STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY Department of Asian, Middle Eastern and Turkish Studies

Wagakki and Japanese Popular Music: The Perception of Music and Cultural Identity

Master’s Thesis in Japan Studies Spring 2020 Supervisor: Gunnar Jinmei Linder Author: Charly Rivel

2

3

Abstract This study focuses on the connection between cultural identity and Japanese popular music. It

contains conducted interviews and semantic analyses on musicians who use Japanese traditional

instruments and Western instruments in their repertoire. It uses performativity theory as

theoretical framework. The analyses are divided in to the three levels of Sauter’s

phenomenological path: the symbolic level, the sensory level and the artistic level.

It concludes how musicians in Japan perceive their own musical identity, and gives

insights on the role of cultural identity in Japanese music. The potential significance is to

contribute to identity studies using a performativity perspective as explained above, and thereby

elucidating both musicological and historical aspects.

4

5

Acknowledgments I want to start by thanking my supervisor professor Gunnar Jinmei Linder for his immense help

in guiding and supporting me. He also introducing me to all the musicians whom without this

study could not have been conducted. I also want to thank The Scholarship Foundation for

Studies of Japanese Society and Fond for the Promotion of Swedish-Japanese relations for

supporting this research economically. To professor Ewa Machotka and my fellow MA students

for supporting and giving me great feedback. IZA Asakusa Guest house staff for helping me

with printouts and answering all my questions. Finally, I want to thank Obama Akihito,

Motonaga Hiromu, Nagasu Tomoka, Curtis Patterson and Kaminaga Daisuke for letting me do

the interviews and being so kind to me.

Thank you all,

The Author May 26, 2020

6

7

Table of Contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 9

1.1. Aim ................................................................................................................................................ 9 1.2. Contextualizing Japanese Traditional Instruments ..................................................................... 10 1.3. Literature review ......................................................................................................................... 11

2. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 15 2.1. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................... 15 2.2. Method ........................................................................................................................................ 18 2.3. Material ....................................................................................................................................... 19

3. Wagakki and Japanese Popular Music ................................................................................. 23 3.1. Obama Akihito ............................................................................................................................ 23

3.1.1. The Symbolic Level ............................................................................................................. 23 3.1.2. The Sensory Level ............................................................................................................... 25 3.1.3 The Artistic Level ................................................................................................................. 26

3.2. Motonaga Hiromu ....................................................................................................................... 27 3.2.1. The Symbolic Level ............................................................................................................. 27 3.2.2. The Sensory Level ............................................................................................................... 29 3.2.3. The Artistic Level ................................................................................................................ 30

3.3. Nagasu Tomoka .......................................................................................................................... 32 3.3.1.The Symbolic Level .............................................................................................................. 32 3.3.2. The Sensory Level ............................................................................................................... 34 3.3.3. The Artistic Level ................................................................................................................ 35

3.4. Curtis Patterson ........................................................................................................................... 36 3.4.1. The Symbolic Level ............................................................................................................. 36 3.4.2. The Sensory Level ............................................................................................................... 38 3.4.3. The Artistic Level ................................................................................................................ 39

3.5. Kaminaga Daisuke ...................................................................................................................... 40 3.5.1. The Symbolic Level ............................................................................................................. 40 3.5.2. The Sensory Level ............................................................................................................... 42 3.5.3. The Artistic Level ................................................................................................................ 44

4. Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................................................. 47 4.1. Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 47 4.2. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 49 4.3. Implications and Further Research ............................................................................................. 50 4.4. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 50

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 53

Appendix .................................................................................................................................. 57

8

Conventions Romanization of Japanese in this study is transcribed using the Hepburn system with words in

italic letters. Long vowels are written with a macron above the letter. For example, shirō-kan,

where the letter “o” is pronounced with a long vowel. Japanese instrument names are written

with the first letter capitalized. For example, Shakuhachi. Japanese names are written according

to Japanese conventions, with the family name first and the given name last, in the text as well

as in both footnotes and bibliography. Western names are written according to Western

conventions. References are given using Chicago Manual of Style seventeenth edition. Titles

in Japanese are translated to English in parenthesis after the original title. All translations are

done by me if not indicated otherwise.

9

1. Introduction 1.1. Aim Japanese popular music is today acknowledged as one of the largest music industries in the

world. Western influences on Japanese popular music are today part of its identity and it can be

traced back to the Meiji restoration (1868), when Japan established the arts of the West, and

with it, Western music education as part of a new Japanese school system.1 To contextualize

what is also modern and traditional the definition of the modern in this study is Japan after the

Meiji restoration whereas the traditional is Japan before the Meiji restoration. Since World War

II Japan has had big issues with how its identity has been perceived, with neighboring countries

still feeling anger and suspicion towards Japan and its agendas.2 Moreover, a change in its

identity may today also be perceived as successful where Japanese foreign policies since post-

war are portraying its country as one of the most peacekeeping countries in the world.3 Japanese music in the post-war era has also been an interest of Western research. For

example, musicologist Carolyn S. Stevens thinks that Japanese music can be divided into two

areas: one connected to Japanese traditions and the other to J-pop and anime themes.4

Stevens also points out that cultural identity in Japanese popular music, among both

Japanese and non-Japanese listeners, is dependent on a constructed tradition as a response to

Westernization or modernization.5 Stevens says that in Japan particular music concepts can

through a constructed tradition be introduced, allowing a separation of what is traditional

Japanese musicology and Western musicology. Moreover, she claims that because of this

separation Japanese popular music is often described as a fusion of these two concepts. 6

However, she also points out that there is an authentic Japanese cultural expression that relies

on regional identity to maintain this tradition. She also claims that Japanese popular music by

this is not always following the presumed path of basing new genres on regional tradition, since

Western genres often are incorporated in the creation of new styles.7

1 For example, see Hugh de. Ferranti, “The Beginnings of Western Music in Meiji Era Japan Ury Eppstein,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 32, no. 1 (2000): 186, https://doi.org/10.2307/3185255. 2 For example, see Brad Glosserman and Scott A. Snyder, The Japan-South Korea Identity Clash: East Asian Security and the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017). 3 For example, see “Japan’s Security policy,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, accessed May 18, 2019, https://www.mofa.go.jp/fp/nsp/page1we_000077.html; and “Global Peace Index,” Vision of Humanity, accessed May 15, 2020, http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/. 4 Carolyn S. Stevens, Japanese Popular Music: Culture, authenticity, and power (London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2008), 6. 5 Stevens, Japanese Popular, 6. 6 Ibid, 7. 7 Ibid.

10

Identity studies focused around Japanese popular music like the above, since they are

often conducted by Western scholars, the questions asked tend to be biased. The aim of this

study is to focus attention on the musicians—to get the emic perspective—in order to get the

“other’s” perspective on if and how a cultural identity is expressed in their music. On the other

hand, as a Westerner who is not a participant in the cultural space, I cannot avoid seeing the

phenomena from an etic perspective. Therefore, the research questions for the present study are:

How do wagakki musicians in Japan perceive their own musical identity? And how are Japanese

traditional instruments being perceived and used in contemporary Japan?

1.2. Contextualizing Japanese Traditional Instruments The general term for the Japanese traditional instruments is wagakki, which literally means

“Japanese musical instrument”. Hereafter I refer to these instruments with the term Wagakki.

The word denotes instruments, mostly imported from the continent, but used in Japan from

ancient to early modern time. The instruments have often developed different characteristics

compared to their continental counterparts in order to comply with the indigenous aesthetic

ideals. There are many instruments connected to the term Wagakki. To make it clearer when

conjugating Wagakki I also use English words, like for example Wagakki instrument. I here

introduce the Wagakki instruments that are mentioned in this study.8

One of the wind instruments within

Wagakki is the flute Shakuhachi. It is made of

bamboo and it has 5 finger-holes. There are

many different kinds of Shakuhachi that like all

other Wagakki instruments have been adapted

to fit local aesthetics. The Shakuhachi is often

tuned to a minor pentatonic scale. There are

also Shakuhachi instruments that are altered to

make it easier to play with Western

instruments. However, the original sound from

the earlier Shakuhachi instruments when

altered becomes compromised.

The Koto is also part of the Wagakki family and its origins are also from the continent. It

is a thirteen-stringed zither, which is played with rounded or square fingerpicks on the thumb,

8 See Appendix 1. Wagakki instruments.

Illustration by the author. From left to right, top to bottom: Shakuhachi, Koto, Shamisen and Biwa

11

index finger and middle finger of the right hand. It is a bit shorter than two meters (approx. 190

cm) and made of kiri wood (Paulownia). Often a minor pentatonic scale is used in the traditional

music, but it can be tuned to any scale by adjusting the bridges for each string. Like the

Shakuhachi there are different types of Koto. For example, there are Bass-Koto that has

seventeen-strings and there are even Koto instruments with twenty-five-strings. There is also

variety in their aesthetics.

The Shamisen, which also has continental origins is a three-stringed lute. It is played with

a bachi, a large plectrum which can be made of different materials, traditionally of ivory or

turtle shell. Because the Shamisen does not have frets it can also, like the Koto, be played in

any scale. There are also many different types of Shamisen depending on local aesthetic

preferences.

The Biwa, which is a short-necked lute usually consists of four silk strings and is also

played with a bachi, a large wedged-shaped plectrum. Like all Wagakki instruments there are

also different types of Biwa instruments which have their origins from the continent going back

to ancient times. It is used in a variety of genres from the mainly instrumental Japanese court

music, to epic genres with a narrator.

1.3. Literature review In this section, I introduce previous research on Japanese music and its cultural identity. I do

this presentation to position my study of Japanese music in relation to this identity study.

In her research Stevens claims that Japanese popular music consists of three concepts to

make sense of the field of post-war Japanese popular music: cultural identity, authenticity and

positional power.9

Stevens suggests that cultural identity in Japanese popular music is a created concept in

response to external scrutiny. However, it is unclear what this external scrutiny is. Further it

indicates that Stevens thinks that Japanese cultural identity somehow is forced upon the

Japanese people. Stevens also suggests that it is mostly defined as negative and somehow

responds to international relations in how cultural preference gives rise to a framework of values

that changes over time based on the changes in the power relations between those positions.

She suggests that these positions are the players involved in everyday business activities in the

music industry. The players according to Stevens are individuals, groups, corporations and

nations. Additionally Stevens gives indication that positions of power create shifts in Japanese

9 Stevens, Japanese Popular, 5.

12

music and that the audience is conscious of these positions between the players and that they

are adjusted to global trends; diplomatic, cultural and financial positions of change to their

positionality as Stevens preferably calls it.10 Moreover, changes in the market of aesthetic

preferences are also related to positions of power in the music productions, where each mode

of music production is associated with different styles, values, and images.11 By conducting this

identity study (by giving both an emic and etic perspective on the material gathered) it can

clarify if and how the musicians actually perceive an external scrutiny on their music as Stevens

seems to suggest.

When looking at Japanese popular music through a historical narrative, Gunnar Jinmei

Linder identifies a change in how Japan’s younger generation now perceive rock-, and pop-

music compared to the older generation.12

The young people of today are probably not aware of the influences from West: I believe that they regard their music as their music. On the other hand, they probably see the old music of Japan; originating from before 1868, the year that marked the modernization and Westernization of Japan; as something very strange.13

Furthermore, Gunnar Jinmei Linder’s dissertation on Shakuhachi, and the transmission of

culture gives necessary insight on how to conduct identity studies through a musicological

perspective in Japan.14 Especially chapter eight in the above dissertation, “Transmission of

Traditions” are used as inspiration in conducting this study.

