Workplace Spirituality and Job Outcomes: A Review of Extant Literature and Agenda for Future...

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Workplace Spirituality and Job Outcomes: A Review of ExtantLiterature and Agenda for Future ResearchSajeet Pradhan*, Rabindra Kumar Pradhan**, Shantanu Mazumder***

ABSTRACTThe primary objective of this article is to critically examine the existing and contemporary literature on workplacespirituality and propose a conceptual framework linking workplace spirituality with various job outcomes. Spiritualityat work or workplace spirituality has been conceptualised by several authors. This profusion of definitions andconstructs developed by many authors has led to a lot of confusions regarding the dimensionality of workplacespirituality. Spirituality for many has been incompatible with business and construed to be something that should beconfined to temples and churches. At the same time, others believe that spirituality has multiple advantages at theworkplace and that it immensely contributes towards employees' performance and effectiveness. In this paper, weextend several propositions believing that there is a positive relationship between workplace spirituality and variousjob outcomes like job commitment, job satisfaction, task performance and organisational citizenship behaviour.This paper proposes a theoretical framework on spirituality and job outcome in the Indian context and showsdirections for future empirical researches.Keywords: Workplace Spirituality, Job Commitment, Job Satisfaction, Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB),Task Performance.

INTRODUCTIONThe last two decades has witnessed many paradigmshifts in management theory and practice (Capra, 1996;Hannan and Hormann, 1990). Some of these changesin management unheard of in the first three quarters ofthe 20tbcentury have completely shifted the businessgoal posts. Today's organisations have shifted theirobsessive economic focus to a more balanced focus ofprofit, spirituality, and corporate social responsibility(Walsh, Weber, and Margolis, 2003; DeFoore andRenesch, 1995). They have, moved from being a self-centric organisation to a caring and nurturing one(Capra, 1993), and from a pure materialistic enterpriseto a spiritual organisation (Fox, 1994; Neal, 1997,DeFoore and Renesch, 1995). These changes and shiftsare in line with an immediate call for inclusive growth,ethical profiteering and a shift from a single bottom

line to a triple bottom line (i.e., people, planet andprofit).

Workplace spirituality is one of the most significanttrends, which has emerged in the last few decades. Itsgrowing popularity and wide acceptance can be judgedfrom the fact that a recent search of a popular onlinebook store has provided more than 6000 book titles onspirituality and related topics. Some of these books onspirituality and management or spirituality at workplacehave been among the bestsellers, such as A SpiritualAudit of Corporate America by Mitroff and Denton;Liberating the Corporate Soul by Barrett; Spirit at Workby Conger; The Soul ofa Business: Managingfor Profitand the Common Good by Chappell; Leading with Soulby Bolman and Deal, and The Heart Aroused: Poetryand Preservation of the Soul in Corporate America byWhyte,

*Research Scholar, **Assistant Professor, [email protected], *** Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal-721302,

Sajeet Pradhan, Rabindra Kumar Pradhan, Shantanu Mazumder

Organisations have realised that in order to gainsustainable competitive advantage they need toconstantly outperform their rivals; and to have asuperior performing workforce they have to engagetheir employees in a meaningful and spiritual manner.There are several researches, which suggest thatorganisations that pay more attention towards ethicaland spiritual aspects reap both financial and non-financial benefits (Biberman and Whitty, 1997;Biberman et aI., 19.99.; Burack, 1999). Konz and Ryan(1999) in their research have proved that organisationsthat provide their employees with opportunities to fulfiltheir spirituality perform better than the organisations,which don't provide such opportunities to theiremployees. Komala and Ganesh (2007) in theirempirical study of health care professionals find thatspirituality at work is positively related to jobsatisfaction and negatively related to employee burnout.Neck and Milliman (1994) discovered that workplacespirituality positively influences employee workattitudes. In this paper, we have attempted to establisha relationship between the employee's workplacespirituality as conceptualised by Ashmos and Duchon(2000) with various job outcomes like affective jobcommitment, job satisfaction, innovative workbehaviour and organisational citizenship behaviour(OCB) by examining the existing literature andidentifying the research gap areas. We propose certainhypotheses that need to be empirically tested toestablish a valid linkage of workplace spirituality andjob outcomes.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Workplace SpiritualityThe turn of the century has witnessed a burgeoninginterest in workplace spirituality or spirit at work amongboth the corporate and academicians. Plenty of reasonscan be attributed to this growing interest in spiritualityat the workplace. One of the reasons is thatorganisations of the 21st century have fully fathomedthe potentiality of an awakened or spiritually motivatedemployee. The word spirituality has come from the

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Latin word spiritus, which means 'breath of life'. Ithas been defined as the valuing of the non-material ortranscendental aspects of life.

