Università degli Studi di Urbino “Carlo Bo”

Who are NEET? Analysis of the Unproductive

Angelo Mosca (263492)

Corso di laurea magistrale LM-87

Fondamenti delle Società del Benessere e Politiche Sociali Comparate

Relatore: Yuri Kazepov

A.A. 2013/2014

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Contents

Introduction .................................................................................. 2

Who are NEET? Genealogy of the unproductive ....................... 4

1.1. Deconstructing and defining the category. ......................... 4

1.2. European NEET ..................................................................... 11

1.3. Zooming on NEET, Italy: the last ........................................ 17

Needs of NEETs .......................................................................... 20

2.1.Italy and Spain, usual problem/unusual case ..................... 21

2.2. Sweden and Germany , usual case/unusual problem ....... 23

NEETs’ policies, the category or the person? ........................... 28

Conclusions .................................................................................. 33

Bibliography ................................................................................. 35

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Introduction

The topic of this work is the emerging phenomenon of NEET. This acronym

means, “young people Not engaged in Employment, Education or Training”. This

essay is based on the content emerged during the Intensive Programme Erasmus (IPE)

held in Urbino from the 10th of March to the 21th, a two week lectures involving

students and teachers from four European Universities: the University of Urbino

(Italy), the University of Darmstadt (Germany), the University of Madrid (Spain) and

University of Stockholm (Sweden). Within this programme we discussed about many

issues concerning the topic of “Social Policy and Social Work in Contemporary

Europe”. We focused mainly on changes, challenges and comparisons. During these

two weeks we talked also about the NEET phenomenon and how the social services

can answer to these needs. Otherwise, after the research – useful for the comparison

with other students – I decided to develop the theme. It was not easy study in deep

this phenomenon, firstly due to the lack of bibliography and because it is an emerging

topic. Nevertheless, the principal European agency – like Eurofound, Eurostat, OECD

– have produced interesting and useful database for statistical data and paper for

conceptual analysis.

In the first chapter I will try to analyse the NEET concept, the definitions and

who really are the people we call NEET. Otherwise, if we look deep this category we

can understand the complexity and the different shades of vulnerability of being

NEET. I will try to discompose the concept to view better at the single categories. This

can also help to understand how the policies must be addressed. Sometimes we see

policies addressed to the entire category, otherwise for NEET we need another kind

of approach, not the one-size first-all. Instead, the personalized program is

recommended. Moreover I will describe the trends and the numbers about the

phenomenon at European level, furthermore I will focus upon Italian situation

because is one of the countries whit the highest NEET rate.

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Second chapter focuses on IPE work. I will present the “vignette” of young

NEET that we have given to social workers. Then I will report the results of all the

countries that participated to IPE trying to compare the most interesting

characteristics of these countries that have different welfare systems. For Spain and

Italy it will seems easy because usually we consider these two countries similar. We

will see that it is not true and there are many differences even if they seem similar. On

the other hand, Sweden and Germany have different welfare systems (one social

democratic and one conservative-corporate), but they look similar in the management

of young NEET.

At last, the third chapter focuses on the possible policies that may be useful for

NEETs. I will describe the structure of the “Youth Guarantee” a new set of policies

included in Europe 2020 strategy. This is a 10-year strategy proposed by the European

Commission on 3 March 2010 for advancement of the economy of the European Union.

It aims at "smart, sustainable, inclusive growth" with greater coordination of national

and European policy. Youth Guarantee fits in this strategy and tries to elaborate

policies structured for the individual and not for the entire category.

In the last years the NEET phenomenon is growth with impressive rhythm

(from 17.2% to 20.6% in nine years (Eurostat), to understand and explain NEETs is an

assignment for those are interested to social reality and social policies.

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Chapter 1

Who are NEET? Genealogy of the unproductive

1.1. DECONSTRUCTING AND DEFINING THE CATEGORY.

What do we really mean when we talk about NEETs? When we think at NEETs

category our imagination just stop to a boy or a girl that does not want to study or

work, someone that is doing nothing in his life, and usually we blame him of being a

cost for the society, in economic and social terms. Indeed some Italian politicians and

newspapers define the NEET in discriminating sense, e.g. “Né – Né” (Il Secolo XIX,

2011), “bamboccioni” (La Voce, 2012) or “Neet fannulloni” (Actainrete, 2011)1. However

if we look at this category with a different lens we can understand the complexity and

the different shades of vulnerability. Looking deeper in the NEET category is useful,

of course, for the comprehension of the different levels of needs and vulnerability, but

not only, but also to understand how to define policies and the good practices. For

example, the one-size first-all approach must be avoided (Eurofound, 2012, p.25)

because it does not consider the person but the entire category, we will see an example

of target policies in the last chapter about the Europe 2020strategy. Now it is necessary

to go ahead step by step and we must begin the analysis from the beginning, to

understand what NEET means and where it came from.

