Pragya Ghimire

Women’s rights course, summer program 2013

Milano School of International Affairs, Management, Urban Policy

Domestic Violence situation in Nepal.

Introduction:

I want to discuss and analyze the situation of ‘domestic violence’, which has already been recognized serious human rightsviolation, in Nepal. My paper will focus on finding the increasing trend of domestic violence, factors that are contributing to the increase of domestic violence, its impact on the health and empowerment of Nepalese women. I will also discussthe existing measures taken by the government to address this issue and its implementation aspects. For the purpose of detailedanalysis of the situation, I have also done some in-depth case studies of the various forms of domestic violence, taken interview with experts from different background and some literature review and an online research for additional materials.

To begin with, I want to briefly describe ‘Domestic violence’ is defined as a pattern of an abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and controlover another intimate partner. This includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone.1 Thus, it is evident that domestic violence against women suppresses allthe human rights that are guaranteed in the Universal

1 Domestic Violence, http://www.ovw.usdoj.gov/domviolence.htm1 | P a g e

Declaration.2 A new report from the World Health Organization (WHO) states that 35 percent of women around the world have experienced various forms of violence once in their lifetime.3 This shows that the violence against women is growing rapidly andbecoming difficult to eliminate.

In the context of Nepal, the government data released this year states that 64% of Nepali women suffered domestic violence and other forms of gender- based violence in 2012. The data further states that about 71% percent of all victims between 26 and 35 years of age are deemed at risk. In 2011, the Demographic and Health Survey shows that one in three women aged 15-49 have experienced physical violence since at the age of 15. 4As a signatory country of the UN Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in April 1991, the country has adopted a gender-friendly provision in the constitution whichstates that “no physical, mental or other form of violence shall be inflicted on any woman, and such an act shall be punishable bylaw.5 Similarly, the government adopted a number of national-level policy instruments in order to address the problem of violence against women and improve the status of women such as Gender Equality Act 2006, Human Trafficking and Transportation Control Act 2007, 12th amendment of Country Code that criminalizes witchcraft and recognized it as a crime against state, National Strategy and Plan of Action on Gender Empowermentand Ending Gender-based violence 2012-2017 among others.6 2 United Nations Human Rights, ‘Office of High Commissioner for Human Rights’,‘Declaration of Human Rights’, available at http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml3 Mona, Chalabi & Josh, Holder ‘WHO report into violence against women: Key data’ Guardian,20, June 2013 4 United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordination’s Office, ‘Violence against women: a study on underlying causes and survivor’s challenges to justice in Udaypur district’, Issue 53, March 2013, p.g. 15 Ibid, pg 16 Ibid pg 22 | P a g e

Besides, the government has also established a Gender Empowermentand Coordination Unit based at the Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers to oversee and coordinate its efforts toaddress gender-related challenges in December 2010. 7

Most importantly, to address the growing cases of ‘domestic violence’, the government of Nepal introduced “Domestic Violence Act” in 2008. This act is in compliance with CEDAW’s General Recommendation 19, which makes the state responsible to take the comprehensive actions to combat violence against women. The ‘act’classifies physical, mental, sexual, financial and behavioral violence inside home as domestic violence, and commits the state to work actively to prevent domestic violence and to investigate and punish any acts that do occur.8 Further, it gives individualsthe right to file complaints, provides legal remedies including interim protection orders and compensation.9 Under the act, the government will also have to establish service centers for victims to ensure security, treatment and rehabilitation.10 Also,it has the provision of 6 months of imprisonment and or up to US$318 fine for the perpetrator of domestic violence, and half the punishment for accomplices.11 Despite these provisions, the legalpractitioners and women’s rights activists reasoned that the act has failed to address the issues of women from different backgrounds such as divorcee, single, and unmarried among others.12 Thus, they point out the urgency of amending the act atthe earliest.

Structural organization of the paper: 7 Ibid8 Ibid9 Ibid10 Ibid11 Ibid12 Interview with Advocate and Women Activist Meera Dhungana, advmeera@gmail.com

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Part I: This part includes the statistical breakdown of domestic violence in various parts of the country, its interpretation in relation to the socio-economic, cultural and political aspects.

Part II: This part includes the detailed case studies of victims to show various dimensions of the domestic violence and its impact on mental, physical and reproductive health of women.

Part III: This part incorporates the interviews of women’s rightsactivists and professionals representing different sectors. Theiranalysis on the present situation of domestic violence, its causes and consequences, and the effectiveness of domestic violence act 2008 are some of the major highlights in this section.

Part IV: This section discusses the status of women’s empowermentin social, economical and political arena, achievements and challenges in meeting the desired goals of gender equalities.

Last part: Conclusion and Recommendations.

Part I:

1. The scenario of ‘domestic violence’ in various parts of the country and its link with the women’s socio-economic, cultural and political aspects.

The impact of the decade- long conflict on the prevalence of violence against women and particularly domestic violence has notbeen studied in details.13 However, it is thought to have severely contributed to gender- based violence particularly through rape, trafficking, sexual slavery, displacement and 13 United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordination’s Office, ‘Violence against women: a study on underlying causes and survivor’s challenges to justice in Udaypur district’, Issue 53, March 2013,p.g.2 available at

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economic hardship among others.14 Although the government made several commitments to address violence against women, it can be argued that the violence is in the increasing trend. Several researches conducted to analyze the situation of violence againstwomen in the post- conflict situation in Nepal. For example, in 2011, research was conducted to analyze the various dimensions ofviolence against women in five developing regions: the Eastern, Mid, Far western, Mid Western and Western regions of the country.15 The research is based on the data gathered from 2011 July to 2012 June from five developing regions by a NGO named “Women Rehabilitation Centre” that is based in Kathmandu.16

a. The prevalence of violence by region wise:

The data clearly shows that the 63 % of women living in the eastern region are badly affected by violence in comparison to other regions.17 Next is the mid region, which has 18% of women victimized by various forms of violence. 18

Graph 1 shows the scenario of the prevalence of violence in all five development regions.