Although, there has been several attempts to define andconceptualise workplace spirituality, still ourknowledge of this extraordinary and transcendentalconcept is far from being complete. In the followingsection we have briefly presented the variousdefinitions and conceptualisation of workplacespirituality as proposed by several authors.

Neck and Milliman (1994) define spirit at work as acontinuous striving in order to have a comprehensiveperception of reality and to experience the underlyingoneness of life. Mirvis' s (1997) definition of workplacespirituality incorporates the notions of both thecommunity as well as meaningful work. The definitionprovided by Mitroff and Denton (1999a, 1999b) is oneof the first systematic investigations of the employee'sspiritual aspirations at workplace. According to them,'Spirituality is the basic feeling of being connected withone's complete self, with others and the entire universe'(Mitroff and Denton 1999a; 1999b).

Thompson (2000) believed 'spirit at workplace' is allabout how one feels about one's job- whether it is justa job or a 'calling'. Harrington, Preziosi and Gooden(2001) consider workplace spirituality involves anattitude of sharing and a sense of togetherness witheach other both within their department as well as inthe organisation.

In the words of Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003),workplace spirituality is

... a framework of organisational values evidenced inthe culture that promotes employees' experience oftranscendence through the work process, facilitatingtheir sense of being connected to others in a way thatprovides feelings of completeness and joy.

Milliman, Czaplewski and Ferguson (2003) in theirdefinition included the aspects like sense of communityand meaningful work. Fry (2003) in his article onspiritual leadership mentioned about calling and

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Workplace Spirituality and Job Outcomes: A Review of Extant Literature and Agenda for Future Research

membership, which is similar to the concept of meaningand sense of community proposed by Duchon andPlowman (2005). Kinjerski and Skrypnek (2004)describes spirituality at work as the transcendentalexperience of employees who arepassionate about theirwork, who see grand meaning and purpose in theirwork, who feel that work helps them in expressingthemselves, and they feel connected to their peers withwhom they share the bulk of their office hours.

Ashar and Lane-Maher (2004,) defined workplacespirituality as an

...innate and universal searchfor transcendent meaningin one's life...it involves a desire to do purposeful workthat serves others and to be part of a principledcommunity. It involves a yearning for connectednessand wholeness that can only be manifested when oneis allowed to integrate his/her inner life with one'sprofessional role in the service of a greater good.

Marques, Dhiman and King (2005) in their definitionof spirit at work mentioned aspects like inner power,interconnectedness with all those involved in the workprocess and a sense ofpurpose in the work environment.

Table 1

Beyer (1999) firmly believed that both meaning in workand belongingness to community nourishes the innerlife of individuals and provides their work a spiritualdimension.

International Center for Spirit at Work (ICSW, 2006),has defined spirituality at work as,

Spirituality in the workplace is about individuals andorganisations seeing work as a spiritual path, as anopportunityto grow and to contribute to society in ameaningful way. It is about care, compassion andsupport of others; about integrity and people being trueto themselves and others. It means individuals andorganisations attempting to live their values more fullyin the work they do.

Krishnan (2007) operationalised spirituality as 'onenesswith all other beings'. He views that spirituality is theintegration of three dimensions-first is the knowledgebase and belief systems of an individual, second is one'sinterior life and inner self and the third dimension isexterior life and institutional activity. His definition islargely influenced by the ideal of oneness of all beingsin the universe based on the teachings of theUpanishads. In the Indian context, there is another

Author and Year of Publication Dimensions of Workplace SpiritualityMirvis (1997) Meaningful Work and Sense of CommunityMitroff and Denton (1999) InterconnectednessMilliman, Czaplewski and Ferguson (2003) Meaningful Work and Sense of CommunityFry (2003) Calling and MembershipGiacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) Transcendence through Work Process and Sense of CommunityMarques, Dhiman and King (2005) Inner Power, Interconnectedness, Sense of PurposeBeyer (1999) Meaningful Work and Belongingness to CommunityKinjerski and Skrypnek (2006) Spiritual Connection, Meaning and Purpose in Work, Sense of.-. Community and Mystical experience :Ashmos and Duchon (2000) Inner Life, Meaningful Work and Sense of CommunitySharma(2007) Spiritual Synergy and Positive SpiritKrishnan(2007) Oneness with all other beingsAshar and Lane and Maher (2004) Transcend Meaning, Purposeful Work, Sense of Community,

Connectedness and WholenessHanington, Preziosi and Gooden (2001) Sharing and Sense of togethernessNeck and Milliman (1994) Oneness of life, and Perception of Reality

Source: Developed by the authors based on extant literature.

