. I—IX. (uncompleted).

Gale, Holderness, “ Fast Africa [British). Its History, People, Commerce, Industries and Resources." Foreign and Colonial Compiling and Publishing Co., London, 1908-9.

Gilg, “ Uber die Stammpflanze des Zanzibar-Kopals." Bot. Not. Blatt. 1896.Gray, '* Colobus Kirkii Gray. ' P.Z.S., London, 1868.Guillain, M., “ Documents sur I’Histoire, la Gdographie, et le Commerce de VAfrique Orientate."

Bertrand, Paris, 1856."Hadithi ya Kiingereza." U.M.C.A.Hamerton, Lieut.-Col., ’* On various points connected with the H. M. Imam of M uskat."

Bombay Selections, No. 24, 1855.Hamerton, Lieut.-Col., Report on the Island of Zanzibar. 1844.H art, Captain, Commanding H .H.S. Imogene, Report by, 1834.Hartlaub, G., “ Ueber einige von IF. Bojer auf Sansibar und Pemba gesammelte Arten."

Journ. f. Ornith, V III, 1860.Hartlaub, G., “ Report on a collection of birds formed in the Island of Zanzibar, by Dr. J.

K irk," P.Z.S., 1867.Hartmann, W., “ Ueber die von dem Afrikareisenden Dr. Richard Bohm hinterlassenen Zeich-

nungen ostafrikanischer Landschaften und ostafrikanischer Saugethiere." Stizb. Ges. naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1891.

Hazebrook, Mrs. Lascelles, Article on Zanzibar. “ The World's Work."Heanley, R. M., “ A Memoir of Bishop Steere." U.M.C.A., London, 1898.Herodotus. Translated by the Rev. H. Cary. G. Bell & Sons, London. (See Melpomene 42,

Euterpe 102 and Thalia 102).Hertslet, E ., “ The Maps of Africa by Treaty." 2 Vols. Harrison & Sons, London, 1894-5. Hobley, C. W ., “ Spitting Snake in Pemba." Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural

History Society. Vol. TV, 1914. (Not identified in this article. I t was either Naia Haje or Naia Nigricollis).

Hollis, A. C., “ Vocabulary of English Words and Sentences translated into Six Dialects of Swahili." J.A.S., London. 1910.

Idrisi’s Geography of the Thirteenth Century. “ Geographic d'Edrisi." Translated by A. Jaubert. 2 Vols. Paris, 1836.

"Jiographia". U.M.C.A.. Zanzibar. (Swahili Geography of Zanzibar Island.)Johnston, H. H ., “ Obituary of Sir John Kirk." Vol. LIX. Geographical Journal.Johnston, H. H ., “ Fast Africa." (In the Oxford Survey of the British Empire) Clarendon

Press, Oxford, 1914.Keable, Robert, “ A City of the Dawn." Nisbet & Co., Ltd., London, 1915. (Contains good

word pictures of the town and districts.)Keable, Robert, “ Darkness or Light." U.M.C.A.Keltie, J. Scott-, “ Partition, of Africa." Edward Stanford, London, 1895."Kenya, Uganda, and Zanzibar." H. M. Stationery Office. London, 1920.

(In the Handbook of Kenya Colony and Protectorate, (vide Part I) which gives fuller information than the above, the Zanzibar Protectorate is wrongly described as the Kenya Protectorate, which latter term is applied to the Mainland Possessions of His Highness the Sultan.)

Kersten, Otto, “ Tabellarische Uebersicht der Geschicte Ostafrikas." Leipzig and Heidleburg, 1879.

“ Khabari za Dini ya Kiislam". U.M.C.A., Zanzibar."Kiarifa cha Kiingereza". U.M.C.A., Zanzibar.King ,Norman. Article on Mafia. Geographical Journal, 1917.Kirk, John, “ Agricultural Resources of Zanzibar." Kew Bulletin, 1892.

XV

Kirk, John, “ List of Mammalia met with in Zambesia East, Tropical Africa." P.Z.S. London, 1867.