Traditionally the acronym NEET refers to young people not engaged in

employment, education or training. The term NEET was already used in the late

80’s but the word spread after it was used in 1999 with the publication of the

1 Né – Né and fannulloni are a journalistic and informal term used to those joung people who do not study or work. Otherwise, bamboccioni is similar to plump child. This last term was used by the minister Padoa Schioppa, the guilty of being NEET is spread also from political institutions not only the media.

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government’s Bridging the gap2 report under the Tony Blair’s labour govern. The term

rapidly gained importance and now almost all EU Member State have their own

definition. For this reason, the term has a high level of complexity and the comparison

results difficult because every state and every statistical agency has its own definition,

so I think that beginning with the definition is a good method to try to move inside

this work. The differences about the terms are significant and concern four different

requirements for the NEET status (Italialavoro, 2011, 136):

The age. Should we consider the minor until 18, the youth standard class from

15 to 24, the next level of 29 to consider also the “young” people ‘till 34?

The condition in the labour market. Unemployed, inactive or just the ones who

do not belong to labour forces?

The kind of training and education courses. Just the formal training or also the

non-formal and informal training. The first one is about a structured and

organized training, there’s the intention to participate from the learner; the

non-formal training has more or less the same characteristics of the first one

but the learning activities are not a real learning (such as swimming sessions

for toddlers, community-based sports programs and conference style seminars,

which do not either have the level of curriculum, syllabus, accreditation and

certification associated with formal learning). At last, informal training are all

those daily activities related with the family, the free time and aren’t not

organized or structured and the learning is not voluntary (Cedefop, 2009).

The voluntary choice to not work. We should exclude the people that spend

their time helping at home or more in general the inactive people that declare

they do not want to work?

2http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://wwwcabinetoffic.e.gov.uk/media/cabinetoffice/social_exc

lusion_task_force/assets/publications_1997_to_2006/bridging_gap.pdf

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All these characteristics define a NEET but as I said before every country or

statistical agency has his own definition. The United Kingdom was the first country

to use the term, it referred to young unemployed and inactive people that are not

engaged in any form of training or education, the age class firstly was 16-18 and then

they extended to 24 years. In this country, the NEET phenomenon is relevant because

it is correlate to youth criminality and young mothers (Italialavoro, 2011). Also

interesting, even if is not a European country, is the Japan situation about the NEET

issue. They discern the ones that do not have a job and the others that are socially

excluded and are not a potential labour force. The first one, they call Freeter, is a

composed word. Free the English word and Arbeiter the German word that means

“worker”. Therefore, the Freeter are young people free from work, just

unemployed.Therefore the Japan definition includes the young people 13-34 (we

should discuss a lot if 34 old people are “young” or not) not engaged in employment,

training or education. They also include the civil status in the definition; afterwards if

you are not married you could be a NEET in Japan. Other Asian countries adopted this

definition (South Korea, China e.g.). This reflect the Asian society, in particular the

Japanese one, where life is structured by “compulsory” steps (Italialavoro, 2011). OECD

definition for NEET is obtained from the reading of its publications because they have

not a precise definition. The young NEETs are those people from 15 to 29 years old

that do not work and do not attend education or non-formal or formal training course.

Eurostat definition is different from OECD’s. For Eurostat the NEETs are those that

are not employed (unemployed or inactive) and that do not attend any education or

training course (formal, informal and non-formal). For this reason, the Eurostat

definition is more restrictive than OECD’s, they exclude all of those young people that

attend non-formal and informal training. In the other hand Eurostat consider all the

age segments from 15 to 34 years old. At last, according to Istat the NEETs are the

young people not employed or inactive, they also do not attend any regular education

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courses or professional training. Consequently, young NEET computed on Istat

definition are more than the ones computed on Eurostat’s. Istat includes those that

do not work or study even if they attend any kind of training. In 2009 the NEET

percentage on young Italians (15-29 years old) was 20.6% according to Eurostat, while

21.2% according to Istat (Italialavoro, 2011). In this work, I used Eurostat definition for

European analysis while ISTAT definition for Italian analysis.

Figure 1. Differences between youth unemployment and NEET

We have already seen the differences between the definitions, these differences

lead us to understand that the comparison results difficult, and so this first part is

maybe boring but fundamental because it is easy to make a mess. Another distinction

must be done between the youth unemployment rate and NEET rate. According to

the International Labour Organization (ILO) the unemployment rate is a measure of

those who are out of work, but have looked for work in the past month and are able

Source: Eurofound, 2012, p.23

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to start in the next two weeks. Following Figure 1, the youth unemployment rate is

computed as the share of the economically active population who is not able to find a

job while the NEET rate is computed as the share of the young population who is not

in employment, education or training. This is why the number of young people who

are NEET in Europe is higher than the number of those who are unemployed

(Eurofound, 2012). This distinction is important to understand what the NEET

category is, as we said we have many levels of vulnerability that requires a type of

intervention not addressed to the entire category but to every single individual. For

that is important to discern Neet and unemployed; of course, many of young NEET

are unemployed, but not only.