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important construct of spirituality at the workplaceproposed by Sharma (2007). According to his SS*PSmodel of practical spirituality 'SS' stands for 'SpiritualSynergy' and 'PS' stands for 'Positive Spirit'. Thepractice of this model (SS*PS) leads to positive mentalattitude, positive thought-action and positive karma.

One of the most comprehensive definitions wasproposed by Ashmos and Duchon (2000) that capturesmost of the components described in many definitionsmentioned above. Their definition comprises of threethemes: sense of community, meaningful work, andinner life. In this study, I have based my understandingof workplace spirituality on Ashmos and Duchon's(2000) original definition of the term.

"The recognition that employees have an inner life thatnourishes and is nourished by meaningful work thattakes place in the context of community. "

The following table shows the conceptualisation ofworkplace spirituality by various authors.

Although reviewing the entire literature of Ashmos andDuchon's original construct is not the objective of thisarticle, however, a brief elaboration is definitelywarranted. The three dimensions of Ashmos andDuchon's (2000) conceptualisation of workplacespirituality, that is, inner life, meaning at work and senseof community are explained briefly.

Inner LifeWhen people go to their workplace they bring theirwholeselves to work, which includes their spiritual self.This challenges the previous notion that workplace hasno place for abstract and vague ideas like spiritualitybut because 'of the changing nature of work and theworkplace, people who spend the better half of theirdaily life at workplace demand answers to questionslike who they are, what they are doing, and how theirwork adds to the larger design of life (Vaill, 1998). Italso refers to the fact that among the various needs ofemployees like physical, emotional, spiritual andcognitive needs, the spiritual need is the least spokenof and the most important one, hence when employees

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come to work they don't leave it outside the premisesof their organisation (Duchon and Plowman, 2005).

Chakraborty (1987) refers to inner life or inner self asthe spiritual-metaphysical aspect of one's overallpersonality, which is superior in nature to the otheraspects that is the economic, biological and socialaspects. In Indian psycho-philosophy there is a mentionof inner life, which forms the basis of one's 'Internallocus of control' and outer life that forms the :'Externallocus of control' . The inner life or inner self is referredto Shreyas, which has inward focus and the outer lifeis referred to Preyas, which has outward focus. Thisview has been strengthened by the 'intrinsic-originview' proposed by Krishna kumar and Neck (2002),which maintains that spirituality originates from withinan individual.

Meaningful WorkThe second component of workplace spirituality refersto the idea that people search for greater meaning attheir workplace. Rigoglioso (1999) believes that thehunger to nourish the spirit is the driving force behindthe quest for greater meaning in work. The same isreiterated by Duchson and Plowman (2005) who assertthat the employee must perceive his/her work to bemeaningful and worthwhile in terms of the valuesupheld by himlher. Sheep's (2004, 2006) definition of'meaning in work' is about seeking answers tofundamental questions like the purpose of work,looking at work as part of a grand and supreme design,etc. Kinjerski and Skrypnek (2006) refer to meaningin work as engaging work that has a higher purpose. Ina study conducted by Leamer (1996), people want theirday-to-day jobs to be part of alarger purpose in life, Inthe words of Bennis (1999), leaders are responsiblefor creating a meaningful workplace:

People not only search for meaning in life, they alsosearch for meaning in work. Is there such a thing as ameaningful workplace? If so, how does it look andfeel?And what can leaders do to create it? (Bennis, 1999),

In Bhagavad Gita it is mentioned that action is better

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than inaction and action without any attachment toresults is the best. No individual in this world canremain alive without engaging in some form of actionor other. Therefore, when Arjuna, the warrior princeinquired from Krishna, the incarnation of Lord Vishnu,he explained that one should engage in action for one'schitta-shuddi, that is purification or cleansing of thesoul (Radhakrishnan, 1976). Hence, meaningful workdoes not just have materialistic gains but also helps us

..'i~gaining spiritual benefits.

Sense of CommunityThe third dimension refers to the idea that spiritualbeings are harmoniously connected to one another. Theterm 'community' has been used to explain the notionof sharing, the sense of mutual obligation andcommitment to each other that connect people (Duchonand Plowman, 2005). A community has also beenexplained by Dutton (2003) as 'high qualityconnections' that is connections that are life-givingrather than life-depleting. Weisbord (1991) stated thatpeople starve for a community in the workplace andbecome more productive when they find it. Fry (2003)refers to membership while explaining his concept ofspiritual leadership, which also means belonging to acommunity. Bennis (1999) believes that longing for acommunity is innate in all the human beings, but veryfew leaders are able to tap this hidden reservoir ofenergy. In India people believe in an old but importantmaxim that is 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbhakam' which meansthe entire world is one large family this conceptcategorically emphasizes the idea of brotherhood andcommunity.