In a recent publication, Jessica C. E Geinow-Hecht established a dialogue between

historians and musicologists with her idea that music, in this case especially classical music, is

not only a musicological object but also a powerful tool for historians to narrate the history of

international relations in the twentieth century.15 I think this insight becomes clear when she

asks an important question on what ethnomusicologists must focus on when conducting post-

war research on international relations: “Is there other international relations in the world in the

10 Stevens, Japanese Popular, 5-6. 11 Ibid, 6. 12 Linder, Gunnar Jinmei. “Rock Music in Japan,” in Music Brings Us Together, ed. Peter Koudstaal (Hamburg: It’s a Book! Publishing, 2016). 13 Linder, “Rock.” 9. 14 Linder, Gunnar Jinmei. “Deconstructing Tradition in Japanese Music: A Study of Shakuhachi, Historical Authenticity and Transmission of Tradition” (PhD diss., Stockholm University, 2012). 15 Anthony Grégoria, “Musical power and the East-West International Diplomacy,” review of Music and International History in the Twentieth Century, by Jessica C. E Gienow-Hecht, Anthropology News, April 19, 2017, 1. http://journals.sfu.ca/abf/index.php/abf/article/download/85/76.

13

20th century or so that could (or could not) be observed without focusing on the United States’

own international relations?”16

That America has been dominating the arena of post-war international relations is

therefore also relevant when looking at Japanese popular music, or for that matter popular music

in any other country. In this way American influences are also part of Japanese post-war

international relations. For instance, we must take American influences into consideration

looking at Japanese music and also its international relations through music in the post-war era.

Akagawa Natsuko conducted a study on how Japanese cultural diplomacy together with

UNESCO safeguarded Vietnamese court music after the Vietnam War. Her research is a good

example to this effect.17

Some examples of Japanese-language writings on what Japanese music culture is or could

be understood to be are Miyairi Kyohei’s thesis on J-pop culture, in which she raises questions

on how to find identity through J-pop.18 Moreover, there is Saeki Kenzo’s book about J-rock

during the twentieth century Japan19 and Ugaya Hiromichi’s studies about the mindscape of J-

pop.20

English-language writings include, apart from the above-mentioned texts, also Mark

Schilling’s encyclopedia of Japanese popular culture.21

16 Grégoria, “Musical.” 4. 17 Akagawa, Natsuko. Heritage Conservation in Japan’s Cultural Diplomacy: Heritage, national identity and national interest (London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2015), 167-81. 18 Miyairi, Kyohei. J―POP bunkaron [J-pop Culture Thesis] (Japan: Sairyusha, 2015). 19 Saeki, Kenzo. Rokku to media shakai [Rock and Media Society] (Japan: Shinsensha, 2011). 20 Ugaya, Hiromichi. J poppu shinshō fūkei [The Mindscape of J-pop] (Japan: Bungei Shunju, 2005). 21 Mark Schilling, The Encyclopedia of Japanese Pop Culture (New York: Weatherhill Inc, 1997).

14

15

2. Methodology Erving Goffman writes the following on how social intercourse can be perceived from a

theatrical perspective as if it was a stage performance:

Ordinary social intercourse is itself put together as a scene is put together, by the exchange of dramatically inflated actions, counter actions, and terminating replies. Scripts even in the hand of unpracticed players can come to life because life itself is a dramatically enacted thing. All the world is not, of course, a stage, but the crucial ways in which it isn’t are not easy to specify.22

2.1. Theoretical Framework

When conducting this study, I use a performativity theory and Willmar Sauter’s notion of a

phenomenological path. In the following section I explain how these theories are used in the

present musicological identity research.

Performativity is in this study understood as a social enactment. Performativity theory

was first introduced by John L. Austin as a theory specifically based on language.23 It has been

broadened and modified to be used in all kinds of fields of studies, like for example in sociology

and anthropology. Judith Butler has for example used it in her gender theory. She also used it

to reveal the political promise of the performative.24 Butler describes the political promise and

performativity as follow:

It is important to understand performativity – which is distinct from performance – through the more limited notion of resignification. I’m still thinking about subversive repetition, which is a category in Gender Trouble, but in the place of something like parody I would now emphasize the complex ways in which resignification works in political discourse.25

In this study the performativity is the role of Japanese cultural identity in music performances.

When contextualizing the performativity in this study I also use the term musical identity which

also is understood as the role of Japanese cultural identity in the music performances. The music

performances done by the musicians are thereby not seen as being less limited to new

significations or new meaning than the performativity. The music performances are thereby

22 Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Doubleday, 1959), 72. 23 John L. Austin, ed., How to Do Things With Words (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), 15. 24 Judith Butler, Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative (London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 1997). 25 Peter Osborne and Lynne Segal, “Gender as Performance: An Interview with Judith Butler,” Radical Philosophy, Summer, 1994, 33. https://www.radicalphilosophyarchive.com/issue-files/rp67_interview_butler.pdf.

16

seen as any other role or event that takes place outside it. Like for example how we characterize

what is a nurse, a lawyer or a business meeting.

In order to categorize aspects of what Japanese cultural identity is through its music, I use

Willmar Sauter’s notion of the theatrical event. Sauter explains the theatrical event as a

phenomenological path that consists of three levels expressed with the following terminology:

the Sensory Level, the Artistic Level, and the Symbolic Level.26 Sauter’s approach to theatre

can also be used to determine different functions of a theatrical event of any kind, including

events like ceremonies, games, dancing, singing and acting.27 By using these three levels of

Sauter’s phenomenological path I can determine the different functions of Wagakki and the

music performances when analyzing the gathered material. When explaining what characterizes

a theatrical event Sauter explains that it is the simultaneous activities of the performer and

spectator, their unification in a certain place and time, and their mutual interaction.28

Sauter also gives insight on why we need to perceive a performance as an event and also

how it is necessary to include the spectator’s experience for it to become a whole event. This is

done by describing the interaction between the performer and the spectator, their nature and

mutuality and their relation to various contexts within the theatre (in this study the music

performance) and outside it.29 Because of time limitation and the size limitation of this study it

mainly focuses on the one side of the relation, that is of the Wagakki musicians.

Further I use James Loxley’s interpretation of the performative on how he suggests that

something fictional or theatrical, through performativity theory, in fact is not less real than for

example a wedding ceremony.30 Furthermore, following this idea of the performative we can

understand how a music performance can be both real and fictional. To contextualize the

differences on what is fiction or real in a music performance in this study I define characters

(not characteristics) as fiction, and roles and identities as real. Moreover, fiction is the

constructed whereas real is the authentic. Authentic is in the concept of cultural identity here

defined as the musicians perception of what is genuine Japanese cultural identity. Fiction is in

the concept of cultural identity defined as the musicians perception of what is not having

genuine origins and therefore not authentic Japanese cultural identity. Through this I can elicit

26 Willmar Sauter, The Theatrical Event: Dynamics of Performance and Perception (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2000), 31. 27 Sauter, Theatrical Event, 83. 28 Ibid, 31. 29 Ibid. 30 James Loxley, Performativity: The New Critical Idiom (London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2007), 14–15.

17

the roles and identities in a musical performance, and for the purpose of this study, also the role

of Wagakki and Japanese popular music.

When looking at cultural identity through the performative the musician can in a music

event construct his or her own identity and become someone else. The musician can also take

on an identity that is real and authentic. After the event the identity can be mimicked by others

and by doing so transmit the constructed or authentic identity into the outside world. This,

through performativity theory, can also work the other way around, where the musician needs

to take on expected characteristics and identities from the audience and the outside world.

Where the expectations of, for example other aspects of cultural identity need to be constructed

by the musician.

For the final connection to understand how the performative in this study connects to the

musicians performances I use musicologist Jane W. Davidson’s approach on how to interpret a

musical performance: “Lang Lang may have read and interpreted the notes, followed the

expressive instructions indicated on Liszt’s score, and built upon socially modelled behaviours

that undoubtedly develop from role-models and other performance experiences.”31 In this way

it gives the possibility to also interpret what is not just music, but also other forms of expressions

as something extramusical. In this way the music does not only refer to the sounds but also

things such as expressions, communication and also to the performative and Sauter’s three

terms, the Symbolic, the Sensory and the Artistic Levels. In this study I use the term

extramusical when analysing the material.

As shown in Figure 1, the Performativity Aspect consists of a number of extramusical

elements that can be described as Sauter’s three levels: the Symbolic Level, The Sensory Level

and the Artistic Level. Moreover, the Symbolic Level is expressed and understood in terms of

signs that are interpreted by the actors involved in the whole event. The Sensory Level is

expressed and understood in terms of transmission, expectations, real and fiction. The Artistic

Level is expressed and understood in terms of creativity, new and change. The Symbolic,

Sensory and Artistic Levels cannot be understood by themselves, but only as a whole where

they are seen as the extramusical elements of the Performativity Aspect.

31 Jane W. Davidson, “Introducing the Issue of Performativity in Music,” Musicology Australia 36, no. 2 (2014): 179-88, https://doi.org/10.1080/08145857.2014.958269.

18

Figure 1. The theoretical framework of this study. It is also used to categorize the gathered material.

Performativity in this schematic is seen as Japanese culture identity through its music. The

Symbolic, the Sensory and the Artistic Levels are the constituting elements of Sauter’s

phenomenological path, and are used to categorize the extramusical aspect, the Performativity

Aspect, when analyzing the material.

2.2. Method Methodologically this research consists of qualitative interviews and semiotic analyses of

professional Japanese artists who use Wagakki instruments in their performances. In this thesis

I use Ann Kristin Larsen’s social scientific methodology as a guide on how to collect the data,

how to conduct the qualitative interviews and what analyze method to use on the collected

material.32

The interviews were conducted during March 2020, at different locations in Tokyo, from

small coffee places to office spaces, music studios and in some cases the artist’s homes. The

interviews were conducted in Japanese, except in Curtis Patterson’s case, which was conducted

in English. The interviews were recorded with a hand recorder and they were about 30 minutes

32 Ann Kristin Larsen, Metod helt enkelt: En introduktion till samhällsvetenskaplig metod (Malmö: Gleerups Utbildning AB, 2009).

19

to 1 hour long. The question-from consist of both open-ended and closed-ended questions and

consists of three parts:33

1. Performance

2. Identity

3. Realism

The first part consists of questions about how the artists perceive their instruments, clothes and

props during their performances. The second part is about how they perceive their own musical

identity. It also includes how they perceive Wagakki, Japanese popular music and Western

popular music. The third part is related to whether they perceive their music performances as

real or fictional. Because the terms real, fictional, authentic and constructed through the

performativity in this study are understood as being real the question-form also consists of a

question about how the musicians perceive the term realism.

The interviews are transcribed, translated and then content analyzed. The content analysis

of each interview is presented separately. All answers are categorized in the following order

according to Sauter’s three levels of aspects; the Symbolic, the Sensory, and the Artistic Levels.

Also, the observations and documentation gathered are presented according to the relevance of

the musicians’ answers. The findings are then presented and analyzed in the discussion section.

2.3. Material The empirical data are the material mentioned in the introduction. I introduce the musicians in

the order in which I conducted the interviews. The analyses also follow the same order. The

Wagakki musicians interviewed are Obama Akihito, Motonaga Hiromu, Nagasu Tomoka,

Curtis Patterson and Kaminaga Daisuke. They are all well-established and respected

professional musicians in Japan and have vast experience and knowledge on how it is to be a

musician in Japan. Here follows a short presentation of each musician.

