Visibility and involvement in effective arts marketing

Marketing Intelligence & PlanningVisibility and involvement in effective arts marketingCandy Lange

Article information:To cite this document:Candy Lange, (2010),"Visibility and involvement in effective arts marketing", Marketing Intelligence &Planning, Vol. 28 Iss 5 pp. 650 - 668Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02634501011066546

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Lange (2010)"Visibility and involvement in effective arts marketing" in: Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 28 Iss 5. Copyright © 2010. Reproduced by permission of Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02634501011066546

Visibility and involvementin effective arts marketing

Candy LangeSchool of Communication Studies, Auckland University of Technology,

Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract

Purpose – This paper seeks to propose a methodological tool for arts marketing, arguing thattraditional approaches are not as effective as the newly developed visibility/involvement model inassessing the quality of a cultural organization’s marketing strategy.

Design/methodology/approach – The innovative model evaluates art galleries’ promotionmaterials combining their local, visual, and textual dimensions of meaning, drawing on threedifferent theoretical and methodological areas of thought: critical discourse analysis, systemicfunctional analysis, and mediated discourse analysis.

Findings – The visibility involvement model can be applied by cultural organizations to discern theirkey audience, and thus, their communicative focus. It is also the foundation of practicalrecommendations to enhance a gallery’s marketing strategy to either deepen or broaden their audience.

Research limitations/implications – While the paper investigates the predominant meaningdimension of different groups of promotional materials, it does not investigate all relevant dimensions.Although, the proposed model provides insights into the quality of the art galleries’ marketingactivities, it only provides a rather vague distinction between the degrees of visibility and requiredinvolvement. This paper does also not account for the usability of the model for organizations outsidethe cultural sector.

Originality/value – The innovation of the newly developed model lies in the combination of thesedimensions coming from three theoretical and methodological areas of thought: mediated discourseanalysis, systemic functional analysis, and critical discourse analysis.

Keywords Arts, Marketing strategy, Visual media, Communication

Paper type Research paper

1. IntroductionThe majority of the existing arts marketing literature offers a foundation for exercisingarts marketing by adopting conventional marketing theories and practices (Byrnes,2003; Dickman, 1997; Diggle, 1984, 1994; Hill et al., 2003; Kerrigan et al., 2004; Nicolaou,2003; Pue, 2002). The limitations of traditional marketing theories linked to the artshave been recognized almost simultaneously (Colbert et al., 2000; Colbert, 2002; Chong,2002; Fillis, 2002; Hirschman, 1983; Kolb, 2002; McCracken, 1990; Rentschler, 1999).Following Venkatesh and Meamber (2006), this paper attempts to engage in a holisticarts marketing approach introducing the visibility/involvement model. The newmethodological tool draws on different meaning dimensions in order to evaluate thequality of an art gallery’s current marketing strategy and provides explanations as towhy certain organizations rely on specific marketing strategies more than on others.The model can be applied by art galleries and other cultural organizations to discern

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-4503.htm

Postgraduate Student Publications Grant from Auckland University of Technology, Faculty ofDesign and Creative Technologies.

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Received May 2009Revised June 2009Accepted June 2009

Marketing Intelligence & PlanningVol. 28 No. 5, 2010pp. 650-668q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0263-4503DOI 10.1108/02634501011066546

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their key audience, and thus, their communicative focus. It is also the foundation ofpractical recommendations to enhance a gallery’s marketing strategy to either deepenor broaden their audience.

The research focuses on publicly accessible promotional material of art galleries dueto their role in the communication process between a gallery and its public. Thepromotional material of selected art galleries was considered according to threedifferent dimensions of meaning: local, visual, and textual. The innovation of the newlydeveloped model lies in the combination of these dimensions coming from thefollowing three theoretical and methodological areas of thought: mediated discourseanalysis (Scollon, 1998, 2001), systemic functional analysis (Halliday, 1985), and criticaldiscourse analysis (CDA; Fairclough and Wodak, 1997).

Art galleries are an essential part of a country’s culture, and are crucial in creatingideas about the distinction between high and low culture as well as between nature andculture (Rose, 2000). They exist in a changing and increasingly competitiveenvironment which is marked by struggles to communicate the right messages to theright audiences. This paper challenges the view that traditional marketing strategiesapply to arts marketing and aims to overcome some of these difficulties by providingan analytical tool and practical recommendations by seeking to answer the followingquestions:

RQ1. What is the general approach to marketing and promotion of art galleries?

RQ2. How important is the mission statement for the organization’s self projectionand as a marketing instrument?

RQ3. Does signage play a significant role within a gallery’s communicationsstrategy?

RQ4. Which impact do personal invitations have on the relationship between agallery and its members or clients?

The paper is organized in three parts. The first part gives a brief overview of existingarts marketing approaches and identifies research deficiencies, presenting Venkateshand Meamber’s (2006) model of the cultural production process as an attempt towardsa holistic arts marketing approach. The second part outlines the employed researchdesign and methodology, introducing the visibility/involvement model as a tool for thecategorization of promotional material. The third part illustrates the practicalapplication of the visibility/involvement model for three selected art galleries. Thepaper is concluded with further implications of the visibility/involvement model, itslimitations, and an outlook for future research.

2. Literature review2.1 Arts marketingAccording to Rentschler (1998), there are three main periods in the development of artsmarketing: The foundation period occurred from the mid-1970s to mid-1980s, and wascharacterized by the learning process of artists and arts organizations to apply newconcepts. The professionalization period followed and lasted until the mid-1990s, and“saw a new understanding that the cultural organization’s future was tied to success inthe marketplace” (Kolb, 2002, p. 75). The creative or discovery period, which still lasts

Effective artsmarketing

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today, focuses on the differentiation processes of cultural organizations due to the stillincreasing marketplace (Fillis, 2002).