Job OutcomesJob outcomes generally comprise of attitudes,behaviours, and performance. They are credibleindicators of the state of affairs in an organisation. Inthis study, job outcomes consist of job commitment,job satisfaction (job attitudes); organisationalcitizenship behaviour (job behaviour; and taskperformance) .

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Job CommitmentPorter et al. (1974) define commitment as, "the relativestrength of an individual's identification andinvolvement in a particular organisation". Becker(1960) suggested a cost-based commitment, where anindividual assesses and compares the perceived 'gains'associated with continued membership of anorganisation with that of the perceived 'costs'associated with leaving .The fmal decision then is basedon whether the p~;ceived gains are more than theperceived costs (in that case the individual decides tostay) or the perceived costs are more than the perceivedgains (in that case the individual decides to leave).

Allen and Meyer (1990) conceptualised commitmentas having three components. Those three componentsare affective commitment, continuance commitmentand normative commitment. Affective commitmentrefers to the employee's emotional attachment to,identification with, and involvement in the organisation.Employees with a strong affective commitmentcontinue employment with the organisation becausethey want to do so. Continuance commitment involvescommitment based on the total investments that theemployee associates with leaving the organisation.Employees with a strong continuance and commitmentremain in the organisation because they feel they needto do so. Normative commitment refers to theemployee's feeling of obligation to stay with theorganisation. Employees with a high level of normativecommitment stay in the organisation because they feelthey ought to.

Job SatisfactionLockeI] 976) defined job satisfaction as "a pleasurableemotional state resulting from appraisal of one's jobor job experience". According to Rainey (1997), jobsatisfaction is widely studied in organisational researchsince it reflects an individual's feeling about the variousaspects of his/her job. It determines the degree to whichpeople like or detest their job (Spector, 1997). Jobsatisfaction is an affective reaction to a job that resultsfrom one's comparison of the actual outcomes with that

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Workplace Spirituality and Job OutcomesFry (2003) in his study of spiritual leadership suggeststhat the fulfilment of employees' spiritual needs of

Organ (1988) defined organisational citizenship meaning in life and sense of community is positivelybehaviour (OCB) as; associated with employees' organisational commitment."Individ 1b havi hat i di di I Consistent with this, in a later research Fry et al., (2005)VI ua e vwur t t ts tscrettonary; not irect y . . .. .

1· '1 . db h fi I'd has found a positive relationship between membershipor exp icit y recogntse y t e orma rewan system . . . .d h . 'h -'.' he etiecti --(commumty) and organisational commitment, also aan t at in t e aggregate promotes t e ejfecttve . .. .. . .... relationship IS revealed between commumty and

functioning of the organisatton. By discretionary, we affecti d . . (R d P'. . ectrve an normative commitment ego an ma emean that the behaviour IS not an enforceable C h 2008) I di id I .. li h b

. if h I he i b d .. hat i un a, . n IVI ua spmtua ity as eenrequirement 0 t e ro e or t e JO escrtption, t t lS, .. 11 c db" 1 . ed ith i b. , empmca y roun to e positive y associat WI JOthe clearly specifiable terms of the person s employment . f . (K' 1 d G h 2(07)

. h he .. h b havi . h sans action oma a an anes, .contract Wlt t organisation; tee avtour lS rat era matter of personal choice, such that its omission isnot generally understood as punishable."

of the desired outcomes (Cranny et al., 1992). It is alsodefined as an individual's positive or negative attitudeabout the intrinsic and, or extrinsic aspects of one'sjob (Bhuian and Menguc, 2002; Hunt et al., 1985).

Task PerformanceTask performance is considered to be one of theimportant indicators in measuring organisationalperformance (Wall et al., 2(04). Motowidlo (2003)categorised employee job performance into twocategories 'will do' and 'can do', where the formerrefers to one's ability and the latter refers to one'smotivation. Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) furtherclaimed that the performance construct consists of taskperformance, which is affected by job-relatedexperience and contextual performance, which isdetermined by the individual's personality. Previousstudies have used a range of criterion measures to studytask performance, measures like supervisory ratings,productivity indexes, promotability ratings, sales,turnover rate, etc.