Obama Akihito (44) started to play Shakuhachi when he one day surprisingly found an

abandoned Shakuhachi in the street. In 2004 he released his first solo album Kazekoku and have

33 See, Appendix 2. Question-form.

20

since then made a vast number of CD recordings and compositions. Obama is currently

performing as a solo Shakuhachi musician and in numerous ensembles.34

Motonaga Hiromu (45) began playing Shakuhachi when entering Sophia University in

Tokyo. In 2012 he made his major debut with the CD album Wasabi and have since then made

numerous recordings and appearances on TV and radio shows, including recordings on the

anime Naruto and NHK taiga drama. He is a Shakuhachi musician currently working with

everything from classical songs to collaborating with different instruments, arts and

compositions.35

Nagasu Tomoka (41) commenced studying Shakuhachi and Biwa in 4th grade. She is a

Shakuhachi player, a Biwa player as well as a singer. She is a member of the group Rin’ who

have toured all over the world and have made recordings and compositions for countless

Japanese video games. Currently Nagasu works in various fields such as TV, Radio, creating

new compositions and performing as a solo musician. She also actively visits schools to convey

the sound of Japanese instruments to young people in Japan.36

Curtis Patterson (58) started to play the Koto after being introduced to it at Cornell

College in Iowa. He has lived in Japan since 1986. In 1995 he became the first non-Japanese

national who graduated from the NHK master’s program for young performers of traditional

Japanese music. In 2002 he released his first solo album Oto no wa and together with

Shakuhachi player Bruce Huebner released two CDs. Patterson is a professional Koto and

Shamisen player and singer. Currently he works as a performer, composer and as full-time Koto

teacher at the Yokohama International School.37 I here argue that by also interviewing a none

native Wagakki musician it can further strengthen the significance of this research.

Kaminaga Daisuke (34) began playing Shakuhachi in college. He has worked with

expanding the opportunities of Shakuhachi by working with different music genres, in

particular game music. He is part of the rock groups Wagakki Band and Hanafugetsu, which

34 Obama, Akihito. ”Shakuhachi sōsha Obama Akihito,” 尺⼋奏者⼩濱明⼈ Official Website [Shakuhachi Performer Obama Akihito Official Website] accessed February 25, 2020, http://www2s.biglobe.ne.jp/~obama/akihito/akihito.html. 35 Motonaga, Hiromu. “Hiromu Motonaga Shakuhachi & Music,” accessed February 25, 2020, http://www.motonagahiromu.com. 36 Nagasu, Tomoka. “Tomoka Nagasu Official Website,” accessed February 25, 2020, http://www.tomoka-nagasu.com. 37 Curtis Patterson, “Curtis Patterson – KOTO – Performance / Instruction,” accessed February 25, 2020, http://www.curtkoto.com.

21

have vast appearances in TV and radio shows and are performing in big arenas around the

world.38

The music performances’ material that have been gathered are live performances made

by Obama Akihito and Kaminaga Daisuke during my stay in Tokyo. Additional material on

music performances have been gathered by observations done through social media platforms.

I also use other material that I have gathered through observations during my stay in Tokyo

which I present in my findings.

38 Kaminaga, Daisuke. “Kaminaga Daisuke Shakuhachi sōsha,” 神永⼤輔 尺⼋奏者 [Shakuhachi Performer Daisuke Kaminaga], accessed February 25, 2020, http://www.daisukekaminaga.com.

22

23

3. Wagakki and Japanese Popular Music 3.1. Obama Akihito 3.1.1. The Symbolic Level In a coffee place close to Ikebukuro station in Tokyo at around two in the afternoon me and

Obama Akihito start the interview. Before we begin, I explain that the interview will be divided

into three parts. The first is about his performance, the second about identity and the third about

how he perceives realism. I then start by asking Obama to tell me about his instrument. He

explains: “Mostly I use three Shakuhachi instruments. The first is an old-style jinashi39 from

the Edo period. The second is an kokan40 that is said to be more than 100 years old. And the

third is a modern Shakuhachi, which resembles more of a flute and is closer to Western

instruments.” Next question is about when he performs. Obama explains that he performs many

different genres: “I play a lot of genres when performing. It is a piece of Japanese music called

jiuta.41 It is played with Koto and a type of Shamisen called Sangen. And then there is classical

music42 with classical songs for Shakuhachi.” Obama tells how he also play modern Western

music and min’yō:43 “In Japanese schools there are about four kinds of genres, I play all four

kinds.”

By looking at the Symbolic Level of what Obama says depending on the style of music,

the Shakuhachi seems to have evolved in many different ways during its long history. However

I believe that the old style Shakuhachi instruments compared with the new, which is closer to

Western instruments, symbolically are still the same but that they just have different qualities

that work better depending on what genre of music Obama is playing. It also can be interpreted

as if the Shakuhachi through history has been modified to adapt to different roles, but at the

same time kept its symbolic meaning. This can also be applied to how the Shakuhachi also

seems to have been adapted to work better together with Western music.

Because I am interested in how Wagakki musicians perceive their instruments, I also ask

Obama to describe the sound of Shakuhachi. He explains that if he would express its sound in

39Jinashi, 地無し, [A Shakuhachi where the bamboo is not tampered with cement inside. This gives it a balanced sound but its volume is often too low when playing in ensembles].40Kokan, 古菅, [Literally meaning old flute].41Jiuta, 地歌, [A style of Japanese traditional music with singing that has it’s origins from the Edo period].42 Kokyokuongaku, 古曲⾳楽, [Old Japanese songs performed individually on Wagakki instrument from eighteenth century Japan]. 43 Min’yō, ⺠謡, [Japanese folk music].

24

one way it is an image of nature: “a sound of nature.” 44 Further he explains that the Shakuhachi

is an instrument that not only lets you listen to melodies, but that it is an instrument that also

lets you enjoy the quality (character) of each individual sound. He questions whether there are

any Western instruments that do that.

Because Obama describes the sound of the Shakuhachi as a sound of nature my

interpretation is that it gives indications on how the Shakuhachi symbolises not the modern but

an older Japanese cultural identity. We move on to the next question which is about if he thinks

that traditional clothes are important when he performs. He explains that it depends on location,

what style of music he plays and on the expectations of the audience: “…if it’s a big venue and

if I play Jazz abroad I use Kimono. In Japan I would wear Western clothes when playing Jazz

because the Kimono is seen as old-fashioned in Japan. It would also depend on what everyone

else is wearing.”

Looking at how he wear different clothes it can also suggest that there are different

expectations on Obama when he goes abroad to perform. He would wear a Kimono when

performing Jazz abroad, but when he performs in Japan it seems preferable to wear Western

clothes or to a larger extent adjust his clothes after the different situations of his performances.

When I ask if the Kimono symbolizes something, Obama says that the Kimono represents

traditional culture, art and music, which have a long history. This I would argue gives a notion

on how Obama thinks that the Kimono, like the Shakuhachi, also symbolises an older Japanese

cultural identity.

Next question is about if Obama uses props when performing and if such props then also

symbolise something. Obama explains that he sometimes uses a Buddhist bell when performing.

He then shows me a picture of it and explains how he first hits the bell with a wooden striker

and then starts playing the Shakuhachi. The bell is called Rin Gong or Singing Bowl, a kind of

bell that is usually used for chants and meditation. He explains that the Buddhist bell fits well

with the Shakuhachi. When looking at Obama’s answer through the Symbolic Level it can also

suggest how the Buddhist bell and its religious symbolism are part of Obama’s music

performance and how it symbolises an older Japanese cultural identity.

44 Obama, Akihito. “Akihito Obama Shakuhachi music,” Soundcloud, accessed May 6, 2020, https://soundcloud.com/akihito-obama/sets/akihito-obama-shakuhachi-music.

25

3.1.2. The Sensory Level We move to the next part of the interview. I ask Obama if he has any special thoughts or feelings

during his performances, Obama explains:

Yes, Buddhism. The feeling is Buddhism. The two main religions in Japan are Buddhism and Shinto. Shinto is the religion that includes Japanese gods and shrines. Buddhism came from India. In Japan, Shinto and Buddhism were mixed together, so it was a mix. During the Meiji era they were separated and are now two different religions. Because they used to be mixed, Japanese people go to both shrines and temples to pray. So whichever way you feel you can go and pray. Praying is very important for Japanese people.

Obama continues by saying that for Japanese people, Japanese traditional music is to connect

with their identity. He tells me that he believes everybody thinks that and explains to me that it

is used when wanting to feel nostalgic and during difficult times. Moreover, he also explains

how he uses it to connect to his past self, or to a grandfather, grandmother, to old times or to

the painful.

Through the Sensory Level I would argue that Obama’s answer indicates as if he

perceives a connection through his music to his cultural heritage and where also religion is part

of that heritage and also his music.

I then ask what Obama thinks of Western instruments compared with Wagakki

instruments. He explains his relationship with Western instruments as part of his upbringing:

I actually play guitar. Motonaga also plays the guitar and Kaminaga the piano. Everyone has learned a Western instrument. Along with that, I play Shakuhachi. So, of course, I don’t dislike Western instruments. Because I have learned Western music I like to do music with both kinds of instruments. But I want to make new Japanese music. So that’s why I think I feel that if I play Western or European instruments alone it would become Western music. I think that by playing Shakuhachi along with a Western instrument it can give Shakuhachi new opportunities. For example, you can use a guitar and Shakuhachi. I want to do that kind of mix.

Next question is about if Obama thinks there are any expectations on him when he performs.

He explains how there have been expectations from outside and the spectators and how they

seem to have affected his music performance. Obama says that the guests on the concerts are

Japanese and that they did not like Japanese traditional music and did not listen to it. Obama

explains how he and the young Shakuhachi musicians started playing Western songs and how

the audience then became happy. He tells me how he did not appreciate this and how he later,

in the first part of his concerts played the classical songs with his Shakuhachi and how the

second part was modern songs with a guitar. He ends by explaining that all he really wanted to

26

do was the traditional songs. Interpreting this through the Sensory Level his answer seems to

give a notion of a duality, or two divided different views of a traditional Japanese cultural

identity and a modern Japanese cultural identity in his music. Moreover, his answer seems to

suggest that there are other expectations from the spectators where Western instruments are part

of his music performance. I would here infer that it is as if the spectators want to have a more

contemporary aspect and that Obama perceives as if the audience did not prefer Japanese

traditional music.

When I ask Obama if he is another character when he performs he explains that he is even

more himself. He elaborates that when he performs in concerts he understands that people want

to imagine things during the performance: “I imagine how much money I make.” He says and

laughs.

When we here observe his answers through the Sensory Level it seems to suggest that

Obama’s music performances are perceived as both “down to earth” real in how he needs to

think of his living and also at the same time how the spectators can imagine something fictional.

3.1.3 The Artistic Level The next question is about if Obama thinks that the reception towards Wagakki musicians in

Japan have changed, and if so, when he thinks it happened. Obama says that he has noticed

some changes from when he started his career. He says that the live performances he used to

do were for small audiences around thirty people and the performances were performed in small

Coffee places. He also explains how two years ago he started to play at bigger concert halls and

larger festivals. Obama takes out some concert posters and shows me different concerts that he

has been doing and will do in the future. It consists of big recital concert halls and live venues

in Japan but also big concert halls in Europe. When I look at all the concerts and posters I get

the impression that his traditional music—and by this his traditional Japanese cultural

identity—seems to be received more positively by his audience recently. I moreover get the

impression that Obama’s music with the guitar and thereby his modern Japanese cultural

identity also has made him more popular during the last couple of years.

I also ask Obama if he thinks that there is currently a Japanese traditional music boom

happening in Japan. He tells me that he thinks it is not. However, he also says that he thinks

that the big popularity of Wagakki Band has started to make more people listen to traditional

Japanese instruments: “That is what we wanted to do. In Japan people only used to listen to

Japanese traditional music during New Year.”