Colbert et al.’s (2000, p. 16) account on marketing culture and the arts presents amarketing model for cultural organizations that draws on traditional marketingconcepts but acknowledges the “reality of the artistic milieu”. The raison d’etre of anartistic product is not (necessarily) to fulfill any market needs. Therefore, Colbert et al.(2000) argue that a cultural marketing model is product centered in order to pay tributeto the complex nature of cultural products. In a later, solo-authored paper Colbert(2002) acknowledges the disparity between high and low culture: while high arts areproduct-centered, popular art, such as Hollywood blockbusters, focus on the market. Inaddition, the paper perceptively advocates the fundamental difference betweentraditional marketing approaches and arts marketing due to the different nature of theproducts. However, the product-centered concept does not recognize that the involvedorganization needs to be managed and marketed. An audience-orientated approach, onthe contrary, acknowledges the need for arts organizations to adopt a marketingorientation that contributes to social development as well as to economic development(Rentschler, 1999).

Rentschler’s (1999, p. 6) proposed arts marketing model seeks a balance “betweenthe new economic realities and the need to nurture innovation”. All activities withinthat model are led by the overall aim to achieve the creative mission and to establishthe audience needs. According to Rentschler (1999), achieving the organization’screative mission and establishing audience needs can be achieved by developing andimplementing strategic arts marketing using the elements of the marketing mix,and concentrating on funding and sponsorship, as well as on relationship marketing.This effectively contributes towards a viable and vital arts organization (Rentschler,1999).

Fillis (2002, p. 141) presents another innovative approach.He proposes a “frameworkof creative, entrepreneurial marketing” which requires intuition and a certain affinity toinspired risk taking. Drawing on examples of creative self-promotion by avant-gardeartists, Fillis encourages research beyond accepted and linear marketing theories andpractices. Fillis and Rentschler (2005) elaborate this creative approach further, arguingthat all elements of conventional marketing approaches comprise aspects of creativity.The proposed creative arts marketing paradigm combines potential synergy effectsfrom traditional marketing research, post-modern marketing, and the arts, andconstructs a foundation for creative and innovative marketing.

In sum, the importance and uniqueness of arts marketing, as well as the boundaries oftraditional marketing for the arts, are widely acknowledged (Colbert, 2002; Colbert et al.,2000; Dickman, 1997; Fillis, 2002, Fillis and Rentschler, 2005; Kerrigan et al., 2004;Kolb, 2002; Maitland, 2003; Nicolaou, 2003, Rentschler, 1998, 1999). Several innovativearts marketing models have been proposed (Colbert et al., 2000; Fillis, 2002; Rentschler,1999), but still, there is “no established and accepted construct of arts marketing”(Rentschler, 1998, p. 84), and most of the literature lacks in-depth knowledge on artsmarketing and fails to challenge the view of traditional marketing (Fillis, 2002).

2.2 Cultural production processA relevant construct towards a holistic framework for arts marketing activities isVenkatesh and Meamber’s (2006) conceptualized model of cultural production.

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Venkatesh and Meamber (2006, p. 12) draw on Lash and Urry’s (2002) definition of culturalproduction that refers to “the process by which cultural products (including goods,artifacts, visual and experiential objects, services, and art forms) are created, transformed,and diffused in the constitution of consumer culture”. The underlying assumption of themodel is that the cultural production process “involves a high degree of meaningproduction and meaning transfer” (p. 25).

According to McCracken’s (1986, 1988) account on Culture and Consumption,cultural meaning in a consumer society possesses a mobile quality. McCrackendescribes the meaning transfer exemplarily by explaining the two concepts of culturalmeaning: cultural categories (e.g. time and space) and cultural principles (e.g. ideas andvalues). Both concepts depend on each other; one presupposes the other. The culturalmeaning resides in the “culturally constituted world” (McCracken, 1988, p. xiv), theconsumer goods, and the consumer itself (McCracken, 1986). Identified processes bywhich the meaning is drawn out of their meaning locations (McCracken, 1986) andtransferred, are advertising and the fashion system. These processes can move culturalmeaning from the culturally-constituted world to consumer goods. The meaningtransferred to cultural products reflects underlying cultural categories which sharethe ways in which the world is characterized by humans (McCracken, 1993). In theend, the individual consumer decodes the meaning through consumer rituals, suchas exchange rituals, possession rituals, grooming rituals, and divestment rituals(McCracken, 1986).

The cultural production process involves three groups of cultural actors: producers,cultural intermediaries, and consumers. The producers, such as artists, architects ordesigners, produce cultural goods, which can be both tangible and intangible. Culturalintermediaries include individuals or organizations that are concerned with thecommunication and distribution of produced cultural goods. Those two groups areintegral in the process of constitution and distribution of the symbolic meaningadded to the tangible or intangible goods (Venkatesh and Meamber, 2006).Venkatesh and Meamber (2006) argue that cultural intermediaries, such as galleries,museums, libraries, and operas, help create the artistic or aesthetic experience for theconsumers through their responsibility in the meaning transfer process. Consumersthen, “transform the cultural products into objects of meaningful consumptionexperiences” (p. 13).