Organisational Citizenship BehaviourOrganisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) was firstcoined by Organ and his colleagues in the year 1983.Organ and his friends developed the concept of OCBfrom Chester Barnard's 'willingness to cooperate' andDaniel Katz's 'innovative and spontaneousbehaviours '.

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Based on the literature review of OCB by Podsakoff(2000), there are more than 30 different forms andconstructs of organisational citizenship behaviours usedfor various research purposes. Some of the relatedconcepts are extra-role behaviour (Van Dyne,Cummings and Parks, 1995), prosocial organisationalbehaviours (Brief and Motowidlo, 1986; George, 1990,1991; George and Bettenhausen, 1990; O'Reilly andChatman, 1986), organisational spontaneity (Georgeand Brief, 1992; George and Jones, 1997), andcontextual performance (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993,1997; Borman, White, and Dorsey, 1995; Motowidloand Van Scotter, 1994).

Since there are several dimensions of organisationalcitizenship behaviours, for our convenience thesedimensions can be neatly categorised into seven broaddimensions such as, (l) Helping Behaviour, (2)Sportsmanship, (3) Organisational Loyalty, (4)Organisational Compliance, (5) Individual Initiative,(6) Civic Virtue and (7) Self Development.

For our study we have used Organ's (1990)conceptualisation of organisational citizenshipbehaviour, which has five dimensions altruism,courtesy, civic virtue, conscientiousness andsportsmanship.

Workplace spirituality has been proposed to bepositively related to employee work attitudes (Neck

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WorkplaceSpiritualityand Job Outcomes:AReviewof ExtantLiteratureandAgenda for FutureResearch

and Milliman, 1994). Milliman et al. (2003) establishedthat all the three dimensions of workplace spiritualityare related to five organisational behaviour variables:organisation commitment, intrinsic work satisfaction,job involvement and organisation-based self-esteem.Pawar (2009) also found that workplace spirituality ispositively related to job attitudes like job satisfaction,and organisational commitment. Mitroff and Denton(1999a) reported that employees who viewed theirorganisations as m~~spiritual also considered it to bemore profitable.

The following table depicts the findings of variousempirical researches on the relationship betweenworkplace spirituality and job outcomes:Table 2

Year Authors Findings of Various Studies

2012 Javanmard Impact of spirituality on performance

2010 Chawla and Sales professionals' spirituality atGuda workplace is positively related to job

satisfaction, job commitment andnegatively related to propensity to leave.

2009 Pawar There is considerable support forhypothesized relationships betweenworkplace spirituality aspects andwork attitudes.

2008 Rego and Workplace spirituality is positivelyPinae Cunha related to employee's affective and

nonnative commitment but not tocontinuance commitment.

2005 Duchon and In their conceptual paper proposedPlowman workplace spirituality has to be

positively related to higher work unitperformance.

2003 Milliman et al. Workplace spirituality is related tofive organisational behaviourvariables: organisation commitment,intrinsic work satisfaction, jobinvolvement and organisation-basedself-esteem.- ,--~

The following propositions are formulated based onthe findings of previous empirical studies related toworkplace spirituality with various job outcomes:

PI: Workplace spirituality will be positively related tojob commitment.

P 2: Workplace spirituality will be positively related to

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job satisfaction.

P 3: Workplace spirituality will be positively related totask performance.

P 4: Workplace Spirituality will be positively relatedto organisational citizenship behaviour

Job Commitment

Workplace Spirituality"Inner Life" Meaningful Work" Sense of Community

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

CONCLUSIONAlthough there are numerous studies on workplacespirituality, our knowledge of this wonderfulphenomenon is still limited. Workplace spiritualityholds the promise of revolutionising the world ofbusiness by nourishing the inner life of the employees,by providing employees a sense of meaning and purposeto what they do, and by creating a feeling ofinterconnectedness with all other beings. In the 2151

century, organisations will have to address the issuesof motivating and inspiring their most importantresources (human resources) by engaging their wholebeing that includes their spiritual being too. Spiritualityis neither an abstract phenomenon nor a managementfad that will disappear after few years or decades; it issomething which will stay with us forever and definethe way we work. The sooner organisations understandthis and act accordingly; the better for them since aspiritually motivated workforce or a spiritual"organisation will enjoy sustainable competitiveadvantage over their rivals, which will be difficult toimitate. Organisations could enhance its efficacy andeffectiveness by nurturing or practicing workplacespirituality, which has a direct influence onorganisational performance. Empirical research needsto be carried out to test the validity and utility of the

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proposed model of this study.

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