We have a concept but different needs that requires different answers. Studying

NEETs is an opportunity to better understand the entire factor that intervene in the

process of the construction of disadvantage. Effectively with the NEET concept we

think that the individual responsibility of the choice has more count than the social

differences. In this way, the condition of NEET, not the differences, is perceived as a

cost of society in economic and social terms (IRPET, 2012). The NEET indicator is

useful but very fragile because of its heterogeneity. It Is a category that contains a

variety of subgroups, some of whom are vulnerable and some which are not. Five main

subgroups within the NEET population may be identified (Eurofound, 2012, p.24):

The conventionally unemployed, the largest subgroup, which can be further

subdivided into long-term and short-term unemployed;

The unavailable, which includes young carers, young people with family

responsibilities and young people who are sick or disabled;

The disengaged: those young people who are not seeking jobs or education and

are not constrained to do so by other obligations or incapacities, and takes in

discouraged workers as well as other young people who are pursuing dangerous

and asocial lifestyles;

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The opportunity-seekers: young people who are actively seeking work or

training, but are holding out for opportunities that they see as befitting their

skills and status;

The voluntary NEETs: those young people who are travelling and those

constructively engaged in other activities such as art, music and self-directed

learning.

Figure 2. The heterogeneity of the NEET population

Source: Eurostat 2013, p. 25

The five categories include a mix of vulnerable and non-vulnerable young

people. The opportunity seekers tend to be a non-vulnerable group because they have

a more privileged background and they will more easily find a job. The same thing

may apply to the voluntary NEET who has decided to follow alternative trajectories

and is constructively engaged in other non-formal activities. Conversely, the group of

disengaged workers and those who have unsuccessfully tried to enter the labour

NEETs

Conventionally unenployed

Unavailable

disengagedOpportunity

seeker

Voluntary NEETs

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market and have later given up their attempts are more likely to be vulnerable, with

very complex situations and needs. This group is also more at risk of pursuing

dangerous and asocial lifestyles. Finally, the unavailable group includes a mix of

vulnerable and non-vulnerable people: young people with disabilities who need

support in order to participate in the labour market or education, young mothers who

are unable to afford childcare, as well as young mothers with a high household income

who voluntarily decide to exit the labour market to take care of their children

(Eurofound, 2012). However on the one hand, support and assistance policies, like

activation or engagement in education system, intervene on the less urgent, namely

the ones with more possibilities and more motivations on being "active" again; on the

other hand, the ones living with difficulties, including very hard situations, simply

known as NEETs, aren't helped properly in order to overcome their situation of risk,

and they found themselves thrown in the labour market without an accurate

resolution of the underlying fallacies like social inequality. (IRPET, 2012). Exactly for

this heterogeneity NEET population needs designed policies to re-engage NEETs with

the labour market or with education.

Nonetheless this heterogenic young NEET share a set of similar characteristics.

They are out of education system, and for that reason they are not accumulating

human capital and this could be a barrier in the research of job. They are also excluded

from labour market and very exposed to poverty. All these characteristics led us to

understand that young NEET are more at risk of social exclusion. However, the costs

are not only in social term but also economic; in 2012 Eurofound estimated that the

unemployment and the other types of exclusion cost €163 billion, which is equivalent

to the 1.26% of the European GDP. All of these numbers and characteristics referred

to the European level, but there are deep differences in every state. Considering this,

we can start to analyse the numbers and the characteristics of NEET in European

countries.

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1.2. EUROPEAN NEET

Ending the previous paragraph, we tried to explain and analyse the concept of

NEET, not the trends or numbers, but some guidelines useful to do not make a mess

because it is easy to get confused inside this complex issue. Recapping, we talked

about the definitions of NEET, the subgroups and the cost of being NEET in social and

economic terms. Nevertheless, these costs and effects are different among the

European countries. We have states that were hit less than others by the economic

crisis of 2008. Otherwise, the economic crisis is not the only factor of the growth of

NEET phenomenon. The asset of youth policies is also important. There are many

states (e.g. the Continental and Scandinavian ones) that had provided to develop

programs and projects focused on youth and the labour market before the “Youth

Guarantee” (Chapter 4), so they was adequately prepared to face the NEET

phenomenon.

According to Eurostat (Table 1) the European average NEET rate is at 15.8%.

Therefore, if we consider all the young European people among 15-29 old, the 15.8% of

these are NEET.

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Table 1. %NEET on 15-29 young European

Source: Eurostat 2013, own elaboration

Firstly, the situation appears drastic for these countries that the economics

newspaper “ironically” calls PIIGS (Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece and Spain).