Venkatesh and Meamber’s (2006) model of the cultural production process leads toconclusions about the use of promotional material (e.g. advertising posters, signage, orbrochures) by cultural intermediaries. In the process of meaning transfer, “symbolsattached to the cultural product operate as a code, or language, that contributes to theunderstanding of meaning. The use of symbols is context dependent” (Venkatesh andMeamber, 2006, p. 18). The scholars argue that within the consumer’s decision processof purchasing the meaning of a product is as important as its functionality. Symbols“are what consumers perceive and transform into meaning” (Venkatesh and Meamber,2006, p. 18). The significance for the arts comes through their marketization: “It isthrough the interaction between the consumer and the art that aesthetic experience(and hence cultural production) is materialized” (Venkatesh and Meamber, 2006, p. 23).In a contemporary consumer society, art “has become marketized” (Venkatesh andMeamber, 2006, p. 23).


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2.3 InvolvementInvolvement, a significant concept to explain consumer behavior (Mittal and Lee, 1989),is described as perceived personal relevance (Zaichkowski, 1985), or a motivationalstate of mind of a person with regards to an object or activity (Mittal and Lee, 1989).Mittal and Lee (1989) argue that there are two main forms of involvement: productinvolvement and purchase involvement (or brand-decision involvement). The sourcesof involvement can be classified into three groups:

(1) utilitarian value, concerning the physical performance of a product (Sheth,1974);

(2) sign-value, referring to the ability to signal something about the self to others(Gordon et al., 1998); and

(3) hedonic value, which describes sensory pleasure.

According to Gordon et al. (1998), involvement creates an ongoing commitment on thepart of the consumer relating to his/her thoughts, feelings, and behavioral responses toa product or organization. Relationship marketing tactics that focus on continuity mayreinforce this kind of consumer commitment, while relationship marketing tactics withemphasis on individualization and personalization “require this sort of activeparticipation on the part of the buyer, and are therefore unlikely to be successful whena buyer’s involvement is low” (p. 449).

The discussed literature situates the following study in the field arts marketing andcultural production. Moreover, theories drawn from traditional marketing andrelationship marketing complement the theoretical background.

3. Methodological backgroundThe outset of the approach has been fundamentally qualitative. The methodologicalfocus lies on discourse analysis evolving around the use of language (textualdimension of meaning), images (visual dimension of meaning), and the emplacement ofsigns in the material world (local dimension of meaning). This approach allowsdrawing a holistic image of the use of promotional materials for marketing purposes byart galleries. The motivation for collecting samples from different galleries is toprovide a set of comparable data to show similarities and differences. The dataassembled and researched for this study comprises gallery material both visible andaccessible to the public to varying degrees and consists of mission statements (also:visions or policy statement), relevant photos of the signage of each research object, anda direct mail invitation posted out by each gallery.

3.1 Discourse analysisThe applied method for data analysis in this study combines three existingapproaches; Scollon and Scollon’s (2003) Discourse in Places, Kress and van Leeuwen’s(1996, 2006) Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, and Fairclough’s (1992)account on Discourse and Social Change; following three theoretical andmethodological areas of thought: mediated discourse analysis (Scollon, 1998, 2001),systemic functional analysis (Halliday, 1985), and CDA (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997).

CDA is a “type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies theway social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced,and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context” (van Dijk, 2001).

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Scollon and Scollon’s (2003) introduction of a system of geosemiotics is “an extendeddevelopment of the concept of the cultural tool or mediated means” (p. 219) and whilethe authors acknowledge the importance of research in CDA in order to show that“texts themselves are among the most powerful tools for the production of social powerrelations” (p. 7), their approach is restricted to the concept of interaction order, visualsemiotics, and place semiotics. Kress and van Leeuwen’s (1996, 2006) visual grammarseeks to broaden the notion of CDA which has mostly been “confined to language,realized as verbal text, or to verbal parts of texts which also use other semiotic modesto realize meaning” (2006, p. 14).

One major concern of CDA is the control over public discourse and communication(van Dijk, 2001). The importance of this notion for this study becomes evident in theanalysis of how art galleries use certain promotional materials in order to addressselected audiences. The selective way in which organizations choose to communicatewith the public is a means of power control, even if subconsciously exercised, and haspractical implications for the organization’s marketing strategy. Thevisibility/involvement model aims to help art marketers understand the differentlevels of meaning of promotional material by categorizing it into groups distinguishedby their level of public accessibility and the required involvement by the individual.

All three theoretical approaches build on the analysis of language to analyze howdiscourse signifies the world, constitutes and constructs meaning (Fairclough, 1992).Therefore, each approach has been identified to be particular useful in order to examinea certain group of promotional material addressing either the local (signage), visual(invitation), or textual (mission statement) dimension of meaning.

3.2 Local dimension of meaning: analyzing signsScollon and Scollon’s (2003) work Discourse in Place: Language in the Material Worldintroduces the concept of geosemiotics, which implies that the meaning of texts andsigns in the material world can only be interpreted by considering the physical andsocial world in which they are emplaced. The overall concept within the study ofgeosemiotics is indexicality, which is part of the interpretation of any sign in severalways. A sign can be an icon, a symbol, or an index. Either way, it always carriesindexicality as it receives its meaning of how it is used in a context. Therefore, a sign“only has a meaning because of where it is placed in the world” (p. 29).

As the human body indexes the world, “much of our communication happensoutside of our own awareness” (p. 48). Interaction order is “the indexable world we usein this discourse” (p. 82). Scollon and Scollon (2003) draw their concept of interactionorder on works by Edward T. Hall and Irving Goffman. They identify four mainsemiotic resources of interaction order; the sense of time, perceptual spaces,interpersonal distances, and personal front; and argue that these non-verbal semioticresources are indexical in meaning and central to the production and interpretation ofdiscourse in place.