27

Obama has also played a lot of Jazz with his Shakuhachi so after that we talk about what

he thinks of mixing different genres and styles in music. Obama points out that he mixes

Japanese and Western music. He additionally explains that there are various genres in Japan

that he can mix, besides the Western genres. There are local songs, Nō songs and folk songs,

Kabuki, and also Japanese popular music: “I think by mixing different genres with the

Shakuhachi I can make new Japanese music possible.”

After that I ask Obama how he perceives Japanese popular music compared with Western

popular music. Obama says that he thinks Western music is interesting and tells me about what

an American friend had said to him in regards to a comparison between Japanese and American

music: “An American friend of mine, a Jazz singer from New York, […] told me that in

American music there are […] approximately ten chord progressions, and from those you can

make a hit, but in Japanese [popular] music you use two or three.”

This I would argue when looking at it from the Artistic Level in what Obama says, can

indicate that the Jazz singer from New York perceives that a separation and therefore a change

between what is Western and Japanese popular music has occurred where they now have

different Performativity Aspects in what is Western (American) popular music, and what is

Japanese popular music or J-pop.

3.2. Motonaga Hiromu 3.2.1. The Symbolic Level Me and Motonaga meet at an Italian restaurant close to Shinjuku station on a Thursday

afternoon. I start by asking Motonaga to tell me about his instrument. He explains that he plays

on a Shakuhachi that has been passed on to him by the late Aoki Reibo II who became a

designated Japanese National Treasure in 2000. He also tells me that the Shakuhachi is a Shirō-

kan, which is a Shakuhachi made by the legendary Shakuhachi player and flute maker

Yamaguchi Shirō (1885–1963). I tell Motonaga that I think the sound of Shakuhachi is soft and

meditative. He explains that he thinks you can express all kinds of natural sounds with the

Shakuhachi. How it can have a soft sound, but also can be powerful, how the sound can slide

between notes, and be a combination of different natural sounds, like wind. He also says that it

can sound like a singing voice or a speaking voice and continues:

The sound also depends on the instrument and on the person that is playing it. Depending on the size of the instrument, the sound can be completely different. The sound of the Shakuhachi also depends on the performers’ mouth and vocal cords.

28

After that I ask Motonaga about the traditional clothes and he explains how the band WASABI

is for entertainment. He tells how there are many women in the audience and that of course he

wants to look good to entertain them. He explains that he then dresses well but traditionally.

Motonaga then explains that when he performs in schools and meets students he tends to dress

casual because that if he would wear traditional clothes, the students would see him as from

another world and it becomes hard to connect with them: “They would see me as too different.

I want them to think that they can do what I am doing as well.”

When looking at Motonaga’s answers through the Symbolic Level, I would argue that

they indicate the importance of clothes and—from a semiotic perspective—how clothes

symbolises different things for Motonaga. By wearing modern clothes when meeting school

children, Motonaga experiences that he can more easily connect with them. In addition by

saying that he dresses traditionally to entertain his audience it can indicate an inconsistency

where the traditional clothes are used by Motonaga for both entertaining purposes and for

connecting himself to an older traditional cultural identity. Moreover, I would argue that this

can suggest that by Motonaga wearing both traditional clothes and modern clothes his musical

identity becomes symbolically a part of both a modern and traditional Japanese cultural identity.

Before I met Motonaga I was watching an official music video with the band WASABI.

The song is called “AZUMA.”45 In the video Motonaga and the other members of the band are

wearing modern clothes. I am struck by how it gives me a feeling that the music is modern even

though it is played with only traditional instruments. So, I take the opportunity to tell Motonaga

that I think wearing modern clothes symbolizes something new and ask what he thinks about it.

He replies:

Traditional things represent old things. I think by transmitting my music it can inspire people, without using clothes as it was in the old times. I think that what I am creating will also become history. So, I try to wear both traditional and modern clothes. By wearing both styles of clothes, I can make a new standard. So, it is important to challenge yourself.

I think what Motonaga means when saying that “it is important to challenge yourself” also

suggests through the Symbolic Level in how different clothes can symbolize different aspects.

The traditional clothes symbolize an older Japanese tradition and the modern clothes symbolize

the new, and by challenging himself and wearing modern clothes Motonaga in this way appears

45 Motonaga, Hiromu. et al., “WASABI ‘AZUMA’ (Official Music Video),” YouTube, accessed May 1, 2020, https://youtu.be/PDUelgXDdkA.

29

to perceive of himself as transmitting both his modern and traditional cultural heritage through

his music, to a younger audience and to students that he meets.

Next question is about if Motonaga uses any props when performing. He explains that he

only uses his Shirō-kan Shakuhachi and his Nō flute (a smaller Japanese vertical flute used in

the Nō theatre) during his performances, but no other stage props.

I also inquire Motonaga on what he thinks of Western instruments compared with

Wagakki. He explains that Western orchestral instruments are something many people make

harmonics with together and that is how they have evolved. In contrast Motonaga says that

Wagakki are instruments that are made to be played alone. Shakuhachi is Shakuhachi and

Shamisen is Shamisen. I believe Motonaga here refers especially to classical solo music from

eighteenth century Japan, which also Obama mentions in his interview, talking about tunes that

were composed to be played solo for each instrument. Motonaga expounds: “[In contrast to

Japanese instruments] Western instruments are easy to make harmonics with. Wagakki

instruments like Shakuhachi have a strong character, so it is hard to combine with other

instruments. I think that is the big difference.”

When looking at the Symbolic Aspect when comparing the Western instruments with the

Wagakki instruments, Motonaga’s answer suggests that not only their symbolic differences but

also their aesthetics differences can make them difficult to combine. This I would argue seems

to indicate that their differences in the aesthetics also seem to create a separation of what is

Western and Eastern where both the symbolics of the instruments and their aesthetics give them

different meanings for Motonaga. Moreover, I would argue that these differences also through

the Sensory Level of the Performativity Aspect creates expectations on how the instruments are

supposed to look and be used.

3.2.2. The Sensory Level When asking Motonaga if there are any special thoughts or feelings that he has during his

performances he thinks that they are about the same for all musicians. Motonaga says that it

also depends on the situation. If it is at a concert hall, or if the performance is for entertainment.

Motonaga additionally explains that when he plays Shakuhachi with Buddhist elements he has

a different feeling. Above answer, looking at it through the Sensory Level, I would argue also

suggests how different feelings and thoughts occur depending on the situation and on what

purpose the music performance has, but also on what expectations the audience has.

After that I ask Motonaga if he is another character when he performs he clarifies that he

is his original character, his real self. He also explains that even if he would try to be different

30

he cannot help but to show his real self in his music. He in addition explains how he sees his

performance: “The audience wants to stay away from reality when they see the show. I try also

to stay away from reality. I want them to feel that they had a special time.” Motonaga continues

by saying that he thinks that the audience might feel that it is fiction and says that he in some

of his songs expresses daily life and expounds: “A few songs that I have composed who are

both about reality and fiction. I think Shakuhachi is real. The sound is especially real. It is

related to life and death in Buddhism. It’s religious music, and in that way, it is real. It is not

fantasy.” I think Motonaga’s answer here shows through the Sensory Level how a music

performance can be both real and fictional at the same time as it did for Obama. Where the

audience can come to his show when wanting to get away from his or her reality by seeing

Motonaga perform. When further looking at the Sensory Aspect of what is fictional and real, I

believe Motonaga’s answer also gives a notion on the problematics of how the border between

these two aspects are not always clear. I could also argue that a music performance for

Motonaga through the Sensory Level creates something that is both real and fictional without

necessarily causing any friction between these two aspects; the seeming inconsistency created

by this dichotomy is perhaps something that is excepted by both the performer and the audience,

and thereby becomes a part of the music performance.

For the next question I ask Motonaga what comes to mind about the word realism. He

explains that he has not thought of realism much but that he has to be realistic, or else he cannot

live or survive. He says that Wagakki musicians always have to think of reality to make their

living. He finishes by explaining how he actually always needs to live up to the audience’s

expectations: “I have to think about what the audience wants to see and what the audience needs.

And I cannot play the way I like, the way I want. I always try to see the audience’s reaction and

try something new to see their reactions. I think that is the definition of realism in Japanese

traditional Music.”

3.2.3. The Artistic Level I then ask Motonaga to tell me about his performances. Motonaga explains that his musical base

(his musical identity) is in the classical songs and in the repertoire of meditative pieces.

Motonaga points out that he also creates more modern music that young people can enjoy.

Moreover, he explains to me that the group WASABI is currently his main activity when doing

this kind of music and that he also plays in the Pro Musica Nipponia orchestra. Pro Musica

Nipponia has existed for about 55 years and has about 60 orchestra members who play Japanese

31

traditional instruments and classical Western instruments. He also tells me that there are various

activities that they do, such as performing and doing workshops in schools: “During my career,

people’s reactions and attitudes have changed.” Motonaga explains that back in the days, it was

only people who played a Wagakki instrument that were really interested in Wagakki music.

But now more people who do not play any of the Japanese instruments are also interested in

Wagakki music.

By looking at the Artistic Level this also like for Obama seems to suggest that there has

been a change in the perception of Wagakki music lately. In addition I would argue that this

may have given Motonaga new possibilities to be creative and make more music that others can

enjoy.

I then ask Motonaga if Japanese culture and Japanese society create expectations on his

musicianship and his performance. He explains to me that he is just a small part of a vast

Japanese traditional culture and that people do not really care that much about what he does.

He expounds:

I try to spread Shakuhachi to people who are not interested in Japanese traditional music. Japanese people are not so interested in traditional music so I have played in animations, like for example Naruto. I want to spread my style of music to regular people, by playing on different Japanese animations.

This also through the Artistic Level gives indications on how Motonaga by playing his music

through anime characters have given him new possibilities. This I would argue moreover gives

a notion on how the sound of the Shakuhachi can create interest and appeal to a younger

audience by means of Japanese popular music and anime. Further, this I think is possible by the

new popularization among young people of anime characters like Naruto, not only in Japan but

also in the rest of the world.

I then inquire on how Motonaga sees Japanese popular music compared with traditional

Japanese music. He explains that Japanese traditional instruments have not changed much. He

continues by saying that one reason being that if it is not a traditional instrument it is hard to

distinguish the old from the new. This takes us back to the Sensory Level where modern and

traditional music by being each other’s created dichotomies both can be understood as separated

and that this is what gives them their purpose and meaning for Motonaga. Motonaga continues:

32

In modern society life goes too fast and traditional Japanese music is hard to appreciate. Japanese pop-music came from the West, not only to Japan, but all over the world. It came from the US and the UK. Japanese traditional songs last about 15 to 30 minutes. Some like that, and some don’t. I try to preserve the old style and also try to make a new style.

I cannot help myself to agree on how pop-music came from the US and the UK, so I tell

Motonaga that it is how pop-music also came to Sweden. This also gives a notion on how

American and English music has played a big part of both our upbringings and how the

Performativity Aspect of the music that we both know is very much influenced by this fact.

I continue by asking Motonaga how he perceives Western popular music compared with

Japanese popular music. Motonaga says that, for him, Western pop-music has a higher quality

compared with Japanese popular music. He furthermore says that he especially thinks the

Western vocalists are better and that the Japanese pop-music vocalists put more emphasis on

their appearance than on their singing ability. He clarifies that he talks about Japanese “Idols”

whose emphasis is on being cute. He continues by saying that there are not many idols like the

Japanese idols in Western countries, and that he thinks Western idols still make more effort on

the quality of the music.