Moreover, it is easy to observe, just below the EU average, the continental countries

like France or Germany. At last, at the end of the table the Scandinavian countries

have the lowest rate. In particular, for the countries analysed during the IP, I

highlighted Italy and Spain, Germany and Sweden (we will examine in deep these

countries in the next Chapter). Italy presents the highest NEET rate with 26%, also for

Spain the rate is alarming, 22.8%. These countries have been hit hardest by economic

crisis. While, Sweden and Germany, respectively 7.9% and 8.9%, have a lower NEET

rate. Superficially, most people could say that is easy for Sweden, with only 9milion

31,3

29,3

28,9

26,0

25,7

22,8

20,9

19,6

18,6

16,7

16,2

15,8

14,9

14,7

13,8

12,8

10,9

8,7

8,3

7,9

7,7

7,5

7,2

7,1

7,0

6,4

Mk

Tu

Gr

Ital

y

Bg

Sp

ain

Hr

Ro Ir Pt

Po

EU

27 Be

UK Fr

Cz Fi

Ger

man

y At

Sw

eden Ch

Dk

Lu Nl

No Is

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inhabitants, to manage the situation. Otherwise, this reasoning, even if it is superficial,

does not stand for Germany, with its 80 million inhabitants.

Table 2. NEET's gender gap

Source: Eurostat 2013, own elaboration

It’s also interesting the trend analysis of the gender gap among the NEET

category (Table 2). We can observe a high gap in 2004 between male and female, the

two lines come closer in time, indeed, if we look at 2013 the trend shows us a different

gap. At one hand, the male trend showed a decreasing before the economic crisis.

After 2008 the male rate increased rapidly, while the female trend decreased. The

decreasing of the female trend is explained also by the participation of female in

education (Carbone, Cervarolo, 2009). In the Table 3 it is possible to see the numbers

8,0

10,0

12,0

14,0

16,0

18,0

20,0

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Male

FamaleFemale

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of these trends. In 2004 the gap was about 6 points, but in 2013 the gap decreased by

50%, just 3 points. Nevertheless, for both we can observe that the lowest rate is just

before the economic crisis, but later the male was hit more than the female (4 points

more after the crisis). Otherwise, the female remain in a high rate anyway.

Table 3. Gender gap trend

Gen/TIME 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Males 12,3 11,9 11,0 10,2 10,2 12,7 13,3 13,4 14,0 14,1

Females 18,3 18,1 17,0 16,3 16,0 16,9 17,3 17,4 17,8 17,7

Source: Eurostat 2013, own elaboration

Now, after these considerations, the question should be if it is possible to

identify ideal types of being NEET in Europe. As we said above, there are many

characteristics in common among NEETs. Otherwise, Eurofound tries to define four

different clusters with common features. “Countries within each group reveal a certain

degree of similarity in terms of the size and characteristics of the NEET population,

such as status, previous work experience, gender, educational level, extent of

discouraged workers and so on” (Eurofound, 2012, p.38).

Cluster 1: This cluster contains continental and Nordic countries. This is a mix

of countries that have pursued flexicurity policies, neo-liberal countries and countries

with a dual educational system. These countries are characterized by a low NEET rate

and the majority of NEETs are inactive. However, most of the NEETs in these Member

States have had previous work experience, while the percentage who are discouraged

workers is below the EU average. In this cluster, there are low skilled NEETs. The low

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share of discouraged workers indicates that in most cases this decision might have

been voluntary, probably to take over family, and not as a sign of structural barriers

for young people accessing the labour market.

Cluster 2: The second cluster is characterized by having a majority of NEETs

who are inactive. It includes southern Mediterranean and eastern European countries.

The countries in this cluster are those with the highest NEET rates in Europe. The

share of NEETs who are women is higher than the EU average. The majority of NEETs

are inactive. In addition, in most of these countries, the share of discouraged workers

is higher. The characteristics of this cluster indicate structural problems in the

transitions from the education system to the labour market. Here, ending up as NEET

seems to be involuntary and the result of various barriers that hinder a successful

transition.

Figure 3. Neet population clusters in the EU

Source: Eurofound 2012, p.38

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Cluster 3: These countries have been badly affected by the economic crisis, in

fact the majority of NEETs are unemployed. In addition, in most of these countries

the majority of NEETs are men. The share of NEETs with work experience is higher

than the EU average, as it is the share of NEETs who are discouraged workers.

Cluster 4: The last cluster is the most heterogeneous. In these countries the

NEET rate is slightly below the EU average and the majority of NEETs are female. In

most, the majority of NEETs are unemployed. These countries are characterized by

having a share of NEETs with a low educational level. NEETs in these countries seem

to be related to the increase of unemployment due to the crisis (Eurofound, 2012,

pp.38-40).

Obviously, this is an ideal type, and as a type is not the reality, is not an accurate

photography of the situation. Anyway it is a useful instrument to move inside the

concept and show us interesting issues. For example, with this model we can see the

differences between Italy and Spain, that we often consider countries with the same

structures. Nevertheless, after this short analysis of European countries, I will try to

define Italian situation in the next (and last) paragraph of the chapter. Instead, next

chapter will show a comparison between the four countries of IP Erasmus program.