The interaction order in images and signs is represented by visual semiotics,another sub-system of geosemiotics. Visual semiotics deal with “how images representthe real social world” and “how images mean what they mean because of where we seethem”, (p. 84). While, Kress and van Leeuwen (1996, 2006) explicitly present theconcept of visual semiotics in their work on Reading Images, Scollon and Scollonlimit their approach to represented participants (RPs), modality, composition,


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and interactive participants (IPs). This limitation is due to the focus on how theinteraction order is visually represented (Scollon and Scollon, 2003). In their argument,the sense of interpersonal distance, for example, is captured in images by the size of theimage within a frame.

Place semiotics includes notions on code preference, inscriptions, and emplacement.Code preference states how a preferred code in multiple codes (e.g. more languages)within a single design depends upon and therefore indexes geopolitical location.Inscriptions deal with the physical materiality of language in the world. This includesfonts, materiality, layering, and state changes. The authors argue that thosecharacteristics produce a range of different meanings in the same linguistic message.The three systems of emplacement are:

(1) decontextualized semiotics (e.g. brand names and logos);

(2) situated semiotics (e.g. common regulatory signs and notices, such as exitsigns); and

(3) transgressive semiotics, which refers to signs that are in the “wrong” (Scollonand Scollon, 2003, p. 146) place (e.g. graffiti).

3.3 Visual dimension of meaning: analyzing imagesKress and van Leeuwen’s (1996, 2006) visual semiotic system allows multiple readingsof the same visual text. Their method is based on semiotic principles and elaboratesHalliday’s concept of linguistic meta-functions. Kress and van Leeuwen introduce anexplicit mode for analyzing the meanings established by the syntactic relationsbetween representative participants, IPs, the image modality, and the composition. Anunderlying assumption of the scholars is that “visual language is not – despiteassumptions to the contrary – transparent and universally understood; it is culturallyspecific” (2006, p. 4).

Generally speaking, an image can be read on two levels: detonation and connotation(Emmison and Smith, 2000). Denotation is the first level of signification and deals withthe questions of what the object is and what the simple and obvious meaning of thesign is. Connotation, the second level of signification, requires further investigationinto what the meaning of the image is when denotation and dominant cultural values(associated with the sign and the attitudes, feelings and emotions of the audience)interact. The connotation of the image will also be given by the context of reception,but cannot be captured through image analysis only.

According to Kress and van Leeuwen (1996, 2006), the analysis of the meaning of animage includes the following aspects:

(1) Narrative: any process that organizes elements within an image into a vector isviewed as a narrative. There are two basic narrative elements: actor and goal.Any action or point of looking establishes a vector which can point into theimage or out at the viewer.

(2) Conceptual organization deals with how things “fit” together. Generally, there isan element that contains (called a carrier) and elements contained (calledattributes). System of classification can either be overt groupings (e.g. trees) orcovert groupings (e.g. individuals who belong together).

(3) Interaction refers to the relationship between RPs and IPs of an image. RPs arethe entities in the image, while IPs are the source and the viewer. The interaction

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can unfold in three ways: in the relationship between RPs in image, in therelationship between the RPs and the audience, and in the relationship betweenthe source and the audience. The interaction between RPs and IPs has twogeneral forms: it is either a demand, keyed by the gaze as in face-to-faceinteraction, or it is an offer, keyed by the absence of a direct gaze. But therelationship between RPs and IPs is also affected by the size of the frame and,thus, by:. the implied social distance;. the obliqueness or frontality of horizontal angle; and. the vertical angle (high or low).

(4) Modality refers to the kind of reality that the image implies exists – thereferent. The modality is the mimetic value of the text. Modality markers are,for example, color (saturation, differentiation, modulation); contextualization(level of background detail); representation (degree of detail); illumination(range of light and shadow); or brightness (degree of lightness and darkness).

(5) Composition is the meaning of spatial organization of the image. Somethingdepicted on the left (or right) hand side might be interpreted as given (or new)information. Accordingly, top (or bottom) positioning might imply ideal (or real)information value. Two general dimensions of composition are:. salience (the area of the image an element fills – all, most, least, etc.); and. framing (whether an element is in its own fenced-off space or in a common

space).

3.4 Textual dimension of meaning: analyzing textsFairclough’s (1992) account on Discourse and Social Change draws together twodistinct areas of discourse analysis: sociology and linguistics. According to Foucault(1980), discourse is a “social construct, an ideological mode of thought” (Widdowsen,1995, p. 510). The linguistic approach defines discourse as a use of language.Fairclough’s (1992, 2003) approach to discourse analysis links language analysis andsocial analysis and implies that discourse is both a mode of action and a mode ofrepresentation. According to Fairclough, there are three main constructive effects ofdiscourse. First of all, discourse contributes to the construction of social identitiesand subject positions. Second, discourse helps create relationships between people.Third, discourse influences the construction of knowledge and belief systems(Fairclough, 1992).

Fairclough (1992) provides a practical guide to his three-dimensional conception ofdiscourse analysis. The analysis of a discourse sample includes text analysis, analysisof discursive practice (nature of the processes of text production and interpretation),and social practice (circumstances that shape discursive practices):

. In order to analyze a text, one has to distinguish between the meaning potentialof a text and its interpretation (Fairclough, 1992). The analysis of a text can beorganized under four main headings: vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, and textstructure. Vocabulary deals with individual words, whereas grammar refers towords combined into clauses and sentences. Cohesion relates to the ways inwhich clauses and sentences are linked together, while the structure of a text


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deals with organizational properties. Other elements of text analysis are force ofutterance, coherence, and intertextuality.