Krapf, J. L., “ A Dictionary of the Suaheli Language." Trubner & Co., London, 1882.Krapf, J. L., “ Outlines of the elements of the Ki-Suaheli Language." Tubingen. London, 1860. Krapf, J. L ., “ Reisen in Ostafrika." Korntiial & Stuttgart., 1858.Krapf, J. L ., “ Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours." Trubner & Co., London, 1860. Last, J. T., “ Polyglotta Africana Orientalis."Law Reports. Zanzibar Protectorate. 1868-1918. With Appendices containing Orders in Council

from 1884-1916. Vol 1. compiled by Sir Wm. Murison and S. S. Abrahams.In 1923, Legal Supplements to the Official Gazette were inaugurated and three were issued in

that year; one number has been issued on April 7th of this year (1924).Laws of Zanzibar, The, Revised Edition, 1922. Vols. I and IV and Supplementary Volume

containing the Orders in Council, Rules, Proclamations. Notices, etc. Vols. I I and I I I were published in 1917 as Decrees 1-21 of that year.

An annual volume of Legislation for 1922 and 1923 brings the Laws up to date.For a study of all the Laws of Zanzibar volumes issued up to the end of 1910 must be studied

together with “ Zanzibar. Chronological Index of Enactments issued 1863—1911 and Text of Enactments in Force, December 31st. 191V. compiled by .John H. Sinclair, c.m.g., c.b.e.

For Laws between 1911 and 1922 the anuual volumes from 1912 to 1921 must be consulted. Volumes of Emergency Legislation were published annually for the War Years (1914-1919).

Decrees of H. H. the Sultan and other Legislation are published as passed in the Official Gazette of the Zanzibar Government.

Lee, Rev. S., Translator. “ Travels of Ibn B atu ta ." 1829.Leigh, Lynda, “ Zanzibar of To-day." Zanzibar. 1901.Lewin, Evans. “ The Germans and Africa." Cassell & Co.. London, 1915.Lima, Jose Joaquim Lopes de, “ Historia da Africa Oriental Portugueza." Lisbon, 1862.“ Livingstone. David, Last Journal of," 2 Vols. J. Murray, London, 1880.Livingstone. David, “ Missionary Travels."Loveridge, A.. “ .4 List of the Lizards of British Territories in East Africa (Uganda, Kenya

Colony, Tanganyika Territory, and Zanzibar) with Keys for the diagnosis of the species." P.Z.S. ..Vol. 2,’ 1923.

Lucas, C. P., 11 Geography of South and East Africa." Oxford University Press, 1904.Lucas, C. P., “ The Partition and Colonisation of Africa." Oxford University Press, 1922. Lugard, F. D., “ Rise of our East African Empire." 2 Vols. Blackwood. Edinburgh, 1893. Lyne, R. N., “ Causes contributing to the success of the Zanzibar Clove Industry." Bulletin of

the Imperial Institute. Vol. VII, 1910.Lyne, R. N., “ Causes contributing to the success of the Zanzibar Clove Industry." Inter­

national Congress of Tropical Agriculture and Colonial Development. Brussels, 1910 Government Printer, Zanzibar.

Madan, A. C., “ Swahili-English Dictionary." “ English-Swahili Dictionary.” ClarendonUniversity Press, Oxford, 1903.

Madan, A. C.. “ Swahili Exercises." S.P.C.K.‘ Maisha ya Muhammad". U.M.C.A., Zanzibar."Mangrove Barks and Leather tanned with these Barks from Pemba and Zanzibar." Bulletin

of the Imperial Institute. Vol. II . 1904.Matschie, P., “ Die Saugethiere Deutsch-Ost-Afrikas." Geograpliische Verlagshandlung Dietrich

Reimer. (Hoefer Vohsen). Berlin, 1895.Matschie, P., “ Uebcr anschcinend neue afrikanische Saugethiere." Ebenda. 1893. (Galago

Zanzibaricus n.sp.. Procavia neumanni n.sp. )Sitzb. Ges. naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1893.McClellan, F. C.. “ Agricultural Resources of the Zanzibar Protectorate." Bulletin of the

Imperial Institute. Vol. X II, 1914.McCrindle, J. W., Translator and Editor. “ The Topographic Christiana of Cosmos Indico-

pleustes." Hakluyt Society. 1897.Meinhof, C., “ Linguistischc Studien in Ost-Afrika," No. 1, Swahili, Mitt, d. Sem. f. Or. Spr..