3.3. Nagasu Tomoka 3.3.1.The Symbolic Level

I am meeting Nagasu Tomoka at the same Italian restaurant as I met Motonaga. I start by asking

Nagasu to tell me about her instrument. Nagasu explains to me that she plays two Wagakki

instruments, the Shakuhachi and the Biwa. She also explains that it is rare that a Shakuhachi

player plays a string instrument, and that she probably is the only professional performer who

plays both Shakuhachi and Biwa in Japan.

I then ask Nagasu how she perceives the sounds of Wagakki instruments. Nagasu tells

me that the sounds of Wagakki instruments represent everything, from the harshness of a person

to the beauty of a special place. She continues by saying that: “I think that it represents the tone

of life, something that I can’t express with a Western instrument.” Her answer here I believe

gives a notion on how important the sounds of the Wagakki instruments are for Nagasu.

She explains to me that she thinks that Japanese traditional clothes are very important for

her when she performs. By wearing a costume that fits a certain era it makes the performance

more enjoyable for her. She continues: “Also, I go abroad to perform. At such occasions I

always bring my own remade Kimono dress. Of course, I also bring a traditional Kimono. By

doing so, I try to convey […] the Japanese character. The Japaneseness.” Furthermore Nagasu

33

expounds that she feels that when wearing traditional clothes, the sound changes. Nagasu’s

notion of Japaneseness seems to relate to a sensation of pride for being part of a Japanese

traditional culture.

This not only gives indications on how the Kimono symbolizes Japanese cultural identity

for Nagasu, and that she—by wearing it abroad—feels that she can convey her Japaneseness to

the outside audience when performing. I would here argue that her answer gives indication on

that the dress also can change the perception of the sounds of the instruments also for the

spectators during a performance.

This also is something that I discuss with a French woman who lives at the same Hostel

during my stay in Japan. She also says that when she sees a performance it will not sound right

to her if the costumes are not right. The dress or a Kimono can in this way, I interpret, be seen

as something that is resonating with the music. The Kimono becomes extramusical, something

that can be expressed through gestures but also through clothes and props. This additionally

gives insight on how the Sensory Level is part of the music and its expectations from both the

artist and the spectator alike—on what a performer is wearing—can play an important role on

how a music performance affects those attending.

I then ask Nagasu if she uses any props when performing. She explains that she does not

and that the reason is that she only wants to enjoy the music during her performance. We

continue the interview and inquire Nagasu if she can tell me about what she thinks of when

comparing Western instruments and Japanese traditional instruments. Nagasu tells me:

I've been playing the piano since I was 5 years old. It is common in Japan to hear Western music from an early age. That’s of course why there are things that are so close to Western music in Japan. So, when I was an international student, I also played the horn in an orchestra, but I also played Japanese instruments. That is why I never really made a difference between the Japanese instruments and the Western instruments.

Nagasu’s answers through the Symbolic Level show how Western instruments and Wagakki

instruments are both part of her upbringing and music education. Nagasu also says that she is

envious of the wide range of notes that can be played on Western instruments, from lower notes

to higher notes. She continues by saying that Japanese traditional instruments have a range of

about two octaves. Also, the Shakuhachi has only 5 holes compared with the Western flute,

which has several more. Nagasu explains that the Shakuhachi does not reach very high pitches

when the standard length is used. She continues: “If it’s a violin the high notes can be performed

34

beautifully. With the [standard-length] Shakuhachi I can only reach the pitches of a viola.”46

Nagasu says that she feels that Western instruments can be expanded more and that it is hard to

imitate such aspects with Wagakki instruments: “That might be why I collaborate with Western

instruments. I have always played together with violins. Sometimes I also have concerts

together with piano, percussion and so on. So, it happens often that I collaborate with both

Japanese and Western instruments.” This I would argue through the Symbolic Level gives a

notion on how both Western and traditional Japanese instruments together can be representative

of an modern Japanese cultural identity for Nagasu and her music.

3.3.2. The Sensory Level We move to the Sensory Level part of the interview. I start by asking Nagasu if she needs to

have any special feelings or thoughts when performing. Nagasu explains that she rather than

playing without making any mistakes always tries to understand the song that she is playing as

much as possible, and to express this in her sound. She also tells me that she rarely sits on a

chair when performing. She continues: “At that time, it was not seen as a traditional

performance to play a Shakuhachi while walking, or to play Shakuhachi and suddenly begin to

sing. I think it was this that made me interesting, and also helped me to make my debut.”47

This I think gives a notion on how Nagasu, through the Sensory Level as a performer of

Japanese traditional music, has special expectations on how to perform. Moreover, it also seems

to show how these expectations have changed for her. Like in Nagasu’s case, by not following

these expectations it made her more interesting for the audiences and by this helped her when

she made her debut.

I therefore ask Nagasu if Japanese culture and Japanese society create expectations on her

musicianship and on how she should perform. She explains that what Japanese people value is

something unique that is called wabi-sabi. What wabi-sabi actually means has been interpreted

in many ways and is therefore very hard to define. The translation should be something like

“beautiful loneliness.” In English the word has been used to describe Japanese culture to

foreigners. Like tea ceremonies, architecture along with Zen, Taoism and Ikebana (flower

arrangements). It is also used to describe artists, poets and philosophers.48 Because I am in

46 The shakuhachi comes in varies length, with the standard length being tuned in D4, covering approximately two and a half octaves, up to a G or G#. There are both shorter and longer instruments. 47 Nagasu, Tomoka. et al., “Murasaki no yukari, futatabi Rin’,” 紫のゆかり、ふたたび Rin’ [Violet Purple, again] Bilibili, accessed, May 3, 2020, https://www.bilibili.com/video/BV1ss411Z7AK?p=5. 48 “In to Japan Waraku,” accessed April 18, 2020, https://intojapanwaraku.com/culture/13279/.

35

Japan, I take the opportunity to also ask my Japanese hosts at my hostel what they think that

Nagasu means. They explain that wabi-sabi49 also has to do with the beauty of simplicity and

tranquility. Moreover they say that it is about the beauty of not showing off and of quietness.

Nagasu tells me that she is often told by other people that she becomes another character

when performing. However, she says that she is not really aware of it and that most of her

performances are realistic: “I think it is positive that we can’t escape from what is real. I think

creating something by accepting the now is more real.”

3.3.3. The Artistic Level For the next question I ask Nagasu to tell me about her performances. She explains to me that

she performs many different music genres. Moreover, when she composes music she finds a

special dimension through playing and listening to her heart.

After that I ask Nagasu how she sees traditional Japanese music compared with Japanese

popular music. She says that for those who listen to traditional music for the first time it takes

longer to appreciate it. Further she tells me that Japanese popular music is something you can

relax to and be comfortable listening to. Nagasu explains that she thinks that it makes it easier

for the young generation to understand. Furthermore she says that Japanese popular music is

music that people of all ages can understand and enjoy. However, Nagasu also continues by

saying that she actually liked traditional Japanese music the first time she listened to it, and then

started to play Shakuhachi and Biwa from fourth grade of elementary school. She continues: “I

guess I say so because that is what other people say.” Looking at Nagasu’s answer through the

Artistic Level it suggests that both Wagakki music and popular music is perceived as something

natural for her and both can in this way, I would interpret, have created something new in her

music and by this become a part of how she perceives her own musical identity.

We continue by me asking Nagasu what comes to mind when comparing the difference

between Western popular music and Japanese popular music. She explains to me that she thinks

the perception of rhythm is perhaps different. Especially for the older generation. For the

younger generation, Nagasu expounds, the rhythmical perception probably is about the same

for Americans and Japanese. She explains that she thinks the way to understand the rhythm was

a bit different in Japan. Where the emphasis of the rhythm was on each beat. She expounds how

the emphasis was on the one and third instead of on the second and fourth beat. “So, when I, a

while ago, did a cover of a Western popular song, and we were practicing behind the scene, it

49 Jisho, s.w. “Wabisabi,” accessed, May 25, 2020, https://jisho.org/search/wabisabi.

36

became messed up all of a sudden.” This can indicate that Western music to Nagasu is

constructed and something that is not natural in that sense. On the other hand, I would argue

that through the Artistic Level, Nagasu’s answer suggests how Western music has also become

part of the younger generation’s musical identity in Japan.

As the last question I ask Nagasu if she thinks there is a current boom in Japan on Wagakki

instruments. She explains that she does not think so, but that maybe since there is an increasing

interest for them because young people are playing with anime figures like Naruto and Inuyasha.

They are anime characters who also use Wagakki instruments in the music of their animes and

video games. As I earlier mentioned Naruto is a popular anime character that Motonaga plays

Shakuhachi for. I think that there is a vast potential for a musicological perspective in this

respect; one could maybe argue that the anime characters are the extramusical aspects that

resonate through the music of the Wagakki musicians.

3.4. Curtis Patterson 3.4.1. The Symbolic Level On a quite rainy afternoon close to Meguro station I meet Curtis Patterson in the comfort of his

own home. I start the interview by asking Patterson to tell me about his instrument. He plays

the standard thirteen-string Koto, the Bass-Koto and the Shamisen like his teacher Sawai Tadao,

who died in 1997. According to one critic, the musical legacy of Sawai lives on through

Patterson’s music.50 In addition Patterson tells me that he also sings. He explains: “It’s not

something I knew when I started playing Koto, that most of the players don’t just play a single

instrument, but also sing. When you do modern music, you also play the Bass-Koto and you

also play Shamisen and sing with that.” Patterson says that the Koto type that he is playing is

called Ikuta-ryū and that there are two main schools of Koto in Japan, Ikuta and Yamada. Ikuta

have square picks and Yamada plays with rounded picks. He also explains that the sounds of

the instruments are basically the same, but that the repertoires are partly different.

I then ask Patterson how he perceives the sound of the instruments. Because Patterson

also plays piano he expounds that the Koto is not like a piano, one of the reasons being that you

have to tune your own instrument. Patterson tells me how you create the sound by using the

picks or your unpicked hand and how the sound changes depending on things like the angle of

the pick and strength you use when creating the sound. He continues: “There is a bridge here

50 Louise George Kittaka, “Foreign-born professional strives to reconnect Japanese with koto music,” Japan Times, May 2, 2020, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2013/05/18/our-lives/foreign-born-professional-strives-to-reconnect-japanese-with-koto-music/#.Xq0vrBqeyhA.

37

[shows with hands] and a moveable bridge here. From this bridge here, the sound is quite

different depending on how far you [stretch] out. You use your left hand to press and pull and

manipulate the string, manipulating the sound.” He says that this is how you change the quality

of the sound. He ends by explaining: “…and you can change [the sound] however you want.”

He also says that he thinks the sound is very straight and honest and that maybe it has to

do with the fact that the instruments are acoustic instruments, and don’t use any effects. He

explains to me that the lyrics often are about nature and that the forms of the songs can be seen

as something natural in that the compositions are not on a form with repeated patterns, like an

A–B–A–B form.51 He explains: “There is an aspect of nature that goes through the music. You

don’t necessarily come back to A in the end. So, it is almost like a river that flows that starts in

the mountains and then goes to the sea. So, it does not go back to the mountain.”

We continue the interview and I ask Patterson about what he thinks of the traditional

clothes. He answers that personally he likes to wear Kimono and that he has acquired many of

them during the years. He further explains that the Kimono is comfortable but also tight and

this helps focusing when performing. Additionally when playing modern songs, he sometimes

wears Western clothes: “I also sometimes use Western clothes, or a samu-e, a less formal

Kimono, to get a more relaxed feeling when playing.” He then also talks about how the formal

Kimono is almost like a uniform and in that way it is easy to choose when deciding what to

wear for a performance. He also thinks that wearing a formal Kimono symbolizes some kind of

respect for past things. Moreover he points out that by wearing both formal and less formal

Kimono it also gives [the audience] a chance to re-examine part of Japanese culture and its

craftsmanship, the fabric and its colors.