. The analysis of discourse practice focuses upon text production, distribution,and consumption. Discourse practice should involve micro-analysis (How doparticipants produce and interpret texts on the basis of their members’resources?) and macro-analysis (What is the nature of the member’s resources?).The three dimensions of discourse practice are interdiscursivity, intertextuality,and coherence. The analysis of discourse practice aims to specify the socialpractices of text production and consumption (e.g. is the text produced/consumedindividually or collectively?).

. The analysis of social practice aims to answer the question “why the discoursepractice is as it is” (Fairclough, 1992, p. 237). Social practice has variousorientations, such as economic, political, cultural or ideological (Fairclough,1992). The social matrix of discourse helps specify the social and hegemonicrelations (e.g. conventional and normative, creative and innovative, oroppositional) and structures “which constitute the matrix of this particularinstance of social and discursive practice” (Fairclough, 1992, p. 237).

3.5 Visibility/involvement model: categorizing promotion materialsThe visibility/involvement model has been developed drawing together notions ofconventional arts marketing and the cultural production process (Venkatesh andMeamber, 2006). Both concepts share promotion as a common denominator. Promotionis an integral part of the original and extended marketing mix. It is a “criticalingredient of many marketing strategies. Product differentiation, marketsegmentation, trading up and trading down, and branding all require effectivepromotion” (Stanton et al., 1994, p. 439). As the most visible element of the marketingmix (Kotler et al., 2001), promotion takes place not only inside an organization butmainly outside the business in direct contact with the target market. The purpose ofpromotion is to inform, persuade, and remind the customers of the organization andits products (Stanton et al., 1994). The significance of promotion within the culturalproduction process lies in the ability to transfer meaning between the constitutedworld, the consumer goods, and the consumer itself (Venkatesh and Meamber, 2006).

While Venkatesh and Meamber (2006) constrain their approach to advertising andthe fashion system as means to transfer meaning, the proposed visibility/involvementmodel also includes promotion materials, such as signage, mission statements, andinvitations. The model considers these promotion materials according to their level of:

. Public visibility and accessibility, which refers to how easy or difficult it is forthe public to access information conveyed by promotion materials of the culturalorganization.

And to the degree of:. Individual involvement that expresses the required commitment of the

individual consumer in order to access the material (Figure 1).

Moreover, the visibility/involvement model provides a framework accessing the local,visual, and textual dimensions of meaning of promotional material. As outlined in theprevious section, this is done by utilizing three different approaches which allows critical

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analysis of an organization’s signage, invitations, and mission statement. Although eachgroup of promotional material comprises aspects of each meaning dimension, the degree towhich they are combined varies and provides a useful instrument for distinction.To specify, promotional material holds the major share of a particular meaning dimensionthat is the most obvious. This notion implies that in the first instance signage should beinterpreted by accessing its most obvious meaning dimension, the local dimension ofmeaning, since it “only has a meaning because of where it is placed in the world” (Scollonand Scollon, 2003, p. 29). Furthermore, promotional material with a high content of writtenmaterial, such as newsletters, implies a predominant importance of the textual dimensionof meaning. Respectively, the visual dimension of meaning outweighs in the group ofpromotional material with emphasis on images. Having categorized promotional materialaccording to their predominating dimension of meaning, the visibility/involvement modeladds further attributes for distinction considering the level of public visibility andaccessibility and the degree of individual involvement.

Promotional material with elements predominantly of the local meaning dimensionholds the highest level of visibility and public accessibility. The individual consumercan easily access the information presented on signs, for instance an information signplaced outside of a gallery building or a prominent place in the city. Consequently,signage holds the lowest level of consumer involvement. The individual is not requiredto enter a gallery or museum in order to access the information expressed on signs.

Documents such as the mission statement or brochures and leaflets can be accessedthrough their textual dimension of meaning. This dimension holds a medium levelof visibility and accessibility as well as a medium level of consumer involvement.The mission statement of a gallery is not as visible and accessible to the consumer as thesignage of a gallery. It also requires some individual involvement of the consumer toacquire relevant documents. For example, an interested individual needs to enter a galleryand actively accept, ask for, or take a brochure/information sheet or he/she needs to visitthe gallery web site in order to obtain desired information. The consumer is committed totake action and to be involved in the process of communication and distribution.

The third class of promotional material with a predominating visual dimension ofmeaning includes materials such as sent-out invitations and newsletters. A low level ofpublic visibility and accessibility and a high level of individual involvement mark thisgroup. In order to receive an exhibition invitation from a gallery, usually one has to be

Figure 1.Visibility/involvement

model

Promotional material

Arts marketing Cultural production

Group A: Signage

Group B: Missionstatement

Group C: Invitation

Level ofindividual involvement

Level of publicvisibility and accessibility


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highly involved with the organization, e.g. as a member, client, or business partner.Thus, access to these materials is limited.

In this study, the visibility/involvement model has been used in the first instance tocategorize the promotional material based on their level of public visibility andindividual involvement. The actual analysis of the promotional material is doneutilizing the method identified as suitable in order to examine the according dimensionof meaning. Following the discussion, the visibility/involvement model then providesexplanations into the application of the organizations’ promotional material anddelivers practical recommendations for future strategies.