Vol. VII. Berlin, 1904.

XVI

Meynard, C. Barbier de, and Pavet de Courteille. Translators. “ Les Prairies d'Or." by Masudi. Baris, 1861.

Mondevit, Saulnier de, “ Observations sur la cote clu Zangueibar." (Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, Vol. VI.)

Murison, J. W., “ Swahili Translations." Government Press, Zanzibar, 1911."Muscat and Zanzibar, Treaties, etc., with," Harrison & Sons, Ltd., London, 1900.“Mwalimu wa Kiingereza". U.M.C.A., Zanzibar.National Anthem of Zanzibar, The,

The first Anthem was written for Seyyid Barghash in Arabic by the Bev. J. L. Sabuni and the Rev. G. P. Badger. An English translation appeared in the Gazette of August 4th, 1897. The Arabic words are set to music by J. J. Phillips and arranged for the Sultan’s Band by Lt. Dan Godfrey, Grenadier Guards. I t was published by Boosey & Co., in 1910.

The Anthem of His Highness the present Sultan was composed by Sir Walter Parratt, in 1912.

Native Histories of Zanzibar and Pemba.Several coast native histories have been published and are referred to in this Bibliography

(Kilwa, J.R .A .S., \ umba, J.E .A .L , Pate, J.A .S., Mombasa in Owen’s Voyages. I have heard of another history in Manuscript at Dar-es-Salaam). The following MSS. have been discovered by Mr. J. S. Last, Assistant District Commissioner or by myself in this Protectorate :

Zanzibar. Tumbatu MS. History of Shirazi advent and genealogical trees of the Ba Alawi. No date.

Kizimkazi MS. Genealogical free of the Sherifs of Kizimkazi. Dated 10th Rabi-el-Awwal, 1229 H. (1813 A.D.).

Pemba. Ndagoni I. MS. Probably fictitious. An attempt to derive Shirazi from Shiraz, son of Malik bin Falim and thus to make the Shirazis of Mkumbuu, Ndagoni (see page 60) of Arab descent. Gives the story of Malik bin Falun and his son Sulaimah. The Sebaike Dheheb does not give the names of any of Malik bin Fahm ’s sons as Shiraz. No date.

Ndagoni II. MS. Account of purchase of land to settle by the Shirazis from the Aborigines. Dated 1st Moharram, 910 H. (1503 A.D.). .

Ndagoni III . MS. History of the Shirazis in Pemba from their coming to the time of Seyyid Said. Written on Borassus palm leaf. Dated 27th Shaban, 1267 H. (1750 A.D.).

Ndagoni IV. MS. Genealogy and arrival of the Shirazis who settled at Mkumbuu, Ndagoni. No date.

Kisiwani. MS. Modern copy of collection of fragments of old histories giving a variant of the Kilwa story and particularly relating the arrival of Shirazis at Pemba, Zanzibar and Tumbatu. Together with genealogies. Includes copy of Ndagoni II . Dated (in part) 22nd Safar, 1255 H. (1838 A.D.).

Jambangome. MS*. Later dealings of Franks (Portuguese?) with Pemba. MS. undated but story starts on 4th El Haj, 1140 H. (1727 A.D.) ,(J.S .L.).

Other minor MSS. refer to transactions of the Mwenyi Mkuu etc. (see section IV.) There is in Pemba a book of Khutbehs (sermons) attributed to Mkame Mdume and in Zanzibar a MS. Koran of the Mwenyi Mkuu dated 1188 H. (1773 A.D.).