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Figure 4. Characteristics of four NEET clusters in Europe

Cluster1

AT, DE, DK, FI, NL, SE, UK

- low NEET rate

- inactive

- whit work experience

- low skilled

- no discouraged

Cluster2

BG,GR,HU,IT,PL,RO,SK

- high NEET rate

- female

- inactive

-without work experience

- high skilled

- disouraged

Cluster4

BE, CY, CZ, FR, LU, SI

- average NEET rate

- unemployed

- with work experience

- medium skilled

Cluster3

EE, ES, IE, LV, LT, PT

- high NEET rate

- male

- unemployed

- with work experience

- high skilled

- discouraged

Source: Eurofound, 2012, own elaboration

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1.3. ZOOMING ON NEET, ITALY: THE LAST

- Senti che lavoro, me n'ero dimenticato, che lavoro fai?

- Be', mi interesso di molte cose: cinema, teatro, fotografia, musica, leggo...

- E concretamente?

- Non so cosa vuoi dire.

- Come non sai, cioè che lavoro fai?

- Nulla di preciso.

- ... Come campi?

- Mah... te l'ho detto: giro, vedo gente, mi muovo, conosco, faccio delle cose.3

(N. Moretti, Ecce Bombo, 1978)

Just few words to present the Italian situation, it appears the most alarming

after Macedonia, Turkey and Greece. According to Eurostat (2013) in 2013, the NEET

rate is 26%. More than 2million young people in the 15-29 age. The numbers are

alarming especially for women that live in the south of the country. The gender gap

in 2004 was 9 percentage points, while now the gap is just 3 points, about 75% less. As

in Europe, also in Italy the numbers show a bad trend for men (from 15% in 2004 to

24.4% in 2013), with a growth of 9.4% points. Otherwise, the females are in highest

ranking but with a less growth (from 23.9% in 2004 to 27.7% in 2013), just 3.3 points.

The females are in a disadvantaged situation also for the educational qualification.

The 26% of female NEET have a degree, while the NEET men with the same

qualification are 20%. Clearly when the educational qualifications, and the skills you

3 "What's your job?" "I'm interested in many things: movies, theater, photography, music... I read..." "And in practice?" "Well, I go around, I see people, I do things..."

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have acquired, are correlated with the NEET situation you perceive as useless your

skills and qualifications. In this case the discouragement intervenes. Otherwise, the

territorial differences are deep. Female NEET with a degree in the south are about

35.2% while the men in the north, with the same qualification, are just the 16.3%. In

general terms the NEET in the south are almost twice as much the northern ones.

Table 4. Italian NEET rate % on 15-29

Italy 26,02

North 18,98

South 35,41

Source: Istat, 2013, own elaboration

These differences are enormous; we have the region Trentino, with the 13.3%,

below the UE average. In the other hand Sicily region has a drastic NEET rate, 39.67%.4

Sicily is a big problem for entire national situation; all the south of Italy has a shocking

situation in comparison with the north.

Trying to recap, we have seen that the situation has a high level of complexity

and in sociological terms – NEET – is a fragile instrument to use with care because

inside this there are many kinds of questions and needs. It is an ideal type, (Weber,

1904, trad. 2001, p. 112). Moreover I tried to analyze the European situation but it is not

sufficient the macro point of view because all countries have different policies and

welfare settings. For this reason, in the next chapter, we will see the answers that the

“services” give to the NEET case.

4 Unfortunately, this is not the worst rate in Europe. “Mardin-Batman-Sirnak-Siirtthe” a Turkish region has the highest NEET rate: 54.5%.

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Chapter 2

Needs of NEETs

In March 2014 the University of Urbino hosted the Intensive Programme

Erasmus. As we have seen above, during the IP we debated on social assistance and

social policy issues in a comparative approach. We used for the comparison the

methodology of “vignettes”. This methodology consists in a short realistic description

or representations with precise references to events or situations that the respondents

could hypothetically encounter in their professional life, and for which they are asked

to simulate a decision making process (Barberis, 2010). Afterwards, we presented this

fictitious case to social workers and other workers of the third sector, the other

students did the same and in the end we compared our answers. The following is the

vignette about the young NEET:

Mr. H, a young NEET

Mr. H’s story

Mr. H is a 19 years old male who dropped out school before completing lower

secondary school. Hence, he never completed compulsory school and never

achieved any professional skill. He is not enrolled in any training programme or

formal job position. Consider the following conditions:

a) His parents have just thrown him out of their home.

b) He has no private savings, no present registered work and no previous work

record.

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c) He says he lives by begging and by informal loans from friends. He has no formal,

registered income. He may have some unregistered income by working in the

informal economy, but this cannot be substantiated.

d) He is a defaulting tenant in a small flat in the periphery of the city. Given the

above conditions, Mr. H applies to the public authorities in order to obtain support

for himself.

Questions and key-points:

- What public authority would consider the demand? A local welfare office? A local

social security office? A local labour market office? Another type of office? Several

offices? Please specify.