4. Overview of the studyAll galleries presented in this paper are located in a city which is characterized by aconservative background and a supportive arts community. The historicaldevelopment of the investigated galleries is intertwined and shares similarsocio-demographic structures. Each art gallery represents a different type of gallery,based on their relative level of involvement in delivering contemporary art to the public(McDermott Miller Ltd, 1998): a public art gallery, a Charitable Trust gallery, and aprivate dealer gallery. The research was conducted between June 2006 and August2007. For a critical analysis, it is crucial to include thoroughly researched historical andorganizational background information in the discussion.

4.1 Procedure and materialsThe analysis if the organization’s signage gives insight into the local dimension ofmeaning and included the investigation of two photographs per gallery: one depictingthe details of the sign, and another one showing the sign in its environment. Theexamination drew on Scollon and Scollon’s (2003) account to interpret the indexicalproperties of the object, make assumptions about the interaction order, the visualcomposition of the sign, and its emplacement in the material world.

The visual dimension of meaning was examined by assessing the galleries’direct mailing – “postcards” inviting to exhibition openings – utilizing Kress andvan Leeuwen’s (1996, 2006) visual grammar. The material included an invitation of eachgallery distributed within a selected time frame (June/July 2007). The analysis focusedon the relationship between represented and IPs, image composition, and modality.

Assessing the language of the organization’s mission delivers insight into thetextual dimension of meaning. The data comprised two written statements and oneverbal business policy. The analysis drew on Fairclough’s (1992) method of languageanalysis and provided answers as to how cohesive the mission statement is; whatimpact the choice of voice and the degree of nominalization has on its audience; andwhat the main keywords are, thus the main themes, of the gallery statement.

Overall, the analysis draws an image of the organizational reality thereby providinguseful insight into the marketing strategy. Following the examination and thevisibility/involvement model, one can derive practical recommendations for the artgallery’s future promotion.

4.2 Local dimension of meaning: analyzing gallery signageIn the following, three kinds of meaning potential are examined: the meaning of thesign from its location in the real world, the meaning conveyed through images, fonts,

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and materials, and the meaning derived through the interpretative frames of theviewers (Scollon and Scollon, 2003; Table I).

The information sign of the public art gallery represents what the organizationwithin the building has to offer, and it signals that the organization is ready to interactwith the viewer. The first contact is made by accessing the personal space of theindividual and, respectively, allowing the viewer to access the personal space of theorganization as well. The main theme of the Trust gallery’s sign is the organizationand its location. The sign is likely to appeal to a broad public, as it does not requirespecific knowledge about the arts to be decoded. In order to retrieve thoroughinformation about the gallery’s program, the viewer needs to enter the gallery, askgallery staff, or use other contact details provided on the sign. The private dealergallery’s abstract sign represents the organization within the building, which is mainlydone through the depiction of the logo. Interaction is encouraged through the narrativeprocess involving an invite into the gallery (use of directional arrow).

4.3 Visual dimension of meaning: analyzing gallery invitationsThe visual grammar of the invitation of the public gallery presents the gallery as avenue for an event. The gallery as an institution is inferior to the promoted exhibition.However, the underlying paradigm implies that the choices made by the gallery aboutthe type of exhibition and the visual design of the invitation implicate symbolicmeaning: the gallery and a number of supporters present an important exhibition ofsocial and political relevance. The show features popular photographs and, therefore,attracts a wide audience. Therefore, the gallery is the proud caterer of the event, whichexplores the country’s past (Table II).

Public gallery Trust Private gallery

Signstructure

Visual distinction betweenorganization name andprogramme; includesimages of current majorexhibition

Sign includes map ofgallery location and contactdetails; name/logo areposition at the bottom of thesign

Sign shows gallery housenumber, an direction arrowand the gallery name/logoat the bottom of the sign

Indexicality Icon representing thegallery; index

Icon representing thegallery; index

Icon representing thegallery; index

Interactionorder

Visual perceptual space;public to intimate personalspace



Visualsemiotics

Sign emphasises majorexhibition (collage ofimages) and minorexhibitions (programmelist)

Call for interaction throughtemporary placement anddepiction of map/contactdetails

Diagrammatic vector(arrow) and logo establishcontact between gallery andviewer

Placesemiotics

Code preference in gallerylogo between Maori nameand English name

Code preference in gallerylogo between name andclaim

Code preference in logo/name; emphasis on galleryowner’s first name

Purpose Information: that is what weoffer

Interaction: we are open Invitation: follow the arrow

Theme Programme Organization Organization/individual

Source: Scollon and Scollon (2003)

Table I.Local dimension ofmeaning – signage


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The visual grammar of the Charitable Trust gallery invitation implies that the purposeof the invitation is to provide information and to promote the gallery as a caterer for artexhibitions. The gallery is presented as an active distributor. The presented variety ofexhibitions confirms the gallery’s desired image of an organization with emphasis on avarying program in order to support the arts.

The visual grammar applied to the invitation by the private dealer galleryforegrounds the artistic vision. This becomes evident, for instance, through the salientcomposition and repetition of the artist’s name and title of the show. The invitepresents the organization as an active agent between the artist and the client. A numberof contact details of the gallery articulate the call for interaction.

4.4 Textual dimension of meaning: analyzing mission statementsThe mission statement of the public art gallery is available to a broader audience throughmeans of the organization’s web site and public documents published by the city council.The purpose of the statement is a call for action and change. The gallery perceives itselfas a leader in the country’s arts scene. Various focal points emerge from the analysis ofthe mission statement: the overall importance of the city’s cultural precinct, the gallerybuilding, biculturalism, the arts, quality, key leadership role, a new visitor experience,and audiences. The acknowledged main functions of the gallery are educating, inspiring,preserving, collecting, presenting, interpreting, and conserving (Table III).