14 Ibid15 Anbeshi 2011; Year book on Violence Against Women, available at http://www.worecnepal.org/publication/anbeshi-201116 Ibid17 Ibid18 Ibid5 | P a g e

Data source: “Anbeshi 2011;Year book on violence against women’, Graph 1: by the author.

Interpretation: Based on the research, it has been known that the development in the eastern development region has been somewhat satisfactory than other regions. The government has done investment in development of infrastructures such as roads, schools, water and electricity in the region.19 The level of education among men and women is high; people are employed and most of the big businesses are established in the region.20 Also,there are many organizations working for women’s rights and the government has also established 4 shelter homes for the victims living in this region. 21Thus, it can be argued that all these factors contribute in reporting cases of violence against women.

b. The types of violence prevalent in those regions:

The research revealed that there were 1,019 cases of domestic violence of the total 1,581 cases related to various forms of violence.22 It is evident that the domestic violence comprises a higher percentage in comparison to other cases of violence. 19 Ibid20 Ibid21 Ibid pg 1222 Ibid6 | P a g e

Graph 2 below presents the scenario of the types of violence that are prevalent in all five development regions.

Source: “Anbeshi 2011;Year book on violence against women’, Graph2: by the author.

Interpretation: Based on the research, it can be argued that the most of the women are unsafe at home. These women’s own home and family has become threat to them instead of providing safety, security and protection to them. In patriarchal society, women are considered as the property of men and portrayed as the symbolof the family honor. In such situation, if the women dare to comeout and break the silence of the suppression then she is most likely to be a victim of domestic violence.

c. Victim’s relation with the perpetrator:

The research findings reveal that 53% of women experience violence from their husband. 23 Likewise, 20% of women are most likely to become the victims from the hands of neighbor. 24

23 Ibid pg1424 Ibid7 | P a g e

Similarly, they are also vulnerable of becoming victimized from the family members, friends and strangers.25

Interpretation: It can be argued that this data has proved the notion that the women have risk of being victimized from the strangers and an unwanted people is proven wrong. This fact has dismissed the widely accepted belief that women are safe in theirrelationship with people who are near to them.

Graph 3 below shows the victim’s relation with the perpetrators.

Source: “Anbeshi 2011;Year book on violence against women’, Graph 3: by the author.

d. Victim marital status and its relation to violence:

This data shows that 80% percent of the married women have becomevictims of violence. 26 Likewise, 14% of unmarried women have experienced violence.27 Similarly, 4% of single women and 2% of

25 Ibid26 Ibid pg1627 Ibid8 | P a g e

women who are separated from their past relation were made the victim of violence.28

Interpretation: Based on the research, it can be argued that the culture and customary practices have played a vital role in violence against women. In Hindu culture, women after marriage have to leave their parents home and live in her husband’s home with in-laws.29 This culture promotes women’s status as docile and submissive making her vulnerable to violence.30 Moreover, some of the customs and cultural practices reestablish women as aweaker sex irrespective of her education and economic status.31 In respect to the violence among unmarried women, it becomes difficult to conduct the detail analysis of their situation because of the lack of data.32 The culture doesn’t accept the living relation of unmarried women and this notion discourages these unmarried victims to report cases. The existing laws have no provision of strong protection for the unmarried victims.

Graph 4 shows the victim’s marital status and its relation to violence.

28 Ibid29 Ibid30 Ibid31 Ibid32 Ibid9 | P a g e

Source: “Anbeshi 2011:Year book on violence against women’, Graph4: by the author.

e. Women’s educational status and its relation to violence:

The research gives new evidence that the prevalence of violence is high on well educated women. Earlier, it was believed that theilliterate women are most likely to be the victims of violence. However, 78% literate women experiencing violence has falsified the widely conceived notion. 33

Graph5 shows the relation of women’s educational status and violence.

33 Ibid pg 2010 | P a g e

Source: “Anbeshi 2011: Year book on violence against women’, Graph 5: by the author.

Interpretation:

It can be argued that those women who are educated are most likely to be susceptible to the violence because of their level of awareness, educational and empowerment status. These women aremore likely to report the cases of oppression and violence and, in the meantime, raise their voices against the ill practices, and discriminations in the society. Their bold nature and decisions will most likely put them at risky situation making them the target of violence.

f. The prevalence of violence in relation to victim’s profession:

The data shows that 44% of women who are in agricultural professions have experienced violence.34 Women in this professionhave experienced violence in high percentage than women of other professions. Next is the household work, which is the most common

34 Ibid Pg 2211 | P a g e

work among women. 21% of women who are engaged in household work have experienced violence.35

This graph 6 shows the relation of the violence with the victim’sprofession

Source: “Anbeshi 2011: Year book on violence against women’, Graph 6: by the author.

Interpretation: It is evident that agriculture is the main occupation of most of the men and women living in the rural partsof the country. However, women who work in the agricultural production are not recognized. As their agro- related work and contribution is unrecognized, they feel disempowered and economically vulnerable.36 It can be argued that this fragile status again gives men an opportunity to suppress her. This time the oppression is due to the women’s unstable economic reason. Itis considered that men are the main contributors to the country’seconomy and main bread winner in the family. 37This again establishes men’s supremacy over women and makes them more 35 Ibid36 Ibid37 Ibid12 | P a g e

powerful than women. 38 Also, the men are most likely to misuse their power or “macho nature” to control women and their decisions.39 This power misbalance will often result in violent struggle and puts women in a disadvantageous situation.