Patterson plays in a duo consisting of Patterson himself on Koto and Bruce Huebner on

Shakuhachi.52 He tells me how he together with Huebner regularly performed concerts at

shelter-houses in Fukushima after the great earthquake of March 11, 2011. People often told

him that hearing Japanese instruments was the most comforting for them. Also they said that

they felt something in the sound that was more natural and closer to their existence compared

with performances with Western instruments.

I think that because the Wagakki instruments were “the most comforting for them” it also

indicates how the Wagakki instruments connected spiritually and strongly to the people in

Fukushima during those very hard times.

51 In pop songs a song mainly consists of A, which is the verse and B, which is the chorus. 52 Curt Patterson et al., “Curtis & Bruce - Sunday Afternoon,” accessed May 4, 2020, https://curtkoto.com/album/1408706/sunday-afternoon.

38

3.4.2. The Sensory Level I start by asking Patterson what he likes to communicate when he performs. He points out that

when deciding on the program for a performance he likes to include some things from the

classical repertoire but also original songs that he has composed. Further he likes to include

songs composed by his teacher Sawai, songs that Patterson says he is most strongly influenced

by. Patterson also says that he likes to include something that is very different from a late Koto

composer from the sixties or seventies.

Next question is about if Patterson perceives his performances as more real or fictional.

He tells me that it is real, but that he sometimes maybe wishes he could make it more fictional

and take himself out of it.

We go on by me asking what comes to mind when hearing the word realism. Patterson

says that it involves a sense of honesty and truth. He shows me a painting, some pottery and the

coffee cups that we are using and explains that they were made by a friend of his, an artist who

unfortunately passed away one week prior to our meeting. Patterson continues to explain that

for him realism is this sense of humanity, in how he feels connected to his friend through these

things in a very personal way: “So I feel like realism in music is the same kind of thing. It is

honest and it provides a very direct connection with the audience. That I guess is how I would

describe realism, and I guess that is why I always try to connect in a direct way.” Patterson says

that it is maybe because of the acoustic aspect of the instrument and how the sound is made. He

clarifies: “If you start messing with that in different ways making it something a little bit

different, then I think it is easier to think of that as fiction.” This I would argue suggests that a

performance for Patterson can be described in terms of “authentic” and “real.”

We then also talk about if Japanese culture and society creates expectations on his

performances. Patterson tells me that he thinks it does. He analyses: “I guess I have tried to

make my performances as Japanese as possible, or as a Japanese person would play.” He also

says that when he started teaching Koto he became a part of an ensemble group. He explains to

me that when you are playing in an ensemble there is not much lead or freedom to create

something of your own: “So in that way I would say I kind of conformed to the Japanese

standard for playing the Koto.”

My interpretation is that this gives indication that through the Sensory Level, by following

the special expectations of what a Japanese Koto player is, Patterson has become such.

39

3.4.3. The Artistic Level Because Patterson also is a teacher we continue by me asking how it is to be a teacher in Japan.

He starts by telling me how 40-50 years ago as a traditional Koto teacher you would teach at

your home on a daily basis. The students would just come every day for a short period of time,

and this is how the music was taught. Patterson expounds: “The teacher would play a phrase,

you would play the phrase and you would play it again, you learn the music that way. So, it was

very close and a personal kind of a thing.” He clarifies to me how it has changed by telling me

about when he was teaching a group of sixth graders:

I was working with a group of sixth graders and we all played together. My left hand was moving and doing vibrato, without me really thinking of it. And then one of the kids raised their hand and asked, is that okay if we do that too? And I said of course it’s okay! It was because I hadn’t taught them this aspect of it, and it is something no Japanese teacher taught me to do or say that I should do, I just copied them. It was very interesting for me how they in the international school asked me if it is okay to do that.

Furthermore he expounds on that he also likes to educate the audience during his performances.

He says he thinks it is maybe because he is from the West and that he comes from a family of

educators and people who like to talk and explain things.

When looking at Patterson’s answer through the Artistic Level of the Performativity

Aspect I would argue that it indicates how he seems to communicate his background through

his teachings and performances. This I also would argue can indicate how Patterson

interestingly have created a change in the Performativity Aspect of what it is to be a Japanese

Koto teacher and Koto performer for Patterson (himself).

I also ask Patterson, because he is a teacher if he has seen if Wagakki have become more

popular in Japan. He explains that fewer and fewer people play the Koto. He explains that there

are more and more people who never have experienced the instrument in a live setting. He

explains that he thinks that when he came to Japan in 1982 there was a much bigger audience

for Koto. He also tells me that it is hard for him to say, but that when he performs now he feels

that more and more people are not familiar with his instrument.

After that I ask Patterson about Japanese music compared with Western music he

explains: “Japanese people can carry a tune. They can sing. And they will sing. Which is maybe

a little bit different from the West where some people just don’t sing.” He continues explaining

that he feels that there is a stronger connection with lyrical vocal music in Japan, and that it

stretches through all forms of Japanese music. He explains that because Japanese music started

out as katari, a form of storytelling through music, there may be this long history of vocal music

40

being an important part of Japanese music. He in addition explains that he thinks that this

connection is stronger in Japan than in Western countries and that this is maybe why Japanese

music in general places a lot of importance on the lyrics.

3.5. Kaminaga Daisuke 3.5.1. The Symbolic Level I am meeting Kaminaga at Akihabara station. We walk to his office that is close to the station

and start the interview. Kaminaga who plays the Shakuhachi starts by explaining to me how he

thinks the sound of Wagakki instruments are very balanced. He tells me how traditional

instruments have not evolved that much, how this makes them very simple instruments to make.

He continues: “Many Japanese instruments are very simple and you can create various sounds

with them on their own.” He explains how these characteristics of the instruments help when

he performs: “For me, this is very good. For example, if I want the Shakuhachi to be the main

character during a song, I can do that. But if I want it to be in a supporting role, I can do that

too.” He ends with concluding: “I think this is what makes the sound of the Shakuhachi very

balanced.”

I inquire if Kaminaga thinks traditional clothes are important when he performs. He

explains that he doesn’t think that they are so important. That they however are a part of who

he is as a human being and that it represents him. He continues:

For example, you want to wear Kimono as a father or when you are a child. I only sometimes wear Kimono when I meet people. Therefore, I think Kimono is less important for me than for people from other countries and people who are raised outside of Japanese culture. I think this is a part of being a human being. So, it’s not something special. But after all it represents a part of what I have, And I think it really represents me.

I believe that Kaminaga’s answer thereby through the Symbolic Level can be interpreted as an

expression of his perception that his cultural heritage is naturally communicated through his

music.

After that I ask Kaminaga to explain what he thinks the props that Wagakki Band use

symbolises. Kaminaga first gets confused in what I mean but then tells me that the backdrops

and environments after all also symbolise cultural meaning. My interpretation is that this also

shows how the props, in the same way as the Kimono, are part of who Kaminaga is and therefore

constitute a part of his own cultural identity through the Symbolic Level.

41

Kaminaga further says that Western instruments evolved to facilitate rapid change

between tones and to make it easier to create harmonies. He says that Wagakki instruments are

more about playing them on their own. He explains that if you manufacture the Shakuhachi to

be more convenient for playing harmonics, its unique sounds cannot be created. This through

the Symbolic Level furthermore seems to indicate how the symbolic differences also are

important for Kaminaga, as for him, the Wagakki instruments carry a traditional and cultural

meaning that, compared with the Western instruments, separates them from each other. He

continues to explain how Western instruments are still important to him:

In my music, I have learned about Western instruments since I was little and learned the piano. So Western classical music is also part of me. I said earlier that I use Shakuhachi as a means of communication. In order to communicate with the various Wagakki instruments and Western musical instruments for that communication, I must have knowledge of Western musical instruments. I think that kind of thing is necessary. After all, I think that Western instruments are necessary for me to play music.

Kaminaga’s answer I here argue also indicates through the Symbolic Level that the Western

instruments also are part of his musical identity.

I also had the chance to see Kaminaga perform with the band Hanafugetsu during my

stay.53 The performance was held at Studio E-ra close to Yoga railway station outside Tokyo.

This also gave me the opportunity to ask the musicians some questions and also see them

perform. Hanafugetsu is an acoustic trio consisting of members from the Wagakki Band. It is

Zusuhana Yuko on piano and song, Ibukuro Kiyoshi on Koto and Kaminaga Daisuke on

Shakuhachi. Zusuhana is wearing a beautiful pink Japanese dress so I inquire her about the

dress. She tells me that it is made by her designer. Zusuhana also shows me a hand fan and tells

me how she bought it at the market at Asakusa. Ibukuro, who plays a twenty-five-stringed Koto

also tells me that the Koto easily gets out of tune and is therefore tuned after each song. Because

I thought that the Wagakki instruments only could play pentatonic scales I ask Kaminaga how

he tunes his Shakuhachi to the piano. Kaminaga explains how the Shakuhachi actually can glide

between notes.

When we talk about his music Kaminaga tells me how he always loved TV-games and

video game music and he has also played piano since he was little. However, because he loved

melodies he wanted to play an instrument that he could play with more emotion in the melody.

53 Kaminaga, Daisuke. et al., “Hanafugetsu orijinaru kyoku ‘Kazaguruma’ PV,” 【華風月】オリジナル曲『かざぐるま』PV [Hanafugetsu, original song “Pinwheel” promotional video] YouTube, accessed May 3, 2020, https://youtu.be/hd0wAMhAKnc.

42

He also tells how he started to play the Shakuhachi: “At first, I wanted to select an Irish

instrument like a Tin Whistle or Irish pipe. So, when I entered university I started looking at

club activities and circles and started in a Shakuhachi circle.” Kaminaga tells me how now,

because he plays Shakuhachi and has learned Wagakki music, he always thinks of what new

roles the Shakuhachi can play in rock music or J-pop.

3.5.2. The Sensory Level For the next question I ask Kaminaga what feelings and thoughts are going on when he performs.

He explains that when he performs he has a feeling of communication. He clarifies:

For me the performance is also about communicating with the other performers I play together with, and the audience that are watching the show. I also try to communicate with the place and everything. If I am in the forest it’s the trees, the wind that I perform to. In the live venue I perform with the audiences.

This I would argue also gives a notion on how music is resonating and communicated through

the Sensory Level. From a performer to an audience, from performer to performer, but also how

the Symbolic Level of the environment is part of what is transmitted in Kaminaga’s music

performances.

I inquire Kaminaga if he thinks that the reception towards him as a musician has changed

in Japan. He tells me that when he started performing about ten years ago, there were few people

playing Shakuhachi at live venues. He liked his instrument and thought that he should make a

living with the Shakuhachi. However, he didn’t think he could live and do it that much in Japan.

Kaminaga continues explaining that he didn’t really think that he would play an active part in

the society or the world, or live in it happily. So, he was really thinking of bringing the

Shakuhachi to other countries then Japan. He says that it was a result of that Japan had no place

for Shakuhachi. Live venues and other places where interested in other kinds of music. He

expounds:

I think that because Wagakki Band became so popular, the way we think of Wagakki instruments like the Shakuhachi have changed a lot. It might be because of that, or even if it’s not, maybe it would have happened within time. So, I think that ten years ago and now, original Wagakki music and the image of Shakuhachi in Japan and in other places has changed considerably, and I think one of the big reasons is the Wagakki Band.54

54 Kaminaga, Daisuke. et al., “Wagakki Bando / Senbonzakura,” 和楽器バンド / 千本桜 [Wagakki Band – One thousand Sakura flowers] accessed May 3, 2020, https://youtu.be/K_xTet06SUo.