- Is there a case management? If so, who is responsible for the case management?

- Is Mr. H entitled for any cash allowance? If yes, how much and for how long?

- Which other forms of help (beside financial benefits) are given to him (training,

self-help, housing…) – if any – and how long does they last?

- If yes, are these measures centred on a contractual basis and what happens in

case of refusal?

- Which kind of activation program could be proposed to him? Would he be

involved in the design of his personal activation program?

- Have there been any change in the access chances to services since the last reform

of this policy area?

2.1.ITALY AND SPAIN, USUAL PROBLEM/UNUSUAL CASE

In these countries, characterized by a familistic welfare, social policies are used

to gain politic consensus, and this leads to a clientelar management of the

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redistribution mechanism. Family has an important role as a social security cushion

strongly correlated with the catholic tradition. In Italy the role of primary network is

recognized by law but not economically supported. Otherwise the discretion level is

high because of the weak institutional assets. The local level has a major role in the

management, in fact these countries are defined like “regionally framed policies”

(Mingione, 1997; Ferrera, 1998; Kazepov, 2002; Barberis, Sabatinelli, Bieri, 2010).

Otherwise, as we will see in the answers of social workers there are differences even

in the countries that belong to the same system; in fact in Spain there are measures

that are not implemented in Italy.

Italy

Considerating the vignette, when there is a need, a low complexity level

network is activated. The offices involved are “Caritas” (third sector), Job Centre of

Province (PU) and social services of social district (ATS4). There isn’t any specific law

or program for this case. Otherwise, for the immediate subsistence the help comes

from Caritas, while for a more structured path is the Job Centre that manages the case

without providing any cash allowance or other benefits, the main deal is the search of

the job. . The discretion is very high, because of the lack of law. They try to use other

laws to “cover” this case (e.g. the regional law 30/1998 for family household). This

shows the level of discretion, the weak national frame, and a strong local and regional

role. The potential problems for this case are the limited resources, also because the

case is not a priority at all. Another problem is the claimants “Ping-Pong” because the

user do not know well where to go.

About the economic help, the young NEET has not any guarantee, also because

it’s not clear if there is any cash allowance. Otherwise there is a guarantee for some

in-kind measures like food packages, tickets for primary needs, benefits for public

transport mainly from Caritas. Instead, the Job Centre guarantees stages and training

PAGINA 23

courses. Anyway, there isn’t a defined procedure for this demand and third sector is

involved in a welfare mix management. The most alarming problem is the ignorance

about the case for two reasons mainly. Firstly because the NEET do not turn to social

workers but primarily to their family. Secondly (and this is connected to the first

reason) because of the lack of resources, social workers try to solve the case involving

the family or some relatives.

Spain

For the Spanish case there isn’t a structured network. At first seems that could

be possible to have access to many activities and programs like training courses,

cultural promotion. But as a matter of fact there are no resources. Actually the case

could be managed from national social services but, because of the lack of resources

the case is managed by a private association, “La Calle”. It provides with 35€ per month

of cash allowance only if the young NEET follows training or education courses. There

are in-kind measures like training organizations, social support, food and clothes. A

compromise is established with the young NEET. These measures are linked to

monitoring.5

2.2. SWEDEN AND GERMANY , USUAL CASE/UNUSUAL PROBLEM

In this paragraph we observe two countries with two different welfare systems.

The social democratic and the conservative-corporate one. Germany is usually

associated to the conservative-corporate welfare system. The social and productive

framework is characterized by high differentiation established over the time, so the

state intervention could not have been extended with universalistic policies.

5 As we have seen in Italy, the NEET case – even if the rate is one of the highest in Europe – is unusual.

PAGINA 24

Small producers and smallholders are still strategic social groups for the

economy from the time of industrialization, who consolidated the mechanisms of

support and protection often created for the category itself.

Germany is an example of conservative-corporative model, of an

institutionalist kind (there is a high normative role of the State, which supports a high

quality productive system based on high wages and direct support to families) and,

moreover, the State has an important role in the mechanisms of social protection.

Compared to the social-democratic model, here we have a lower level of

defamilization.

Defined as centrally framed countries, they still give to the central level a major

role in the definition and implementation of social policies, even if the local level is

gradually becoming more important.

The social democratic welfare system, is characterized by a high presence of

state’s interventionism among the normative process is facilitated by the socio-

demographic characteristics of the population (not very large and quite homogeneous

– immigration processes not relevant) and by the marginal position of Scandinavian

countries compared to the centre of the international economic market.

Accordingly, the social-democratic normative model has been steadied

without internal conflicts and the risks have been managed by social coalitions

politically represented by social-democratic parties that put the attention not only on

the workers’ interests but also on the entrepreneurs’’.

The welfare system has high standards of quality and is guaranteed to the

whole population.

There is a high level of defamilialization. These countries are defined as

countries with a centrally framed local autonomy, namely the local level has high

competences but they are identified inside an institutional frame, precisely defined

and stable, which guarantees a minimum standard of assistance and common

procedures to follow (Ivi.).