Thus, based on the findings of the research, it can be concluded that the high prevalence of violence in one or other form or another in the Nepalese society is not only depriving the women their right to live a respectful life but also hampering their overall growth and empowerment.

g. The impact of violence in women’s mental, physical and reproductive health:

Research shows that the women who were abused by intimate partners physically, sexually, or both suffer severe mental health problems, emotional distress and suicidal behaviors than non-abused women. 40 Quoting one study, the report has listed suicide among the women of reproductive ages as third death. 41 Itfurther states that 69% of women who had experienced spousal violence have psychological problems.42

In another research report on “Domestic violence in Nepali society: Root cause and consequences”, it has been clearly statedthat the consequences of violence will be severe and profound.43It will not be limited to the victim’s personal health and happiness rather it extends beyond affecting the well being of entire communities.44 The report has highlighted some of the

38 Ibid39 Ibid40 A report on ‘Women’s empowerment and spousal violence in relation to healthoutcomes in Nepal’, pg, 541 Ibid42 Ibid43 Sarojini, Sharma, ‘Domestic violence in Nepali Society: Root Cause and Consequences, pg 55, May 200744 Ibid13 | P a g e

consequences of violence among women such as the chronic mental and physical problem, low self esteem and lack of confidence due to the frequent beating and scolding by husband as well as other family members.45 The research also revealed that women who experienced severe domestic violence had complications in reproductive health such as pelvic inflammatory disease due to unwanted pregnancy, forced pregnancy. 46

Similarly, the research report “2011 Anbeshi: Year book on the violence against women” reveals that the impact of violence on the women’s psychological health is 52 %, which is highest in comparison to the other aspects such as women’s economic condition and social welfare.47

This graph 7 shows the impact of violence on women’s mental and physical health, economic and social welfare.

Source: “Anbeshi 2011: Year book on violence against women’, Graph 7: by the author.45 Ibid46 Ibid, pg 6447 “2011 Anbeshi: Year book on the violence against women” available at http://www.worecnepal.org/publication/anbeshi-2011

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Part II: Detailed case study to see the broader trend of domesticviolence in Nepal.

Following are the case studies to discuss various forms of domestic violence recorded in different parts the country. Most of the cases were recorded this year and the previous year.

Two case studies related to “Honor” killings

On Jan 1, 2013, Bindhu Thakur, a 16-year-old teenaged schoolgirl living in ‘Bara’ district, one of the districts of mid- western Nepal, went missing for some days.48 Police found her burnt body nearby her home.49 Immediately after her body was recovered, police carried out the investigation and found out that the victim’s own family was involved in murdering her.50 During the investigation, police found out that the victim was having an affair with her classmate of lower caste, Kundan Shah. 51The victim’s family was against her romantic relationship with the boy and later killed her.52 Police has arrested her father Rama Thakur and he is now in police custody for further investigation.53

In another incident, in December 7, 2012, Shiwa Hasmi, a 19 year old girl of Bardiya district of Mid-western Nepal was burned alive by her own family members over the dispute of her love affair with a man named Rais Khan “Babu”. 54Hasmi’s family members were against her relationship because of the man’s poor economic condition in comparison to them.55 On the basis of eyewitness statements, police took into custody the victim’s 48 http://www.ekantipur.com/2013/01/01/top-story/family-members-killed-bindu-thakur-police/365005.html

49 Ibid 50 Ibid51 Ibid52 Ibid53Ibid 54 Hasmi's mother, brother remanded, lover discharged, available at http://www.ekantipur.com/2013/01/04/top-story/hasmis-mother-brother-remanded-lover-discharged/365146.html15 | P a g e

mother ‘Rashani Hasmi’ and her brother ‘Rizwan Hasmi’.56 The victim succumbed to injuries on December 12 while undergoing treatment at a hospital in the Kathmandu Valley. 57

These two cases were analyzed by the committee and it submitted its study report to the Prime Minister demanding stern action against the perpetrators.58 Analyzing the level of media coverageand public outrage following the death of two girls, it can be argued that the people are gradually showing resistance to the gender- based violence and are ready to end the violence against women. Referring to the deaths of two girls in the name of familyhonor and growing number of cases being reported in the police offices, Human Rights activists and Police claims that the “honorkillings” in the name of keeping family honor are rising especially in the Muslim communities in some parts of the country. 59 On the other hand, the members of Muslim community denies any reports that claims the rise of “honor killings” rather they are against generalizing Hasmi’s case to prove the rise in the “honor” killings. 60However, these communities admit that the gender based violence does exist in Muslim community like any other communities.61 Since the problem has already surfaced, the authorities concerned should spend time in finding ways to tackle the problem instead of reacting at each other’s statement.

Besides “honor” killings, there are cases, which show that other types of violence and discriminatory practices that are rampant in the society. One of these inhumane practices in the mid-western region of the country is called “Kamalari or “bonded labourers”, which means young girls are sold as slaves or 55 Ibid56 Ibid57 Ibid58 Ibid59 http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2013/07/03/related_articles/muslim-leaders-say-gender-based-violence-behind-honour-killings/250740.html

60 Ibid61 Ibid16 | P a g e

domestic workers to landlords by rural families. 62These young adolescents are often made victims of domestic violence by their masters.63 In one such case, a young girl aged 12 named Srijana Chaudhary , who was working as “Kamalari” or domestic worker in the house of Yubaraj Poudel, an engineer working under the Ministry of Local Development, died under mysterious circumstances on March 27, 2013. 64 Poudel’s family claims that the young girl committed suicide whereas her parents deny their claim and rather believe that she was murdered. The police is continuing the investigating into the case. 65Though the constitution of Nepal has already abolished “kamalari” practice, this culture is brought into life by the poor parents who are forced to sell their sons and daughters in exchange for a little amount of money.66 In the wake of the death of Chaudhary, a “Kamalari” struggle committee has been holding meetings with the government demanding their proper rehabilitation and safety amongother points. 67

Another type of violence that women are facing is ‘Acid and Burns’. In 2006, Sadina Khatun, a woman from the muslim communityliving in Morang district of the eastern region had acid poured on her when she was breastfeeding her baby. She and her baby sustained severe injuries.68 The police arrested her husband Mohammad Aslam but the court released him on bail.69 Her husband was supposed to give her compensation but he refused to do so.