All the above papers are treated as communal property of the tribes concerned.Native Labour. See Part II.Negri, Cavaglieri Christoforo, ‘ La Grandezza Italiana." Torino, 1864.Neuhaus, “ Der Obstreichtzim dcr Insel Zanzibar." Mitt. Seminar f. Orient. Sprachen. I. 1898. New, Charles, “ Life, Wanderings and Labours in Eastern Africa." Hodder & Stoughton. 1873. "Oil Seeds of Telfaria Pedata from Zanzibar". Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. Vol. X. 1912. "Oil of the Physic or Purging Nut, The," Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. Vol. XIX. 1921. Oriental Languages. Books on Zanzibar, etc. in,

(I am indebted to Sheikh Suleiman bin Nasur el-Lemki, Kathi Sheikh Tahir bin Abubakar cl-Amawi and Mr. Biharilal N. Anantani for assistance in compiling this list.’

XVII

Arabic. Kamus es-sharia." by Sheikh Jumevyil bin Lali es Sadi. Printed by Sheikh Yahya bin Khalfan under the authority of Seyyid Barghash bin Said. 90 volumes. 19 only were printed : the rest are in MS. Commentary on Ibathi Law. Published in Zanzibar.

‘Jiimyan ez-Zad". by Sheikh Mahomed bin Yusuf el-Maghrib. Ten vols. Commentary (Ibathi) on the Koran. Published in Zanzibar, 1314. (1895 A.D.)

"N il" Same author. One vol. Ibathi Law. Printed in Cairo and published in Zanzibar. "Slierhe N il". Commentary on above by the same author. 12 vols. Printed in Cairo and

published in Zanzibar.“Mukhtessar el Besyoive". One vol. Ibathi Law. Printed and published in Zanzibar. "Bayyan esh-Sharia". by Mahommed Said Kedemi. 72 vols. Ibathi Law and commentary. MS. "E l Lobab". by Seyy-id"Mahommed bin Khalfan al Busaidi. 4 vols. Jhathi Law. MS. "Menhcj et T a d jJJ r i.by Sheikh Khamis bin Said esh-Shaksi. 42 vols. Ibathi Law. MS. 'Jamir gheiftn Said bin. Khalfan. Khalili". 4 vols. Ibalhi Law. MS.

__"Mukhtcs-sar al Khisal''. by Sheikh Ibrahim bin Khamis el-Hadhrami. One vol. Ibathi Law.Printed and published in Zanzibar.

“ .46i Mesala al Maghrib". One vol. Religious observances of the Ibathis. Printed and published in Zanzibar.

The above are the works on Ibathi Law and Religion chiefly used. There are of course not many copies of the MS. works, owing to the expense of copying. Thus they rarely come into the market.

"Mesnad er Rabia". Stories of Zanzibar. Printed and published in Zanzibar."Sera. Seyyid Barghash". Journey of Seyyid Barghash to England, by Sir John Kirk.

Printed and Published in Zanzibar."Sera Seyyid Hamoud". by Mikhail Jirjis. Printed and published in Zanzibar."Sera Seyyid Ali bin Hamoud,". by Sheikh Nasur bin Salim. Printed and published in

Zanzibar."Tuhfatil el Labib". Kathi Seyyid Ahmed bin Smeit of Zanzibar. Chronology and genealogy

of the Sherifs, Contains special references to those who settled in Zanzibar. Printed in Mecca and published in Zanzibar.

"Menlial el Waral". by the same author. Printed in Mecca and published in Zanzibar. "T ib", by Sheikh Nasur bin Jayid el-Kharusi. Uses of herbs in Zanzibar in medicine. MS. Gujerati.

' “Andharaman Rahelo Afrika". by Sorabji Maneckji Daruklianuwala. Printed in Bombay and published in Zanzibar.

"Jangbar no Ilihas". by H. N. Anantani, Zanzibar."Afrika Prakash", by Hasanali Esmailji Jivanji, Zanzibar.

“Para, Rubber and Custiloa Rubber from Zanzibar". Colonial Reports Misc. 82. Imperial Institute, 1912.

Parry, E. J ., “ The Chemistry of Essential Oils and artificial perfumes." Scott, Greenwood and Son, London, 1908.