The trust’s mission statement is available to the individual upon request. Thestatement can be described as being an intern credo (lat. I believe) – a framework, whichembraces all organizational efforts. It consists of one sentence that sums up the gallery’sbelief and values: the trust is “committed to the encouragement of excellence in thepractice of contemporary art in all its forms and communicating an understanding

Narrativepresentations,narrative structures

Non-transactionalprocess; use of colour torelate to origin of artist;elaborative text function

Non-transactionalprocess; no obvious goalof actor, elaborative textfunction

Elaborative textfunction

Relationship betweenRPs and IPs

Absence of gaze impliesan offer from RP to IP;slight low angle; socialdistance; oblique anglegenerates curiosity

Obscure angle and gazeof IP

Close shot createsintimacy

Modality: truth value Black/white photographand blurry backgroundhighlight age of image

Detail of painting bearsless credibility than anaturalistic photograph

Naturalisticphotograph, highcredibility

Composition:information value

Given information: artwork; new information:name of exhibition andartist

Given information:detail of art work; newinformation: name ofexhibitions and gallerydetails

Given information:photograph of art work;new information: nameof exhibitions

Purpose Information, invitation,call for interaction

Information, invitation Information, invitation

Theme Exhibition/event;gallery in background

Exhibitions/events Artist

Self-definition Venue Venue Distributor/agent

Source: Kress and van Leeuwen (1996, 2006)

Table II.Visual dimension ofmeaning – invitation

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and relevance of the arts to all communities, locally, nationally and globally”(Gallery Mission Statement, 2006). The voice of the mission statement is passive, whichputs the objective of the sentence into “initial theme position” (Fairclough, 1992, p. 182).This usually means that the information is represented as already known to theconsumer. Yet, it is expedient to use the active verb form instead of the passive option.Usually, active sentences are more direct and bear additional credibility whereas apassive voice can obfuscate the agent (Fairclough, 1992). The key words of the missionstatement are art/arts, counted three times, and communities, which gain extra weightthrough adverb accumulation. The gallery perceives itself as supporter and culturaldistributor of the arts, which interacts with all relevant communities.

The business policy of the commercial dealer gallery is the least accessible one ofthe three selected galleries. Nevertheless, a business policy is a “public issue” (Ulrichand Sarasin, 1995, p. 1) that sets out rules for the organizational life. In the case of theprivate dealer this means, the policy is highly visible in all artistic decisions the galleryowner takes.

5. ConclusionsThe application of promotional material reflects the different orientations of thegalleries and indicates an adjustment to the key audiences based on the marketingintention of the organization. The previous sections have shown that each galleryemphasizes a different marketing strategy. While the public gallery’s marketing has acustomer focus, the charitable trust follows a marketing strategy with an organizationorientation. The private dealer gallery’s marketing strategy highlights the product.The different orientations result in the varying application of promotional material.Each gallery employs signage differently, affecting the geosemiotic discourse

Text analysis: grammar,transivity, process, mode,degree of nominalization

Transitive, declarativecharacter; medium degreeof nominalization; use ofmetaphors; direct action;overall active voice;elaborative and extensivecohesive relation betweensentences; object textmodality; use of personalpronoun

Transitive, declarativecharacter; high degree ofnominalization (theencouragement, practice,understanding); directaction; passive voice;extensive cohesive clauserelation; no elaborativeelements; objective textmodality

Verbal policystatement

Keywords Contemporary art,communities

Cultural precinct, art,quality, key leadershiprole, audiences

Commitment toartists

Audience The families of the city,international visitors,domestic visitors,educational groups andspecial audiences

All communities, locally,nationally and globally

Visitors to thegallery, artscommunity

Purpose Call to action, change Credo PolicyTheme Identity/positioning Identity Identity/purpose of

businessSelf-definition Leader Distributor Artist/agent

Source: Fairclough (1992)

Table III.Textual dimension of

meaning – missionstatement


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(Scollon and Scollon, 2003). The meaning system includes abstract ideas, values andethics, and material objects and services that are produced or valued by a group ofpeople (Nicolaou, 2003) and “the ultimate analysis is the sum of shared meanings,rituals, norms, and traditions among people” (Geertz, 1973; in Venkatesh andMeamber, p. 19). While the signage of the public gallery and the trust display generalinformation about the organization, and thus, relate to a rather broad audience, the signof the private dealer gallery is more abstract. It lacks detailed information about thegallery and its products. Hence, it only appeals to a narrow audience that sharesknowledge and experiences to decode the narrative process of the sign.

Traditionally, mission statements reflect an organization’s values, beliefs, and goals,while still having a “strategic level of generality and ambiguity” (Fairhurst, 1993,p. 336). The mission statement of the trust is an organizational credo, a framework,which embraces all organizational efforts. It consists of one sentence that sums up thegallery’s belief and values. The vision of the public gallery is available to a broaderaudience through means of the organization’s web site and public documents publishedby the city council. The statement is regarded as being an internal guide towardschange, as well as a call for action as to present a new external image of the publicgallery. The private dealer gallery’s business policy is less accessible than the missionstatements. There is no written document that states the values and beliefs of theorganization. Nevertheless, a business policy is a “public issue” (Ulrich and Sarasin,1995, p. 1) that sets out rules for the organizational life. In the gallery’s case, this meansthe policy is highly visible in all decisions and actions undertaken by the gallery owner.

Personalized direct mailing (also: physical sent-out invitations) has the lowest levelof visibility and accessibility. Its audience is narrower and rather homogeneous. Themail outs require a high degree of personal involvement of the audience, which can bemarked by personal interest, active engagement, or business relations. Therefore, thedesign of the invitations needs to support the personal notion and the privilegedsituation of the recipients. The designed message is more specific than in the otherpromotional material, such as visual signs or an organization’s mission statement.