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Germany

There are two main offices involved in the network. The Municipal youth

welfare office that provides for families, young people and children in need with

assistance (counselling, educational assistance, financial support) according to the

Social Code Book VIII (the social services practices are managed by these books). The

Job Centre that guarantees basic income support according to SGB II (Social Code

Book II) if the person in need reports himself as looking for work; it also give assistance

to get an education degree. Instead, about the source of legitimacy the SGB II is

regulated and principally managed at the federal level (Bundesagentur für Arbeit), but

the benefit payment, the service provision and the activation is managed at the local

level.

In Germany the young NEET receives313€ per month but he has to report

himself as job seeking and has to cooperate. The Job Centre gives some in-kind

measures like career counselling, vocational orientation and training. It is interesting

that is a common case even if the NEET phenomenon is not high. The main problem

emerged in the German case is to contact young people.

Sweden

This case, for the Swedish social workers, does not appear problematic. After

the first contact with the social welfare board the client is addressed to the social

services in collaboration with the section of financial assistance. Together, these

offices manage the case. The main problem do not seems to be the job but the lack of

income, indeed this isn’t a problem neither because it is provided a minimum income

of 420€ per month which will provide reasonable standard of living. Rent and

electricity are not included in this amount of money, but it is granted separately. The

PAGINA 26

client must be signed up to the Job Centre and follow the guidelines that they give to

him in the job seeking. He receives all the benefits until he gets employed.

It’s important for the Swedish case to highlight the variation: “Whether Mr. H

has no relatives”? this variation does not effect his entitlement to financial assistance.

In Sweden relatives do not have responsibility to provide for one other. Neither

parents if he is over the age 18. In addition, the computing of the family household is

not on a family base but on the singular person. Almost everything is guaranteed, so

the parents are not obliged to afford the situation.

Table 5. NEETs' trend

Source: Eurofound 2013, own elaboration

0,0

5,0

10,0

15,0

20,0

25,0

30,0

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

EU27

Germany

Spain

Italy

Sweden

PAGINA 27

Table 6. Usual, unusual and cash allowance

Mr. H Germany Italy Spain Sweden

cash 313€ 0 35€ 420€+rent+electricity

frequency usual unusual unusual usual

Data results from IPE comparison

It is interesting to observe that the countries with a high NEET rate are the

ones that declare uncommon the NEET case and do not guarantee any support, or

when it is guaranteed it is not enough. Otherwise for continental – Scandinavian ones,

with a low NEET rate, the supports are generous. This lack of attention from the

countries in drastic situations lead us to discuss and reflect much more about young

NEETs. It seems that European Union is moving in this direction, and this will be the

focus of the next chapter.

PAGINA 28

Chapter 3.

NEETs’ policies, the category or the person?

In this last chapter I will try to put the focus upon European youth policies.

There is a long history of European recommendations on youth issues, the first

programmes to promote the youth mobility come from the late 80s, but they never

talk about NEETs phenomenon. The recommendations about youth were always

focused on unemployment, promoting the entrance in the labour market or on the

reduction of the school drop-out:

2005/600/CE for employment

2010 promoting the entrance in the labour market

2010 youth on movement

2011 reducing the school drop-out

Otherwise, the newest programmes are inside the Europe 2020 strategy. It is a

10-year strategy proposed by the European Commission on the 3rd March 2010 for the

advancement of the economy of the European Union. It aims at "smart, sustainable,

inclusive growth" with greater coordination of national and European policies. It

follows the Lisbon Strategy for the period 2000–2010.Europe 2020 wants to intervene

also on the NEETs situation, more in general the aim of the strategy is on the human

capital investment to permit an economic sustainable growth, trying to avoid the cost

of those that are out of labour market and education. The targets, for this set of

policies, are:

PAGINA 29

Bring into the labour market at least the 75% of all the people in the 20-64 age.

Reduce the school drop-out under the 10%.

Lift out of poverty and social exclusion 20million people.

Europe 2020,has also targets like environment development and green

economy issues. Nevertheless, we point out that the NEET phenomenon is highly

considered, also because the recommendation on youth polices opens in this way:

“Investing now in the human capital of young Europeans will deliver long-term

benefits and contribute to sustainable and inclusive economic growth. The Union will

be able to reap the full benefits of an active, innovative and skilled workforce while

avoiding the very high costs of having young people neither in employment, education

or training (‘NEETs’), currently put at 1,2 % of GDP” (c2013/C 120/01).

The fact that young people have been hit particularly hard during the crisis have

been understood, also the situation of young women that are more likely to be affected

by low pay and precarious employment, while young parents, primarily young

mothers, lack adequate work-life balance measures. In this frame starts the Youth

Guarantee.

The Council of European Union recommends the institutions of a Guarantee for

Youth. The “Youth Guarantee” provides to all young people under 25 a qualitatively

valid offer of employment, to continue their studies, starting an apprenticeship or

training. All these opportunities must be guaranteed within four months of

registration in the programme.