"Persian Gulf". No. 24 of the Bombay Selections, 1S56.Peters, Carl, “ Die Grundung von Dentsche-Ost Afrika.." C. U. Schwetschte und Sohn,

Berlin, 1906.Peters, W ., “ Ueber eine neue Art, der Nagergathung Anomalurus von Zanzibar." (Anomaluros

. orientalis n.sp.) Monatsb. Akad. Berlin, 1880.Playfair, R. L ., and Gunther, A. C. L. G., “ The Fishes of Zanzibar". John Van Voorst,

London, 1866.Pliny, Natural History of,PQrta.1, G., “ The British Mission to Uganda." With Memoir by Sir Rennell Rodd. Edward

Arnold, London, 1894.Powell, E. A., “ The Last Frontier." Longmans and Green. London, 1913..Prain, David, “ Memoir of Sir John K irk." The Royal Society, 1922."Ptolemy, The Geography o f" Translated and edited by J. W. MacCrindle, Calcutta. 1893. Ravenstein, E. G., Translator. "A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama. 1497-1499."

Hakluyt Society, London.

xviii

Beichenow, Ant., " D ie Vogel Deutsch-Ost Afrikas." Geographische Verlagshandlung Dietrich Heimer, Berlin, 1894. (Does not quote Zanzibar but describes many birds common Bn, the

. Sultanate.) . • ' "Hezende, Pedro Barrato de, “ Breve Tratado." 1635.Hoy. Archbishop De, “ A Travers le Zanguebar."Hoy, Archbishop Le, “ Au Kilima-Ndjaro," L. de Soye & Fils, Paris.Hoy, Archbishop Le, “ D'Aden a Zanzibar." Alfred Mame et Fils, Tours, 1894.Hoy, Archbishop Le, “ Sur Terre et sur I'eau." Alfred Mame et Fils, Tours, 1894.Hoy, Archbishop Le, “ The Religion of the Primitives." Burns, Oates, and Washbourne,

London, 1923.Huschenberger, Dr.. “ Narrative of a Voyage round the World in 1886-1837.”Sacleux, Ch., “ Dictionnaire. Francais-Swahili." Zanzibar-Paris, 1891. (Contains lis ts -n f

trees, plants, fishes, etc.)Sacleux, Ch., “ Grammaire des Dialectes Swahili." Procure des P. P. du Saint-Esprit—Haa-is,

1909. (Contains Specimens of Kihadimu, Kitumbatu and Kipemba.)Saline, Princess (Frau Emily Huete), “ Memoirs of an Arabian Princess." Ward Lock & Co.,

London. Contains descriptions of the life at Mtoui Palace, Zanzibar in the time of Seyyid Said.)

Schmidt, K. W., “ Sansibar. Ein Ostafrihanisches Culturbild." J . U. Brodhaus, Leipzig, 1888. "Shamba, The,'' " Journal of Agriculture for Zanzibar." Government Press, Zanzibar. (First

published monthly, in June, 1897. The last number I have been able to trace is 24 of June, 1903, when the paper was being “ Published Periodically.” This number containsvaluable lists of fruit trees, etc., in Zanzibar.)

Shaykli Mansur (Dr. Vincenzo), ” History of Syed Said, Sultan of Muscat." London, 1819. Shelley, G. E., “ Lists of Birds recently collected by Dr. Kirh in Eastern Africa." P .Z .S., 1881. Shellev. G. E ., “ A second list of Birds recently collected by Sir John Kirh in Eastern Africa."

• P.Z.S., 1882.Slavery. See “ Zanzibar ” and for Official Papers, Part H .Smee, Captain, and Lieut. Hardy. Heport on Eastern Seaboard of Africa. Transactions

Bombay Geographical Society, 1844. 1811.Smyrhies, Life of Bishop.Sou!h and East African Year Book and Guide, The, Edited annually by A .’ S. Brown and

G. G. Brown for the Union-Castle Steamship Co., Marston & Co., London."Southern East. The," South Africa. (Contains an account of a visit to Zanzibar made during

a voyage from Durban to London.) __Speke, J . H ., ” Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile^JL-^rveryman"s Edition.