62 Kamal Pariyar, ‘Police confirms Srijana's death as suicide’, June 6, available at http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=5574463 Ibid64 Ibid65 Ibid66 Ibid67 Ibid68 A situational analysis on “Acid and Burns Violence in Nepal”, November 2011,pg 569 Ibid pg 317 | P a g e

70As she has no good source of income, she is living with parentstaking care of her babies.71 In a report ‘Acid and Burns Violencein Nepal: A situational analysis of Nepal”, it has been stated that around 50 % of the violence related to burn cases was recorded in the Department of Health in 2010. 72

Not only the poor and low economic people are plagued by violence, even the politically and economically empowered women are not immune to it.73 On the July 2010, parliamentarian of the dissolved constituent assembly and member of the parliamentary committee for women, children and social welfare Sharada Nepali tried to commit suicide by drinking carbolic acid.74 The reason for the parliamentarian committing suicide was the husband’s torturous behavior for her not handing over the salary. 75Not only she had a hard time inside home, but also the political party she was representing at the constituent assembly gave her astressful situation.76 Eventually, when the situation became intolerable she committed suicide. Sharadha’s case symbolizes thecurrent situation for many women who are politically and economically sound in Nepal.77

Next, the most deadly form of violence and deaths is related to “drowry” which is deeply rooted in the Hindu culture and society.Recently, a bride aged 25 named Bhoomika Kochhar, who was marriedto a business man (Akaash Jatia) belonging to a wealthy family, had a mysterious death after two years of marriage in Nepal.78

70 Ibid pg 371 Ibid. pg372 Ibid, pg 273 Ibid74 Ibid75 Ibid76 Ibid77 Ibid78 Rachel, Quigley, ‘New York family claims daughter living in Nepal was driven to suicide by her abusive husband as they call for an investigation into her 'mysterious'death’ available at http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2375250/Bhoomika-18 | P a g e

Bhoomika born and raised in United States was living with her husband Akaash in Nepal until her death in July 2013. 79 Her in- laws claimed that she committed suicide by hanging in a bathroom shower. 80 However, her family suspect Bhoomika’s husband and in laws behind her tragic death because they had been persistently demanding dowry and cash. 81According to the victim’s parents, their daughter was abused and tortured mentally and physically for not fulfilling the handsome amount and dowry demand.82 At present, the case is under investigation. 83

All of these case studies provide sufficient evidence that the domestic violence is rising alarmingly in all societies. Most interestingly, new dimensions of violence are emerging along withthe changes in the societies. Based on these case studies, it canbe argued that though some of the ill practices have been abolished from the societies, the scars of past violence and discriminations is still affecting the lives of people. The new trends of violence displaced the earlier trends, which were basedon the notion that the violence is the problem of poor people, but at present it is the problem of wealthy people as well.

Part III: Interview section

1. Interview with the women rights activists and professionals from different background to analyze the causes and consequences of domestic violence in Nepal.

In this section, I have taken interviews with women’s rights activists from different background to identity and analyze the situation of domestic violence, its leading causes and consequences in society in particular and women in general.

Kochhars-family-claims-daughter-living-Nepal-driven-suicide-abusive-husband.html#ixzz2ajwEBYIk 79 Ibid80 Ibid81 Ibid82 Ibid83 Ibid19 | P a g e

An interview was taken with Incumbent Commissioner at the Women’sCommission of Nepal, Mohna Ansari to know her analysis on the current situation of violence against women, the role of the women’s commission in the empowering of women and the challenges ahead. 84

Commissioner Ansari says, as domestic violence is increasing rapidly in both rural and urban population, the cases that are being reported in the commission shows that women who come from rural areas are more open to report cases than women from so- called affluent families living in urban areas. The root causes are basically poverty, socio, cultural and political situations of the country. She analyzes that the post- conflict and transitional situation has made a direct impact on women. People focus on peace and reconstruction measures but not on violence against women. The State seems to be neglecting the issues of women and victims of violence find it difficult to file complaintseeking justice in the police offices as most of these offices inthe districts are destroyed. Also, the justice system has becomemore expensive and much delayed due to the lack of manpower and resources. In some districts, the government has formed local peace committees to help and rehabilitate the victims of violenceagainst women during the conflict period as per the ComprehensivePeace Agreement, but women have no access to these peace committees. First, there is not so good participation of women inthese committees. Second, these committees doesn’t cater to the most essential demand of women victims such as psycho- social counseling and the services that are provided by these committeesare not women’s friendly. Sadly, these committees have turned outto be the places of recruiting cadres of different political parties and a good source of income for them.

84 Interview with Spokesperson at the Women’s Commission of Nepal, Mohna Ansari, July 6 2013 available at mohnairaqi@yahoo.com

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To my question about her analysis in the government’s work towards improving the women’s status and ending violence against women, she said, for the first time in Nepal’s political history,the Prime Minister of Nepal announced the year 2010 as the violence against women year and it was celebrated by organizing many programs targeting women’s empowerment. In the same year, the Prime Minister under his initiative Gender Empowerment and Coordination Unit (GECU) in the Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (OPMCM) was established. But, the governmentdoesn’t seem to be seriously taking into consideration the technical problem related to the women’s accessibility to the Gender Unit. For example, the unit is in the Prime Minister’s office and is heavily guarded, so those women who don’t have proper identity cards or citizenship cards can’t enter the office. Also, the bureaucracy has posed hurdle on the women to seek the services as they can’t freely talk with high level officers working in the Unit. Though the year was celebrated by organizing many progressive programs related to women, the same enthusiasm and vigil was not seen in the successive years. She also criticized the government for being more eager towards fulfilling the international obligation and presenting the reportattractive and successful, rather than responding to the domesticproblem and the protection to the victims.

To my other question, related to the culture and violence, she said that in Hindu culture, there are some widely practiced customary traditions ,for example, brides after marriage have to leave their family homes and start living in their groom’s home with in-laws. The cases of domestic violence often show that these new homes have turned out to be the unsafe places for womento live in. Similarly, in a ritual named “kanyadan” or “handingover ceremony of the bride to the groom”, parents of a bride gives her hand to the groom saying “if you take good care of her you will be blessed by god if you kill her you will face sin.” 21 | P a g e

The bride is often preached by her parents that she should returnfrom her husband’s home permanently only after death. This discourages a woman to leave her husband’s family and resettle inher parents’ home. Referring to the discriminatory practices, sheemphasized on abolishing them in order to empower women.