5.1 Implications of the findingsThe visibility/involvement model provides a tool for the galleries and otherorganizations to manifest their key audience, and thus, their communicative focus. Themodel implies that with a decrease in public visibility and accessibility, the potentialaudience gets narrower and less heterogeneous. The following graph illustrates therelationship between the groups of promotion materials classified in thevisibility/involvement model and the key audiences of the galleries (Figure 2).

The outer circle of the graph refers to the group of signage and related promotionalmaterial. Signs are highly visible and accessible to a broad, heterogeneous audience.Promotional material from that group should therefore be designed bearing in mind itswide appeal. However, signs can also convey abstract messages, which require certainknowledge to be decoded. An example is the rather abstract sign of the analyzedprivate dealer gallery. This particular example does not appeal to a broad public, as itrequires certain background knowledge to be fully understood. Hence, it essentiallyrelates to members from the arts community. The public art gallery’s sign, on thecontrary, provides a number of means to cover a broad audience. This includesinformation about the gallery, the program, and images.

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The middle circle of the graph refers to the group of mission statements and the like. Theaudience most likely to be attracted is a narrower one with a proven interest in the artsand/or the arts organization. Evidence for the engagement is the required individualinvolvement for promotion materials of that category. In order to obtain relevantorganizational materials, the individual is required to interact consciously with theorganization. This happens either personally, through the organization’s web site, or otherrelevant online representations. Promotion materials should be designed less generallybut provide specific arguments. Its purpose is to inform and persuade the individual.

The inner circle of the graph represents the third class of promotion materialsappealing to an exclusive, rather homogeneous audience, such as the local artscommunity and business partners. Materials from that class are designed to respondpersonally to each member of the audience and to maintain established personalrelationships. The primary purpose of the material is to inform the audience aboutchanges within the organization, its program, and future directions.

The implications of the visibility/involvement model provides explanations as towhy the galleries put more emphasis on certain promotional activities than on othersand it offers suggestions for each organization towards a potentially more effectivepromotional strategy. The underlying assumption for the recommendations is that amarketing strategy appears to be most effective the higher the individual involvement(Gordon et al., 1998). Thus, the ultimate goal for each organization should be togenerate a dynamic, which enables as many individuals as possible to enter the corecircle of the limited audience. This audience group consists of active supporters of thegallery who distinguish themselves from the other audiences through their highinvolvement as patrons of the arts.

5.2 Deepening and broadening an audienceOne key aspect of the mission statement of the public gallery and the Trust has been thenotion of widening the audience. Chong (2002), referring to Kotler, describes thatorganizations have the choice between broadening (or widening) and deepening theiraudience base. Broadening an audience can mean “trying to bring serious art to morepeople” (Chong, 2002, p. 92), while deepening an audience refers to “developing a morecoherent experience for those who are already interested in the arts” (Chong, 2002, p. 92).

Figure 2.Relationship between

promotion materials andits audience

1.

2.

3.

1. General public2. Narrower audience3. Limited audience

1. Signage2. Mission statement

Source: Lange (2007)

3. Physical invitation


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The wording might make little difference to the art organization but the actual meaningis significantly diverse and impacts all communication activities.

Drawing on the implications of the visibility/involvement model, deepening theaudience would involve emphasizing on promotion materials, such as the organization’smission statement, brochures, and the company’s web site. The focus generates a widerawareness in the organization and its products for people who are already interested inthe arts and/or the organization but are not yet highly involved as, for instance,members, clients or corporate sponsors. This approach is particularly advantageous forarts organizations as they deal with an audience that is known to be interested in thearts and/or the organization. On the contrary, broadening an audience would emphasizethe organization’s visual public displays, such as signage and posters. The informativeand persuasive character of those promotion materials appeal to a general audience, andideally attract people who are willing to commit to a higher involvement, and thus, shiftinto the category of the narrower audience. Within that group, the gallery deals withfewer uncertainties as the audience is rather homogeneous.

It is crucial for every organization to know who its audience is, what they wantand how they feel (Dickman, 1997). That knowledge enables the gallery to design atailored marketing strategy. The proposed visibility/involvement model providesa helpful analytical tool for galleries to categorize their promotional material, assessthe quality of their marketing strategy, and adjust towards a more effectivepromotion.

5.3 Limitations of the model and future researchAlthough, the new methodological tool provides insights into the quality of the artgalleries’ marketing activities, categorizing promotional material according to theirlevel of visibility/public accessibility and required individual involvement, it onlyprovides a rather vague distinction between the degrees of visibility and requiredinvolvement. This study does also not account for the usability of the model fororganizations outside the cultural sector. Therefore, it would be of interest in futurestudies to specify the attributes of the classification properties, as well as to complete alist of potential promotion materials, and to further investigate the applications of thevisibility/involvement model.

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Further reading

Fairclough, N. (1989), Language and Power, Longman Group UK, London.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1978), Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language andMeaning, University Park Press, University Park, MD.

Corresponding authorCandy Lange can be contacted at: [email protected]

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected] visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

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http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1016%2F0167-4870%2889%2990030-5

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1016%2F0167-4870%2889%2990030-5


http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1093%2Fapplin%2F16.4.510

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1093%2Fapplin%2F16.4.510

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1007%2F978-94-011-0399-2

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/action/showLinks?crossref=10.1007%2F978-94-011-0399-2





Visibility and involvement in effective arts marketing

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