J. M. Dent & Son, London, 1906. ----------"Spice and other Cultivation of Zanzibar and Pemba Islands." Foreign Office, 1892. Misc.

Series. 266, Zanzibar.Statistics. See “ Crofton."

Various statistical information regarding Zanzibar is to be obtained from the following annual publications :—

Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign countries and British Possessions.

The Statistical Abstract for the several British Oversea Dominions and Protectorates prepared by the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade.

Statistical Abstract for the British Empire.Steerc, Edward, “ Swahili Tales." Revised Edition by A. Werner. S.P.C.K., London, 1917. Stephan, A., “ Ubcr der Zanzibar-Kopal." Diss, Berlin. 1896.Strandes. Justus von, " Die Porlugiesenziet von Deutsch-und Engish-Ostafriha." Verlag Von

Dietrich Heimer. Berlin, 1899. (Very Valuable information is contained in this and Dr. Stuhlman’s books.)

Stuhlrnann, F ., " Beitrdge zur Kiilturgeschichte ron Ostafrika." Dietrich Heimer (Ernest Vohsen) Berlin, 1909.

XIX

Stulifiuann, F ., ” Handwerk und Industrie in Ustafrika." L. Friederichsen & Co., Hamburg, 1910.

Stuhlinarm, F ., " Notizen uber die Wahadimu, urein-wohner der Inset Sansibar." DasAuslaud, 1691.

Stuhlmann, F ., ” Zoologische Ergebnisse in den Jahren, 1888-1890.'' Commissions-^ erlag. Von Dietrich lleimer. (luliaber : Hoofer & Vohsen). Berlin, 1893.

Sulivan, Capt., R. N., “ Dhow Chasing."Swahili. Many books have been translated into swahili and books for the study of the language

published by the Missions. Most of these are on religious subjects. Other books on and in the Language will be found throughout this Bibliography. As far as possible the works on Swahili quoted^Hh this Bibliography are in the Zanzibar Dialect. U.M.C.A., Zanzibar. First Sy^kifi reader Farts I, I f & II I , Mambo ya Asili, Second swahili reader (Esopo) 2 ediTohs. ■ Swahili Church History. Masomo va Maandiko Matakatifu. Sw’ahili Child’s

— Acts of the Apostles. Kawaida ya Uchungaji. Vita ya Rohoni. Jiolojia. Lojiki. Swahili- English Primer. Phrase books. Notes and corrections. Injili na Koran. Faraka za Waislam. Koran and Biblia. Umoja na Utatu. Swahili Old Testament. Swahili New Testament. Elimu ya Dini. Khabari za Mungu. Safa na Ibada. Katekisimo Fupi. Waraka wa Askofu. Saia Fupi. Saia za Wakristo. Diocesan Hymn Book. Maombezi. Hesabu. Maelezo ya Hesabu.

Mission des Peres du Saint Esprit. Hadisi ya Dini—by le R. P. Ch. Sacleux. Mission des P. P. du Saint Esprit, Zanzibar, 1902.

Cliuo cha Saia. Livre de Prieres. Zanzibar, Mission des P. P. du Saint Esprit, 1893. Kurnfuasa Rabbi Yesu Kristu Kuwadye. Trad. Swab. Par le R. P. Sacleux, Mission des

P. P. du Saint Esprit, Zanzibar Bagamoyo, 1913.Nyimbo za Kanisa Vicariat. Apost. Bagamoyo. Rixheim. Typ : Sutter et Cie. Leon Schmitt,

Succr. 1912."Swahili Proverbs". U.M.C.A., Zanzibar.Sykes, Col., “ Record kept during eleven months in 1850 of the indications of several inter-

tropical instruments at Zanzibar." Journal of the R.G.S. Vol. XXIII, 1853.Theal, Geo. McCall, “ Records of South Eastern Africa." 9 Vols. London, 1898-1903. (Contains

translations of many Portuguese records.)Thomas, Oldfield, “ A new Duiker from Zanzibar." Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

Series 9. Vol. I I , 1918.Thomson, Rev. J. B., “ Joseph Thomson. African Explorer." Sampson Low, Marston & Co.,

London, 1897.Thomson, Joseph, “ Notes on the Basin of the River Rovuma, East Africa." Geographical

Journal, 1882.(The above two contain the history of an unsuccessful Expedition made on behalf of Seyvid Barghash to find coal in the Rovuma valley.)