According to her, in the post- conflict situation, one of the challenges is to make the law and justice system more efficient and accessible to the people. As most of police offices in the remote districts are destroyed or lack the police officers mainlywomen police officers, the poor people particularly women are deprived of seeking for justice. Also worsening the justice system is the long standing vacant position in the local offices in many districts. Thus, she thinks the interim government shouldleave no stones unturned to end the political instability and hold the election to fill the vacant posts in municipality offices, village development committees and local offices as soonas possible. She indentified the lack of coordination between theMinistry of Women, Children and Social Welfare, Prime Minister’s Gender Unit Office, Women’s Commission as the biggest hurdle for the government officers to execute their task efficiently as per the demand of the people. The hierarchical issue among these bodies is creating the problem. In the meantime, she raises the importance of establishing the branches of women commission in five development regions to effectively deal with the cases of violence against women.

Despite all the challenges and shortcomings, she informed me thatthe government is preparing to bring new acts to address different sorts of discrimination against women such as an anti-witch craft ordinance, a new dowry act, an anti-sexual harassmentbill among others. However, she thinks that just endorsing the bill wouldn’t help to solve the problem of violence against women; the important aspect of it is the implementation. Thus,

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she suggested that the government focus on implementing the laws,programs and policies aimed at providing maximum levels of protection and justice to the victims.

2. An interview with Women’s Right activist and renowned femaleArtist Ashmina Ranjit to discuss the interconnectivity of culture and violence.

To my question about the interconnectivity between the culture, customary practices and violence against women, Artist Ranjit says, in a patriarchal society, women are oppressed in the name of religion, cultural and traditional practices. 85She thinks that men often target women’s sexuality to discriminate them and women unknowingly become the victims of violence and discriminations. She gives an example of how Hindu women are living in rural and urban are forced to live a reclusive life that includes abstaining from having dinner together with family,not doing morning and evening praying in the temple, not sleepingin the same bed with a husband during the menstruation period women. She further elaborates that in South Asia, an ideal woman is the one who should behave similar to that of “Sita” or Goddessof good moral being and character in Hindu mythology. She expresses her opinion that these ideal women are always personified as “Sita” and men often use the same personification as a weapon to use against women if they want to do character assassination or demoralize them. This is another example of using religion to discriminate against women. She takes this as anew form of violence against women.

In her career as a professional artist for the past 20 to 25 years, Ashmina says that she has used various forms of art that enabled people to question and critically think certain cultural and traditional aspects of society. She says that she has found

85 Interview with Artist, Feminist, Ashmina Ranjit, July 13, 2013, 23 | P a g e

people changing their perspective of taking art as a powerful medium to express women’s perspectives, philosophies and inner qualities rather than merely a medium to express aesthetic beauty.

She believes that the cultural and religious signs and symbols should be used as tools to contextualize and translate some western ideas and concepts in a society. In the same tune, duringthe ‘Occupy Baluwatar movement’, she describes using nine incarnations of Goddess “Shakti” or “power” and “strength” of Hindu religion as a symbol to educate and create awareness about the violence against women. Here, it is relevant to discuss SallyMerry’s reading in which she emphasizes the importance of translation and adjustment of certain programs, languages and western concepts in a way that fits the culture of foreign countries.

She suggests that in a gender program, it is very important to equally create awareness among women as well as men. She also thinks that cultural transformation is needed and the society needs to adopt the good part of the culture and abolish discriminatory cultural practices against women. In that process of transformation, she emphasizes the cultural changes based on respecting universal human rights standards.

3. To understand and analyze the role that Nepalese media in mitigating violence, I interviewed senior female journalist Sangeeta Lama. Ms. Lama had worked as an investigative reporter and editor with Nepal’s leading media house, ‘HimalPublications.’

To my question about the changes in women’s knowledge on the forms of violence and the laws that govern them, journalist Lama says, it is evident that the women are becoming more aware of different forms of violence in the society due to their exposure

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to domestic and foreign media, both new and traditional media.86These media contributed in making them alert and aware of the violence, the existing laws and ways to tackle them. Furthermore,she adds, though there have been no such significant changes in the forms of violence, the level of understanding domestic violence as a crime among women has been increased from previous years. She asserts that following the peace process in the country, the government, NGO’s and INGO’s focused on empowering women through gender-related plans, policies and programs. She states that, “media played an active role in taking those programs to the people and in the meantime, it also became a platform for the women to express their views, opinions and ideas”.

To my concern of the media’s role in terms creating political sensitization among people, she responds, “undoubtedly, media hasplayed a crucial role in uplifting the women’s level of politicalconsciousness and empowering her politically”. She adds, this boosted her motivation to participate in active politics. But, there are cases which show that along with these women joining the parties, they also most likely to face the discrimination andunequal treatment by their male counterparts.

She informed that the media has allocated its space and time in raising the importance of changing women’s socio-economic status.She notes that with the changing time and situation, those women who are educated are likely to work outside. She has analyzed that this freedom comes with heavy duties and responsibilities inside home and office. She thinks that this challenging situation can have an adverse impact on her mental as well as physical health. According to journalist Lama, these days,

86 Interview with senior journalist and women’s rights activist Sangeeta Lama, available at sangeetal@gmail.com 25 | P a g e

Nepalese media are investing their time, money and resources in covering event based news rather than analyzing the women’s issues and their challenging situation by doing in-depth and investigative reporting.

When asked to talk about the communication and coordination between central and districts, she laments that there are huge information and communication gaps between the central and districts in terms of educating people about the laws governing the violence against women. She adds, in the case of a domestic violence act, media has not been used to its full potential in creating awareness among the local people in the rural areas. Even though the act is in existence, most of the people living inrural areas are unable to use it for securing their rights. She reveals that there is limited awareness about marital rape law among the majority of women living in remote areas. Also, she says these women lack information about the services that are provided by the government such as separate women cells to deal with the special cases of women, hot line services, and free legal services. She suggests that the concerned authorities should make the maximum use of traditional media, Radio, TV, Paper and new media in raising awareness about the existing laws and its importance and enforcement. She informed me that, recently, the new trend has emerged that is the use of new media tools such as “Facebook”, “Twitter”, “Podcasts” in creating awareness on the violence against women. According to her, the media should be more vigilant and critical about the works done by the government and NGO’s and create pressure whenever necessary if they try to derail from the desired goals.