43

When I question Kaminaga if he thinks that Japanese culture and society creates expectations

on his musicianship when performing. Kaminaga explains how he perceives these expectations:

“Japanese people already know the name of the instrument Shakuhachi, and somehow it is quite

a lot of people who know the instruments, no matter what kind of instrument it is.” Kaminaga

tells how there is an image of Shakuhachi: “An old man is playing it, or the royal family is

playing it, or a samurai is playing it.” Kaminaga says how because there are these images he

after all would like to see new aspects on the Shakuhachi. He also thinks he is looking for

something that is not too far from everyone’s image of Shakuhachi. He expounds: “I also play

in other activities then Wagakki band where I also like to play Irish music. After all, when I

play in Wagakki band, I am conscious of it so that the Shakuhachi can look like a traditional

Japanese instrument. I feel that the audiences probably want it this way.”

This I would here argue that these expectations of Wagakki that Kaminaga explained,

through the Sensory Level, can suggest how this expectations on the image of Wagakki are very

established and how Kaminaga needs to be aware of this when performing. We go a bit deeper

into the Sensory Level by me asking if Kaminaga is another character when he performs. He

explains how people sometimes say to him that he is another character when he is on stage, but

that it is, like also Nagasu explains, not his intention. He ends by saying that he thinks the root

of his character when performing is the communication.

We go even deeper, I ask Kaminaga if he perceives his performance as more real or

fictional. He explains that he has still not done many compositions until recently and that it

mainly has been about playing music and performing. Furthermore Kaminaga thinks that when

he performs on stage that it is very real. He rationalizes on how he sees composing music: I've started composing recently, but I don’t know if I think that it is fiction. Well, as I said earlier, I think that performance is communication, so exchange words is communication. And of course, words can be fictional and imaginative. But I think using those fictional things is very real communication.

After that I ask Kaminaga what comes to mind when hearing the word realism. He starts by

saying that maybe it’s a Japanese image of realism,55 but when he hears the word it makes him

think of a very extreme person. He continues that it is called realism to only think of physical

things without thinking of the human mind or spiritual things. However, Kaminaga explains

55 In Japan the term realism refers to a major theory of international politics. It analysis anarchy in international relations and it’s balance of power.

44

that realism for him is to include all realities, not only the physical aspects, but also the human

mind. He ends by telling me that those who are said to be Japanese realists may not be realistic

at all.

3.5.3. The Artistic Level Because Wagakki Band has become vastly big in Japan and outside it I continue by asking

Kaminaga if he thinks that there is a current wave of Wagakki music. Kaminaga says that he

does not think it is any strong surge in interest, but he continues by saying that he thinks that

the number of people who are potentially interested in Wagakki music has increased

dramatically over the last decade. However, he thinks that there have been bigger waves in the

past, compared to the current one. He explains that traditional music has had waves of

popularity several times and also before the Edo period, in peaceful times. He explains that he

does not think that it is currently as popular as it may have been in those times. He rather thinks

that maybe the Wagakki wave is something that is now happening in China. He analyzes:

Chinese people are currently reviewing their traditional culture, and Shakuhachi is a Japanese traditional culture that remains only in Japan, but it was originally from China, so it’s a Chinese traditional culture. I think that the number of people who are choosing Shakuhachi is increasing because they are trying to revitalise traditional culture.

Next question is about how Kaminaga perceives Japanese popular music compared with

traditional Japanese music. Kaminaga tells me that traditional Japanese music from nine

hundred years ago and the popular Japanese music of today belong in the same history. He also

tells me that there is no Japanese traditional music that has rhythm or chords. I assume that he

refers to the first very old traditional music as also Obama and Motonaga do and not the more

modern types, like for example Kabuki or Japanese folk music. Kaminaga continues by saying

that he thinks that the musical characteristics are different from when Western music influenced

Japan: “Now and in the past, Japanese people always loved singing, capturing the music from

the melodies. I think that making melodies is still the same as that of the basic part. For example,

such as thinking in the pentatonic scale.” Kaminaga also says that even if the musical

knowledge has increased he thinks that the delicate tones and movements of sounds that he

cherishes in traditional Japanese music can be unavoidably difficult to put in popular music:

“There are times when I need to cut small parts that was made use of in traditional Japanese

music, but I also think that all the things Japanese popular music can do are increasing.”

45

Through the Artistic Level, Kaminaga’s answer indicates how traditional Japanese music

and its traditional cultural identity in how the pentatonic scale and the love for singing also for

him is part of the modern Japanese popular music that he creates.

For my final question I ask Kaminaga how he perceives Western popular music. He tells

me that there of course are various different music-genres in the West and thinks that American

popular music is a mix of Irish music and African music. He tells me how he thinks that he is

trying to incorporate various roots music into popular music and that it is something that

Japanese popular music in Japan didn’t have until recently. He expounds how he didn’t think

that he would use folk-metal to incorporate his musical roots into popular music and ask me if

Wagakki Band isn’t folk-metal. He continues and explains how he thinks that in Europe, the

United States, and Japan, maybe also Chinese music will become that way. He ends by telling

me that he thinks that we may be heading in the direction of incorporating our cultural identities

into popular music.

46

47

4. Discussion and Conclusions 4.1. Discussion When looking at the Symbolic Level of the sounds of the Wagakki instruments Obama,

Motonaga and Patterson explain how they perceive the instruments as representing nature.

Nagasu calls it a “tone of life” and Kaminaga describes it as “balanced.” Also Motonaga and

Patterson explain how they perceive the sounds of their instruments as calming but also strong

and powerful. These different aspects of the sound of their instruments I would argue seems to

enhance their perception of their cultural identity and by this becomes part of the Symbolic

level.

Moreover, looking at the Symbolic Level all musicians also use Western instruments in

their repertoire. In Nagasu’s and Kaminaga’s cases both Wagakki instruments and Western

Instruments are intertwined in their music, whereas in Obama’s, Motonaga’s and Patterson’s

cases they are less intertwined. In addition, the musicians’ answers suggest that they perceive

Japanese popular music as having both Western characteristics and Japanese characteristics.

When comparing Western instruments with Wagakki instruments all musicians answers also

indicate how they perceive aesthetic differences that makes the instruments difficult to combine.

This I would argue gives a notion of how there are symbolic differences of the music

instruments; both the aesthetics and the symbolic values seem to create a separation of what is

Western and what is Eastern, thereby giving different meaning to the use of the instruments.

This contradiction, the duality and separation of identities through the Symbolic Level, can also

be a reason why one could argue that it is hard to interpret and clearly define what Wagakki

and Japanese popular music actually is for the musicians. However, I would argue that all

musicians answers on how Western instruments are part of their music gives a notion on how

the musicians perceive both Western and Wagakki instruments as part of their musical identity.

When furthermore looking at the traditional clothes and what they symbolize Obama and

Nagasu mention that when playing outside of Japan they dress up in traditional clothes. It is as

if when playing abroad they feel a need to fulfill the expectations that Western audiences have

about Japanese culture, but in Japan the expectations seem to be more in how Obama, Motonaga

and Curtis sometimes wear modern clothes, can be interpreted as to show that the traditional

music can have a contemporary relevance.

I believe one could argue that the different symbolic meanings of the Western and

traditional clothes makes it difficult to interpret, in the same way as with the instruments. This

is in how the created duality of the Western clothes and the traditional clothes on the Symbolic

48

Level are contradictory and thereby it is more difficult to define how the musicians perceive of

their musical identities. At the Symbolic Level, by wearing clothes that symbolizes different

meaning it seems to maybe instead indicate how the musicians perceive both Western and

traditional clothes to be a part of their musical identity.

When looking at the Symbolic Level not all musicians say that they use props during their

performances. On the other hand things like backdrops, environments and like Obama’s Rin

bowl seem to enhance the perception of a Japanese cultural identity. I would thereby argue that

also the props like the traditional clothes and the Wagakki instruments should be seen as part

of the Symbolic Level.

When I look at the musicians’ answers through the Sensory Level it shows how the

feelings and thoughts vary for the musicians. For Obama and Motonaga they explain that the

basis in their music when performing is the Buddhist elements. For Nagasu it is to express the

special sound of her instruments and songs. For Patterson it is to project a feeling of calmness

and nature. For Kaminaga it is communication. These answers I would argue gives a notion on

how their feelings and thoughts are depending on the different situations and expectations from

when they perform and on what is communicated between the artists and the audience through

the Sensory Level.

When looking at how the musicians perceive their music performances—as real or

fictional—they all think that it is very real but also acknowledge that it may be perceived as

fictional by the audience. For example, both Nagasu and Kaminaga tell how they’ve been told

by some spectators that they perceive them as different characters on stage. I would here argue

that all the musicians including Obama’s, Motonaga’s and Patterson’s answers and the seeming

inconsistency created by this dichotomy is perhaps something that is excepted by both the

performer and the audience, and thereby becomes a part of the music performance.

When interpreting the Artistic Level of the individual answers from the musicians the

reception towards Wagakki music seem to have changed. However, the answers differ on how

they perceive this change. Obama says that he has seen a change on how the concerts that he

performs in have become bigger during the last years. Motonaga, Nagasu and Kaminaga also

state that they have the impression that more and more people have become interested of

Japanese traditional instruments both outside and inside of Japan during the last years. There

are, nonetheless, some discrepancies in the musicians’ answers that make them difficult to

interpret. Patterson says for example that it has actually decreased lately and fewer even know

about the existence of these instruments. This makes the answers contradictory and it is not

possible to conclude any clear tendencies from the interviews conducted in this study; more

49

research is therefore needed. However, I believe that this study gives indications that the

musicians perceives the use of Wagakki in Japanese popular music in contemporary Japan is

an established feature. Moreover, Kaminaga’s answer on how the popularity of Wagakki music

has increased dramatically during the last decade suggests that there is an increased presence

of Wagakki in popular music not only in Japan but also outside it. However, I believe this needs

a broader field of study to clarify. When interpreting the musicians’ performances that I

observed through the Performativity Aspect and the extramusical the cultural identity attached

to the Wagakki instruments and its symbolics seems to transmit to the audience through the

Sensory Level. This I also observed when watching Wagakki Band, Rin’ and WASABI through

social media platforms. I would furthermore argue that it also through the extramusical seems

to resonates in other situations in different spaces and times, like for example Japanese New

Year’s holidays, school activities and teaching. Their cultural identity also not only seems to

transmit through traditional music genres like, jiuta and min’yō but as well in other Western

music-genres like Jazz. This transmission was witnessed especially by Patterson after the

earthquake in the shelter houses in Fukushima.

When interpreting the Artistic Level, all musicians play different genres of music with

their instruments and this I would argue suggest that incorporating other music-genres is part

of how Wagakki instruments can and are used in contemporary Japan. This also gives indication

on the importance of the Wagakki instruments different characteristics compared with Western

instruments that the musicians indicates to perceive. By mixing them with other music-genres

and instruments it may also create something new and is then transmitted through their music.

My interpretation is that these dualities through the Performativity Aspect, the Western modern

verses the Eastern traditional and the real verses the fictional discussed, is perceived as an

established feature and by this what is expected and also accepted part of the daily life of what

it is to be a Wagakki musician in contemporary Japan and outside it.