Tozer, Miss, “ Letters from Zanzibar.""Tozer, Bishop, Letters of, 1863-1873." Edited by Gertrude Ward.Tucker, A. R ., “ Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa." Edward Arnold, London, 1908. "U.M.C.A. History". U.M.C.A., Zanzibar.Velten, C., “ Destnri za Wasuaheli." Berlin.Velten, C., “ Hundret Suaheli-Ratsel." Mitt. d. Sem. f. Or. Spr. Vol. VII. Berlin. 1904. Velten, C., “ Prosa und Poesie der Suaheli." Tin Selbsverlag des Verfassers. Berlin. 1907. Velten. C., “ Safari za Wasuaheli." Berlin.Voeltzkow, “ Parasitism on a Synapta found between tide-marks on the Island of Zanzibar."

Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Svst. V.Voules. E. M., “ Witchcraft in Pemba.'' “ Central Africa." October, 1915."Wakefield. Thomas, " E. J. Wakefield." R.T.S. Botanical Index, 1904.Warburg, 0 ., “ Zanzibar-Kopal." Tropenpfl, 1899.Wayland. E. J., and Cole, G. A. J ., “ The Transport of Rocks." Nature. 1923. (Remarks on

the origin of the stone used by the Portuguese at Mozambique fort and the nature of the stone of that Island and Zanzibar.)

XX

Yakut’s Geographical Encyclopaedia, Thirteenth Century. Paris, 1861."Year Book, The Statesman's,’’ Edited by J. Scott-Keltie and M. Epstein. Annual Publication.

MacMillan & Co., London. •Younghusband, E ., “ Glimpses of East Africa and Zanzibar." .John Long, London, 1916.'Yule, H ., Translator and Editor. “ The Book of Ser Marco Polo." 2 Vols. London, 1871.

Second Edition by H. Cordier. London, 1903."Zanzibar, .1 Handbook of," Zanzibar Government, 1912.Zanzibar, An Article on, Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, Vol. XII. 1856. "Zanzibar, Muscat, Aden, Mokka, Aden and other Eastern Ports, Recollections of Majunga,"

George Creamer. Salem, 1854."Zanzibar and East Africa, Gazette for," 1892-1909."Zanzibar, Gazette for," 1910-1913."Zanzibar Government. Official Gazette of the," and " Local News Supplement." 1914

o nav ard s . . _______(Much important information on all subjects affecting Zanzibar is to be found in tbe~~Local News sections of the Gazette, particularly in the first series.)

Zanzibar. There is information concerning Zanzibar to be obtained from the Annual Volumes of the Foreign Office List, Colonial Office List, and W hitaker’s Almanack. There are articles on Zanzibar in the 11th Edkion of the Encyclopaedia Brittanica and the Supple­mentary Volumes by F. 11. Cana. There are also articles on Pemba and Sir J. Kirk in the same work. A Chronological Table down to 1903 is given in Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates. WTard Lock & Co., London, 1904.

Various articles by Krapf and other Missionaries are to be found in the early numbers of the Church Missionary Intelligencer, and miscellanous information is to be found in “ Central Africa’’, the Journal of the Universities Mission to Central Africa, and “ African Tidings.’’

Information chiefly concerning Slavery in Zanzibar and Pemba is to be found in the “ Friend’’ and the “ Anti-Slavery Reporter.’’ The pages of Hansard may also be consulted on that and other subjects though there are between the years 1913 and 1921 references only on the 11th June, 1913; 31st Jnlv, 1913; and 7th November, 1921.