4. An interview with Women Rights Activist and Advocate Meera Dhungana to discuss the legal provisions related to domesticviolence, its effectiveness, shortcomings and the

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implementation and other underlying issues to the violence against women.

Following the Domestic Violence Act (DVA) in 2008, the number of women reporting the cases of domestic violence has increasing tremendously. 87 According to the data of Forum of Women, Law andDevelopment, there were 2,240 cases of domestic violence reportedin the police last year. Advocate Dhungana says, this number is double the number in comparison to the previous years.

She identifies the lack of education, employment opportunities, not having properties or land of their own, and discriminatory cultural practices among others as some of the contributing factors for the violence against women.

Regarding my question about the effectiveness of the ‘domestic violence act’, she says, “The increment in the reporting of domestic violence shows that women have started using this legal act in the urban areas”. However, she highlights the fact that the domestic violence has some major drawbacks and that need to be addressed by the government as soon as possible.

First, this Act has directed the victims to file complain againstperpetrators in three different places: Local offices, Police offices, and National Women Commission. But the act has not giventhese entities (the local offices, the police offices and the women commission) any legal jurisdictions. It is the court, whichhas the jurisdiction to take legal decisions.

Second, the act gives emphasis on the provision of “negotiation”,which should be taken as a first step if the case of domestic violence is filed in police offices. According to advocate Dhungana, this very provision has not benefited the victims, but rather has been taken as for granted both by the police officers 87 Interview with Women’s Right Activist and Advocate ‘Meera Dhungana' available at advmeera@gmail.com27 | P a g e

as well as perpetrators. There are many instances which show thatpolice officers are more inclined towards creating a situation ofnegotiation between the victims and perpetrators rather than taking police action against the latter one. She also identifiesthe police officers’ attitude of feeling more proud while controlling other crimes than dealing with the cases of domestic violence as one of the major hurdles in the justice system. She thinks that this problem is linked to the fact that the state hasfailed to consider the cases of domestic violence as state offence. She emphasizes that since the constitution of Nepal addresses the violence against women as a crime, then the domestic violence should also be considered as a crime. She thinks that criminalizing domestic violence will also force Nepalpolice to take stronger legal action against the perpetrator and deal with all the cases of domestic violence with due diligence.

Third, the act has the provision of providing shelter to the domestic violence victims and in compliance with the same provision there were several shelter homes opened in 15 districts. The victims are allowed to stay in these homes for 45 days but the act has no clear provision for the protection of these victims after 45 days (regarding their shelter, food and health checkups).

Fourth, she points out the urgency of amending the ‘Domestic violence Act’ as it does not address the new aspects of the change in the society. One example is the growing cases of violence in the living relationship. This act does not address the violence when it occurs between the partners in a living relation. This act also does not address the domestic violence experienced by the divorced women from their former husband, and the widows from in-laws after the death of her husband.

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Fifth, the act has the provision of providing treatment or the money for the treatment if the victim has incurred serious mentalor physical injuries and the perpetrator being responsible for doing so. In the case where the perpetrator is not available, or has escaped the scene, or has been jailed, the act does not guarantee the provision for the secondary options. This means that the state or police officers are not obliged to provide the immediate relief and rescue to the victims which automatically implies that the victim’s protection and the right to safety are in danger.

Sixth, the act has made the provision of the punishment in form of the jail sentence or certain cash amount to the perpetrator ofdomestic violence, but there is no clear provision of the compensation to the victims. She thinks that this provision of the penalty in the form of jail or cash will benefit the state but not the victims.

Another, the government has established the ‘domestic violence fund’ in almost all districts of the country but, the victims andtheir families complain about the difficult process they have to undergo through in order to get access to these funds. Hence, shesays” the complicated bureaucratic system in the district should be replaced with more efficient and victim friendly system in order to enable direct access to those funds”.

And, the act has made the provision of safe homes or shelter homes for the victims. However, the act does not allow the victims of one district to hide or take shelter in the rehab centre that is opened in another district. According to her, thisprovision does not create favorable environment for those victimswho might need to take refuge or the special protection.

Next, the government has adopted some of the provisions of CEDAW,but the implementation aspect is weak especially in district

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courts and appellate courts. There is no clear indication as to how and who is responsible to implement the interim directives made by the court. She reiterates that the situation has more worsened due to the transitional phase of the country. Thus, she argues that the Nepalese government hasn’t adopted CEDAW in true sense.

When asked about her view on the cultural practices and its impact on violence, she agrees that the cultural discrimination against women is still there, but there are some changes happening at different levels including the people and government. Because of the awareness created by NGO’s and media, the society is also inching towards cultural changes and ending ill practices. Advocate Dhungana gives an example of the recent cases of the widows wearing red colors by breaking the previous customary tradition, which prohibits them of wearing colorful cloths even after the mourning period. Also, there are cases, which shows that mother-in-laws because of their education and work outside home have started showing their changed behaviors and attitudes in home such as treating their brides with love andcare as their own daughters. In my opinion, these evidences indicate that the positive changes are happening in the society. It can be argued that the people have started rethinking to altersome of the stereotyped cultural practices taking into consideration their negative impact on women’s lives and empowerment.

However, despite all these developments, she thinks that the political instability has been one of the major challenges in bringing sustainable change and development in the country.

Besides, she also points out that there are about 103 legal provisions, which are discriminatory against the women and needs to be amended immediately.

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She suggests that the state should introduce the victim protection programs such as managing the safe housing for the victims, or even giving the victim protection at home and sendingthe perpetrator to the rehabilitation/ correction centre. She also emphasizes the importance of setting up the monitoring mechanism for ensuring the women has their right to inherit parental property in the new constitution. In addition, she thinks that there should be clear provision for the children receiving Nepalese citizenship from both of their parents that were born as Nepali.