In Europe only seven countries are currently developing national Youth

Guarantee Implementation Plans: Austria, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Latvia

and Spain. In this last part of the paper, we will analyze the Implementation Plans of

Italy.

Italy accepted EU recommendation on the 04/22/2013 and the Youth Guarantee

began on the 1st of May, 2014. Italy received from YEI (Youth Employment Initiative)

PAGINA 30

and ESF (European Social Found) an amount of €1.513million. It means that for every

single Italian NEET it is guaranteed a service equal to €671,25. Anyway, this amount is

shared in a non-equal way, in every region of the country. Indeed, the regions with

the highest Neet rate received more money than others. The regions, in the activation

of Youth Guarantee, play an important role because they have the main authority

according to the subsidiarity principle. However, they will not be alone, the regions

will work together in a network with the third sector, and the Job Centres will manage

the cases.

Firstly, it is necessary to give to all people the possibility to use the service with

an informative system. The access of young NEET will be possible through the web or

Job Centres. This first step provides a universal and basic information, in which the

NEET can concord an appointment with someone who works in the Job Centre. Then,

he can define with an operator his personalized program, based on his personal skills.

At last he will be addressed to one of the possibilities that include: work placement,

apprenticeship, training, education programs, self-entrepreneurship or civil service.

PAGINA 31

Figure 5. Youth Guarantee, which services?

Source: Italian implementation plan of the Youth Guarantee

Youth Guarantee may appear as the answer we were always looking for,

however it has many points of instability, especially in Italy. In this country the Youth

Guarantee is arrived when the parliament decided to put off the local administration

level known as Province. This is a substantial problem, because the Province has

always managed the Job Centre in Italy. Now with the suppression of this level they

don’t know the consequences upon the Job Centre. In this state of undefined it is

difficult to let the Job Centre start a program like the youth guarantee. Not only for

the regions that traditionally have many administrative problems like Calabria or

Sicily. Emilia-Romagna, usually defined as a virtuous region, also has this kind of

Universal

Basic services and informations

To concord with users

Welcome and

profiling

Personalized programme

Orientation

Skill consolidati

on (training)

Monitoring and evaluation

work placement

apprenticeship

training

education programmes

self-entrepreneurship

civil service

PAGINA 32

problems. Otherwise, someone sees this Guarantee as a way to give money to private

enterprises for employing young people.

Now it is difficult to evaluate the Youth Guarantee, because it has just been

born, so maybe in some months (when the first groups of young people will be called

to define their program) we will better understand the scheduling and the progress of

the works. Meanwhile, the Department for Social Polices has published some data. At

the 29th of May 2014 (one month after the start), 67.751 young people have joined the

Youth Guarantee (DG politiche dei servizi per il lavoro, 2014). The hope is that in four

months, they will be called to start their program.

PAGINA 33

Conclusions

As we have seen, the NEET phenomenon is alarming. The numbers and data

that we saw in the first chapter should make us reflect, especially for some countries

like Italy and Spain where the NEET rate is over the 20% (26% for Italy). Otherwise,

the lack of knowledge about the NEET in the countries with a high rate is another

question that policies must answer. Anyway, the data has not to be read in this way.

The countries with the lowest NEET rate (and where the phenomenon is known) have

been working on this issues since several years, while Italy and Spain started to work

in this direction only during the last years, when the numbers became alarming.

Nevertheless, we do not need just numbers and data to understand young

NEETs. Even if some agency tries to calculate the cost in GDP terms of the NEET

inactivity, much more interesting should be to calculate how much we gain with

labour market integration. Moreover, the NEET is considered guilty of his condition.

This vision of NEET is given by a blind consideration of the phenomenon. Being NEET

is much more than this. The only guilty part is the social inequality to which the

policies do not provide answer.

Beyond the numbers we have a lot of characteristics that define the NEET

status: the conventionally unemployed, the unavailable, the disengaged, opportunity-

seekers and voluntary NEETs. These are heterogeneous populations with different

needs. We can’t manage the needs of the entire NEETs category, simply because it’s

impossible. You can’t give the same answer to the conventionally unemployed and the

disengaged. So, as we said many times, the one-size first-all approach is avoided, while

the individualized intervention could be more useful.

In this sense, the Youth Guarantee might be the right tool. The central part of

the program is the profiling and the “scanner” of young’s skills. Otherwise, as we saw

in the last chapter, only seven countries are currently developing national Youth

Guarantee Implementation Plans. In particular the country with more difficulties

PAGINA 34

seems to be Italy. With the cut down of the Province the administrators do not know

well how to manage the situation and the fate of the Job Centres. As a matter of fact,

the Italian Minister of Social Policies and Work, Giuliano Poletti, four days before the

beginning of Youth Guarantee, confirmed that only four regions out of twenty are

ready to start the program.

PAGINA 35

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