4.2. Conclusions The aim of this study was to answer the questions of how Wagakki musicians in Japan perceive

their own musical identity, and how the Japanese traditional instruments are perceived and used

in contemporary Japan. This study gives a notion on how the Wagakki musicians perceive their

own musical identity. It concludes how the musicians are aware of that there is a duality where

the Wagakki instruments are separated from the modern and Western perceptions. It shows how

this duality is part of their daily life’s and how they need to adjust their musical identity

50

depending on different situations and expectations when performing. It concludes that the

musicians also perceive their musical identity to be from an older Japanese traditional culture

and how the re-enactment of the Japanese traditional culture is the essential in all the musicians

performances. It shows how their musical identity also needs to be a part of contemporary

Japanese culture identity and how both Japanese traditional culture and Japanese contemporary

culture in this way are part of how the musicians perceive their own musical identity. In addition

as I explained the musicians need to shift between these dualities depending on the situations

and expectations to fulfill their daily lives of what it is to be a Wagakki musician in modern

Japan but also outside it. This study also concludes how the Wagakki instruments are used

together with Western instruments and how both are a part of and perceived of as being an

established feature in Japanese popular music in modern Japan.

4.3. Implications and Further Research By using an interdisciplinary method like in this study we can see the connection of an musical

cultural identity in Japanese music. In addition a musicological approach together with social

and anthropological theories as something extramusical connects the music to the musicians

cultural identity. It can in this way give possibilities for other interdisciplinary musicological

research.

To have both an etic and an emic perspective when conducting this study proved to be

beneficial when analyzing the material. By having an etic perspective, it gave the opportunity

to compare the etic and emic when doing the content analyses. It also helped control and

pinpoint my own bias of what Wagakki and Japanese popular music is when conducting this

study.

As further research it would be interesting to see how the music performances and

Wagakki instruments are perceived by the audiences. It would also be interesting to further

study how Japanese youth perceive traditional music and instruments. Additional research on

the transmission of Wagakki in Japanese movies, anime and video games, but also teaching and

international relations would be interesting.

4.4. Summary This study concludes and shows how Wagakki musicians perceive their own musical identity

in Japan. It gives indication on how Wagakki instruments and their older traditional cultural

identities that they symbolize is an established feature in Japanese popular music. It contains

51

conducted interviews and semantic analyses on musicians who use Japanese traditional

instruments and Western instruments in their repertoire. It also contributes to identity studies

using a performativity perspective and thereby elucidating both musicological and historical

aspects.

52

53

Bibliography Akagawa, Natsuko. Heritage Conservation in Japan’s Cultural Diplomacy: Heritage, national

identity and national interest. London and New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group,

2015.

Austin, John L. How to Do Things with Words, edited by J. O. Urmson and Marina Sbisa.

Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975.

Butler, Judith. Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative. London and New York:

Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 1997.

Davidson, Jane W. “Introducing the Issue of Performativity in Music.” Musicology Australia

36, no. 2 (2014): 179-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08145857.2014.958269.

Ferranti, Hugh de. “The Beginnings of Western Music in Meiji Era Japan Ury Eppstein.”

Yearbook for Traditional Music 32, no. 1 (2000): 186. http://doi.org/10.2307/3185255.

Glosserman, Brad, and Snyder Scott A. The Japan-South Korea Identity Clash: East Asian

Security and the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017.

Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday, 1959.

Grégoria, Anthony. “Musical Power and the East-West International Diplomacy.” Review of

Music and International History in the Twentieth Century, by Jessica C. E Gienow-Hecht.

Anthropology News, April 19, 2017.

Kaminaga, Daisuke. “Kaminaga Daisuke Shakuhachi sōsha.” 神永大輔 尺八奏者

[Shakuhachi Performer Daisuke Kaminaga] Accessed February 25, 2020.

http://www.daisukekaminaga.com.

54

Kaminaga, Daisuke. Suzuhana, Yuko. Ibukuro, Kiyoshi. “Hanafugetsu Official Website.” 華

風 月 Official Website [Hanafugetsu official website] Accessed February 25, 2020.

https://www.hanafugetsu.com.

———. “Hanafugetsu orijinarukyoku ‘kazaguruma’.”【華風月】オリジナル曲『かざぐる

ま』PV [Hanafugetsu, original song “Pinwheel” promotional video] YouTube, Accessed

May 3, 2020, https://youtu.be/hd0wAMhAKnc.

Kaminaga, Daisuke. Suzuhana, Yuko. Ibukuro, Kiyoshi. Ninagawa, Beni. Kurona, Machiya,

Asa, and Wasabi. “WAGAKKIBAND - Wagakki Bando.” WAGAKKIBAND - 和楽器バン

ド [Wagakki Band] Accessed May 1, 2020. http://wagakkiband.com.

———. “Wagakki Bando / Senbonzakura.” 和楽器バンド / 千本桜 [Wagakki Band – One

thousand Sakura flowers] YouTube, Accessed May 3, 2020. https://youtu.be/K_xTet06SUo.

Kittaka, Louise George. “Foreign-born professional strives to reconnect Japanese with koto

music.” Japan Times, May 2, 2020. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2013/05/18/our-

lives/foreign-born-professional-strives-to-reconnect-japanese-with-koto-

music/#.Xq0vrBqeyhA.

Larsen, Ann Kristin. Metod helt enkelt: En introduktion till samhällsvetenskaplig metod.

Malmö: Gleerups Utbildning AB, 2009.

Linder, Gunnar Jinmei. “Rock Music in Japan.” In Music Brings Us Together, edited by Peter

Koudstaal. Hamburg: It’s a Book! Publishing, 2016.

———. Deconstructing Tradition in Japanese Music: A Study of Shakuhachi, Historical

Authenticity and Transmission of Tradition. PhD diss., Stockholm University, 2012.

Loxley, James. Performativity: The New Critical Idiom. London and New York: Routledge,

Taylor & Francis Group, 2007.

55

Miyairi, Kyohei. J-pop bunkaron. J―POP 文化論 [J-pop Culture Thesis] Japan: Sairyusha,

2015.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. “Japan’s Security policy.” Foreign Policy, Accessed May

18, 2019. https://www.mofa.go.jp/fp/nsp/page1we_000077.html.

Motonaga, Hiromu. “Hiromu Motonaga Shakuhachi & Music.” Accessed February 25, 2020.

http://www.motonagahiromu.com.

Motonaga, Hiromu. Ryoichiro, Yoshida. Ichikawa, Shin, and Bihō, Naosaburo. “Japan-Wasabi.”

K.R.K/Yellow Star, Accessed May 1, 2020. http://www.japan-wasabi.jp.

———. “WASABI ‘AZUMA’ (Official Music Video).” YouTube, Accessed May 1, 2020.

https://youtu.be/PDUelgXDdkA.

Nagasu, Tomoka. “Tomoka Nagasu Official Website.” Accessed February 25, 2020.

http://www.tomoka-nagasu.com.

Nagasu, Tomoka. Yoshinaga, Mana, and Aria, Chie. “Murasaki no yukari, futatabi Rin’.” 紫の

ゆ か り 、 ふ た た び Rin’ [Violet Purple, again, Rin’] Accessed May 3, 2020.

https://www.bilibili.com/video/BV1ss411Z7AK?p=5.

Obama, Akihito. “Shakuhachi sōsha Obama Akihito.” 尺八奏者小濱明人 Official Website

[Shakuhachi Performer Akihito Obama Official Website] Accessed February 25, 2020.

http://www2s.biglobe.ne.jp/~obama/akihito/akihito.html.

———. “Akihito Obama Shakuhachi music.” Accessed May 6, 2020.

https://soundcloud.com/akihito-obama/sets/akihito-obama-shakuhachi-music.

Osborne, Peter, and Segal Lynne. “Gender as Performance: An Interview with Judith Butler.”

Radical Philosophy, 1994. https://www.radicalphilosophyarchive.com/issue-

files/rp67_interview_butler.pdf.

56

Patterson, Curtis, and Huebner Bruce. “Curt & Bruce - Sunday afternoon.” Accessed May 4,

2020. https://curtkoto.com/album/1408706/sunday-afternoon.

Patterson, Curtis. “Curtis Patterson – KOTO – Performance / Instruction.” Accessed February

25, 2020. http://www.curtkoto.com.

Saeki, Kenzo. Rokku Media shakai. ロックとメデイア社会 [Rock and Media Society] Japan:

Shinsensha, 2011.

Sauter, Willmar. The Theatrical Event: Dynamics of Performance and Perception. Iowa City:

University of Iowa Press, 2000.

Schilling, Mark. The Encyclopedia of Japanese Pop Culture. New York: Weatherhill Inc, 1997.

Stevens, Carolyn S. Japanese Popular Music: Culture, authenticity, and power. London and

New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

Turner, Victor. Dramas, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Ithaca:

Cornell University Press, 1974.

Ugaya, Hiromichi. J poppu no shinshō fūkei. Jポップの心象風景 [The Mindscape of J-pop]

Japan: Bungei Shunju, 2005.

Vision of Humanity. “Global Peace Index.” Global Peace Index - Vision of Humanity,

Accessed May 15, 2020. http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/.

Waraku, “In to Japan waraku.” Accessed April 18, 2020.

https://intojapanwaraku.com/culture/13279/.

57

Appendix Appendix 1. Wagakki instruments.

Shakuhachi (尺八) Koto (箏)

Shamisen (三味線) Biwa (琵琶)

58

Appendix 2. Question form.

(XX interview)

XX様のインタビュー

The Performance

1 演奏について

Can you tell me about your instrument?

XXさんの演奏されている楽器について教えてください。

Can you tell me about your performance?

XXさんの演奏されている音楽について教えてください。例えば、リンで演奏したい

音楽です。

Can you tell me about the traditional clothes?

Are the traditional clothes important for the performance?

伝統的な衣装い し ょ う

について伺うかが

います。

XXさんは、演奏の時に伝統的な衣装い し ょ う

を着ることは重要なことだと思いますか？

Does it symbolize something?

伝統的な衣装を着ることは、何かを象徴していますか？

Do you have props, do they also symbolize something?

演奏え ん そ う

の時に使用し よ う

している小道具はありますか？

それも何かを象徴していますか？

Identity

２ アイデンティティについて Are you another character when you perform?

演奏する時、XXさんは別のキャラクターになりますか？

59

Can you tell me about your character?

XXさんの演奏の特性と く せ い

（キャラクター）を教えてください。

Are there special thoughts or feelings that you need to have during your performance?

演奏する時に必要な、特別な精神せ い し ん

や感情はあると思いますか？

Has the reception towards you as a Wagakki musician changed in Japan? Can you recall when

and why you think it did?

和楽器ミュージシャン（音楽家）としてのXXさんへの反応や受け取られ方は日本で

変わりましたか。 いつ、なぜそうなったと思いますか？

Do Japanese culture and Japanese society create expectations on your musicianship and on

how you should perform?

日本文化や日本社会は、音楽家としての長須さんのあり方やどのように音楽を演じ

るべきかについて期待していると思いますか？

How do you perceive Japanese popular music compared with traditional Japanese music?

日本のポピュラー音楽と比較して、日本の伝統日本をどう思いますか？

What do you think of Western instruments in your music? May you talk about there features

compared with Wagakki?

ご自分の音楽の中で、西洋の楽器についてどのように考えますか？ 和楽器に対し

て、西洋の楽器の特徴などについてお話を伺ってもいいですか？

How do you perceive Western popular music compared with Japanese popular music?

日本のポピュラー音楽と比較して、西洋のポピュラー音楽をどう思いますか？

Realism

３ 現実主義について When you perform, do you perceive your performance as more real or fictional?

XXさんは自分の演奏（パフォーマンス）は、リアル「現実的」、または、よりフィ

60

クション「架空的か く う て き

・創造的そ う ぞ う て き

」だと受け取られていますか？

What come to mind when hearing the the word ʻrealismʼ?

「リアリズム」現実主義という用語をどんなように考えていますか。どんなモノが

頭に浮かびますか？