Most of the experts agreed that the people who experienced the brutality of the decade long armed conflict had the negative effect of war on their mind set resulting in the violence and abusive towards women and children in and outside homes. They analyzed that following the conflict, there was a dramatic rise in the cases of domestic violence. This clearly signals the interconnectivity of the country’s internal conflict and the violence against women.

To sum up, these women experts identified mixed factors for domestic violence including the lack of education, low income, poverty, discriminatory customs, cultural ill practices, lack of employment, lack of awareness, ineffective implementation of existing laws among others. 88

In addition, one of the studies on the domestic violence revealedthat the caste and ethnicity, place of residence, geographic area, wealth, social stigma and untouchables, unsafe birth practices are some of the major factors contributing to the various sorts of violence against women in general and the domestic violence in particular.89

88 Based on interview taken with women rights activists, July, 2013 89 Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes in Nepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, 31 | P a g e

PART IV:

The status of women’s empowerment in social, economical, political sectors and its successes and challenges for eliminating violence against women:

Nepal ratified the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) on May 14th, 1991.90 Since then, thegovernment has prioritized the women’s empowerment and gender equalities in its national development plan of action and taken measures to achieve the desired goals. However, it can be argued the status of the Nepalese women living in urban and rural areas lags far behind than that of the men. In 2011, National Demography Health Survey examined gender-based violence and its association with the women’s empowerment at the national level.91

The report revealed that about one-third of Nepalese women are either not empowered at all or are empowered but at a low level, about half are moderately empowered, and two in every ten are highly empowered.92 The women’s empowerment was measured by taking five variables such as household decision-making, cash earnings, land or house owning, membership in community groups, and education .93

Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 38 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

90 ‘International Covenant in Civil and Political Rights’ available at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/HRTMCC_Nepal_HRC108.pdf

91 Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes inNepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 35 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

92 Ibid93 Ibid Pg3532 | P a g e

The Global Gender Gap Index report 2011, ranked Nepal as 126th out of 135 countries featured in the gender gap analysis and 16thamong the 19 low-income countries. 94 In the total score of 135, country’s gender gap in political sector was ranked as43rd, in health it was given 111 score, in education it was ranked as128th, and economic participation was scored 121.95 However, the Gender report of 2012 shows a slight improvement as the country’s gender gap declined to123 from its earlier position of 126 out of total 135 countries.96 There was also a slight improvement in the level of political empowerment as well as it stands at 37 from the earlier score of 43. 97 Similarly, the economic participation gap has declined to 120 from its earlier position of 121. 98 However, the gap in other categories such as health and education remained at the same level.99

The graph below shows the “Gender Gap Index of the two consecutive years 2011 and 2012, and the indicators chosen are education, health, political participation and economy.

94 Gender Gap Index 2012 http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR12/123_Nepal_GGGR12.pdf95 Ibid96 Ibid97 Ibid98 Ibid99 Ibid33 | P a g e

(Source: Gender Gap Index 2012, Gender Gap Index 2011) Graph 8: by author

In 2012, the gender index report measured the gaps between the men and women in categories such as literacy rate, political participation and service sector. 100According to the index, the women’s literacy rate is 48% in comparison to 73% of men.101 Similarly, only 14% women are legislators and senior officials incomparison to 86% representation of men.102 In contrast, the 33% of the women representation in the parliament is a success but still the number is half in comparison to men.103 Likewise, the women representation in ministerial positions is 15%, which is too low in comparison to 85% of men holding key ministerial positions. 104

Graph 9 below shows that the gender gap of the year 2012 and the indicators chosen are the women’s literacy rate, their representation in the legislation, cabinet and service sectors.

100 Ibid101 ibid102 Ibid103 Ibid104 Ibid34 | P a g e

(Source: Gender Gap Index 2012) Graph 9: by author

Interpretation: Here, it is relevant to refer the article ‘Women’s rights and the right to food’, by UN Special Rapporteur on the right to food Olivier De Schutter in which he points out the importance and an interconnectivity of women’s access to economic resources, infrastructures, inheritance of land and property, right to food and education to overcome the discriminations against them.105 In the context of Nepal, it can be argued that women’s low literacy rate is interrelated to women’s safety, security, health, income and their overall empowerment. As the women’s literacy rate is low, it is most likely that they get engaged in the non-skilled and risky works rather than getting involved in better paid professional, technical and management-related jobs.106 This makes them economically vulnerable and susceptible to the violence and discriminations not only at work place, but also at home as they

105 Olivier De Schutter, UN Special Rapportuer on the rights to food, ‘Women’s rights and the right to food’ 2012.106Nepal’s Implementation Status of the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW) http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/NWC_Nepal49.pdf 35 | P a g e

tend to be more dependent on their husband income. It can also beargued that due to the lack of education, these women are less likely to reach the decision making position and this affects their role in formulating gender friendly laws and policies. Thiswill again put them in a disadvantageous position as the chances of the men holding the key positions increases that eventually results in the continuation of same discriminatory practices. Thus, it is very essential for the women to be educated as it plays a key role in their participation at policy making level inorder to dismantle the vicious cycle of women discriminations andsuppression.

Similarly, when it comes to the women’s reproductive health, there has been some significant progress made in the past few years despite the decade long armed conflict.107 The life expectancy of the women at birth increased from 60.7 % in 2001 to67.82% in 2012.108 However, the growing trend of violence and the lack of awareness among women about their reproductive rights combined with the low level of education is posing a serious threat in achieving the goals such as the low maternal mortality rate, improving the malnutrition and life expectancy, controllingthe HIV/AIDS among the others.109

In terms of the political empowerment, women’s participation in active politics has changed tremendously following the peace

107 Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes in Nepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 1 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

108 http://www.indexmundi.com/nepal/demographics_profile.html

109 Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes in Nepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 1 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

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process and 2006 people’s movement in the country. For example, women’s participation in the dissolved constituent assembly was ahistoric change. However, the same 33% representation of the women as in the constituent assembly was not incorporated in the cabinet, in the central committees of the leading political parties, in the government services, in the judicial and legislative sectors, in the diplomatic appointments, and other state mechanisms.110 Also, the women have experienced the maximum level of discriminations in their political parties by their malecounterparts, such as creating obstruction in holding the senior decision making positions, showing reluctance to select them as the women candidate in elections, or giving unwinnable spots on the party tickets, harassing them using the gender unfriendly words among others.111 Furthermore, it can be argued that the women’s low literacy rate also create hindrance for them to secure their positions in the high level political appointments. Besides, the women commission’s report on the “Implementation of CEDAW” shows that over 60% of women are involved in the agriculture production, but their land ownership is only 8%, only12% of women are in the civil service and 1.76% women are in the judicial service.112

Thus, based on the above mentioned data, it can be argued that the efforts taken to improve the status of women empowerment and gender equality is not enough despite some achievements made in improving the socio-economic status of Nepalese women.

110 Women’s participation in Nepal: debate of inclusive proportional representation, pg1, 2011, August 12http://www.idea.int/asia_pacific/nepal/participation-nepal-debate-inclusive-proportional-representation.cfm

111 Ibid112 Nepal’s Implementation Status of the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW) http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/NWC_Nepal49.pdf37 | P a g e

In conclusion, According to the census of 2011, women’s population comprises 50.44% of the total population. Unfortunately, the evidences showthat this large section of population has been neglected in the mainstream development process irrespective of their contributionin the country’s overall growth and development. It can be arguedthat not only their voices for the change and equalities are unheard, but also their rights to live a respectful and dignifiedlife in the basis of equality in the society are neglected. The international organizations have been raising serious concerns regarding the status of women.113 Recently, World Health Organization (WHO) drew the attention of Nepal government to address the violence against women. 114They argued that eliminating the violence against women is inevitable in order to achieve the MDG’s goals as well.115 Similarly, on July, 2011, the CEDAW committee urged the government to prioritize combating violence against women and children and to adopt the comprehensive measures to address such violence.116 Thus, it is now the government’s turn to respond to these concerns by taking some concrete measures targeting the long and short terms goals and building effective mechanisms to enforce them.

Recommendations:

Introduce systematic database system relating to domestic violence and gender- based violence. This will help the authorities concerned to analyze the problem and find the ways to address them.

113 A situational analysis on “Acid and Burns Violence in Nepal”, November 2011,pg 26114 Ibid115 Ibid116 Ibid38 | P a g e

Implement all the existing laws that ensure controlling the violence against women and amend all the discriminatory provisions and make it more inclusive.

Form the truth and reconciliation commission to provide justice to the victims and families of the violence including disappearances, rape, torture, murder that were committed during the conflict period. In the long run, the government should bring programs such as empowering women, gender sensitive programs for targeting both the women and men of different walks of life among others.

Implement programs aimed at empowering women and bring specific programs targeting minorities and disadvantaged groups.

Ensure women’s representation (33% or more) in all state mechanism, legislative, executive and judiciary.

Provide gender- sensitive trainings and awareness to government officials.

Introduce programs aimed at providing full support and protection for the victims residing in both rural and urban areas.

Use new and traditional media to educate and create awareness about the impact of violence in their development and empower them to use the existing services.

Provide the socio-psychological counseling for the conflict victims to help them overcome the scars of violence.

Provide free education and health services to the girls and adolescents of poor economic conditions.

Words: 9,206

References:

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Ansari, Mohna, Spokesperson at the Women’s Commission of Nepal, Interview July 6 2013 mohnairaqi@yahoo.com

Anbeshi: 2011’Year book on the violence against women’ available at http://www.worecnepal.org/publication/anbeshi-2011

A situational analysis on “Acid and Burns Violence in Nepal”, November 2011,pg5

A report on ‘Women’s empowerment and spousal violence in relation to health outcomes in Nepal’, pg, 5

A report on Nepal’s Implementation Status of the Convention on the Eliminationof all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW) http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/NWC_Nepal49.pdf

Chalabi, Mona & Holder, Josh, ‘WHO report into violence against women: Key data’ Guardian,20, June 2013

Domestic Violence, http://www.ovw.usdoj.gov/domviolence.htm

Dhungana, Meera Advocate and Women Activist, Interview available at advmeera@gmail.com

Gender Gap Index 2012 http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR12/123_Nepal_GGGR12.pdf

Indexmundi’ http://www.indexmundi.com/nepal/demographics_profile.html

International Covenant in Civil and Political Rights’ available at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/HRTMCC_Nepal_HRC108.pdf

Olivier De Schutter, UN Special Rapportuer on the rights to food, ‘Women’s rights and the right to food’ 2012.

Pariyar, Kamal ‘Police confirms Srijana's death as suicide’, June 6, available at http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=55744

Quigley, Rachel, ‘New York family claims daughter living in Nepal was driven to suicide by her abusive husband as they call for an investigation into her 'mysterious'death’ available at http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2375250/Bhoomika-Kochhars-family-claims-daughter-living-Nepal-driven-suicide-abusive-husband.html#ixzz2ajwEBYIk Ranjit, Ashmina, Artist, Interview, July 13, 2013 availble at ashminaranjit@gmail.com

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Sarojini, Sharma, ‘Domestic violence in Nepali Society: Root Cause and Consequences, pg 55, May 2007

‘The Kathmandu Post’ http://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2013/07/03/related_articles/muslim-leaders-say-gender-based-violence-behind-honour-killings/250740.html July 3rd, 2013

United Nations Human Rights, ‘Office of High Commissioner for Human Rights’, ‘Declaration of Human Rights’, available at http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml

United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordination’s Office, ‘Violence against women: a study on underlying causes and survivor’s challenges to justice in Udaypur district’, Issue 53, March 2013, p.g. 1

Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes in Nepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 38 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes in Nepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 35 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

Women’s Empowerment and Spousal Violence in Relation to Health Outcomes in Nepal, Further Analysis of the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, Kathmandu, Nepal , March 2013, pg 1 available at http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FA77/FA77.pdf

Women’s participation in Nepal: debate of inclusive proportional representation, pg1, 2011, August 12http://www.idea.int/asia_pacific/nepal/participation-nepal-debate-inclusive-proportional-representation.cfm

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